Sociology: Th eory and Method · 4 Chapter 1 Sociology: Th eory and Method I. OVERVIEW Giddens, Duneier, Appelbaum, and Carr begin their third edition of the Essentials of Sociology

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CHAPTER 1

Sociology: Th eory and Method

2 ◆ Chapter 1 ◆ Media Grid

Learning Objectives

■ What is the “so cio log i cal imagination”?

■ What theories do sociologists use?

■ What kinds of questions can sociologists answer?

■ What are the seven steps of the research pro cess?

■ What research methods do sociologists use?

■ What ethical dilemmas do sociologists face?

■ How does the “so cio log i cal imagination” aff ect your life?

■ Learn what the fi eld of sociology covers and how everyday topics like love and romance are shaped by social and historical forces

■ Recognize that sociology is more than just acquiring knowledge; it also involves developing a so cio log i cal imagination, a global perspective, and understanding social change

■ Understand the importance of social context and social structure to the study of sociology, as well as their importance in understanding our everyday lives

■ Learn about the development of sociology as a fi eld

■ Understand the role theory plays in so cio log i cal research

■ Name some of the leading social theorists and the concepts they contributed to sociology

■ Learn the diff erent theoretical approaches modern sociologists bring to the fi eld

■ Understand the diff erence between theoretical approaches and theories

■ Learn the two major levels of analysis and the ways they are connected

■ Describe the diff erent types of questions sociologists address in their research— factual, theoretical, comparative, and developmental

■ Learn the reasons why sociology is considered to be a science

■ Learn the steps of the research pro cess and be able to complete the pro cess yourself

■ Familiarize yourself with the methods available to so ciological researchers and know the advantages and disadvantages of each

■ See how researchers use multiple methods in a real study

■ Learn why it is important to use triangulation in social research

■ Recognize the ethical problems researchers may face and possible solutions to these dilemmas

■ Learn some of the basic statistical terms used in so cio-log i cal research

■ Understand how adopting a so cio log i cal perspective allows us to develop a richer understanding of ourselves, our signifi cant others, and the world

■ Learn the skills and perspectives that sociologists bring to their work

Sociology: Th eory and Method ◆ 3

Instructor Student

Instructor’s Resource Manual

Lecture NotesWhat is sociology? Introduction to the scientifi c method

Discussion Topics and Class ActivitiesDraw comparisons between natural science and sociology; air criticisms of sociology and statistics; review the ASA Guidelines for Ethical Behavior

Sociology in Practice DVDSee DVD contents with chapter correlation on pages vii–xxv.

PowerPointsSociology: Th eory and Method

Everyday Sociology BlogSee page 27 for a list of suggested blog posts to accompany this chapter.

Course PackReview Questions

Th inking So cio log i cally Exercises

WebQuest ExercisesVisit the American So cio log i cal Association on the Internet

Use your so cio log i cal imagination to understand Karl Marx

Inroduction: understand and use terms associated with research methods

Introduction: understand survey creation and create a survey

StudySpace

Do It Yourself SociologyAre you the “typical” college student? See also text pp. 11– 12

Data ExercisesUsing the So cio log i cal Imagination to Explore the History of Sociology

Everyday Sociology Blog ExercisesSociology and the Census (3/25/10)

Research Methods, Statistics, and Video Games (3/11/10)

Scoop of Ice- Cream or Pizza? Choosing the Right Research Method (3/15/10)

Experiences, Perspectives, and Frames (2/25/10)

DVD Exercises“Th e Coff ee Go- Round”

“Dear Mr. President”

“Th e First Mea sured Century”

Slideshow MakerUnintended Consequences

4 ◆ Chapter 1 Sociology: Th eory and Method

I. OVERVIEWGiddens, Duneier, Appelbaum, and Carr begin their third edition of the Essentials of Sociology text with a basic historical overview of the fi eld. Aft er being introduced to the explanatory and predictive powers that sociology off ers, students want to understand how the theories off ered by the founding fathers (aka dead, white sociologists) can explain current events. In essence, this chapter is a Pandora’s Box, of sorts. Once they open it, students will want to become veritable detectives in an att empt to determine and understand how the various theories can help them critically analyze social events occur-ring around them.

In Chapter 1, students are introduced to the so cio log i cal canon— the works of Auguste Comte, Karl Marx, Max Weber, and Émile Durkheim— as well as to the reality that sociology does not exist in a vacuum. Students learn instead that sociology draws on numerous other disciplines (including po liti-cal science, psychology, economics, and cultural anthropology) to examine both the microso cio log i cal and macroso cio log i cal events occurring in mod-ern social life. Several themes are begun in Chapter 1 and remain pervasive throughout the text: Th e focus on symbolic interactionism, confl ict theory (Marx), and functionalism (Durkheim) is particularly noteworthy, as is a strong emphasis on the eff ects of industrialization and globalization. Refer-ence to these theorists and issues in each chapter provides a consistent orien-tation for the reader.

II. OUTLINE I. Defi nition: Sociology is the scientifi c study of human social life,

groups, and societies II. Developing a So cio log i cal Perspective

A. Looking beyond the surface level or personal perspective of events to the deeper, wider social context

B. Ability to identify general patt erns of behavior and the systematic social infl uences that cause them

C. Th e So cio log i cal Imagination: the application of imaginative thought to the asking and answering of so cio log i cal questions

D. Requires one to “think him- or herself away” from the familiar routines of daily life

E. Studying Sociology: Th e so cio log i cal imagination can help us look beyond our own narrow focus to the less obvious world around us

Chapter 1 Sociology: Th eory and Method ◆ 5

1. Like our perception of the world, who we are is partially determined by our choices and by the social context in which we fi nd ourselves a. As individuals, we both make and are made by the society

we live in 2. Social Structure: the underlying regularities or patt erns in how

people behave and in their relationships to one another 3. Structuration: the two- way pro cess by which we shape our

social world through our individual actions that are in turn reshaped by society

F. Developing a Global Perspective: Communication can now take on a truly global nature, requiring us to think globally about so cio log i cal phenomena 1. Advances in communications, transportation, and information

technology have linked the local to the global. Also known as: 2. Globalization: the development of social and economic

relationships stretching worldwide 3. We are connected to other societies and other societies to us;

our actions have consequences for others and their actions have consequences for us

G. Understanding Social Change is a major concern of so cio log i cal analysis and a major theme of this textbook and course 1. Th e early so cio log i cal thinkers developed the mode of thought

that would become sociology by trying to understand the pro-cess of social change taking place between the nineteenth and twentieth centuries

2. Early theorists struggled to understand the shift from societies based on agriculture to societies based on industrialization in the West

III. Th e Development of So cio log i cal Th inking A. Th eories and Th eoretical Approaches

1. Th eories: an att empt to construct abstract interpretations that explain a wide variety of situations a. Factual research must always be assisted in explanation by

theoretical frameworks B. Early Th eorists

1. August Comte: coined the term “sociology,” regarded sociology as the last science to be developed, and thought social scientists would be able to predict and control social behavior through scientifi c knowledge


