SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGY AND METHODS FOR EMERGING RESEARCHERS Teresa Whitaker and Marjorie Fitzpatrick 2021
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SOCIAL RESEARCH
METHODOLOGY AND METHODS
FOR EMERGING RESEARCHERS
Teresa Whitaker and Marjorie Fitzpatrick
2021
Dedication
This is dedicated to all those students who are undertaking research for the first time,
whether at undergraduate or postgraduate level. We hope you fall in love with doing
research and that this book will stimulate your imagination and illuminate your journey.
Imagination is more important than knowledge. For knowledge is limited, whereas imagination embraces the entire world, stimulating progress, giving birth to evolution. It is, strictly speaking, a real factor in scientific research. Albert Einstein (1924)
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Declaration
The opinions in this book are those of the authors.
Copyright
Original Works
The separate and original works, comprising this collection, are subject to copyright by
their individual authors. The aggregation of the works into the collection and all ancillary
original works are copyright by the author: All these original works are made available
under the Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-Share Alike 2.0 licence,
available here: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/2.0/legalcode
All reasonable effort has been made to contact and acknowledge copyright holders. If
you believe that copyright in any item has not been correctly attributed, please contact:
© Dr. Teresa Whitaker, Dr. Marjorie Fitzpatrick 2021.
Published by
Wise Owls: Dublin, Ireland
ISBN 978-1-5272-9308-3
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About the Authors
Marjorie Fitzpatrick and Teresa Whitaker met while working on doctorates and teaching research methods in the Sociology Department in University College Dublin (UCD) in 2001. They discovered that they both loved carrying out and teaching research. Marjorie was awarded the D. Simon Evans Prize in 2017, for her book, Music and Power in Eighteenth Century Court Society - Händel’s Messiah and Protestant Ascendancy, based on her doctoral research. She co-authored Anchoring Cultural Change and Organizational Change with Patrick McDevitt (2020). She has lectured undergraduate and postgraduate students on research methodology, ethics in research, academic writing, ‘Theology, and Social Analysis’ in many Higher Education Institutes (HEIs): UCD, Milltown Institute of Philosophy and Theology, Mater Dei College, St. Patrick’s College Drumcondra, Sion Hill College, Bolton Street College of Technology, Turning Point Institute Dublin, and All Hallows College. Currently she works as a Higher Education Consultant and member of the Ethics Board in the International College for Personal and Professional Development (ICPPD), which assesses students’ proposals and lectures supervisors on research methods. Marjorie was Coordinator of Research Methodology, Interim Director of Research and Director of Quality and Institutional Analysis and Memory in All Hallows College until it closed in 2016. Her background includes: leadership, human resource management, equality studies, quality assurance, second-level teaching, computer programming, digital learning, record data management, mentoring, supervisory practice, and data processing and analysis with the Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI). She has presented conference papers in Canada, France, England, and Ireland and has many publications.
Teresa Whitaker completed her undergraduate degree in the faculty of Economic and Social Studies in Trinity College Dublin (Sociology and Political Science). She received first class honours for her Master in Social Science Degree (M. Soc. Sc.) in UCD. Teresa received a Government of Ireland scholarship and a scholarship from the Geary Institute in UCD for her doctoral research. She was awarded Best Academic Achievement on the Postgraduate Diploma in Arts and Training & Education in Griffith College Dublin (GCD) in 2015 and received first class honours in the Master of Arts in Training and Education in GCD in 2017. Since retiring from Director of Research in Hibernia College (2018), she works as a Higher Education Consultant, supervises students undertaking master’s dissertations, mentors undergraduate students (UCD), and teaches research methods. She has worked as an independent researcher and as part of a team on funded research projects including lead researcher on a study of illicit drug use and prostitution with the National Advisory Committee on Drugs (2006-2009) and Project Officer for an EU funded qualitative longitudinal study on how children commence smoking. She worked as a senior lecturer in many HEIs (TCD, UCD, Dublin City University, St. Nicholas Montessori College Ireland, Milltown Institute of Philosophy and Theology, All Hallows College) and taught Addiction Studies in the Communications and Management Institute. She has worked for Hibernia College since 2010, as Director of Research, Programme Director (PhD with Plymouth University), Master of Arts in Teaching and Learning), author of modules (Intercultural Education with Dr Máirín Kenny, Research Methods, Sociology of Education, Academic Writing), online tutor, lecturing, assessing, supervising graduate students, team leader and member of programme validations and reviews with Quality Qualifications Ireland. Teresa was the Hibernia College representative on the National Forum and on the Higher Education Colleges Association (Teaching and Learning Committee). She has presented her research on Irish radio and television and at national and international conferences. She has numerous publications and acts as a peer reviewer to national and international journals.
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Acknowledgements
We are grateful for the constant love and support from our respective spouses Brian and
David and our children who have consistently cheered us on from the side-lines. We owe
a debt of gratitude to our lecturers and tutors in Trinity College Dublin, and University
College Dublin for giving us a love of research and a strong grounding in research
methods.
Sincere thanks are expressed to our students who taught us so much and, in particular,
to those students who allowed us to use their research as exemplars, namely: Avril
Carey, Billy Walsh, Brendan O’Driscoll, Hazel Collins, Jenny Meyer, Julie O’Sullivan, and
Karen McDermott.
We are very grateful to our colleagues who peer reviewed chapters and gave us helpful
feedback namely: Dr Aisling Whitaker, Dr Breda McCabe, Gari McKeown, Irene
Murphy, Jenny Meyer, Jocelyne Rigal, Dr Máirin Kenny, Niamh O’Sullivan, Dr Paul Ryan
and Rosalie Prendergast.
A special thanks to Dr. Bill Mallon, (Managing Director, and Chief Proofreader / Editor) of
Career Projections (www.careerprojections.com ) for proof reading and providing
editorial advice on this book.
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Foreword
Foreword
Do you want to be an effective and successful social researcher? Are you keen to get
your hands on the basic know-how you need to produce a highly competent and very
satisfactory research dissertation? One that is as good as you can make it?
If so, this beginner’s guide can be your winner’s guide. It helps you design and plan your
research project. It takes you by the hand and leads you through the choices and
pathways that lie before you. This is a comprehensive compendium of what to do, and
how to do it.
Social Research Methodology and Methods for Emerging Researchers is as
approachable and useful as your favourite recipe book or garage workshop guide. Dr
Teresa Whitaker and Dr Marjorie Fitzpatrick, graduates of University College Dublin, are
highly experienced, strongly qualified, and impeccably first class. They know what they
are talking about. Not least, their own careers and academic successes illustrate the
great results their approach can bring.
Dr Fitzpatrick’s research is wide-ranging: from investigating institutional change,
especially in the educational sphere, to the dynamics of music and power. That includes
her fascinating study of the historic first performance of Handel’s Messiah in Dublin. Dr
Whitaker’s important work on prostitution and illicit drug use has been widely reported
and recognised. She is a leading figure at Hibernia College, a familiar presence in the
media, and a regular contributor to national and international conferences.
In these pages you get highly accessible advice on every stage of your research journey,
starting at the beginning and going through to its finale when, hopefully, you will
contemplate a job well done. Expect to find invaluable help on writing your research
proposal, presenting your literature review, and interweaving quantitative and qualitative
methodologies. These include narrative techniques, documentary evidence, action
research and creative introspection.
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The authors skilfully de-mystify the philosophical and theoretical nuts and bolts of social
research. Their confident and concise survey takes us from logical positivism to
postmodernity. That includes crisp paragraphs on, for example: the differences between
constructivism and constructionism, the key issues in feminist methodology, critical race
theory and emancipatory research, and the ethical issues at stake in conducting and
writing up your research.
