Social/Economic Indicators: Comparing Brown Era Racial Disparities to Today Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race & Ethnicity The Ohio State University.

Social/Economic Indicators: Social/Economic Indicators: Comparing Brown Era Racial Comparing Brown Era Racial

Disparities to TodayDisparities to TodayKirwan Institute for the Study of Race &

Ethnicity

The Ohio State University

April 2004

Benchmarks of Benchmarks of Social/Economic HealthSocial/Economic Health

►EducationEducation►HousingHousing►PovertyPoverty►EmploymentEmployment► IncomeIncome►CrimeCrime►HealthHealth►Other contemporary concernsOther contemporary concernsNote: Not all data for this presentation match perfectly with the Brown decision in 1954, due to data availability and comparability problems some data from later than 1954 were used

Education: Educational Education: Educational AttainmentAttainment

Educational Attainment by Race 1957 and 2002

43.2%

8.0%

88.7%

29.4%

18.4%

2.9%

79.2%

17.2%

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

80.0%

90.0%

100.0%

Completed 4Years of H.S.

1957

Completed 4Years of College 1957

Completed 4Years of H.S.

2002

Completed 4Years of College 2002

White African American

Educational AttainmentEducational Attainment►Educational attainment for African Educational attainment for African

Americans has increased considerably Americans has increased considerably since 1950. since 1950. The proportion of the population with a high The proportion of the population with a high

school degree increased by 300% during school degree increased by 300% during this time, the proportion of the population this time, the proportion of the population with a 4-year college degree increased by with a 4-year college degree increased by almost 500%almost 500%

►Disparity between African American and Disparity between African American and White educational attainment has White educational attainment has declined but is still prevalent declined but is still prevalent Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, U.S. Census of Population,

1960, Vol. 1, part 1; Current Population Reports, Series P-20 and unpublished data; and 1960 Census Monograph, “Education of the American Population,” by John K. Folger and Charles B. Nam. From U.S. Dept. of Education, National Center for Education Statistics, Digest of Education Statistics 2002

Education: High School Dropout Education: High School Dropout RateRate

High School Dropout Rate by Race 1974 and 2002

18.4%

11.2%

33.5%

17.0%

0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

30.0%

35.0%

40.0%

1974 2002


Education: College Entrance Education: College Entrance RateRate

College Entrance Rate (number of high school graduates who enrolled in college) by Race 1960 and 2002

45.8%

66.7%

36.0%

58.7%

20.0%

25.0%

30.0%

35.0%

40.0%

45.0%

50.0%

55.0%

60.0%

65.0%

70.0%

1960 2002


Note: Data from 1960 for all non-white races, no individual African American data collected

Education: H.S. Dropout and Education: H.S. Dropout and College Enrollment RatesCollege Enrollment Rates

► High School dropout rates for African High School dropout rates for African Americans have decreased substantially in Americans have decreased substantially in the last thirty years, dropping from 33.5% in the last thirty years, dropping from 33.5% in 1974 to 17% in 20021974 to 17% in 2002 H.S. dropout rates still remain 50% higher than H.S. dropout rates still remain 50% higher than

the white dropout rate in 2002 of 11%the white dropout rate in 2002 of 11%► College enrollment rates have increased College enrollment rates have increased

from 36% in 1960 to 57.7% in 2002 for from 36% in 1960 to 57.7% in 2002 for African Americans (an increase of 66%)African Americans (an increase of 66%) College enrollment rates for Whites increased by College enrollment rates for Whites increased by

45% during this forty-four year time period45% during this forty-four year time periodSource: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics and Post Secondary Education Opportunity at: http://www.postsecondary.org

Housing: Home OwnershipHousing: Home OwnershipRenter Occupancy by Race 1950 and 2000

43.0%

28.7%

65.1%

53.6%

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

% Renter 1950 % Renter 2000


Home OwnershipHome Ownership►The proportion of African Americans The proportion of African Americans

renting has decreased by 17% since renting has decreased by 17% since 1950, but the proportion of White’s 1950, but the proportion of White’s renting has decreased by 33% during this renting has decreased by 33% during this same time periodsame time period

► In 2000, the proportion of African In 2000, the proportion of African American households that had obtained American households that had obtained home ownership was 65% lower than the home ownership was 65% lower than the proportion of white households that had proportion of white households that had obtained homeownershipobtained homeownership Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000 Census and Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2000 Census and

