-
Sodium silicate
E550 redirects here. For the Italian locomotive, seeFS Class
E550.
Sodium silicate is the common name for compoundswith the formula
Na2(SiO2)O. A well knownmember ofthis series is sodium
metasilicate, Na2SiO3. Also knownas waterglass or liquid glass,
these materials are avail-able in aqueous solution and in solid
form. The pure com-positions are colourless or white, but
commercial samplesare often greenish or blue owing to the presence
of iron-containing impurities.They are used in cements, passive re
protection, tex-tile and lumber processing, refractories, and
automobiles.Sodium carbonate and silicon dioxide react when
moltento form sodium silicate and carbon dioxide:[1]
Na2CO3 + SiO2 Na2SiO3 + CO2
Anhydrous sodium silicate contains a chain polymericanion
composed of corner shared {SiO4} tetrahe-dral, and not a discrete
SiO32 ion.[1] In addition tothe anhydrous form, there are hydrates
with the for-mula Na2SiO3nH2O (where n = 5, 6, 8, 9) whichcontain
the discrete, approximately tetrahedral anionSiO2(OH)22 with water
of hydration. For example,the commercially available sodium
silicate pentahydrateNa2SiO35H2O is formulated as
Na2SiO2(OH)24H2Oand the nonahydrate Na2SiO39H2O is formulated
asNa2SiO2(OH)28H2O.[2]
In industry, the various grades of sodium silicate are
char-acterized by their SiO2:Na2O weight ratio (weight ratioscan be
converted to molar ratios by multiplication with1.032), which can
vary between 2:1 and 3.75:1.[3] Gradeswith this ratio below 2.85:1
are termed 'alkaline'. Thosewith a higher SiO2:Na2O ratio are
described as 'neutral'.
1 HistoryWater Glass[4] was dened in Von Wagners Manual
ofChemical Technology (1892 translation) as any of the sol-uble
alkaline silicates, rst observed by Jean Baptist vanHelmont circa
1640 as a uid substance made by melt-ing sand with excess
alkali.[5][6] Glauber made what hetermed liquor silicum in 1646
from potash and silica.[7]Johann Nepomuk von Fuchs, in 1818,
obtained what isnow known as water glass by treating silicic acid
with analkali, the result being soluble in water, but not
aected
by atmospheric changes.[8][9] Von Wagner distinguishedsoda,
potash, double (soda and potash), and xing (i.e.,stabilizing) as
types of water glass. The xing type wasa mixture of silica well
saturated with potash water glassand a sodium silicate used to
stabilize inorganic watercolor pigments on cement work for outdoor
signs andmu-rals.
2 PropertiesSodium silicate is a white powder that is readily
solu-ble in water, producing an alkaline solution. It is one ofa
number of related compounds which include sodiumorthosilicate,
Na4SiO4, sodium pyrosilicate, Na6Si2O7,and others. All are glassy,
colourless and soluble in wa-ter.Sodium silicate is stable in
neutral and alkaline solutions.In acidic solutions, the silicate
ion reacts with hydrogenions to form silicic acid, which when
heated and roastedforms silica gel, a hard, glassy substance.
3 ProductionSodium silicate is commonly manufactured using a
reac-tion in liquid phase or in solid phase. Both processes
usealkaline and quartz sand as raw materials.
3.1 Liquid phaseAmixture of caustic soda, quartz sand, and water
are pre-pared in a mixing tank, then fed into a reactor, wheresteam
is introduced. The reaction isn SiO2 + 2 NaOH Na2OnSiO2 + H2O
3.2 Solid phase (thermal process)Sodium carbonate and sodium
sulfate melt at tempera-tures far below that of silica. (1600
C)Either is melted, and silica dissolved into the molten ma-terial,
where it reacts to form sodium silicate.
Na2CO3 + x SiO2 (Na2O)(SiO2) + CO2
2 Na2SO4 + C + 2 SiO2 2Na2SiO3 + 2 SO2+ CO2
1
-
2 4 USES
4 UsesIn 1990, 4M tons of alkali metal silicates were
produced.The main applications were in detergents, paper,
watertreatment, and construction materials.[3]
4.1 Adhesive
The largest application of sodium silicate solutions is acement
for producing cardboard.[3] When used as a pa-per cement, the
tendency is for the sodium silicate jointeventually to crack within
a few years, at which point itno longer holds the paper surfaces
cemented together.