As you approach your research project’s finishing line you can turn to Social Research
Methodology and Methods for helpful insights on how to get published. After all, you
want to put your hard-won knowledge before the eyes of the world. Especially your
colleagues, potential employers, and those whose practise you may want to influence.
To sum up, this guide is excellent. It is beautifully signposted. You won’t get lost inside
its pages. In fact, there is no need to swallow it whole at one gulp. Quite the opposite.
Start anywhere and it still makes perfect sense. Consult it with confidence for specific
pragmatic tips and insights whenever the need arises. You will be in good hands. Enjoy.
Professor Dennis Smith
Emeritus Professor of Sociology
Loughborough University
UK
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Preface
The reader might justifiably ask the question: ‘Why another research methods book?’
The answer is simple. Since the publication of the National Strategy for Higher Education
to 2030 (Department of Education and Skills, 2011), Irish Higher Education Institutions
(HEI) are encouraged to increase the capacity for research. Students may be required to
conduct research at undergraduate and postgraduate level in order to achieve the vision
of higher education in Ireland, which puts research at the heart of learning and teaching.
Therefore, students need a book to understand the basic principles underpinning
research methodology and methods. We have worked as independent researchers, on
funded research projects, as well as being research consultants. Having taught research
methods, supervised and mentored numerous students over three decades, we are
aware of the pitfalls and challenges in conducting research. Our students have taught us
so much and we, in turn, learnt from our mistakes and theirs. We encouraged our
students to publish from their research. The purpose of this book is to provide a free
educational resource for all students. It is our way of giving something back to the
educational community.
This book is unique in that it is illustrated with concrete examples of research from the
Irish context. Although our target audience are those doing academic courses, we hope
that it will also empower non-academic researchers in the community. It is the
culmination of our experience of carrying out, teaching, and assessing research
dissertations over our careers. The compulsory nature of research can make it a drudge
and can turn students off the research process. Our intention is to transform the research
journey into an exciting experience. We have found that students learn best when they
grasp the fundamental principles and, once mastered, can build on them to carry out
more sophisticated research. The term ‘emerging researchers’ is used because
academic conferences usually have a section for first time or early career researchers.
Each chapter includes exercises, but readers should only do the ones they might find
helpful. At the time of publication all hyperlinks work, but with time may not. Some of this
book is written from our lecture notes, thus if we have accidentally plagiarised or missed
a reference, please contact us: [email protected]. We welcome and
encourage your feedback. This book was written during the COVID-19 pandemic in
2020-2021. The government lockdown and ensuing restrictions ensured that we were
able to devote time to it. We offer our deepest sympathy to those whose relatives died
during this period and whose lives were adversely affected.
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Contents
Declaration ....................................................................................................................... i
About the Authors .......................................................................................................... ii
Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... iii
Foreword ......................................................................................................................... iv
Preface ............................................................................................................................ vi
Contents ........................................................................................................................ vii
List of Tables and Figures ........................................................................................ xviii
Acronyms ..................................................................................................................... xxi
Chapter 1. Introduction .................................................................................................. 1
Intended Learning Outcomes ........................................................................................ 1How Does This Book Work? ......................................................................................... 1Why Learning Outcomes? ............................................................................................. 2What is Academic Social Scientific Research? ............................................................. 3Research and Policy in Ireland ..................................................................................... 5On Being a Good (Enough) Researcher ....................................................................... 6Academic Writing ........................................................................................................ 11Structure of this Book .................................................................................................. 15Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 15Key Messages ............................................................................................................. 16
Chapter 2. Philosophical and Theoretical Foundations of Social Research ........... 18
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 18Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................................... 18Paradigms, Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology .................................................... 19Logical Positivism ........................................................................................................ 20Interpretivism ............................................................................................................... 22
a) Phenomenology .............................................................................................. 24b) Symbolic Interactionism .................................................................................. 25c) Constructivism ................................................................................................. 28d) Constructionism ............................................................................................... 28e) Ethnomethodology .......................................................................................... 30
Pragmatism ................................................................................................................. 31Critical Theorists ......................................................................................................... 33
a) Feminist Theory and Methodology .................................................................. 34b) Critical Race Theory ........................................................................................ 40
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c) Emancipatory Research .................................................................................. 42d) Disability Theory .............................................................................................. 43e) Post-modernism .............................................................................................. 45
Foucault’s Methods ..................................................................................................... 47Bauman and Postmodernity ........................................................................................ 49Summing it up ............................................................................................................. 49Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 51Key Messages ............................................................................................................. 52Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 54
Chapter 3. Ethics ........................................................................................................... 55
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 55Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................................... 55The importance of Ethics in Conducting Research ..................................................... 55Examples of Unethical Research ................................................................................ 56Ethical Principles and Application to Research ........................................................... 57
Respect ................................................................................................................... 57Beneficence ............................................................................................................ 58Justice ..................................................................................................................... 58Informed Consent .................................................................................................... 58Assessment of Risks and Benefits .......................................................................... 59Selection of Subjects ............................................................................................... 59
Professional Ethical Guidelines and Codes ................................................................ 59Power Relationship between Researcher and Researched ........................................ 60Ethics in Research with Children ................................................................................ 60Research with Animals ................................................................................................ 62Is Deception ever Justified? ........................................................................................ 63Integrity of Research ................................................................................................... 64Ethical Considerations at all Stages of Research Process ......................................... 65
Choice of Topic ....................................................................................................... 65Sampling ................................................................................................................. 65Field Work and Data Gathering ............................................................................... 66Quantitative Data Collection .................................................................................... 66Ethics and Observation ........................................................................................... 68Interviews and Focus Groups ................................................................................. 69Analysis and Reporting of Findings ......................................................................... 73
Plagiarism ................................................................................................................... 73Collusion and Multiple Authors .................................................................................... 75
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Data Storage and Use ................................................................................................. 76After Submission and Examination ............................................................................. 76Research Ethics Forms ............................................................................................... 77Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 79Key Messages ............................................................................................................. 80Exercises ..................................................................................................................... 81
Chapter 4. Research Proposal ..................................................................................... 82
Introduction ................................................................................................................. 82Learning Outcomes ..................................................................................................... 82Choosing a Researchable Topic ................................................................................. 83Structure of Research Proposal .................................................................................. 85Resources ................................................................................................................... 86Working Title ............................................................................................................... 88Research Proposal Process: Introduction, Aim and Objectives .................................. 88Preliminary Review of the Literature ........................................................................... 90Research Question ..................................................................................................... 90Methodologies and Methods ....................................................................................... 92Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................ 93Outcomes .................................................................................................................... 94Research Proposal Exemplars .................................................................................... 94Assessment of Research Proposal ............................................................................. 99Conclusion .................................................................................................................. 99Key Messages ........................................................................................................... 100Exercises ................................................................................................................... 101Further Reading ........................................................................................................ 101
Chapter 5. Literature Review ..................................................................................... 102