Statistical Abstract 1955Statistical Abstract 1955Note: Data from 1950 for all non-white races, no individual African American data collected

Poverty: Poverty RatesPoverty: Poverty RatesPoverty Rates by Race 1959 and 2000

18.1%

9.9%

16.5%

8.1%

55.1%

22.7%

54.9%

21.4%

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

Individual 1959 Individual 2001 Family 1959 Family 2001


Poverty: Child Poverty by RacePoverty: Child Poverty by Race

Child Poverty 1955 to 1995

Source: Changing America: Indicators of Social and Economic Well-Being by Race and Hispanic Origin (1997), By the Council of Economic Advisors for President Clinton

Poverty TrendsPoverty Trends

► African American poverty rates have African American poverty rates have declined by approximately 60% since 1959, declined by approximately 60% since 1959, White poverty rates declined by White poverty rates declined by approximately 50% during this timeapproximately 50% during this time Disparity persists: African American individual Disparity persists: African American individual

and family poverty rates are currently twice the and family poverty rates are currently twice the rate of Whitesrate of Whites

► The number of African American children in The number of African American children in poverty have declined substantially since poverty have declined substantially since 19601960 Disparity persists: African American child poverty Disparity persists: African American child poverty

rates were approximately double the rate of rates were approximately double the rate of white child poverty in the 1990’swhite child poverty in the 1990’s

Unemployment by Race 1950 to 1997


Employment: Unemployment by Employment: Unemployment by RaceRace

Employment DisparityEmployment Disparity► Unemployment rates have varied considerably Unemployment rates have varied considerably

over time as the U.S. Economy has cycled. over time as the U.S. Economy has cycled. Generally African American unemployment has Generally African American unemployment has

been approximately twice as high as white been approximately twice as high as white unemployment throughout this timeunemployment throughout this time

► In 2003, unemployment disparity remains for In 2003, unemployment disparity remains for African Americans and HispanicsAfrican Americans and Hispanics The African American unemployment rate was The African American unemployment rate was

11.6% for men in 2003, and 10.2% for women11.6% for men in 2003, and 10.2% for women These figures are double the unemployment rates These figures are double the unemployment rates

for white men (5.6%) and women (4.8%) in 2003for white men (5.6%) and women (4.8%) in 2003

Sources: Changing America: Indicators of Social and Economic Well-Being by Race and Hispanic Origin (1997), By the Council of Economic Advisors for President Clinton and current data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics

Income: Personal Income Growth (2001 Income: Personal Income Growth (2001 $’s)$’s)

Personal Median Income 1954 to 2001

$3,900

$16,282

$30,240

$18,771

$21,466

$9,341

$7,193

$16,652

$0

$5,000

$10,000

$15,000

$20,000

$25,000

$30,000

$35,000

1954 2001

White Male African American Male White Female African American Female

Income: Family Income Growth (2001 Income: Family Income Growth (2001

$’s)$’s) Family Median Income 1954 to 2001

$54,067

$24,206

$33,598

$13,481

$0

$10,000

$20,000

$30,000

$40,000

$50,000

$60,000

1954 2001


Income GrowthIncome Growth► Incomes have more than doubled for African Incomes have more than doubled for African

American men, women and families since American men, women and families since the 1950’sthe 1950’s Disparity in income has actually grown since Disparity in income has actually grown since

1954, the median African American family 1954, the median African American family income in 1954 was 55% of the white median, in income in 1954 was 55% of the white median, in 2002 this figure had grown to 62%2002 this figure had grown to 62%

► Although income disparity has closed, a Although income disparity has closed, a tremendous disparity in net assets between tremendous disparity in net assets between African Americans and Whites is evident in African Americans and Whites is evident in recent Census Datarecent Census Data In 2000, the median assets ($7,500) for African In 2000, the median assets ($7,500) for African

American households was 9.5% of the median American households was 9.5% of the median assets for non-Hispanic whites ($79,000)assets for non-Hispanic whites ($79,000)

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract and Net Worth Report

Health: Age Adjusted Mortality Health: Age Adjusted Mortality RateRate

Age Adjusted Death Rates by Race 1954 and 2001

1,516.3

1,726.6

1,081.8

1,326.3

1,006.1

1,375.0

706.7

912.5

0.0

200.0

400.0

600.0

800.0

1,000.0

1,200.0

1,400.0

1,600.0

1,800.0

2,000.0

White Male African AmericanMale

White Female African AmericanFemale

1954 2001

Health: Life Expectancy by RaceHealth: Life Expectancy by RaceLife Expectancy by Race 1930 to 1995