2. Émile Durkheim: fi rst of three major so cio log i cal thinkers a. Argued for the establishment of social facts b. Organic Solidarity: the social cohesion that results from

the various parts of a society functioning as an integrated whole i. Requires cooperation and consensus over basic values

and customs c. Social Constraint: social structure is more than the sum of

individual parts; constrains and directs human action as if an external force

d. Anomie: a feeling of aimlessness or despair provoked by modern social life i. Study of suicide rates demonstrated this principle ii. Social and cultural change cannot keep pace with the

rapid and intense changes of modern life (i.e., technology), causing a breakdown in the values and meaning of many individuals’ daily lives

3. Karl Marx: second major so cio log i cal theorist a. Materialist Conception of History: material or economic

factors have a prime role in determining historical change b. Class confl ict under capitalism has become the most

important social relationship c. Own ers become a ruling class while workers are exploited

for their labor i. Eventually the workers would overthrow this system

and replace capitalism with a system of greater equality and a communal own ership for the means of production

4. Max Weber: the last of the three major theorists a. Although heavily infl uenced by Marx, Weber diff ered in

important ways: notably his insistence that values and ideas played at least as important roles in society as economic factors

b. Culture: cultural ideas and values help shape society and infl uence our individual actions

c. Bureaucracy: a large or ga ni za tion divided into jobs based on specifi c functions and staff ed by offi cials ranked according to a hierarchy

C. Neglected Found ers 1. Harriet Martineau

a. Argued that researchers must look at all aspects of a society, including po liti cal, religious, and social institutions


b. Emphasized that the analysis of women’s lives must also be a central feature of social research

c. First to turn a so cio log i cal eye toward many ignored issues such as marriage, children, race relations, and religion

d. Argued that sociologists must make society bett er, and advocated women’s rights and the emancipation of slaves

2. W.E.B. Du Bois a. Double Consciousness: the split consciousness that African

Americans feel about being both “American” and “black,” and that the black self- concept is only allowed to be seen through the eyes of others, namely, whites

b. Sophisticated analysis of race relations holds true today; delved into the social and economic underpinnings of race and poverty

c. Active member of the civil rights movement D. Modern Th eoretical Approaches

1. Symbolic Interactionism: theoretical approach that emphasizes the role of symbols and language as core elements of all human interaction a. Language allows us to become self- conscious beings b. Symbol: something that stands for something else; allows

symbolic thought c. Interaction is comprised of the exchange of symbols

i. What is appropriate, what is not? d. Th e theory directs our att ention to the details of

interpersonal interactions and how that detail is used to make sense of what others say and do

e. Weakness: May focus too much on small- scale activity 2. Functionalism: theoretical perspective based on the notion

that social events can best be explained in terms of the functions they perform a. Society is like the human body: diverse systems work

together to ensure the survival of the organism b. Society tends toward order and stability; this is achieved

through the maintenance of a moral consensus c. Manifest Functions: functions known to and intended by

the participants in a social activity d. Latent Functions: consequences of a social activity of which

the participants are unaware e. Weakness: oft en unduly stresses the factors leading to

cohesion at the expense of those causing division and


confl ict; sometimes unjustifi ably att ributing qualities to societies such as “needs” and “purposes”

3. Marxism and Class Confl ict: society is characterized by division and class confl ict over scarce or valued material resources a. Associated closely with the radical po liti cal movement of

Karl Marx b. Power: the capability of groups or individuals to make their

own concerns or interests count, even when others resist c. Ideology: shared ideas or beliefs that serve to justify the

interests of dominant groups 4. Feminism and Feminist Th eory: contemporary perspective

that emphasizes the centrality of gender in analyzing the social world a. Argues for the link between social analysis and social

action b. Sees gender relations and in e qual ity as key social life in

institutions such as the family, workplaces, the educational system, and so on

c. Gender patt erns are not natural, they are socially constructed

d. Increasingly focuses on the intersection of gender, race, and class

5. Postmodernism and Postmodern Th eory: states that society is no longer governed by history or progress a. Contemporary society is dominated by the new media,

virtual realities of fi lm, videos, commercialism, and the Internet

b. Baudrillard: electronic media has destroyed our relationship to the past and created a chaotic, empty world i. Economic forces no longer shape society as Marx

argued, but instead life is infl uenced by signs, images, and symbols

ii. Much of our world has become a make- believe universe in which we respond to media images rather than real persons or places

E. Th eoretical Th inking in Sociology 1. In sociology, a distinction is made between theoretical

approaches and theories themselves a. Th eoretical Approaches refer to overall orientations to the

subject matt er of sociology


b. Th eories are more narrowly focused and represent att empts to explain par tic u lar social conditions or types of events i. Example: Durkheim’s theory of suicide

2. Following Merton, many sociologists argue that middle- range theories should be pursued rather than grand narratives a. Middle- Range Th eories are specifi c enough to be tested

empirically, yet suffi ciently general to cover a range of diff erent phenomena i. Example: Relative Deprivation theory

3. Th e diversity of approaches and theories might seem a weakness, but it is not; it simply refl ects the complexities and diversity of the human condition

F. Levels of Analysis: Microsociology and Macrosociology 1. Th eoretical approaches occur at two diff erent level of analysis

a. Microsociology is the study of everyday behavior in situations of face- to- face interactions

b. Macrosociology is the analysis of large- scale social systems, like the po liti cal system or the economic order

c. Although microsociology and macrosociology seem quite distinct from one another, they are in fact closely connected i. Macroanalysis is essential to understand the

institutional background of everyday life. ii. Micro studies are in turn needed to illuminate broad

institutional patt erns d. Face- to- face interactions form the basis of all social or ga ni-

za tion, no matt er how large in scale IV. What kinds of questions can sociologists answer?

A. Th e found ers of sociology thought of it as a science, but is it really? To answer this question we must fi rst discover what we mean by “science”

B. Science is the use of the systematic methods of empirical investigation, the analysis of data, theoretical thinking, and the logical assessment of arguments to develop a body of knowledge about a par tic u lar subject matt er 1. Sociology is a scientifi c endeavor according to this defi nition

(it is conducted scientifi cally) a. Systematic methods of empirical investigation b. Analysis of data c. Assessment of theory in light of evidence and logical

argument


C. Sociologists ask several diff erent types of questions in their research 1. Factual Questions 2. Comparative Questions 3. Developmental Questions 4. Th eoretical Questions

V. Th e Research Pro cess A. Steps in the Research Pro cess

1. Defi ne the Problem: select a topic for research 2. Review the Evidence: familiarize yourself with existing

research on a topic 3. Making the Problem Precise: testable hypotheses are

developed 4. Working Out a Design: choose one or more research methods 5. Carry Out the Research: collect your data, record your

information 6. Interpret the Results: work out the implications of the data you

collect 7. Report the Research Findings: what is their signifi cance?