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 102Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................... 102What is a Literature Review? Purpose and Definition ............................................... 103Searching for Relevant Literature ............................................................................. 104Reading Skills ........................................................................................................... 108Critical Reading ......................................................................................................... 111Organising the Literature Review .............................................................................. 112Developing a Theoretical Framework ....................................................................... 114Articulating a Research Question .............................................................................. 115Meta-Analysis, Systematic Review, Integrative Review ............................................ 118Meta-Analysis ............................................................................................................ 118
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Systematic Reviews .................................................................................................. 119Integrative Reviews ................................................................................................... 120
IR Problem Formulation ........................................................................................ 123IR Literature Search .............................................................................................. 124IR Data Evaluation ................................................................................................ 125IR Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 125IR Presentation Stage: Discussion, Conclusion .................................................... 126
Common Mistakes in Literature Reviews .................................................................. 127Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 129Key Messages ........................................................................................................... 130Exercises ................................................................................................................... 131Further Reading ........................................................................................................ 132
Chapter 6. Quantitative Methodology and Methods ................................................ 133
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 133Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................... 133Key Tenets of Quantitative Research Methodology .................................................. 134
(1) Paradigms ........................................................................................................ 134(2) Intentions ......................................................................................................... 134(3) Data and Research Design .............................................................................. 135(4) Setting .............................................................................................................. 135(5) Theory .............................................................................................................. 136(6) Hypothesis testing ........................................................................................... 137(7) Research Instruments ...................................................................................... 138(8) Prediction ......................................................................................................... 139(9) Inference .......................................................................................................... 139(10) Relationship between Researcher and Researched ..................................... 140
Survey Research ....................................................................................................... 140Advantages of Surveys ......................................................................................... 141Disadvantages of Surveys .................................................................................... 142
Sampling in Quantitative Research ........................................................................... 143(a) Probability Samples and Simple Random Sample Techniques ....................... 143Sample Size for a Representative Survey ............................................................ 144Stratified Random Sampling ................................................................................. 146(b) Non-probability Samples .................................................................................. 147
Creating a Questionnaire .......................................................................................... 148Question Design ........................................................................................................ 152
(i) Closed ended or forced choice questions ......................................................... 152
xi
(ii) Questions with Categories ............................................................................... 152(iii) Open-ended Questions ................................................................................... 152(iv) Filter Questions ............................................................................................... 153(v) Questions Using Likert Scales ......................................................................... 153(vi) Rank Order Questions .................................................................................... 154(vii) Semantic Differential Formats ........................................................................ 154
Appearance and Layout of a Questionnaire .............................................................. 154Pilot Study ................................................................................................................. 156Administering the Questionnaire ............................................................................... 156Coding Questionnaires .............................................................................................. 156Statistical Analysis ................................................................................................... 163
Frequency Tables ................................................................................................. 163Measures of Central Tendency ............................................................................. 163Nominal Data ........................................................................................................ 164Ordinal Data .......................................................................................................... 164Interval and Ratio Data ......................................................................................... 165Mode ..................................................................................................................... 165Median .................................................................................................................. 166Mean ..................................................................................................................... 166
Measures of Dispersion ............................................................................................ 166Variation Ratio ....................................................................................................... 167Range .................................................................................................................... 167Standard Deviation ................................................................................................ 167Dependent and Independent Variables ................................................................. 168Bivariate Analysis .................................................................................................. 168Chi-Square ............................................................................................................ 168
Graphical Representation ......................................................................................... 170Online Survey Tools .............................................................................................. 175
Determining the Robustness of Research ................................................................ 176(a) Objectivity ........................................................................................................ 176(b) Validity ............................................................................................................. 178(c) Reliability .......................................................................................................... 178(d) Generalisability ................................................................................................ 179
Examples of Large-scale Research in Ireland .......................................................... 179Student Research ................................................................................................. 180Use of Experiments in Education .......................................................................... 181Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 183
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Key Messages ....................................................................................................... 184Exercises ............................................................................................................... 186
Further Reading ........................................................................................................ 187Chapter 7. Qualitative Methodology and Methods .................................................. 189
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 189Learning outcomes .................................................................................................... 189Qualitative Methodology Paradigm ........................................................................... 189Role of Theory in Qualitative Research .................................................................... 191Ethnography .............................................................................................................. 195Participant Observation ............................................................................................. 195Conducting Research Based on Observation ........................................................... 197Examples of Irish Ethnographies .............................................................................. 200Designing a Researchable Question ......................................................................... 201Designing a Research Instrument ............................................................................. 202Pilot Study ................................................................................................................. 203Qualitative Research Samples .................................................................................. 204Gaining Access ......................................................................................................... 205
Venue .................................................................................................................... 206Presentation of Self ............................................................................................... 206
Interviewing Techniques – Probes and Prompts ....................................................... 207Probes ................................................................................................................... 208Prompts ................................................................................................................. 209
The Course of the Interview ...................................................................................... 210Learning How to Conduct an In-depth Interview ....................................................... 210Feminist Interviewing ................................................................................................ 211Example of the Use of In-depth Interviews in an Educational Context ..................... 212Phenomenological Research .................................................................................... 213Focus Group Research – Background and Method .................................................. 216
Focus Group Method ............................................................................................ 218Advantages of Focus Group Research ................................................................. 221
Disadvantages of Focus Groups ............................................................................... 221Examples of Focus Groups in Educational Research ........................................... 222
Management and Analysis of Qualitative Data ......................................................... 223Immersion in the Data ............................................................................................... 224Generating Categories and Themes ......................................................................... 224Data Reduction and Coding ...................................................................................... 225Interpreting the Data ................................................................................................. 227
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Using Electronic Software Packages to Analyse Qualitative Data ............................ 228Ensuring the Robustness of Qualitative Research .................................................... 228
Validity ................................................................................................................... 229Criteria for Good Quality Qualitative Research ..................................................... 231
Critical Reflective Journal .......................................................................................... 232Reflexivity .................................................................................................................. 233Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 235Key Messages ........................................................................................................... 236Exercises ................................................................................................................... 237
Chapter 8. Narrative Research ................................................................................... 238