HealthHealth► Mortality rates have declined for both Mortality rates have declined for both

African Americans and Whites since 1954African Americans and Whites since 1954 Disparity persists: In 2002, mortality rates for Disparity persists: In 2002, mortality rates for

African American men were 27% higher than African American men were 27% higher than mortality rates for White men, mortality rates are mortality rates for White men, mortality rates are 14% higher for African American women than 14% higher for African American women than White women White women

► Average life expectancy for African Average life expectancy for African American men and women have increased American men and women have increased since 1950, but still remain lower than the since 1950, but still remain lower than the White mortality ratesWhite mortality rates

Note: Data from 1954 for mortality all non-white races, no individual African American data collected

Sources: Changing America: Indicators of Social and Economic Well-Being by Race and Hispanic Origin (1997), By the Council of Economic Advisors for President Clinton and mortality data from the U.S. Census Bureau statistical abstract

Crime: Homicide Victimization Crime: Homicide Victimization RateRateHomicide Victimization Rates by Race 1950 to 2001

3.02.6

21.0

28.9

0.0

5.0

10.0

15.0

20.0

25.0

30.0

35.0

1950 2000


Crime: Prison Admissions by Crime: Prison Admissions by RaceRace

Prisons Admissions by Race 1930 to 1995


CrimeCrime

►Victimization rates for homicide have Victimization rates for homicide have declined 27% for African Americans declined 27% for African Americans but are still 7 times the rate of White but are still 7 times the rate of White homicide victimizationhomicide victimization

►The number of incarcerated African The number of incarcerated African Americans has increased 800% since Americans has increased 800% since the 1950’s, the number of the 1950’s, the number of incarcerated African Americans incarcerated African Americans surpassed the number of Whites surpassed the number of Whites incarcerated in the late 1980’sincarcerated in the late 1980’s

Sources: Changing America: Indicators of Social and Economic Well-Being by Race and Hispanic Origin (1997), By the Council of Economic Advisors for President Clinton and current data from the Bureau of Justice Statistics

Other Contemporary TrendsOther Contemporary Trends► Persistent Residential SegregationPersistent Residential Segregation

Residential segregation has decreased slightly in all Residential segregation has decreased slightly in all metropolitan areas, but a high degree of segregation still metropolitan areas, but a high degree of segregation still exists in most metropolitan areas (particularly in the Northeast exists in most metropolitan areas (particularly in the Northeast and Midwest)and Midwest)

► Source: Lewis Mumford Center (2004)Source: Lewis Mumford Center (2004)

► School District SegregationSchool District Segregation Research has shown increasing levels of segregation for Research has shown increasing levels of segregation for

America’s school districts, which is manifested at the regional America’s school districts, which is manifested at the regional levellevel

► Source: Harvard Civil Rights Project “A Multiracial Society with Source: Harvard Civil Rights Project “A Multiracial Society with Segregated Schools Are We Losing the Dream?” (2003)Segregated Schools Are We Losing the Dream?” (2003)

► People of Color Living in Concentrated PovertyPeople of Color Living in Concentrated Poverty In 2000, more than 2/3’s of people living in concentrated In 2000, more than 2/3’s of people living in concentrated

urban poverty were African American or Hispanicurban poverty were African American or Hispanic In 1999, half of poor rural African Americans and Native In 1999, half of poor rural African Americans and Native

Americans are found in concentrated poverty rural areas, 1/3 Americans are found in concentrated poverty rural areas, 1/3 of all poor rural Hispanics are found in areas of high poverty.of all poor rural Hispanics are found in areas of high poverty.