VI. Research Methods A. Ethnography: Th e fi rsthand studies of people using participant

observation or interviewing 1. Strengths: generates richer and more in- depth information

than other methods and can provide a broader understanding of social pro cesses

2. Limitations: used to study relatively small groups or communities and the fi ndings generated might apply only to them

B. Surveys: a method in which questionnaires are administered to the population being studied 1. Standardized and Open- Ended Questions

a. Standardized: fi xed- choice questions b. Open- Ended: not limited to preset responses c. Pi lot studies: a trial run in which a questionnaire is

completed by just a few people to iron out diffi culties before the main survey is done

2. Sampling: studying a proportion of individuals or cases from a larger population as representative of that population as a whole a. Random Sampling: every member of a population has the

same chance of being chosen— ensures that sample will be representative


3. Strengths: makes possible the effi cient collection of data on large numbers of individuals; allows for precise comparisons to be made between the answers of respondents

4. Limitations: may be superfi cial; diff erences between respondent’s views may be glossed over by highly standardized questionnaires; responses may be what people profess to believe rather than what they actually believe

C. Experiments: variables are analyzed in a controlled and systematic way oft en in an artifi cial situation constructed by the researcher or in naturally occurring sett ings 1. Strengths: infl uence of specifi c variables can be controlled by

investigator; are usually easier for subsequent researchers to repeat

2. Limitations: many aspects of social life cannot be brought into the laboratory; responses of those studied may be aff ected by the experimental sett ing

D. Comparative Research: compares one set of fi ndings on one society with the same set of fi ndings on other societies

E. Historical Analysis: investigating past events in order to establish a time perspective for the material we collect about a par tic u lar problem 1. Oral Histories: interviewing people about events that they

witness at some point earlier in their lives F. Triangulation: Because all research methods have their

limitations as well as strengths, it is common to combine more than one approach in a single piece of research, using each to supplement and check the limitations of the others

VII. Ethical Dilemmas A. Example of Laud Humphreys’s “tearoom” study B. Human Subjects and Ethical Problems

1. All research concerned with human beings can pose ethical dilemmas

2. A key question that must be asked is whether the research poses risks for the subjects that are greater than the risks they face in their everyday lives

3. In recent years the federal government has become increasingly strict with universities that make use of government grant money for research purposes

4. Universities also have routine and involved review procedures for human subject studies

5. Positive and negative results of review procedures


a. Greater awareness of ethical considerations b. Diffi culties associated with informed consent c. Debriefi ng

VIII. How Can Sociology Help Us in Our Lives? A. Awareness of Cultural Diff erences B. Assessing the Eff ects of Policies

1. Why did a policy fail? 2. Why did the policy have unintended consequences?

C. Self- Enlightenment 1. Th e more we know about why we act as we do, the bett er we are

able to control our own future 2. Less powerful groups can gain information on how to

eff ectively respond to government policies or form policy initiatives of their own

D. Th e Sociologist’s Role in Society 1. Many concern themselves with practical matt ers as

professionals: industrial con sul tants, urban planners, social workers, personnel managers, journalism, law, business, medicine, and so on

2. Sociology is not just an abstract intellectual fi eld, but has practical implications for people’s lives

III. LECTURE NOTESWhat is sociology? Th is is the question that every student has on the very fi rst day of class. Is this a real science, or is it just common sense? What can I learn about society and people by studying this topic? Who are sociologists? How do they know that what they see happening in social life is actually what is occurring? What is real and what is perceived? What about bias and values gett ing in the way? How do we go about studying society and groups of people scientifi cally? Th ese are questions that students in an introductory sociology course have as they embark on the fascinating and thrilling ride of understanding societal dynamics at work!

We oft en begin our classes with the question, “What is sociology?” Th en we post student responses on the board. Students oft en come up with the basic defi nitions of sociology, such as “It is the study of society,” or “It is the study of people and culture.” Both defi nitions are partially correct. Th e text-book authors defi ne sociology as “Th e scientifi c study of human social life, groups, and societies.” We elaborate on this defi nition to include the follow-ing: Sociology is not only the study of human social life, groups, and societ-


ies, but it is also the study of people in groups. It gives us the tools to understand the most far- reaching and global phenomena while at the same time helps us understand why and how we, as individuals, act, react, and interact with our culture and society. In essence, most of us experience soci-ety in only a limited way— we know our families, we are familiar with some politics (mostly those that aff ect us or our families), and we know the culture in which we are raised. We are familiar with the idea that there are people and customs that exist in our society and internationally that diff er from our own. Sociology challenges us to leave the familiar behind and to delve into the inner workings of our society. Sociology demands that we take a broader look at why we are as we are, and why we act as we do. It teaches us that what we oft en take for granted in society (i.e., that which is natural, good, or even inevitable) is strongly infl uenced by historical and social forces. In the words of the authors, “understanding the subtle yet complex and profound ways in which our individual lives refl ect the contexts of our social experience” is basic to the so cio log i cal outlook.

Now that we have a working defi nition of sociology, we move on to a more diffi cult question: How can we learn to think so cio log i cally? How do we develop a so cio log i cal perspective? A key question on everyone’s mind is “Why did September 11 happen?” Who would ever have guessed that the U.S. infrastructure could be penetrated so easily and that American passen-ger airliners could be used as weapons against American buildings and the people in them? In the aft ermath of September 11, there has been an increased call for the understanding of terrorism and terrorist networks. Interest in gov-ernmental aff airs, transportation issues, and cultural aff airs has also surged. Sociology is a unique science because it brings with it the tools to analyze more completely events like those of September 11 so that we may look beyond the surface of people’s actions and study the social context in which events take place. We can’t only look at the nineteen terrorists from September 11 and say that they were acting alone; we need to examine their training, their backgrounds, where they were from, how their acts were funded, and the networks within which they were working. We need to understand their cul-tures, their language, and their religion (how they constructed their own belief systems) to more fully understand why and how September 11 occurred. We also need to question America’s role in the event. Was our transportation security system too lax? Should we have known that such a terrorist att ack was possible? Could it have been prevented if we understood, more fully, the nature of anti- American sentiment?

Sociology teaches us to look at a large body of evidence before we draw conclusions about the nature of an incident. It is not enough simply to accept one explanation for a phenomenon. Th ere could be multiple reasons that an


event occurred as it did. Th e sociologist’s job is to locate those multiple rea-sons and weigh them for validity before accepting one over another. Th us, sociologists oft en talk about the art of studying society being largely imagi-native. Th at is, in order to understand the nature of social events, one must actively cultivate his or her so cio log i cal imagination.

Our so cio log i cal imagination allows us to see that many events that seem to concern only individuals actually also refl ect global concerns. C. Wright Mills further defi nes the so cio log i cal imagination by breaking it into two categories: personal troubles and societal issues. Personal trouble is some-thing like divorce, which clearly aff ects an individual. But divorce is also a societal issue because, in the United States, over half of marriages end in divorce. Th us, we stress to students that even though we are all infl uenced by our own social contexts, none of us are defi ned by those contexts in our behavior. Instead, we create our own individuality. As sociologists, we are given the task to look at the connections between what society makes of us and what we make of ourselves. Events (such as September 11) give shape to how we navigate our social worlds; at the same time, we (as social beings) are structured by that world.