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 238Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................... 238Defining Narrative ..................................................................................................... 238Narrative Inquiry/Research ....................................................................................... 239
Place, Time, Social Situation, Biography .............................................................. 240Narrative Research Paradigms ................................................................................. 241Conducting Narrative Research ................................................................................ 243
Ethics in Narrative Research ................................................................................. 244Ensuring the Robustness of Narrative Research ...................................................... 245Narrative Analysis ..................................................................................................... 246
Thematic Analysis ................................................................................................. 246Structural Analysis ................................................................................................ 248Dialogic/Performance Analysis ............................................................................. 248Visual Analysis ...................................................................................................... 248Conversation Analysis and Discourse Analysis .................................................... 249Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis ............................................................ 249
Statistical Analysis .................................................................................................... 250Advantages and Disadvantages of Narrative Research ....................................... 250
Examples of Narrative Research .............................................................................. 251Longitudinal Narrative Study ................................................................................. 251Co-constructing Narratives .................................................................................... 252Narrative Ethnography .......................................................................................... 253Using Narrative Research in Mixed Methods Research ....................................... 254
Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 255Key Messages ........................................................................................................... 257Exercises ................................................................................................................... 258Useful Resources ...................................................................................................... 258
xiv
Chapter 9. Mixed Methods ......................................................................................... 259
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 259Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................... 259Definition of Mixed Methods ...................................................................................... 260Research Paradigm .................................................................................................. 260Advantages and Disadvantages of Mixed Methods Research .................................. 262Disadvantages of Mixed Methods Research ............................................................. 263Mixed Methods Research used by Feminist Researchers ........................................ 263How to design a Mixed Methods study ..................................................................... 264Longitudinal Research .............................................................................................. 265Growing Up in Ireland ............................................................................................... 266Equality and Power in Schools .................................................................................. 266Examples of Small-Scale Research .......................................................................... 267
a) Student Research .......................................................................................... 267b) Student Research .......................................................................................... 268
The Case Study ........................................................................................................ 269Robustness of the Case Study .............................................................................. 270Recommendations from a Case Study ................................................................. 271
Evaluation Research ................................................................................................. 271Critical Transformative Evaluation ........................................................................ 272
Case Studies in Evaluation Research ....................................................................... 274Examples of Small-Scale Evaluations ....................................................................... 274Evaluation of Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools (DEIS) .......................... 276Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 277Key Messages ........................................................................................................... 278
Chapter 10. Documentary Research ........................................................................ 280
Introduction ........................................................................................................... 280Learning outcomes .................................................................................................... 280What is Documentary Research? ............................................................................. 280
Documentary Research Paradigm ........................................................................ 281Documentary Research used by Sociologists ....................................................... 282Definition and Sources of Documents ................................................................... 283Documentary Research is not a Literature Review ............................................... 285
Archival/Historical Documentary Research ............................................................... 285Historical Dimension of Sociological Analysis ....................................................... 286
Comparative Historical Documentary Research on Wills .......................................... 289Assessing the Trustworthiness of Documents .......................................................... 295
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1) Authenticity .................................................................................................... 2952) Credibility ....................................................................................................... 2963) Representativeness ....................................................................................... 2974) Meaning ......................................................................................................... 297
Conducting Analysis on Documents ......................................................................... 298Content Analysis ................................................................................................... 299
YouTube Videos as Documents ................................................................................ 301Händel’s ‘Messiah’ .................................................................................................... 303Use of Essays in Educational Research ................................................................... 306
Potentialities of Documentary Research ............................................................... 307Limitations of Documentary Research .................................................................. 308
Overview: How to Conduct Documentary Research ................................................. 309Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 310Key Messages ........................................................................................................... 311Exercises ................................................................................................................... 312
Further Reading .................................................................................................... 312Chapter 11. Action Research, Participatory Action Research and Self-study
Research ...................................................................................................................... 313
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 313Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................... 314Action Research History ............................................................................................ 314Action Research Paradigm ....................................................................................... 315
1) Equal rights to speech ................................................................................... 3162) The Reflective Self ........................................................................................ 3163) Power ............................................................................................................ 3174) Values ........................................................................................................... 3175) Praxis ............................................................................................................ 318
Action Research Cycle and Process ......................................................................... 319Student Action Research in an Education Setting .................................................... 321Community Action Research ..................................................................................... 323Participatory Action Research – Theoretical Foundations and Influences ................ 324
Community-based Service Learning ..................................................................... 325Participatory Image Based Research with Traveller Children ............................... 327
Self-Study Research ................................................................................................. 328Student Self-Study research in the Irish Primary School .......................................... 329Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 330Key Messages ........................................................................................................... 332
xvi
Exercises ................................................................................................................... 333Resources Action Research .................................................................................. 334Self-Study Research ............................................................................................. 334
Chapter 12. Writing up the Research Dissertation .................................................. 335
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 335Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................... 335Structure of Dissertation ............................................................................................ 335
Abstract ................................................................................................................. 338Acronyms .............................................................................................................. 339Introduction ........................................................................................................... 339Findings or Results Chapter .................................................................................. 339Discussion ............................................................................................................. 339Conclusions and Recommendations ..................................................................... 340
Marks Awarded for Academic Writing ....................................................................... 341Common Mistakes .................................................................................................... 343Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 344Key Messages ........................................................................................................... 345Exercises ................................................................................................................... 346
Chapter 13. Publishing Your Research ..................................................................... 347
Introduction ............................................................................................................... 347Learning Outcomes ................................................................................................... 347Getting Started .......................................................................................................... 348Writing for Publication ............................................................................................... 348Outlets for Writing ..................................................................................................... 349Essays ....................................................................................................................... 349Letter to a Newspaper ............................................................................................... 350Book Review ............................................................................................................. 350Conference Poster .................................................................................................... 350Conference Paper ..................................................................................................... 351Peer-reviewed Journal Article ................................................................................... 352Feedback from Peer-reviewers ................................................................................. 354
Whose Name Goes First? ..................................................................................... 355Academic Book ......................................................................................................... 356Edited Books ............................................................................................................. 356A Report .................................................................................................................... 357Open Access Journals .............................................................................................. 357Social Media .............................................................................................................. 359