4.2 Drilling uids
Sodium silicate is frequently used in drilling uids to
sta-bilize borehole wells and to avoid the collapse of borewalls.
It is particularly useful when drill holes passthrough argillaceous
formations containing swelling clayminerals such as smectite or
montmorillonite.
4.3 Concrete and general masonry treat-ment
Concrete treated with a sodium silicate solution helps
tosignicantly reduce porosity in most masonry productssuch as
concrete, stucco, plasters. A chemical reactionoccurs with the
excess Ca(OH)2 (portlandite) present inthe concrete that
permanently binds the silicates with thesurface making them far
more durable and water repel-lent. It is generally advised to apply
this treatment onlyafter the initial cure has taken place (7 days
or so depend-ing on conditions). These coatings are known as
silicatemineral paint.
4.4 Detergent auxiliaries
It is used in detergent auxiliaries like complex
sodiumdisilicate and modied sodium disilicate. The deter-gent
granules gain their ruggedness from a coating ofsilicates.[3]
4.5 Water treatment
Water glass is used as coagulant/occulant agent in wastewater
treatment plants. Waterglass binds to colloidalmolecules, creating
larger aggregates that sink to the bot-tom of the water column. The
microscopic negativelycharged particles suspended in water interact
with sodiumsilicate. Their electrical double layer collapses due
tothe increase of ionic strength caused by the addition of
sodium silicate (doubly negatively charged anion accom-panied by
two sodium cations) and they subsequently ag-gregate. This process
is called coagulation/occulation.[3]
4.6 Refractory useWater glass is a useful binder of solids, such
asvermiculite and perlite. When blended with the afore-mentioned
lightweight aggregates, water glass can be usedto make hard,
high-temperature insulation boards usedfor refractories, passive re
protection and high tempera-ture insulations, such as moulded pipe
insulation applica-tions. When mixed with nely divided mineral
powders,such as vermiculite dust (which is common scrap fromthe
exfoliation process), one can produce high tempera-ture adhesives.
The intumescence disappears in the pres-ence of nely divided
mineral dust, whereby the water-glass becomes a mere matrix.
Waterglass is inexpensiveand abundantly available, which makes its
use popular inmany refractory applications.
4.7 Dye auxiliarySodium silicate solution is used as a xative
for hand dye-ing with reactive dyes that require a high pH in
orderto react with the textile ber. After the dye is appliedto a
cellulose-based fabric, such as cotton or rayon, oronto silk, it is
allowed to dry, after which the sodium sili-cate is painted on to
the dyed fabric, covered with plasticto retain moisture, and left
to react for an hour at roomtemperature.[10]
4.8 Niche and hobby uses4.8.1 Passive re protection (PFP)
Sodium silicates are inherently intumescent. They comein prill
(solid beads) form, as well as the liquid, waterglass. The solid
sheet form (Palusol) must be water-proofed to ensure long-term
passive re protection.Standard, solid, bead form sodium silicates
have beenused as aggregate within silicone rubber to manufac-ture
plastic pipe restop devices. The silicone rubberwas insucient
waterproong to preserve the intumesc-ing function and the products
had to be recalled, whichis problematic for restops that are
concealed behinddrywall in buildings.Pastes for caulking purposes
are similarly unstable. Thistoo has resulted in recalls and even
litigation. Only 3M'sExpantrol version, which has an external heat
treatmentthat helps to seal the outer surface, as part of its
processstandard, has achieved sucient longevity to qualify forDIBt
approvals in the US for use in restoppingNot unlike other
intumescents, sodium silicate, both inbead form and in liquid form
are inherently endothermic,
-
4.8 Niche and hobby uses 3
Expantrol proprietary sodium silicate suspended in an about
6.5mm thick layer of red rubber, type 3M FS195, inserted into
ametal pipe, then heated, to demonstrate hard char
intumescence,strong enough to shut a melting plastic pipe.
Palusol based intumescent plastic pipe device used for
commer-cial restopping.
due to liquid water in the water glass and hydrates in the
prill form. The absence in the US of mandatory agingtests,
whereby PFP systems are made to undergo sys-tem performance tests
after the aging and humidity ex-posures, are at the root of the
continued availability, inNorth America, of PFP products that can
become inop-erable within weeks of installation. Indiscriminate
useof sodium silicates without proper waterproong mea-sures are
contributors to the problems and risk. Whensodium silicates are
adequately protected, they functionextremely well and reliably for
long periods. Evidenceof this can be seen in the many DIBt
approvals for plas-tic pipe restop devices using Palusol, which use
water-proofed sodium silicate sheets.