Basically, sociology is about the construction of meaning. Every action is symbolic and every action has meaning. A student’s electing to take a class has meaning and is symbolic of his or her desire to learn. Th e Federal Avia-tion Administration’s (FAA’s) revised security guidelines are symbolic of the reality that the perception of safety with which we had lived for so long was false and that actions needed to be taken to ensure the safety of all passen-gers. As such, we need to consider the intended and unintended consequences of every action. At this point, we ask students what the terms “intended” and “unintended consequences” mean to them. Results that are the purpose of actions are intended consequences. Results other than the purpose of the actions are unintended consequences. Th e intended consequences of the new FAA regulations are that all passengers will spend more time being screened at checkpoints and the airways will be safer. Th e unintended consequences are that this system causes delays and that people may slip through with weaponry. Th us, sociologists examine the balance between social reproduc-tion and social transformation.

At this point, we ask students to go beyond challenging their thought pro-cesses and consider the theories that have made sociology the science that it is. Sociology is not just fun and conceptual. It’s theoretical!

One of the most diffi cult areas for students to understand is the theoretical orientation of sociology. Many introductory students are fresh out of high school and have not had the experience of learning and applying theory to social phenomena. To combat this problem, we oft en introduce the so cio log-


i cal canon by telling students that the found ers of sociology are “dead white men” and that it was these individuals who laid the groundwork for the fas-cinating work that we will be doing over the course of the term. We then introduce the early theorists— Auguste Comte, Émile Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Max Weber— by highlighting their contributions to the fi eld and showing how each continues to help us understand social phenomena— even today.

Whereas Comte, Durkheim, Marx, and Weber represent the so cio log i cal canon, theirs are by no means the only theoretical orientations in the disci-pline. More modern approaches (symbolic interactionism, functionalism, and confl ict theory) also lend important contributions to the study of mod-ern social events and interaction. Proponents of each of these theories build on the base created by the canon and reach interesting conclusions. For exam-ple, one found er of symbolic interactionism, George Herbert Mead, argued that language is one of the most important keys to understanding social life. If we return to our September 11 example, we see clearly that there is wide variation in the way the Islamic background of the terrorists is interpreted with regard to language; there are many interpretations of passages in the Qur’an that are suspected of motivating the actions of that day. Individuals familiar with the holy book realize that it proclaims nothing violent or nega-tive against any group of people, and they argue that Islamic interpretations of symbolic passages in it are misinterpretations. Others dissect the passages and analyze them word for word in an eff ort to understand how such acts of terrorism and violence could be tied to people who claim to be piously reli-gious. Language represents perhaps the greatest symbol in our social realm. We communicate through our words, our gestures, and even our nonverbal interaction.

Similarly, functionalists look at the events of September 11 and wonder what the function was of launching a terrorist att ack on the United States. Th e function has been made clear in the U.S. media, but this is a question that could be posed to students rather easily. Was the function of the terrorist att acks to bring down and harm the American economy? Was the function to make a statement against perceived Western imperialism and the U.S. gov-ernment? More problematically, was the function of the terrorist att acks to condemn the United States for supporting the state of Israel?

Confl ict theorists examine the events of the day by looking at issues of power and ideology, exploitation, and alienation. We have found it interest-ing to ask students to apply Marxist concepts to events in examples. In what ways is power held in U.S. society and how is it perceived by non- Western societies? Marx is a topic of discussion throughout the term because of the applicability and pervasiveness of his theories.


Even though students will grapple with a number of theoretical orienta-tions, we stress the importance and primacy of culture in our lectures. We feel that by emphasizing culture, we gain a bett er sense of what motivates individuals and groups to act as they do. Instead of simply comparing and contrasting Marx and Durkheim (or the class confl ict and functionalist perspectives), we recommend that students be challenged to engage the microso cio log i cal and the macroso cio log i cal, and that they involve culture (language, symbols, customs, etc.) in their analyses of social events. As you will see, this Instructor’s Manual is largely structured around the events of September 11. What bett er way is there to understand the horrifi c events of that day than by engaging a multiplicity of theoretical perspectives?

In today’s world, we use the events of September 11 as an orienting frame-work around which to structure the majority of the macroso cio log i cal and microso cio log i cal questions we want students to examine. On an overhead projector, we write simply, “September 11, 2001,” and then ask students to consider what the motives and eff ects of the terrorist att acks were. We sug-gest they delve beneath the surface layers of understanding to ask those ques-tions that frame social phenomena as events that are worthy of study. We don’t accept responses that are obvious (e.g., “Osama bin Laden hates the United States”); we want students to consider explanations for social events that run counter to common sense. Th e questions we want them to ask and to consider include “What were the circumstances that permitt ed the terror-ist att acks to be carried out in the manner they were?” “Why did groups of people act in such horrible ways and blame religion as the orienting force behind their behavior?” “How do people get so indoctrinated into their causes that they are capable of taking both their own lives and the lives of others (while causing mass destruction) without any regard for those they are harm-ing?” By asking students to come up with questions like these, we stress the point that while sociologists ask and seek to answer many important and per-tinent questions, our fi ndings are not always as conclusive as we would like them to be. Th us, we must theorize and make our questions as clear and con-cise as possible to garner the most complete and informed results. Addition-ally, we refi ne the questions we ask to be as specifi c as possible in order to fi gure out which research method will help achieve the best results.

Th e questions sociologists ask are grouped into four types: factual, com-parative, developmental, and theoretical. We don’t ask students to memorize the defi nitions of each of these question types. Instead, we ask them to apply the diff erent types to a set of examples. We feel that if students ask the cor-rect questions based on a case study (in this case, the events of September 11), they will be bett er served in their so cio log i cal inquiries than if they just regurgitate what the textbook says. Th e ability to apply the correct line of


questioning to certain phenomena assists students in both understanding sociology and the implications of a variety of so cio log i cal studies.

In high school, students were introduced to the scientifi c method. When we introduce so cio log i cal research methods, we explain that what they will do in sociology is really no diff erent from what they previously learned. We go through the steps of the scientifi c method: defi ning the problem, review-ing the evidence, creating a hypothesis (that will either be supported or rejected), refi ning the problem, fi guring out how to prove the hypothesis, carry ing out the research, interpreting the results, and reporting the fi nd-ings. We stress that one of the primary problems to be addressed in research methodology is the examination of the causal relationship. As the old saying goes, “correlation does not equal causation,” and we maintain the defi nitional diff erences between the two in our lectures. Correlation implies a regular relationship between two variables, and variables are anything that might vary in a relationship (degrees of religiosity, age, educational att ainment, income, etc.).