xvii
Self-Publishing .......................................................................................................... 360Marjorie’s Experience of the Process of Publishing .................................................. 362Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 363Key Messages ........................................................................................................... 364Exercises ................................................................................................................... 365Further Reading ........................................................................................................ 368
Concluding Remarks .................................................................................................. 369
References ................................................................................................................... 370
Appendix 1. Research Ethics Form ........................................................................... 400
Appendix 2. Descriptive Question Matrix (Spradley, 1980, pp. 82-83) ................... 404
Appendix 3. Poster Presentations ............................................................................. 407
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List of Tables and Figures
Table 1. BSA Guidelines on Politically Correct Language ............................................... 13
Table 2. British English and American English used in Published Research .................. 14
Table 3. A Pragmatic Alternative to the Key Issues in Social Science Research Methodology (Morgan, 2007, p. 71) ................................................................................. 33
Table 4. Timeline of the Feminist Movement (Leavy and Harris, 2019, p. 21) ................ 36
Table 5. Two models of disability (adapted from Oliver, 1991, cited in Barnes et al., 2010, p. 165) .............................................................................................................................. 44
Table 6. Paradigms: positivism, interpretivism, pragmatism, critical theorists (Thomas, 2013, p. 111, loosely adapted from Oakley, 2000) .......................................................... 50
Table 7. Timetable for Completion of Research .............................................................. 87
Table 8. In Depth Reading Using Day’s (2013, p. 16) SP3R model .............................. 109
Table 9. SP3R Model ..................................................................................................... 110
Table 10. Differences between the Three Common Review Types (Toronto, 2020, p. 3). ....................................................................................................................................... 122
Table 11. Data Analysis IR (Dwyer, 2020, p. 58) ........................................................... 126
Table 12. Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Research viz Theory
....................................................................................................................................... 137
Table 13. A Table of Random Numbers (de Vaus, 1996, p. 63) .................................... 144
Table 14. Table for determining sample size from a given population (annotated) (Sarantakos (1993, p. 149) ............................................................................................ 146
Table 15. Sample Questionnaire ................................................................................... 159
Table 16. Coding Guide ................................................................................................. 160
Table 17. Procedures and Canons of Grounded Theory ............................................... 194
Table 18. Fieldnotes (Marshall & Rossman, 2006, p. 100) ........................................... 199
Table 19. Phases of thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006, p. 87): ...................... 227
Table 20. Criteria for Ensuring the Validity of Qualitative Research .............................. 229
Table 21. Advantages of Mixed Methods Research (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 54). ............ 262
Table 22. Pedagogy of Evaluation (Patton, 2017) ......................................................... 273
Table 23. A Classification of Documents (Scott, 1990, p. 14, Annotated) ..................... 283
Table 24. Brief History of Content Analysis (Neuendorf, 2017, Krippendorf, 2012) ....... 300
Table 25. Key contexts for the generation of inequality and means of redress for selected social groups (Lodge and Lynch, 2000, p. 185, * some, ** major significance) ............. 307
Table 26. Action Research Process and Cycle .............................................................. 320
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Table 27. Structure of Dissertation ................................................................................ 336
Table 28. Key Words and Phrases (Thomas, 2013, p. 274) .......................................... 343
xx
Figure 1. Cover Letter Example ....................................................................................... 67Figure 2. Research information sheet and Consent Form ............................................... 70Figure 3. Questions for Ethics Review Form ................................................................... 78Figure 4 The Logic of Research Proposals ...................................................................... 85Figure 5. The Process of Deduction Bryman ................................................................. 138Figure 6. Bell Curve ...................................................................................................... 145Figure 7. Qualitative Process ........................................................................................ 193Figure 8. Narrative Arc: Slimming as a Quest for a Better Body .................................... 254Figure 9. Action Research Cycle ................................................................................... 321Figure 10. Action Research Cycle ................................................................................. 324Figure 11. Abstract Exemplar ........................................................................................ 338
xxi
Acronyms
ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder
AIDS Acquired immunodeficiency Virus
AJE American Journal of Evaluation
AJE American Journal of Evaluation
APA American Psychiatric Association
APA American Psychological Association
AR Action Research
ASD Autism Spectrum Disorder
BERA British Education Research Association
BSA British Sociological Association
CAPI Computer Assisted Personal Interviews
CARN Collaborative Action Research Network
CBSL Community Based Service Learning
CEMC Curriculum Evaluation and Management Centre
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CINAHL Cumulated Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature
CLSI Centre for Longitudinal studies in Ireland
cOALITIONs International Coalition of research foundations
C o P Community of Practice
Covid 19 Corona Virus 19
CPD Continuing Professional Development
CSL Children’s School Lives
CRT Critical Race Theory
CSL Children’s School Lives
CSO Central Statistics Office
xxii
CTN Centre for Transformative Narrative
DA Discourse Analysis
DART Dublin Area Rapid Transit
DPA Data Protection Acts
DCU Dublin City University
DEIS Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools
DES Department of Education and Science (1997-2010)
DES Department of Education and Skills (2010-present)
CEO Chief Executive Officer
CINAHL Cumulated Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature
CIS Carcinoma in situ
CLSI Centre for Longitudinal studies in Ireland
C o P Community of Practice
Covid 19 Corona Virus 19
CPD Continuing Professional Development
CSL Children’s School Lives
CRT Critical Race Theory
CSO Central Statistics Office
DEIS Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools
DES Department of Education and Science (1997-2010)
DES Department of Education and Skills (2010-present)
DA Discursive Analysis
DART Dublin Area Rapid Transit
DYCA Department of Youth and Community Affairs
EA Education Act
EAL English as an Additional Language
EBSCO Elton B. Stephens Company
EPSEN ACT Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs
xxiii
EU European Union
FLAC Free Legal Advice Centres
FR Feminist Research
GAA Gaelic Athletic Association
GDPR General Data Protection Regulation
GUI Growing up in Ireland
HDIP Higher Diploma
HECA Higher Education Colleges Association
HEI Higher Education Institution
HIV Human Immunodeficiency Virus
HSE Health Service Executive
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
ICPPD International College for Personal and Professional Development
ICT Information Communication Technology
ICU Intensive Care Unit
IDS Instruction Digital Stories
IEP Individual Education Plan
IMPACT UK Involvement of parents in the mathematical education of their children
IPA Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
IPS Irish Primary School
IQ Intelligence Quotient
IR Integrative Review
IRS Internal Revenue Service
ISBN International Standard Book Number
ISSP International Social Survey Programme
IUA Irish Universities Association
MATL Master of Arts in Teaching and Learning
xxiv
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MLOs Module Learning Outcomes
NAA National Archives Act
NAAR National Archives Act Regulations
NACD National Advisory Committee on Drugs
NACDA National Advisory Committee on Drugs and Alcohol
NCCA National Council for Curriculum and Assessment
NCSE National Council Special Education
NCTM National Council of Teacher Mathematics
NDS National Drug Strategy
NFETL National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning in Higher Education
NPSERI National Policy Statement on Ensuring Integrity in Ireland
NPHET National Public Health Emergency Team
NI Narrative Inquiry
NR Narrative Research
NSHE National Strategy for Higher Education to 2030 also known as the Hunt Report
OAJ Open Access Journal
OECD Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development
p page
pp pages
PAR Participatory Action Research
PDF Portable Document Format
PhD Doctorate of Philosophy
PICO Patient Invention Comparison Outcome
PLOS Programme Learning Outcomes
PME Professional Master in Education
PO Participant Observation
xxv
PRISMA Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses
QQI Quality and Qualifications Ireland
QSR NVivo Software Program for qualitative and mixed-methods research
REA Religion Education and the Arts
SAI Sociological Association of Ireland
SEN Special Education Needs
SP3R Survey, Purpose, Read once, Read again and Review
SPSS Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
STEM Science Technology Engineering and Mathematics
SSR Self-Study Research
S-STEP Self-Study of Teacher Education Practices
T&F Taylor and Francis
TBI Traumatic Brain Injury
TC Teaching Council
TCD Trinity College Dublin
TILDA The Irish Longitudinal Study of Ageing
TLC Teaching and Learning Committee
TPACK Technology, Pedagogy and Content Knowledge
UCD University College Dublin
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UPIAS Union of the Physically Impaired against Segregation
URL Uniform Resource Locator
US United States
USA United States of America
WHO World Health Organization
1
Chapter 1. Introduction
Does the thought of doing research terrify you? Does it strike fear in your heart? If it
does, we would like these feelings to be replaced by feelings of excitement and
enthusiasm. This book is designed to provide the emerging researcher/student and
her/his supervisor with the basic knowledge, skills, and competencies for completing
research for an undergraduate or post-graduate research dissertation. Research was
once the domain of a small number of elite professionals (Denscombe, 2019), but, in
most colleges today, students are required to undertake research as part of the
assessment of an undergraduate or postgraduate degree. This could be a literature
review leading to research questions, a minor dissertation of 5,000 to 15, 000 words, or a
longer dissertation of 25,000. The length of time may also vary, anything from six months
to two years. However, regardless of the length of the dissertation, all research needs to
comply with fundamental principles or, indeed, needs to include certain ingredients.
During the lockdown, many people took up baking, so we argue that doing research is
analogous with baking a cake, in that the student will end up with a product they can feel
proud of and which they can share with family and friends. In this book, we will tease out
the essential ingredients of social scientific research.
Intended Learning Outcomes
On completion of this book, the successful learner will:
1. Discuss and debate the centrality of academic writing in the research process
and in the presentation of your research.
2. Possess the knowledge to write a critical literature review and develop a research
question.
3. Develop the skills to conduct academic research, utilising a variety of methods.
4. Draw from key theories to competently design and manage a research project.
5. Critically engage in debates regarding research paradigms.
6. Have the skills to strive toward publication, with the view to publishing a journal
article from their dissertation, specifically.
How Does This Book Work?
This book provides the new researcher with a set of intellectual tools and skills. Each
chapter is designed to encourage active self-directed learning. It involves reading a
2
narrative script, and then doing selected exercises based on investigating websites,
exploring readings to encourage deeper thinking, as well as understanding and applying
the learning to actual issues in your research project. It is not designed to be read in a
linear manner; instead, the emerging researcher should read the key messages at the
end of each chapter, do some exercises, and then read some or all of the chapter.
Alternatively, students could begin with the research proposal chapter, because this is
usually the first step of the dissertation. Although it is very easy to get lost in a labyrinth
of literature, we provide a path out of the maze by using simple concrete examples of
student research. In relation to the title of this book, we wish to point out that
methodology is the philosophical theory that underpins the method (the why), with the
method being the practical set of tools to conduct data gathering (the how). These issues
are teased out in the next chapter.
Why Learning Outcomes?