4.8.2 Food preservation
World War I poster suggesting the use of waterglass to
preserveeggs (lower right).
Sodium silicate was also used as an egg preservation
agentthrough the early 20th century with large success. Whenfresh
eggs are immersed in it, bacteria which cause theeggs to spoil are
kept out and water is kept in. Eggs canbe kept fresh using this
method for up to ve months.When boiling eggs preserved this way, it
is well advisedto pin-prick the egg to allow steam to escape
because theshell is no longer porous.[11]
-
4 4 USES
4.8.3 Metal repair
Sodium silicate is used, along with magnesium silicate, inmuer
repair and tting paste. When dissolved in water,both sodium
silicate and magnesium silicate form a thickpaste that is easy to
apply. When the exhaust system of aninternal combustion engine
heats up to its operating tem-perature, the heat drives out all of
the excess water fromthe paste. The silicate compounds that are
left over haveglass-like properties, making a temporary, brittle
repair.
4.8.4 Automotive repair
Sodium silicate is also used currently as an exhaust sys-tem
joint and crack sealer for repairing muers, res-onators, tailpipes
and other exhaust components, withand without berglass reinforcing
tapes. In this applica-tion, the sodium silicate (60-70%) is
typically mixed withkaolin (40-30%), an aluminium silicate mineral,
in orderto make the sodium silicate glued joint opaque. Thesodium
silicate, however, is the high temperature adhe-sive; the kaolin
serves simply as a compatible high tem-perature coloring agent.
Some of these repair compoundsalso contain glass bres to enhance
their gap-lling abili-ties and reduce brittleness.Sodium silicate
can be used to ll gaps within the headgasket. Commonly used on
aluminum alloy cylinderheads, which are sensitive to thermally
induced surfacedeection, and can be caused by many things
includ-ing head-bolt stretching, decient coolant delivery,
highcylinder head pressure, over-heating, etc.Liquid glass (sodium
silicate) is added to the systemthrough the radiator, and allowed
to circulate. Sodiumsilicate is suspended in the coolant until it
reaches thecylinder head. At 100105 C sodium silicate loses
watermolecules to form a glass seal with a re-melt temperatureabove
810 C.A sodium silicate repair will last two years,
sometimeslonger. The repair occurs rapidly, and symptoms disap-pear
instantly. This repair only works when the sodiumsilicate reaches
its conversion temperature at 100105C. Contamination of engine oil
is a serious possibil-ity in situations in which a coolant-to-oil
leak is present.Sodium silicate (glass particulate) contamination
of lu-bricants is detrimental to their function.Sodium silicate
solution is used to inexpensively, quickly,and permanently disable
automobile engines. Runningan engine with about 2 liters of a
sodium silicate solu-tion instead of motor oil causes the solution
to precipi-tate, catastrophically damaging the engines bearings
andpistons within a few minutes.[12] In the United States,
thisprocedure was used to comply with requirements of theCar
Allowance Rebate System (CARS) program.[12][13]
4.8.5 Homebrewing
Sodium silicate occulant properties are also used toclarify wine
and beer by precipitating colloidal parti-cles. But as a clearing
agent sodium silicate (water glass)is sometimes confused with
isinglass which is preparedfrom collagen extracted from the dried
swim bladders ofsturgeon and other shes. Eggs preserved in a bucket
ofwaterglass gel, and their shells, are sometimes also used(baked
and crushed) to clear wine.[14]
4.8.6 Aquaculture
Sodium silicate gel is also used as a substrate for algalgrowth
in aquaculture hatcheries.
4.8.7 Safe construction
A mixture of sodium silicate and sawdust has been usedin between
the double skin of certain safes. This not onlymakes them more re
resistant, but also makes cuttingthem open with an oxyacetylene
torch extremely dicultdue to the smoke emitted.
4.8.8 Crystal gardens
When crystals of a number of metallic salts are droppedinto a
solution of water glass, simple or branchingstalagmites of coloured
metal silicates are formed. Thisphenomenon has been used by
manufacturers of toys andchemistry sets to provide instructive
enjoyment to manygenerations of children from the early 20th
century tillthe present. An early mention of crystals of
metallicsalts forming a "chemical garden" in sodium silicate
isfound in the 1946Modern Mechanix magazine.[15] Metalsalts used
included the sulfates and/or chlorides of cop-per, cobalt, iron,
nickel and manganese.