It is oft en diffi cult for students to grasp the diff erence between in de pen-dent and dependent variables, so here again we use our September 11 exam-ple. A dependent variable is a variable that is determined by another variable (the in de pen dent variable). Th is distinction refers to the causal relationship that we are studying. It is here that we use controls (we hold one or more vari-ables constant in order to look at the eff ects of others) so that we can more eff ectively judge causal and noncausal relationships. For example, is there a causal relationship between religion and politics with regard to the September 11 terrorist att acks? Does a causal relationship exist between the fear gener-ated by the att acks and Americans’ reluctance to fl y? We note, however, that as much as we study all the factors that may be att ributed to causal relation-ships, some speculation always remains about the validity of the proposed relationship. As such, nothing in the social sciences is as precise as we would like it to be.

We use a variety of research methods in sociology to examine so cio log i cal phenomena like those that occurred on September 11 (they are clearly out-lined in the book). Th ese methods include ethnography and fi eldwork (qualita-tive methodologies), surveys and questionnaires (quantitative methodologies), and comparative historical inquiry. Here we stress some of the benefi ts and diff erences between the methodologies and indicate to students that the research question itself should determine the methodology used in a study. Students should understand that it is good to combine methodologies and do a study that is partially ethnographic (e.g., living among al Qaeda members in Af ghan i stan to learn their rhetoric and tactics), as well as do a survey on the beliefs and perceptions of al Qaeda among nonmembers. Combining


methodologies, or triangulation, gives researchers valuable information and direction within their study. Some of the points we stress include the idea that if one engages in purely qualitative research, sample sizes are signifi cantly smaller than in quantitative work, but the information gathered is richer and more informative about both microso cio log i cal and macroso cio log i cal phe-nomena. Similarly, if one engages in quantitative work, surveys and inter-views reach a larger number of people, and thus more responses are included in a sample. However, in this situation, the information is more restricted (it is generally coded and interpreted statistically) and thus less detailed informa-tion is available about the study sample. Comparative historical research is our favorite because at its core is the combination of diff erent ways to exam-ine data. A comparative historical study looks at historical data (generally prett y rich) and documents and likely includes some quantitative data if it is available or can be re- created. Sometimes sources cannot be re- created, which can present a problem.

Whenever research is conducted, students should be aware of any and all ethical concerns regarding honesty and integrity and human subject review. We oft en present students with copies of the ASA Guidelines for Ethical Behav-ior and ask them to consider these practices while designing their research projects. Th ere are also many valuable Web sites that focus on ethics and run tutorials for students and others interested in conducting research.

At the close of the methodology lecture, we give a fairly in- depth assign-ment that requires students to do a so cio log i cal methodology. Th e fi rst part of the assignment requires them to designate a research problem. Th e second part asks them to construct a questionnaire in which they write ten open- ended and ten closed- ended questions. Th e third part mandates they admin-ister the questionnaire to twenty people on campus or in the community, and then write up their fi ndings.

IV. DISCUSSION TOPICS AND CLASS ACTIVITIESA. Th e Th ree Perspectives

Th is initial chapter is the forum in which the three perspectives (confl ict theory, functionalism, and symbolic interactionism) are introduced. Th e dis-cussion of unintended consequences fi ts directly into Robert K. Merton’s dis-tinction between latent and manifest functions (according to the functionalist perspective). Similarly, the manner in which the authors show the importance of “defi ning a situation” (and recognizing the interaction of the various social phenomena that go into the social construction of the situation) speaks directly to the perspective off ered by symbolic interactionists. Last, the discussions of


Marx and Marxism trace the development of class confl ict theory within sociology.

Th is is a methods chapter and, as such, it is not a rich source of material on the three perspectives. However, you could mention that some methods are bett er suited to inquiries from one perspective than another. Which perspec-tive is best suited to explain victims’ reactions and realities aft er witnessing the events of September 11? How might one account for the economic eff ects of the global fi nancial and military response following the att acks on New York City and Washington, DC? What is the eff ect of military force in Af ghan-i stan on inner- city families? Last, can the recognition and analysis of economic disparities between the United States and Af ghan i stan help us understand the military response to the September 11 att acks? Th e answers represent sym-bolic interactionism in the fi rst question, the class confl ict/Marxian perspec-tive in the second, and functionalism in the third.

We can engage in qualitative, quantitative, and comparative historical research by taking reference points from all three approaches. It is now up to the students to determine which research question is best explained with which theoretical framework by using which type of methodology.

B. In Class

Durkheim asked the most fundamental question: “What holds society together?” Th is led to his concern with the division of labor at the macro level and ritual at the micro level. Marx asked, “Why history?” Th is big question led to his investigation of the origin and nature of capitalism, the economic aspect of the historical change in the modern world. Weber asked two ques-tions. First, “Why did the modern social order arise in western Eu rope rather than somewhere else?” Th is fundamentally comparative historical question led Weber to his investigation of world religions, of medieval cities, and of the role of the state. Looking into this question is a healthy antidote to Euro-centrism as one discovers that a bett ing person wouldn’t have given good odds on the rise of the West had one been wagering in 800 c.e. Weber’s sec-ond question, “Why do people do what they are told?” seems less basic, but led to his analysis of bureaucracy (as a form of domination, recall) and takes us back to his fi rst question, since the development of rational legal authority contributed to the rise of the West. When we introduce students to the so cio-log i cal canon, we do so with the intention of introducing them to the history and basic precepts on which each theory was based. In class, we oft en refer to Marx, Weber, and Durkheim as the “dead white founding fathers” of sociol-ogy so that their work is not only distinguished as the canon but is set apart from more modern theories within the fi eld (as presented later in the course)


that built on their work and expanded it for modern times. We stress that the three men approached the fi eld of sociology from unique perspectives. Karl Marx was primarily interested in socioeconomic class distinctions and struggle. Issues of bureaucracy and rationality intrigued Max Weber. Émile Durkheim was fascinated by the presumed functionality of everyday social experience. Despite their unique orientations, however, all three shared a common goal: Th ey all strived to explain social change and generalized that concern into questions we all desire answers to. Because the individual acts upon society at the same time that society acts upon the individual, we rec-ommend that you give strong emphasis to the ideas of culture, structuration, and globalization in class. Th ese three themes are portrayed throughout the textbook and are likely to resonate with your students. Ideas pertaining to the relevance of culture abound— especially with regard to the emphasis on globalization in the book— and an understanding of sociocultural character-istics should be of interest to students. Connected to this is the idea that social beings create culture, and culture acts as an agent of constant redefi ni-tion of society (structuration). Th e growing emphasis on globalization is also important. Students will see that as our society grows more complex and more interdependent with other nations (it is not enough merely to accept the notion that the United States is a major world superpower and just leave it at that), alliances with other countries that are not only po liti cal or eco-nomic but social as well increase in importance. In our fi rst lectures, we give the example of September 11 and ask students to understand how American society was transformed by this event and how it altered the ways they navi-gate even the simplest act, such as packing a suitcase for a trip (that involves air travel). We ask them to watch the physical, ethnic, and national character-istics of those who get stopped for “random” searches at airport gates, and to consider these att ributes in the context of racial profi ling. American society, the world, and all global citizens have been transformed by September 11. As unfortunate as it is, how many of us do a double- take when we hear Arabic being spoken or see someone who might be Muslim? Asking questions about these patt erns of behavior opens a discussion of major concepts in the fi eld: race, religion, culture, globalization, and social structure.