► Source: USDA, Economic Research Services, Brookings InstituteSource: USDA, Economic Research Services, Brookings Institute

School Segregation Today: Segregation and Student School Segregation Today: Segregation and Student PovertyPoverty

School Segregation and Students Eligible for Receiving Free and Reduced Lunch

88.581.2 81.2

58.4

48.3 46.1

37.6

65.1% 63.8%

80.1%

46.3% 46.6%

34.7% 35.3%

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

100.0

Dis

sim

ilar

ity

Sco

re

0.0%

10.0%

20.0%

30.0%

40.0%

50.0%

60.0%

70.0%

80.0%

90.0%

Per

cen

t S

tud

ents

Eli

gib

le

Segregation:DissimilarityScore

Free andReduced Lunch (%) 99

School Segregation Today: Segregation and Student School Segregation Today: Segregation and Student PerformancePerformance

School Segregation and Student Performance 2003

83.981.2

70.7

58.4

37.6

14.0%

10.0%

15.0%

22.0%

32.0%

0.0

10.0

20.0

30.0

40.0

50.0

60.0

70.0

80.0

90.0

Chicago Cleveland Boston San Diego Charlotte

Dis

sim

ilar

ity

Sco

re

0.0%

5.0%

10.0%

15.0%

20.0%

25.0%

30.0%

35.0%

Per

cen

t E

xcee

din

g o

r E

xcel

lin

g

Segregation:DissimilarityScore

Percent Exceeding or Excelling at Reading (4th)

School Segregation TodaySchool Segregation Today

►Urban sprawl and regional government Urban sprawl and regional government fragmentation have worked to re-fragmentation have worked to re-segregate urban school districtssegregate urban school districts

►What is the link between today’s What is the link between today’s segregated urban schools and student segregated urban schools and student poverty or student performance?poverty or student performance?

Sources: Dissimilarity Index Data from Lewis Mumford Center, School District Data from National Center for Education Statistics

SummarySummary

►Data suggest improvements since Data suggest improvements since 1954 vary based on the indicator, 1954 vary based on the indicator, education and poverty has improved education and poverty has improved but economic and crime indicators but economic and crime indicators have not improved as muchhave not improved as much

►Despite improvements across multiple Despite improvements across multiple indicators, significant racial disparities indicators, significant racial disparities in education, poverty, economic in education, poverty, economic health, income, health, crime still existhealth, income, health, crime still exist

Social Construction of Social Construction of DisparityDisparity

► Disparities are symptoms of structural racism.Disparities are symptoms of structural racism.► Simply recognizing disparities is not enough, Simply recognizing disparities is not enough,

we need to examine our assumptions we need to examine our assumptions surrounding them.surrounding them.

► Disparities in the early 20th century were Disparities in the early 20th century were attributed by genetic differences. Today they attributed by genetic differences. Today they are attributed to “defects in culture”. Is there are attributed to “defects in culture”. Is there any difference in these viewpoints?any difference in these viewpoints?

► Inequality is built into the system. Disparities Inequality is built into the system. Disparities are not a sign that the current system isn’t are not a sign that the current system isn’t working, they are a sign that it is working working, they are a sign that it is working exactly as it is supposed to.exactly as it is supposed to.

Source: American Apartheid: Douglas S. Massey & Nancy A Denton


► Over the course of the last century, racism Over the course of the last century, racism leaped from being inscribed in our laws to leaped from being inscribed in our laws to being inscribed in our spatial arrangements.being inscribed in our spatial arrangements.

► Wealth reproduces opportunity. The present Wealth reproduces opportunity. The present arrangement will continue to increasingly arrangement will continue to increasingly perpetuate disparities if left unchecked.perpetuate disparities if left unchecked.

► The damages of structural racism are The damages of structural racism are wreaking havoc on the economy, health, wreaking havoc on the economy, health, psychology, and the quality of life and psychology, and the quality of life and education of our society and its members.education of our society and its members.


► Disparities exist on many levels: individual, group, Disparities exist on many levels: individual, group, neighborhood, city, metropolitan area and nation. neighborhood, city, metropolitan area and nation.

► Regardless of educational, occupational, and Regardless of educational, occupational, and demographic characteristics, wealth is racially demographic characteristics, wealth is racially disparate.disparate.

► Middle class blacks possess fifteen cents for every Middle class blacks possess fifteen cents for every dollar of wealth held by middle-class whites.dollar of wealth held by middle-class whites.

► The average white Americans’ median net worth is The average white Americans’ median net worth is twelve times that of black Americans.twelve times that of black Americans.

► It is twice as difficult for blacks to obtain a It is twice as difficult for blacks to obtain a mortgage as it is for whites with comparable mortgage as it is for whites with comparable incomes.incomes.