We have designed each chapter to address a set of learning outcomes or intentions
based on the knowledge, skills, and competencies that a successful learner will achieve,
having completed the chapter (Whitaker, 2017). In Ireland, higher education has been
transformed, modernised, and democratised in recent decades by European and
national policies. The European Higher Education Area and the Bologna Process
ascertain frameworks for national qualifications, which define learning outcomes for
degree programmes and delineate what learners should know, understand, and be able
to do on the basis of their qualification. In Ireland, the National Framework of
Qualifications, the National Professional Development Framework for All Staff Who
Teach in Higher Education and Quality and Qualifications Ireland all seek to create
learner centred modules and programmes in which students can become independent
self-directed learners and critical thinkers (Whitaker, 2017). Modules and programmes
are created in such a way that knowledge, skills, and competencies are addressed and
assessed in terms of learning outcomes. Although our academic background is
sociology, which was the original social science, this research book will be helpful, not
only for sociology students, but students in other cognate disciplines (education,
communications, political science, public administration, psychology, psychotherapy,
social justice, social work, social policy, history, etc.). Thus, although this book is written
from a sociological perspective, we have endeavoured to include insights from other
academic disciplines.
3
What is Academic Social Scientific Research?
In a sense, everybody conducts research. For example, a person may wish to go to
abroad on a holiday and may consult guidebooks and ask friends for advice,
regarding places to see and to compare and contrast the cost of flights and
accommodation. However, the term academic or social scientific research has a
specific meaning, which draws on philosophical paradigms and uses recognised
methods of data collection.
Social scientific research is ‘organized, systematic and logical process of inquiry,
using empirical information to address questions (or test hypotheses)’ (Hughes, 2009,
p. 10). Pring (2010, cited in Stenhouse, 1975, p. 56) suggests that ‘research is used
to refer to any systematic, critical and self-critical enquiry which aims to contribute to
the advancement of knowledge’. The importance of research in building knowledge is
emphasised in many research methods texts books. For example, Thomas (2013, p.
6) argues that research will:
• Aim to find new knowledge,
• Be thorough,
• Be balanced,
• Be fair,
• Be ethical.
Early sociologists, such as Karl Marx, Max Weber, Emile Durkheim, and C. Wright Mills,
sought to understand and improve society, therefore research is, not simply about
gathering knowledge, but using it to benefit people’s lives. Our background is in
sociology. We spent many years studying the original works of the founders and major
theorists of sociology. We were taught that sociology is the scientific study of society.
Giddens (2006, p. 1134) defines sociology as ‘The study of human groups and
societies… sociology is one of a group of social sciences …’. Research methodology
and methods are inextricably bound up with sociological thought. It is recommended that
non-sociology students investigate introductory sociological textbooks.
Punch (2009, p. 2) suggests that empirical research involves the collection of data by
obtaining ‘direct, observable information from the world’ to try to answer the research
question. Dawson (2009, p. ix) defines research as ‘the deliberate study of other
people for the purposes of increasing understanding and/or adding to knowledge’.
4
Research is also about a search for the truth of a situation (Hammersley, 2012;
Patton, 1987; Silverman, 2005). Having reviewed a number of definitions, Sarantakos
(2013, p. 1) suggests that the aims of research are diverse and pluralistic. The
purpose of social research is to:
a) Explore social reality for its own sake in order to make further research possible
Explain social life by providing reliable, valid, and well-documented information.
Evaluate the status of social issues and their effects on society.
Facilitate predictions.
Develop and/or test theories.
b) Understand human behaviour and action.
c) Offer a basis for a critique of social reality.
Emancipate people.
Suggest possible solutions to social problems.
Empower and liberate people.
Recent government policies have emphasised the significance of research. The
National Strategy for Higher Education to 2030 (Department of Education and Skills,
2011) urges Higher Education Institutions to increase the capacity for research, invest
in research and development, and provide clear career paths for researchers.
Researchers should have the opportunity to teach, and teaching should be informed
by research. Quality and Qualifications Ireland (QQI) published Ireland’s Framework
of Good Practice for Research Degree Progammes (QQI, 2017) that governs doctoral
research. It provides a good definition of research:
Research is a process to discover new knowledge, through systematic investigation. Through research, hypotheses are investigated, facts are established, or new interpretations of data of texts suggested. It is a process of gathering and analysing information, designed to contribute to knowledge, increase or revise knowledge.
Research accommodates the range of activities that support original and innovative work in a society of academic, professional and technological fields including traditional and performing arts. As such, research can be discipline or practice based but is understood to involve the integration of rigour, reflection and critique (QQI, 2017, p. 11)
Putting all these definitions together, we suggest that research is:
5
An ethical and rigorous process of enquiry, which draws on a robust critical review of literature and uses appropriate methods to gather empirical data to address research questions (or test hypotheses) which aim to advance knowledge and understanding of the issue being researched and conducted by a reflective and reflexive researcher.
Good quality academic research is particularly important in this age of social media,
where so much mis-information, propaganda, and conspiracy theories abound on
social media platforms (Douglas, Sutton and Cichocka, 2017). Therefore, it is
important to ensure that the source of information is reliable, evidence-based, and
factual rather than individual thought and hearsay.
The reality for students is that they need to undertake research within a time frame to
fulfil an academic requirement, which will ultimately be assessed based on criteria set
out by a college in order to attain the minimum learning outcomes of the module
(and/or academic programme). Blaxter, Hughes and Tight (2001, p. 15) argue that
research should not be as much about 'finding the truth' as exhibiting 'rigour,
reliability, professionalism, and honesty'. A student’s research project should be good
enough to pass the scrutiny of other academics. These issues will be explored in the
following chapters.
Research is also conducted for political or administrative purposes. The census of
population is a forerunner of the survey. The New Testament opens with Mary and
Joseph travelling to Bethlehem to be enumerated in the census (Ackroyd and Hughes,
1981). The census was often used by a dominating power or a central administration to
extract taxes (Ackroyd and Hughes, 1981).
Research and Policy in Ireland
Research in Ireland has a long history dating to 16th century. As part of its project to
include Ireland in a commonwealth, the English Government wished to enlarge its
administration over Ireland while converting Irish Catholics to the Protestant religion
(Lydon, 1998). Under a royal decree in 1534, all lands in Ireland were to be surrendered
to the crown, these confiscated lands were then to be returned to the Irish, as long as
they swore an oath of allegiance to the king (Prendergast, 1997). This resulted in many
revolts and rebellions. General Oliver Cromwell, with an army of professional soldiers
(34,000), was sent to Ireland in 1649 to crush the rebellions and to confiscate over two
and a half million acres so that he could pay his army and those in England who had
provided the money for his incursion in Ireland (Prendergast, 1997). During Cromwell’s
6
reign of terror, 616,000 Irish people (almost all Catholics) were killed; most Catholic
landowners were forced to leave their estates or to migrate across the Shannon into
Clare and Connacht (Lydon, 1998). At the outbreak of the rebellion, the majority (59%) of
land was in Catholic hands, but by 1660 this had dropped to 22%. A Government
Commission was set up in 1653 to value and distribute the repossessed lands.
Through a competitive process, William Petty was chosen to survey Ireland, who,
although only thirty-one years old, devised a most ingenious and efficient method of
surveying the land (Lydon, 1998) (Prendergast, 1997). His method consisted of using a
linked chain with brass ends for measurement; eighty chains equalled one mile
(Prendergast, 1997). The work was carried out by a thousand unemployed soldiers who
were repaid with confiscated land rather than money. The research only took thirteen
months to complete and resulted in the publication of the Down Survey, so called
because Petty wished to get the information down on paper. William Petty also
produced the first map of Ireland (including thirty-six maps) which can still be seen today
in Ardgillan Demesne in north county Dublin (Prendergast, 1997). This example
illustrates the political nature of research.