Th e humorist Dave Barry wrote, “Th e Greeks gave us the Pythagorean theorem. When we graduated from high school, we gave it back.” We are sure something like this happens for many students with regard to scientifi c meth-ods. It seems clear that the typical younger college student has learned what a hypothesis is, how to read a table, the diff erence between the mean and the median, and enough about the Cartesian plane to comprehend scatt erplots and correlation. However, it appears that a substantial proportion of students give this information back when they graduate. Also, our classes always include


students who have been disadvantaged by national, regional, or ethnic ori-gin, who either have never encountered those concepts or did so a long time ago. All this makes methods hard to teach. Here are some teaching tactics that work well for us:

1. Don’t forget about methods once you fi nish covering Chapter 1. Intro-duce them early, but throughout the course remind students of the meth-ods used in the various studies to which you refer. Ask test questions that refer to methods: Why was it a big mistake in method for the researchers in the Cambridge- Somerville experiment to ignore the fact that their treatment and control groups turned out exactly the same?

2. Reinforce the parallel between so- called hard science and sociology. Our subjects may be self- aware and our research refl exive, but the logic of a sample in sociology is the same as that of a sample in biology. To the degree that students accept the legitimacy of natural and physical science (don’t overestimate this), this comparison confers legitimacy upon social science.

3. Another parallel to draw is between experiments in natural science and experiments in social science. We introduce in de pen dent and dependent variables by comparing testing of a new drug on treatment and control groups of rats to a social experiment, such as the classic Zimbardo prison experiment cited in the text.

4. Use humor to make scientifi c methods less intimidating. Th e mad scien-tist, the absentminded professor, and the computer geek are familiar comic fi gures. We’re a bit of all three ourselves, and we adopt the personas from time to time as we teach methods.

Th is chapter introduces students to the general precepts of sociology and to the so cio log i cal canon. Students learn that sociologists study all types of social phenomena and that such study may be explained by numerous theo-retical orientations. When one gets to how sociology is done, however, the waters get a bit muddied. Students oft en come to class stating that sociology seems to be just common sense and then ask why it is useful to engage in any methodological inquiry at all. For example, one student asked why sociolo-gists would even bother studying the eff ects of September 11 on the rescue workers who were working on the scene in New York City. Th e student said that the eff ect was devastating on all who were there or who had any part whatsoever in the rescue and recovery, and that the answers would yield the results he expected— so why bother with this type of study? Our response was that individuals are unique social beings and the way they interact with their environment and interpret the events they experience might be surpris-ing. In essence, what we try to show students is that sociology is not about


pure common sense (sure, we think we know what a response might be, but do we really know until we do the research?), and that perhaps we might approach the rescue worker question from another vantage point (other than the mere devastation); namely, that helping in the rescue and recovery eff orts might be cathartic and do some good for these individuals. We do not know until we do the study, but sociology has a lot of value and contributes to a more generalized understanding of the social world around us.

We sometimes hear students gripe and grumble about statistics. Th ey oft en say that statistics are easily manipulated to show anything that one wants them to show, so what is the point of them? How can one trust statis-tics? Statistics are important in explaining social phenomena, but one needs to understand how they should be interpreted to realize that their relevance and importance should be left to the individual reading the study.

Many issues in social research methods are left to the interpretation of the researcher and the individuals who read the studies. Sociologists have produced a great deal of social research that has had a tremendous impact on the fi eld, such as Th eda Skocpol’s book States and Social Revolutions, which completely revolutionized the way social scientists think about revolution, and Dorothy Smith’s work that introduced a new perspective into the fi eld (standpoint theory). Jay MacLeod’s research on two groups of youth (Ain’t No Makin’ It: Aspirations and Att ainment in a Low Income Neighborhood) detailed the disparities between the urban and the suburban experience of youth. Th e methods used yield studies that have resonating eff ects within the fi eld, and as such, students should begin to appreciate their importance and relevance.

As a fi nal note, while teaching the section on research methods we intro-duce the ASA Guidelines for Ethical Social Research. Th is shows students the forms that a researcher must complete to conduct research using human subjects. In so doing, we point out that many of the studies done in the past (Milgram’s social obedience studies, the Zimbardo prison experiment, etc.) are not viewed as ethical research projects today. Th e guidelines for doing research involving human subjects have expanded and presenting this mate-rial to students serves to further legitimize social research for them.

V. SUGGESTED FURTHER READINGC. Wright Mills maintained that social beings need to develop their own “so cio log i cal imaginations”: the ability to view themselves as the “products of socialization, as persons who are constrained by norms and mores, and as people whose personal biography has been shaped by history and social


events.” Th is discussion is detailed in C. Wright Mills, Th e So cio log i cal Imagi-nation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1959).

One of the best summaries of a chain of unintended consequences is Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. Denton, American Apartheid: Segregation and the Making of the Underclass (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1993), 182– 185.

A section on “dead white sociologists” is presented in Mark G. Eckel, “Great Dead Sociologists and Felicity’s Condition: Fundamental Ideas Is the One and Only Sociology Course,” Teaching Sociology 13, no. 1 (October 1985), 61– 69.

Easily taught and easy- to- understand defi nitions of Marxist theory are found in the Dictionary of Marxist Th ought (London: Blackwell, 1991). Key terms relating to social in e qual ity are defi ned in user- friendly ways. We recommend using the defi nitions of social class, alienation, exploitation, and Marxism.

If you discuss September 11 in your courses, a fabulous discussion of the events of that day may be found in Noam Chomsky, 9– 11 (New York: Seven Stories Press, 2002).

Mitchell Duneier’s Slim’s Table: Race, Respectability, and Masculinity (Chi-cago: University of Chicago Press, 1992) is excellent background reading for instructors. If you wish to assign a book or two in addition to the textbook, it would provide good background reading for students as well. Duneier states that his study is signifi cantly diff erent from the tradition of Tally’s Corner and Streetwise and he contradicts the conclusions of macro- level studies like those of W. J. Wilson, Douglas S. Massey, and Nancy K. Denton. Duneier’s thesis provides an opportunity to consider the position of African American men in our society. Th e working- class men at Slim’s table are diff erent from the ste reo type of African American men as either street gang members or “Buppies,” but Duneier’s study proves, not disproves, that such men are mar-ginalized in African American urban life today. Most of them do not live with wives or children, which is why they are at the cafeteria in the fi rst place. Furthermore, if whites still know so litt le about African Americans that it’s necessary to do this sort of research, that’s a sign of the pernicious conse-quences of the “hyper segregation” identifi ed by the macro studies.

We also highly recommend Jay MacLeod’s Ain’t No Makin’ It: Aspirations and Att ainment in a Low- Income Neighborhood (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1995) for both instructors and students. Th is text introduces students to a wide variety of variables (urbanization, race, social class, deviance) and pro-vides an informative chapter on the methods that MacLeod used in his study. Th e idea of the achievement ideology as it is linked to perceptions of race and class is laid out well in this volume and is presented in such a way that the utility of social methods is readily apparent to the reader.