4.8.9 Pottery
Sodium Silicate is used to create a crackle eect in pot-tery,
usually wheel-thrown. A vase or bottle is thrownon the wheel,
fairly narrow and with thick walls. Sodiumsilicate is brushed on a
section of the piece. After 5 min-utes, the wall of the piece is
stretched outward with a ribor hand. The result is a wrinkled or
cracked look.It is also the main agent in magic water, which is
usedwhen joining clay pieces, especially if the moisture levelof
the two diers.[16]
4.9 Sealing of leaking water containingstructures
Sodium silicate with additives was injected into theground in
order to harden it and thereby to prevent further
-
5leakage of highly radioactive water from the FukushimaDaiichi
nuclear power plant in Japan in April, 2011.[17]The residual heat
carried by the water used for cooling thedamaged reactors
accelerated the setting of the injectedmixture.On June 3, 1958, the
USS Nautilus, the worlds rst nu-clear submarine, visited Everett
and Seattle. In Seattle,crewmen dressed in civilian clothing, were
sent in to se-cretly buy 140 quarts of an automotive product
contain-ing sodium silicate (originally identied as Stop Leak)
torepair a leaking condenser system. The Nautilus was enroute to
the North Pole on a Top Secret mission to crossthe North Pole
submerged.[18]
4.9.1 Cartridges
A historical use of the adhesive properties of sodium sili-cates
is the production of paper cartridges for black pow-der revolvers
produced by Colts Manufacturing Com-pany during the period from
1851 until 1873, especiallyduring the American CivilWar. Sodium
silicate was usedto seal combustible nitrated paper together to
form a con-ical paper cartridge to hold the black powder, as well
asto cement the lead ball or conical bullet into the open endof the
paper cartridge. Such sodium silicate cementedpaper cartridges were
inserted into the cylinders of re-volvers, thereby speeding the
reloading of cap and ballblack powder revolvers. This use largely
ended with theintroduction of Colt revolvers employing brass-cased
car-tridges starting in 1873.[19][20] Similarly, sodium silicatewas
also used to cement the top wad into brass shotgunshells, thereby
eliminating any need for a crimp at thetop of the brass shotgun
shell to hold a shotgun shell to-gether. Reloading brass shotgun
shells was widely prac-ticed by self-reliant American farmers
during the 1870s,using the same waterglass material that was also
used topreserve eggs. The cementing of the top wad on a
shotgunshell consisted of applying from 3 to 5 drops of
waterglasson the top wad to secure it to the brass hull. Brass
hullsfor shotgun shells were superseded by paper hulls start-ing
around 1877. The newer paper-hulled shotgun shellsused a roll crimp
in place of a waterglass cemented jointto hold the top wad in the
shell. However, whereas brassshotshells with top wads cemented with
waterglass couldbe reloaded nearly indenitely (given powder, wad,
andshot, of course), the paper hulls that replaced the brasshulls
could be reloaded only a few times.
5 References[1] Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1997).
Chem-
istry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann.ISBN
0080379419.
[2] Wells A.F. (1984) Structural Inorganic Chemistry 5th
edi-tion Oxford Science Publications ISBN 0-19-855370-6
[3] Gerard Lagaly, Werner Tufar, A. Minihan,A. Lovell Silicates
in Ullmanns Encyclope-dia of Industrial Chemistry, Wiley-VCH,
2005.doi:10.1002/14356007.a23_661
[4] See also: Leopold Wol, Das Wasserglas: Seine Darstel-
lung, Eigenschaften und seine mannichfache An-wendung in den
technischen Gewerben [Water-glass: its preparation, properties, and
its manifolduses in technical commerce] (Leipzig,
(Germany):Quedlinburg, 1846).
Emile Kopp (1857) Sur la prparation et les pro-prits du verre
soluble ou des silicates de potasse etde soude; analyse de tous les
travaux publis jusqu'ace jour sur ce sujet (On the preparation and
prop-erties of water-glass or the silicates of potash andsoda;
analysis of all works published until today onthis subject) Le
Moniteur scientique, 1 : 337-349,366-391.