The relationship between research and policy is evident in the Irish government’s
response to the novel coronavirus, COVID-19. The World Health Organization declared
a pandemic on the 12th March 2020 (Ciotti et al., 2020). In response, the Department of
Health set up the National Public Health Emergency Team (NPHET) to oversee the
process of managing the virus. Drawing on its expert advisory group, it provides advice
to the government based on national and international research and evidence (Ireland,
2020). Data is collected each day on the numbers of people who have contracted the
virus, the numbers hospitalised, those in intensive care units (ICU), and those who have
died from the virus. These daily statistics enable the Irish government to plan and make
policies related to public health and, in the absence of a vaccine, to help disrupt and stop
the spread of the virus so that the health care services do not become overwhelmed and
are equipped to deal with demand. This research also helps in the planning and
administration of the vaccine.
On Being a Good (Enough) Researcher
The research dissertation is the one opportunity that students have to select a topic of
their choice and to choose their own readings. All other modules have prescribed
curricula. Therefore, students should choose a research topic that will sustain them
7
throughout the research journey (we provide ideas about choosing a topic in the chapter
on the research proposal). At job interviews, it is not uncommon to be asked the
question: ‘Tell me about your research’. We recognise that students today can often be
overburdened with work (not only academic, but also working to fund their education)
and domestic commitments, so it may be sufficient to undertake a research project that
is good enough to meet the minimum learning outcomes of the module. Students can
only do their best with whatever time and resources they have. Based on our experience,
we believe it is possible for even the weakest student to do ‘good enough’ research, but
they also need some personal attributes or characteristics. Remember! Your research
matters! The following includes some of the qualities and characteristics required to be a
good (enough) researcher. This is our collective wisdom gleaned over three decades:
1. Curiosity: the early researchers like Charles Darwin were driven by curiosity
(Donahue Wylie, 2018). What is stimulating your curiosity?
2. Passion: Max Weber believed that researchers required three important
characteristics: passion, inspiration, and hard work.
Without this strange intoxication, ridiculed by every outsider; without this passion … you have no calling for science and you should do something else. For nothing is worthy of man as man unless he can pursue it with passionate devotion (Weber, 1946, p. 135, cited in Donahue Wylie, 2018, p. 263).
Enthusiasm, excitement, and motivation can help you through the dark days. You
have often heard Marc Anthony’s maxim: ‘If you do what you love you’ll never
work a day in your life’. Love your research and enjoy the time doing it.
3. Preparation: Good preparation is the key to good enough research. Mark Pollock
lost his sight from a detached retina while in college, however, he did not let that
stop him from competing in a 250-kilometre marathon in the Gobi Desert. He had
to do massive preparations, training, ensuring he ate the right diet, had the
correct clothes and medication but he did manage to complete the marathon
(Pollock and Whitaker, 2005). Think of yourself as an explorer and ask yourself
the question: What do I need for this research journey?
4. Management: Keep in mind time management throughout, set goals for the
various stages, prioritise these goals. Remember the 4Ds: Do, Defer, Delegate,
and Delete. ‘Since we can’t do everything ourselves, we need to ensure that we
do what we can do, defer what we can’t do now but can do later, delegate what
8
we can get someone else to do and delete what we can’t do and what isn’t
necessary to do’ (Fitzpatrick, 2009, p. 222).
5. Time: Although time may be infinite, you only have a finite amount of time to
finish your research. Wall planners, calendars or a diary can help to provide you
with a structure and timeline for completion (Fitzpatrick, 2009). You may need to
steal time from other aspects of your life, for example, by going to a local hotel for
the weekend with your laptop to give yourself complete space and time to
concentrate on your dissertation. Decide whether you are a person who likes to
organise their work in terms of a time or a task. For example, you may say I will
spend the next hour searching in the online library for relevant publications, or
you may be task oriented: ‘I will write 500 words in the next hour’.
6. Organisation: Organise your time. Create a timetable or schedule for the
completion of each stage of your research. Remember Parkinson’s law: work
expands to fit the time available. Being organised will help you to make the most
efficient and effective use of your time (Fitzpatrick, 2009).
7. Journaling: Good explorers always kept a log. So keep a research journal (either
physical or electronic) and keep notes during the whole process, ensuring you
pay attention to detail and spell out your research ideas. It might be a good idea
to keep this journal beside your bed; the brain often processes information during
sleep resulting in great ideas on awakening! These notes will help in the writing of
the methodology chapter. Or record your thoughts into a recording app on your
phone and listen back at a later time. A research journal will make you into a
reflective and reflexive practitioner and you can use some of the recorded
information in the methodology chapter of your research report.
8. Communication: Discuss your proposed research with those in the academic
world but also talk to your friends and family about it because they can
sometimes provide breath-taking insights. Hearing yourself talking can also help
to clarify issues.
9. Attitude: So often we have met students who have a negative attitude towards
their research and who simply do not want to change. We urge you to adopt a
positive growth mindset (Dweck, 2017). You do not have to be a genius to do
research, you simply have to believe that you can do it and follow the college’s
guidelines about what is required in order to pass the module. It is a bit like
following a recipe or a map. Remember the former USA President Obama’s
9
(2008) mantra: ‘Yes we can’!1 The ‘we’ refers to the relationship between the
student and supervisor, the wider educational environment (programme
validation), and the published literature.
10. Engagement: Engage with your supervisor (Bailey, 2018). Supervisors are paid
to supervise research. Over the years, we have supervised excellent students,
good enough students, and students who ducked and dodged us and would not
respond to emails. It is really frustrating for supervisors when the student does
not engage with them. The supervisor’s role is to nurture, facilitate, and maintain
academic standards (Macfadyen et al., 2019). It adds a huge burden to them if
the student presents their work at the last minute and expects feedback
immediately. Conversely, if you and your supervisor are incompatible, then ask
the person in charge of the research module for a different supervisor.
11. Ownership: Take ownership of and responsibility for your research. Do not
blame your supervisor if things go wrong. It is your supervisor’s role to supervise
and support you, not to rescue you at the last minute. That said, many borderline
research projects have been saved by a caring supervisor.
12. Incrementalism: You have heard the maxim: ‘Little by little the birds make their
nests’. Do a little work on your dissertation every day. Break large tasks down
into smaller tasks, work incrementally, and do not leave all the work until the final
weeks before submission.
13. Place: Find your special place to study, whether it is the library in your college,
your local library or the corner of your bedroom. As humans we experience,
external and internal distractions. External distractions are all our commitments
and responsibilities and the external environment. Internal distractions include
disrupting thoughts. Having a study zone, and a routine, helps to keep internal
and external distractions at bay.
14. Selfcare: Be virtuous, ethical, kind, and compassionate to yourself and to your
research respondents. Look after your physical and mental health by taking
breaks from studies.
15. Perseverance: Good research requires planning, methodological rigour,
endurance, patience, and perseverance (it is a marathon, not a sprint).
1 USA President Barrack Obama’s speech (5 November, 2008), available from https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/the-full-text-of-barack-obamas-victory-speech-993008.html (accessed 12 January 2021).
10
16. Imagination: Good research also requires authenticity, finding your own voice,
not to mention a sprinkle of imagination and creativity.
17. Professionalism: Undertaking research will provide you with many professional
transferrable skills such as autonomy, altruism, exercising judgement, ability to
analyse information, ability to write, which will enhance your professional status.
18. Lark or Owl? At this point in your studies, you should know what time suits you
best in terms of your own circadian rhythms, and whether you work best in the
morning or at night.
19. The end game: Covey (1994) suggests that, in order to be highly effective, you
start with the end in mind. The end product is a piece of research or dissertation
based on a tried and tested formula. If you are doing a dissertation in college,
there is usually a handbook or module descriptor. Create a template with each
chapter mapped out, then simply fill it in as you progress through the various
stages of research.
20. Reward: Finally, plan a reward at the end. It is not usual for students to feel
exhausted at the end of a research dissertation, so plan your own personal
reward, something that you can really look forward to.