A good qualitative study is also found in Lynn Davidman’s Tradition in a Rootless World: Women Turn to Orthodox Judaism (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995). Th e comparative study takes, as its orienting ques-tions, why contemporary women are att racted to Orthodox Judaism and how that transformation is accomplished through the interactions between the newcomers and the Orthodox institutions they att end. Th e primary argu-ment is that “each form of Orthodoxy has a par tic u lar approach to modernity that shapes all aspects of the re- socialization pro cess, which aff ects the type of woman att racted to each group, the way the group presents its teachings on Orthodoxy, and the fi nal outcome of the socialization pro cess in each sett ing.”

Additional Suggested Reading

Baudrillard, Jean. 1995. Simulacra and Simulation. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.

Bell, Inge, and McCrane, Bernard. 1998. Th is Book Is Not Required. Th ousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.

Berger, Peter. 1963. Invitation to Sociology. New York: Anchor Books.Charmaz, Kathy. 2006. Constructing Grounded Th eory: A Practical Guide

through Qualitative Analysis. New York: Sage.DeVault, Marjorie. 1994. Feeding the Family: Th e Social Or ga ni za tion of

Caring as Gendered Work. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Emerson, Robert, Fretz, Rachel, and Shaw, Linda. 1995. Writing

Ethnographic Fieldnotes. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.Hill Collins, Patricia. 2007. Black Feminist Th ought: Knowledge,

Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. New York: Routledge.Kivisto, Peter. 2007. Illuminating Social Life: Classical and Contemporary

Th eory Revisited. Th ousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press.Krippendorff , Klaus. 2003. Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its

Methodology. New York: Sage.Lemert, Charles. 2007. Th inking the Unthinkable: Th e Riddles of Classical

So cio log i cal Th eories. Boulder, CO: Paradigm.McCrane, Bernard. 1994. Th e Un- TV and the 10 mph Car: Experiments in

Personal Freedom and Everyday Life. New York: Small Press.Meyers, Diana Charles. 1996. Feminists Rethink the Self. Th eory and Politics

Series. Cambridge, MA: Westview Press. O’Brien, Jodi, and Kollock, Peter. 2001. Th e Production of Reality. Chicago:

Pine Forge Press.Ritzer, George. 2007. So cio log i cal Th eory. 7th ed. New York: McGraw- Hill.


Smith, Dorothy. 2005. Institutional Ethnography: A Sociology for People. Lanham, MD: AltaMira Press.

VI. SUGGESTED FILMSBecause students are introduced to the so cio log i cal canon in this chapter, we enjoy showing a brief (forty- six minutes) fi lm that defi nes more clearly the work of Max Weber. Th e fi lm, entitled Philosophy: Th e Social Context (1997, distributed by BBC- TV), discusses the radical expansion of scientifi c knowl-edge and its dehumanizing eff ects on society as expressed by Max Weber.

We also enjoy showing clips of fi lms that have aired in the pop u lar media. In introductory courses, we generally begin with clips from Spike Lee’s Jungle Fever (MCA Home Video, Universal Pictures, 1991). Th is fi lm is help-ful because it depicts the interaction of race, class, gender, family dynamics, urbanization, religion, and culture in its depiction of a married African Amer-ican architect who begins an aff air with his working- class Italian American secretary. Because of their relationship, they are disowned by their families, shunned by their neighbors, and scrutinized by their acquaintances. Show-ing clips from this fi lm opens discussion of broad sociocultural and global themes that will be discussed more completely throughout the course.

To illustrate some of the general concepts of so cio log i cal thinking, we rec-ommend Spellbound (2002), Trekkies (1997), Mad Hot Ballroom (2005), or any documentary that provides insight into a subculture. Excerpts of these movies can introduce elements of the so cio log i cal perspective such as using the so cio log i cal imagination, creating a beginner’s mind, and taking an out-sider’s perspective.

Th e Truman Show (1998) does an excellent job of demonstrating how one person’s everyday life can spark endless speculation and analysis. It’s a clear illustration of the so cio log i cal perspective.

Social reality isn’t always what it appears to be. Are we teaching students to evaluate critically what they observe, hear, and feel? If this is the case, as we believe it to be, showing clips from Being John Malkovich (USA Home Enter-tainment, Gramercy Pictures, 1999) will permit you to do just that. Th is is an odd fi lm in which a struggling street puppeteer who works as a fi ling clerk discovers a secret door that enables him to enter the mind of John Malkovich for fi ft een minutes prior to being dropped from the sky. His observations and interactions with society immediately following his experience lend credence to the idea that one must question not only authority, but everything.

Concerning the sections in this chapter on social theories and methods, there are a few fi lms that might be used as a teaching tool. One favorite is Th e


Eye of the Storm (ABC fi lms, distributed by the Center for the Humanities, Mt. Kisco, NY, 1969). Th is short, twenty- eight- minute fi lm presents a key experiment in prejudice and discrimination in a third- grade classroom. Th e teacher divides the students according to their eye color and treats one group as though they are superior to the other group for a day (she reverses the trend on the second day so that the previously inferior children are now the superior ones). Th e students begin to act out their roles and the teacher carefully observes the children’s behavior. Th is study was conducted in an att empt to document that prejudice and discrimination are learned att itudes.

While an experiment such as this would never make it past the Human Subjects Review Board today, it remains an intriguing piece of social scien-tifi c and social psychological research. Students benefi t from viewing this fi lm because it opens the fl oor for questions not only about the practicality of some studies and the ethics that are involved, but also about the covert, insti-tutionalized, and learned dynamics of ste reo types, prejudice, racism, and discrimination.

Th e ethics of some famous experiments can be examined through docu-mentaries, including Th e Deadly Deception (Dir. Denisce DiAnni, Nova, PBS, 1993). Th is documentary about the Tuskegee study includes interviews with men who were unwilling subjects of this study, the doctors who conducted it, and others who objected to it.

Th e experiments of Stanley Milgram and Philip Zimbardo are discussed in Th e Human Behavior Experiments (Dir. Alex Gibney, Fearful Symmetry, 2006) with regard to how they apply to contemporary situations, such as that at Abu Ghraib. Individual examinations of each experiment are available in Obedience (Dir. Stanley Milgram, Pennsylvania State University, 1963), which documents Stanley Milgram’s classic research on obedience to authority, based on candid footage fi lmed at Yale University, and Quiet Rage: Th e Docu-mentary (Philip Zimbardo, 1996). Zimbardo’s fi lm about the Stanford prison experiment features archival footage, fl ashbacks, postexperiment interviews with the prisoners and guards, and comparisons with real prisons.

VII. SUGGESTED WEBSITESAmerican So cio log i cal Association www .asanet .orgTh e American So cio log i cal Association is a nonprofi t membership association dedicated to advancing sociology as a scientifi c discipline profession serving the public good. Resources for students include Th e Student Sociologist, a newslett er; a student forum; and a listing of research and funding opportunities.