Hermann Krtzer, Wasserglas und Infusorienerde,deren Natur und
Bedeutung fr Industrie, Technikund die Gewerbe [Water-glass and
soluble earths,their nature and signicance for industry,
tech-nology, and commerce] (Vienna (Wien), Austria:Hartleben,
1887).
Hermann Mayer, Das Wasserglas; Sein Eigen-schaften, Fabrikation
und Verwendung auf Grundvon Erfahrungen und Mitteilungen der
FirmaHenkel & Cie. [Water-glass: Its properties, pro-duction,
and application on the basis of experiencesand communications of
the rm of Henkel & Co.](Braunschweig, Germany: Vieweg,
1925).
Morris Schrero,Water-glass: A Bibliography (Pitts-burgh,
Pennsylvania: Carnegie Library, 1922).
[5] Johannes van Helmont, Opuscula medica inaudita,(Cologne
(Coloni Agrippin), (Germany): Jost Kalck-hoven (JodocumKalcoven),
1644), part I: De Lithiasi. Onpage 53, van Helmont mentions that
alkalis dissolve sili-cates: Porro lapides, gemmae, arenae,
marmora, silices,&c. adjuncto alcali, vitricantur: sin autem
plure alcalicoquantur, resolvuntur in humido quidem: ac
resoluta,facili negotio acidorum spirituum, separantur ab
alcali,pondere pristini pulveris lapidum. (Furthermore, stone,gems,
sand, marble, silica, etc., become glassy by the ad-dition of
alkali: but if roasted with more alkali, they aredissolved in
moisture: and the former weight of the stonepowder is separated
from the alkali and released by simplyadding acid.)
[6] A number of other alchemists supposedly discoveredpotassium
silicate before van Helmont. See:
Giambattista della Porta in his bookMagia naturalissive de
miraculis rerum naturalium (1567), men-tions that cream of tartar
(tartari salis) causes pow-dered quartz (crystallum) to melt at a
lower temper-ature. See: Baptista Porta, Magia naturalis sive
demiraculis rerum naturalium, libri iiii [Natural magicor on the
miracles of nature, in four books] (Lyon(Lugdunum), France:
Guillaume Rouill (Guliel-mum Rovillium), 1569), pages 290-291,
Crystal-lus, ut fusilis at (quartz, so made molten).
-
6 7 EXTERNAL LINKS
There is some evidence that the alchemist BasilValentine
prepared potassium silicate in 1520. See:Kohn, C. (1862) Die
Erndung des Wasserglas imJahre 1520 (The invention of waterglass in
the year1520), Zeitschrift des Oesterreichischen Ingenieur-Vereins
(Journal of the Austrian Engineer Associ-ation), 14 : 229-230.
However, subsequently an article pointed out that the sub-stance
prepared by Basil Valentine in 1520, by Agricolain 1550, by van
Helmont in ca. 1640, and by Glauber in1648 was not the waterglass
that Fuchs produced in 1818.See:
Anon. (1863) Die Erndung desWasserglases im Jahre 1520,
Kunst-und Gewerbe-Blatt, 49 : 228-230.
Reprinted in: Anon. (1863) DieErndung des Wasserglases im
Jahre1520, Polytechnisches Journal, 168 :394-395.
Reprinted in: Anon. (1863) Die ange-bliche Erndung des
Wasserglases imJahre 1520 (On the alleged inventionof waterglass in
the year 1520), NeuesRepertorium fr Pharmacie, 12 : 271-273.
[7] Johann Rudolf Glauber, Furni Novi Philosophici
[Newphilosophical furnace] (Amsterdam: Johan Jansson,1646). In the
1661 German-language edition, see Chap-ter LXXIX. Wie durch Hl
eines reinen Sandes oderKilings / au Sale Tartari ein krtiger
Spiritus kan er-langet werden. (How with the help of a pure sand or
sil-ica / a powerful solution can be gotten from cream of tar-tar).
Glaubers recipe for liquor silicum (potassium sili-cate) appears on
pages 164-166. The recipe is simple:Potassium hydrogen tartrate
(cream of tartar, Sale tartari,Weinstein ) is heated in a furnace
until its converted topotassium carbonate. The potassium carbonate
is mixedwith sand in a crucible and heated until the mixture
melts.The mixture is maintained in a liquid state until it ceasesto
bubble (due to the release of carbon dioxide from thepotassium
carbonate). The mixture is allowed to cooland then pulverized to a
ne powder. When the powderis exposed to moist air, it gradually
forms a viscous liq-uid, which Glauber called Oleum oder Liquor
Silicum,Aren, vel Crystallorum (i.e., oil or solution of
silica,sand or [quartz] crystal).