► It is three times as difficult for blacks to gain It is three times as difficult for blacks to gain employment in the service sector as whites.employment in the service sector as whites.Racial Healing: Confronting the Fear Between Blacks and Whites: Douglas S. Massey & Nancy A Denton

Face to Face: The Changing State of Racism in America: J Waller

How How Brown Brown Influenced Subsequent Influenced Subsequent

Civil Rights JurisprudenceCivil Rights Jurisprudence

►What is segregation?What is segregation? de jurede jure

► legally imposed segregation legally imposed segregation

de facto de facto ►segregation (especially in schools) that segregation (especially in schools) that

happens in fact although not required by law.happens in fact although not required by law.

How How Brown Brown Influenced Subsequent Influenced Subsequent Civil Rights JurisprudenceCivil Rights Jurisprudence

►What is segregation?What is segregation? In regard to schools, In regard to schools, segregation segregation pertains pertains

to situations in which a disproportionate to situations in which a disproportionate number of white students number of white students or or students of students of color attend a school or school system. color attend a school or school system.

►Segregation can also be defined from Segregation can also be defined from emotional, psychological, mental, emotional, psychological, mental, physical, legal and social perspectives. physical, legal and social perspectives. Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. defined Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. defined

segregation as a twin evil that gives a segregation as a twin evil that gives a sense of inferiority to “Blacks,” and a sense of inferiority to “Blacks,” and a sense of superiority to “Whites.” He posits sense of superiority to “Whites.” He posits that segregation creates a distorted that segregation creates a distorted psychological self that in turn distorts psychological self that in turn distorts democracy democracy

How How Brown Brown Influenced Subsequent Influenced Subsequent Civil Rights JurisprudenceCivil Rights Jurisprudence

What is Desegregation?What is Desegregation?

► Desegregation Desegregation refers to efforts at remedying racial refers to efforts at remedying racial imbalances. It traditionally means removing formal legal imbalances. It traditionally means removing formal legal barriers, or simply placing students of different races in barriers, or simply placing students of different races in proximity to each other. Efforts are often limited to moving proximity to each other. Efforts are often limited to moving and mixing racial populations to end racial isolation. As it has and mixing racial populations to end racial isolation. As it has played out in most of America’s educational settings, played out in most of America’s educational settings, desegregation requires students of the non-dominant group desegregation requires students of the non-dominant group (most often nonwhite) to assimilate into the school and (most often nonwhite) to assimilate into the school and culture created for and controlled by the dominant group culture created for and controlled by the dominant group (most often white). Structures are not altered to meet the (most often white). Structures are not altered to meet the needs of the new and different students.needs of the new and different students.[1][1]

[1] Ware, L. and M. Ware 1996. “Plessy’s Legacy: Desegregating the Eurocentric [1] Ware, L. and M. Ware 1996. “Plessy’s Legacy: Desegregating the Eurocentric Curriculum.” Georgia State University Law Review 12. Curriculum.” Georgia State University Law Review 12. Fix cite and find Fix cite and find page.page.

What is Integration?What is Integration?

► ““The word segregation represents a system The word segregation represents a system that is prohibitive; it denies the Negro equal that is prohibitive; it denies the Negro equal access to schools, parks, restaurants, libraries access to schools, parks, restaurants, libraries and the like. Desegregation is eliminative and and the like. Desegregation is eliminative and negative, for it simply removes these legal and negative, for it simply removes these legal and social prohibitions. Integration is creative, social prohibitions. Integration is creative, and is therefore more profound and far-and is therefore more profound and far-reaching than desegregation. Integration is reaching than desegregation. Integration is the positive acceptance of desegregation and the positive acceptance of desegregation and the welcomed participation of Negroes in the the welcomed participation of Negroes in the total range of human activities. Integration is total range of human activities. Integration is genuine intergroup, interpersonal doing. genuine intergroup, interpersonal doing. Desegregation then, rightly is only a short-Desegregation then, rightly is only a short-range goal. Integration is the ultimate goal of range goal. Integration is the ultimate goal of our national community.”our national community.”

Quote by Dr. Martin Luther King from The Ethical Demands for Integration

Social/Economic Indicators: Comparing Brown Era Racial Disparities to Today Kirwan Institute for the Study of Race & Ethnicity The Ohio State University.

Documents

census of population

american population

high school degree

unpublished data

high school dropout0

individual data

data availability

census monograph