ASA Th eory Section Website www .asatheory .orgTh is site has been online since 2003, off ering news and resources to fans and practitioners of so cio log i cal theory of all kinds. It introduces the Th eory Section, its members, and their work to those outside this fi eld.

Everyday Sociology Blog www .everydaysociologyblog .comFeatures interesting, informative, and entertaining commentary from sociologists around the United States. Visit this site regularly to get a so cio-log i cal take on what is happening in the news (and on what should be in the news).

So cio log i cal Research Online www .socresonline .org .uk/ home .htmlTh is fully peer- reviewed sociology journal, which is solely online, looks at current issues. It makes use of new media and reaches a wide and international readership. It also publishes special sections and rapid- response articles that address key issues in the public arena.

Th e SocioWeb: So cio log i cal Th eories www .socioweb .com/ directory/ sociological _theoriesTh e SocioWeb is an in de pen dent guide to the so cio log i cal resources available on the Internet. It was founded on the belief that the Internet can help unite the so cio log i cal community in powerful ways. Originally launched in October, 1995, the SocioWeb has grown at a steady pace. Th is site provides a list of recommended sociology sites that specialize in theory.

VIII. EVERYDAY SOCIOLOGY BLOGJanis Prince Inniss, “Institutional Review Boards: Why Do We Need

Th em?” 10/12/2009Inniss refl ects on the role of the Institutional Review Board in ensuring ethical treatment of research subjects.

Janis Prince Inniss, “Matching Research Methods to Research Questions,” 12/6/2007

Inniss uses a racist comment by Dr. James Watson, the co- discoverer of the DNA double helix, to discuss the “data” behind his claim that black people are less intelligent than white and how we would prove this claim (defi ne the group, select a research method).


C. N. Le, “Applying Social Science in the Combat Zone,” 1/11/2008Le discusses the U.S. government’s use of social scientists to help fi ght terrorists in Af ghan i stan and Iraq; while acknowledging that this is using knowledge as a deadly weapon, Le favors the action as this could make the military more sensitive to the local population.

Sally Raskoff , “Cognitive Dissonance and Sociology Classes,” 5/22/2009Raskoff refl ects upon the benefi ts— and potential diffi culties— of studying sociology.

Sally Raskoff , “Dichotomous Th inking: Structure and Agency, Nature and Nurture,” 10/22/2009

Raskoff suggests that so cio log i cal training can keep us away from thinking in terms of simplistic dichotomies.

Sally Raskoff , “Do We Really Know Bett er?” 1/16/2008Raskoff explains that cognitive dissonance is the tension that we feel when we think or act contrary to our normal modes, as when we overindulge in food and drink during the holidays. We resolve the dissonance by either ignoring one side of the issue or rationalizing ideas or behaviors.

Sally Raskoff , “Fractals, Th eories, and Patt erns,” 12/12/2007Raskoff muses that while it may be tempting to apply the theory of fractals, or natural small patt erns writ large, to human sociology, this is not the most appropriate application of fractal theory, because with humans the sum of the parts may be more than the whole.

Karen Sternheimer, “Can Sociology Explain American Idol’s Appeal?” 4/23/2008

Sternheimer claims that American Idol is so pop u lar, in part, because it’s a form of interactive media that allows people to bond. Th e show stands in contrast to threatening interactive media portrayals, as in Fahrenheit 451.

Karen Sternheimer, “Infi delity, Tiger Woods and Émile Durkheim,” 12/31/2009

Sternheimer considers what Émile Durkheim would have said about public interest in celebrity infi delity, and turns to functionalism to explain the social role of tabloid scandals.


Bradley Wright, “An Eff ect of Mea sure ment,” 7/22/2008Wright defi nes the “observer eff ect” as occurring when we change our actions due to observation or mea sure ment, such as a hybrid driver who gets constant miles- per- gallon feedback and then subsequently changes her driving habits. Th us, any person doing a so cio log i cal mea sure ment through observation (such as a survey) should be aware that his or her observation aff ects the results.

Bradley Wright, “How American Congregations Are Changing (and Staying the Same),” 3/14/2009

Wright demonstrates that sociology research doesn’t have to be inaccessible by considering the ways in which statistical data informs us of congregational change over time.

Bradley Wright, “What’s a Spurious Correlation?” 4/28/2008A spurious correlation happens when two things, A and B, are correlated. Although we may be tempted to assume one causes the other, in fact they’re caused by a third variable, C.

Bradley Wright, “Where to Sit: Doing Qualitative Research,” 3/7/2008Wright describes his affi nity for inductive reasoning, or where we start with a small observation, and from it we build explanations about the larger social world. For example, he explains the reasons that students sit in certain seats, which demonstrates social norms.

See htt p://nortonbooks.typepad.com/everydaysociology/ for the most recent Everyday Sociology Blog entries.

IX. SOCIOLOGY IN PRACTICE DVDTh e Coff ee- Go- Round (6:09)Bullfrog Films; produced by Tele vi sion Trust for the Environment, 2004Th is clip elucidates the contradiction between the increasing amounts of coff ee being consumed each year and the economic crisis faced by coff ee growers. It also illustrates how students can use theory in framing issues connected to items found in their everyday lives. In fact, you can take a quick hand- raise poll about how many students have a cup of coff ee with them in class and how many students had a cup of coff ee that day. Use the clip as a springboard for discussion about how to apply the diff erent theoretical perspectives to the problem of coff ee production.


Dear Mr. President (5:10)Directed by Joshua Hester, 2003Using mainly stills and voiceovers, this heartfelt, short elegy strives toward a separate peace. Made by the brother of a soldier who fought in Iraq, Dear Mr. President was named Best Film Addressing Issues of Global Peace and Understanding at the 2003 International Student Documentary Competition in Chicago.■ C. Wright Mills said that the so cio log i cal imagination comes from our

ability to see the connection between “public issues” and “private troubles.” How does the narrator of this fi lm make such a connection in his life? What are this fi lm’s “public issues” and the “private troubles”?

Th e First Mea sured Century (6:46)PBS; produced by New River Media, 2000Clip 2, “Survey Methods and Interpretation of Data from Middletown Study,” explains the “Middletown” study of Muncie, Indiana, and its importance as the average American town, and details recent updates of the study. Use this clip as a springboard for a discussion about the importance of social research in fully examining what we consider common knowledge. Ask students to discuss how data help us to discover what society was like as well as where it is headed.■ What type of research method was used in the study of Middletown/

Muncie?■ What were the advantages and disadvantages of using this type of

methodology?■ Discuss this segment as an example of historical/comparative and longitu-

dinal research.■ What social conditions do the sociologists in this clip say led to the changes

in Middletown/Muncie?■ What results of this research seem to be contrary to conventional wisdom

or “what everybody knows”?

See www.wwnorton.com/studyspace for Sociology in Practice DVD quizzes and streaming video clips.

31

CHAPTER 2

Culture and Society

Sociology: Th eory and Method · 4 Chapter 1 Sociology: Th eory and Method I. OVERVIEW Giddens, Duneier, Appelbaum, and Carr begin their third edition of the Essentials of Sociology

Documents