[8] See:
Joh. Nep. Fuchs (1825) Ueber ein neues Pro-dukt aus Kieselerde
und Kali (On a new productfrom silica and potassium), Archiv fr die
gesammteNaturlehre, 5 (4) : 385-412. On page 386, Fuchsstates that
he rst prepared potassium silicate in1818: Ich erhielt es zuerst,
vor ungefhr 7 Jahren," (I rst obtained it about 7 years ago, );
sincethe Fuchs paper was published in 1825, 7 years ear-lier would
be 1818.
Reprinted in: Joh. Nepomuk Fuchs (1825) Ueberein neues Produkt
aus Kieselerde und Kali; unddessen nzliche Anwendung als
Schuzmittel gegen
schnelle Verbreitung des Feuers in Theatern, alsBindemittel,
rniartigen Anstrichen u.s.w. (Ona new product from silica and
potassium; and itsuseful application as a protection against the
rapidspread of re in theaters, as a glue, varnish,
etc.)Polytechnisches Journal, 17 : 465-481.
[9] VonWagner, Rudolf (1892 translation of 13th edition
byWillian Crookes) Manual of Chemical Technology
[10] Burch, Paula (March 22, 2010). Sodium silicate as a x-ative
for dyeing. Retrieved March 22, 2010.
[11] How To Store Fresh Eggs
[12] Helliker, Kevin. "The Killer App for Clunkers BreathesFresh
Life Into 'Liquid Glass" The Wall Street Journal, 4August 2009.
[13] Engine Disablement Procedures for the CARS
program,cars.gov
[14] SM Tritton (1956) Amateur wine making.
[15] Magic garden. Mechanix Illustrated: 88. April 1946.
[16]
http://lakesidepottery.com/HTML%20Text/Tips/pottery-magic-mud-magic-water-paper-clay.htm
[17] Daily Mail Reporter. Liquid glass successfully plugs
ra-dioactive leak at crippled Fukushima nuclear plant, MailOnline
News, April 6, 2011, accessed April 7, 2010.
[18] Commander William R. Anderson with Clay Blair Jr.,Nautilus
90 North (Cleveland and New York: TheWorld Publishing Co., 1959),
pp. 133-137; Comman-der William R. Anderson with Clay Blair Jr.,
Nautilus 90North (New York: The New American Library,
1959),89-90
[19] Tom Kelley (August 1995). Making and using com-bustible
paper pistol cartridges.
[20] Kirst, W.J. (1983). Self consuming paper cartridges for
thepercussion revolver. Minneapolis, Minnesota:
NorthwestDevelopment Co.
6 Other reading Ashfords Dictionary of Industrial Chemicals,
thirdedition, 2011, page 8369.
7 External links Centre Europen d'Etudes des Silicates
International Chemical Safety Card 1137 ChemSub Online : Silicic
acid, sodium salt ChemSub Online : Sodium metasilicate
-
78 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses8.1
Text
Sodium silicate Source:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium%20silicate?oldid=654760305
Contributors: Docu, Stone, Dysprosia, Bkell,Rsduhamel, Dratman,
Mboverload, SoWhy, Beland, The MoUsY spell-checker, Iantresman,
M1ss1ontomars2k4, Brianhe, ArnoldRein-hold, Fluzwup, Ylee, Bobo192,
Kx1186, Hooperbloob, Mdd, Alansohn, Oasisbob, Keenan Pepper,
Benjah-bmm27, Velella, Trlblzr,Mindmatrix, Seansheep, DePiep,
Rogerd, Alcarreau, SchuminWeb, BjKa, Physchim62, DVdm, YurikBot,
Janke, Zzuuzz, Bridgman,Cmglee, Groyolo, Attilios, SmackBot,
Errarel, Shoy, Mikesebok, Chris the speller, Bluebot,
Mortezamohammadi, Ondrej.lipar, Yaf,Nakon, Smokefoot, Polonium,
Kukini, Zaphraud, 16@r, Beetstra, [email protected], Hetar,
Woodshed, Thricecube, CmdrObot, Palad-inZ06, Jane023, Cydebot,
Reywas92, Grahamec, Rieman 82, Christian75, Calvero JP, Thijs!bot,
Nick Number, SvenAERTS, EdJogg,Widefox, Danroa, Numberharmonics,
Postlewaight, JAnDbot, Lumber Jack second account, Jim Samphorn,
Engineman, LorenzoB, Tex-torus, Nodekeeper, Eugenwpg, Leyo, MrBell,
Ashcraft, Bot-Schafter, Auegel, RayPhoenix, STBotD, MartinBotIII,
Reelrt, Joeinwap,VolkovBot, N00ser, Zghajos, Axiosaurus, Finnrind,
AHMartin, WereSpielChequers, Cwkmail, JetLover, Chem-awb,
ImageRemovalBot,Akiry, Micha Sobkowski, Snaxalotl, CrazyChemGuy,
Shinkolobwe, Phthalocyanine, Plasmic Physics, AlanM1, Gnowor,
Billwhittaker, Mi-marx, Addbot, Goorky, Fyrael, Datsyuk, SamatBot,
Tide rolls, PV=nRT, Rojypala, Karimi cae~enwiki, Yobot,
Andrzejkosz, CheMoBot,Lu Ly, Cepheiden, KamikazeBot, Naipicnirp,
AnomieBOT, Daniele Pugliesi, Galoubet, Piano non troppo, EHRice,
Materialscientist, TheHigh Fin Sperm Whale, Ultimate sickness,
REACHist, Cyfraw, Eddygp, Appeltree1, Riventree, HJ Mitchell,
Tretyak, I dream of horses,A8UDI, Ondej Groborz, Miguel Escopeta,
Peterjmoran7, Oktanyum, Kiranglobal, EmausBot, John of Reading,
AvicBot, Marchemence,Boringbob4wk, Makecat, , Bakulan, ClueBot NG,
Rycecube57, Skoot13, CaroleHenson, Crazymonkey1123, Ranate2,
Nibor22,Minsbot, BattyBot, Qadiesh, Francesca Cattaneo, Mogism,
CFSO6459, Brees Block, Project Osprey, Epicgenius, FrB.TG,
MEMobun,Suphia lee, God2528, Helen31406 and Anonymous: 175
8.2 Images
File:"Raise_More_Poultry...on_Farms_and_Back_Yards...More_Eggs_and_Poultry_Will_save_Beef_and_Pork."_-_NARA_-
_512571.tif Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/%22Raise_More_Poultry...on_Farms_and_Back_Yards...More_Eggs_and_Poultry_Will_save_Beef_and_Pork.%22_-_NARA_-_512571.tif
License: Public domain Contributors: U.S. NationalArchives and
Records Administration Original artist: Unknown or not provided
File:Commons-logo.svg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg
License: ? Contributors: ? Originalartist: ?
File:Fs195.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Fs195.jpg
License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Ownwork Original artist: Achim
Hering
File:Hazard_C.svg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/Hazard_C.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: ?Original artist: ?
File:Kemiitan_sodn.PNG Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/K%C5%99emi%C4%8Ditan_sodn%C3%BD.PNG
License: Public domain Contributors: Vlastn sbrka Original artist:
Ondej Mangl
File:Palusolmanschette.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Palusolmanschette.jpg
License: CC BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Achim
Hering
File:Sodium-metasilicate-chain-from-xtal-3D-balls.png Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Sodium-metasilicate-chain-from-xtal-3D-balls.png
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben
Mills
File:Sodium-metasilicate-repeating-unit-2D.png Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Sodium-metasilicate-repeating-unit-2D.png
License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ben
Mills
File:X_mark.svg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/X_mark.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: Ownwork Original artist:
User:Gmaxwell
File:Yes_check.svg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fb/Yes_check.svg
License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
8.3 Content license Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike
3.0
HistoryPropertiesProductionLiquid phaseSolid phase (thermal
process)
UsesAdhesiveDrilling fluidsConcrete and general masonry
treatmentDetergent auxiliariesWater treatmentRefractory useDye
auxiliaryNiche and hobby usesPassive fire protection (PFP)Food
preservationMetal repairAutomotive repairHomebrewingAquacultureSafe
constructionCrystal gardensPottery
Sealing of leaking water containing structuresCartridges
ReferencesOther readingExternal linksText and image sources,
contributors, and licensesTextImagesContent license