Challenges of doing research
Undoubtedly, there are challenges in doing research, especially for the first-time student,
but the rewards far outweigh the challenges. It is our wish that this will be an enjoyable
learning journey and that the research will inform, if not change or transform, your
thinking. As one of our students said: ‘I realise that my research will not change the
world, but it has changed me’. The following chapters are designed to help you to
overcome these challenges. With the exception of Action Research, and its variants, all
research projects face the same steps:
o Selecting a topic,
o Identifying the aim of the research or the research question,
o Conducting a literature review,
o Choosing a theoretical framework,
o Writing a research proposal,
o Obtaining ethical approval,
o Choosing a suitable methodology and methods,
o Selecting a sample,
o Designing research instruments,
11
o Piloting research instrument,
o Negotiating access to respondents,
o Negotiating informed consent (with a research information sheet),
o Collecting and analysing data,
o Writing up the research,
o Submitting research.
A dissertation does not have to be written in a linear fashion. Indeed, it is best to write
the literature review first, then methodology, with the introduction and conclusion written
at the same time. We will guide the reader through these steps. As educators, we are
inspired by the words of Martyn Hammersley (2012a, slide 1),
The task is not to teach a set of rules to be simply ‘applied’, but rather to facilitate development of the capabilities and virtues necessary for reading or doing research.
Good academic writing is a vital ingredient in research.
Academic Writing
As much as possible, we have tried to use plain English and clear accessible language.
We use British English rather than American English (see table at the end of this
chapter). American English is used in direct quotations from published works. Inevitably,
we have to engage with specialised terms, but where we do so, we provide the reader
with an explanation of the term. Mastering academic writing is an integral aspect of
producing a good dissertation or research report.
Academic writing is a particular type and style of writing associated with the academic
institution or college. It builds on the ‘shoulders of giants’; on those who have conducted
research and have published it in peer-reviewed academic journals or who were experts
in their fields and have written scholarly books and papers. Academic writing is
synonymous with third level education, with the academy or university whose origins can
be traced back 800 years. Academic writing is ‘written for a particular audience with a
particular purpose in mind’ (Day, 2013, p.1). The audience is an academic audience of
those who work in third level education. When research is published, it reaches a wider
audience.
12
Many students conduct excellent research but sometimes lose marks due to incompetent
academic writing. The set of skills needed for academic writing include efficient reading
skills, the ability to mention, summarise and paraphrase the work of others, and the
ability to construct an argument (Day, 2013). Academic writing is based on a formal
scientific approach, which includes clear, precise language and usually the use of the
third rather than the first person, however, in some types of research (action research,
self-study research, feminist research), the personal pronoun ‘I’ is acceptable.
Academic writing involves focusing on a topic while referencing the work of others who
have written on the topic. The student’s opinion is expressed through creating an
argument using evidence and reasoning that guides the reader to a conclusion (Day,
2013). Academic writing is a messy and iterative process, which requires the writer to
write many drafts before producing a final draft (Cameron, Nairn and Higgins, 2009). It is
said that ‘good writing is bad writing revised’ (origin of quotation unknown).
In recent years, careful attention has been paid to the way in which language can hurt
people and perpetuate stereotypes and prejudice. Hardly a day goes by that we do not
receive some video which uses humour to perpetuate stereotypes based on age,
gender, race, sexual orientation, etc. Goffman drew attention to the use of humour in
perpetuating social exclusion and stigma (Goffman, 1964). A recent radio programme
revealed how some famous footballers are constantly subject to racist abuse on social
media. Academic writing needs to be precise, reflective, and neutral. Teachers and
medical professionals must be hyper vigilant not to dehumanise children such as ‘the
SEN child’, ‘the dyslexic’, or ‘the diabetic’. Instead, the person is put first: the child with
special education needs, the person with dyslexia or diabetes, etc.
The British Sociological Association (BSA) issued guidelines to its members on
language, in relation to gender, equality and diversity (disability), and ethnicity and race.
It is worthwhile downloading the information. We present two tables from the BSA
website (1 and 2, below), one associated with language for people with disabilities and
the other table for gender neutral language.
13
Table 1. BSA Guidelines on Politically Correct Language
DISABLIST NON-DISABLIST Handicap Disability
Invalid Disabled person
The disabled /The handicapped
Disabled people or people with disabilities
Special needs Additional needs or needs
Patient Person
Abnormal Different or disabled
Victim of Person who has / person with
Crippled by Person who has / person with
Suffering from Person who has / person with
Afflicted by Person who has / person with
Wheelchair bound Wheelchair user
The blind Blind and partially sighted people or visually impaired
people
The deaf Deaf or hard of hearing people
Cripple or crippled Disabled or mobility impaired person
The mentally handicapped People / person with a learning difficulty or learning
disability
Retarded / backward Person with a learning disability
Mute or dumb Person with (a) speech impairment
Mentally ill or mental patient Mental health service user
Able bodied person Non-disabled person
SEXIST NON-SEXIST
Man in the street People in general, people Layman Lay person, non-expert Man-made Synthetic artificial manufactured The rights of man Peoples’ citizens’ rights, the rights of the individual Chairman Chair Foreman Supervisor Manpower Workforce, labour force, employees Craftsman Craftsperson/people Manning Staffing, working, running To a man Everyone, unanimously, without exception Man hours Work hours The working man Worker, working people Models of man Models of the person One man show One person show Police man/Fireman Police Officer, Fire Officer Forefathers Ancestors Founding Fathers Fathers Old Masters Classic Art/artists Masterful Domineering: very skilful Master copy Top copy, original Dear Sirs Dear Sir/Madam Disseminate Broadcast, inform, publicise Seminal Classical, formative
14
Table 2. British English and American English used in Published Research
British English American English analyse analyze centre center colour color contextualise contextualize criticise criticize endeavour endeavor enquire inquire enquiry inquiry essentialising essentializing generalisability generalizability honour honor institutionalised institutionalized judgement judgment legitimising legitimizing medicalisation medicalization modernisation modernization organisation organization organising organizing operationalise operationalize programme program randomisation randomization realise realize recognise recognize relativises relativizes rigour rigor sceptical skeptical sensitise sensitize theorising theorizing utilise utilize
Academic writing can induce disabling fears. For example, research with graduate
students and early career academics showed: ‘self-doubt, insecurity, intimidation,
struggle, courage, exposure, fear of critique, judgement, approval and pressure’ also
lack of skills, lack of confidence, pressure of other people’s expectations (Cameron et al.,
2009, p. 272). To manage these disabling emotions, they suggest that the writer needs
to:
• Understand that writing is a messy iterative process,
• Many drafts before we’re happy with the final draft,
• Writing is a social activity, so get support from friends,
• Free writing helps for writer’s block.
Like other skills, practice makes perfect, and, as the student progresses through the
research process, each dissertation draft will improve. Students should take on board
15
their supervisors’ feedback regarding how to improve each draft. We provide more
information about academic writing in Chapter 12.
Structure of this Book
Chapter One provides the introduction to this book. Chapter Two explores the
philosophical origins of social research: logical positivism which underpins quantitative
methods, interpretivism which underpins qualitative methods, and pragmatism which
underpins mixed methods. In addition, we tease out alternative approaches; namely, the
critical theorists, feminism, disability, and critical race theories. Ethics is of paramount
importance when undertaking research, so Chapter Three focuses on all aspects of
ethics, from the selection of the topic, to submission for ethical approval, and writing and
publishing of the research. Chapter Four provides advice and recommendations on
writing a research proposal. At the outset, it is important to create a simple timetable for
completion of research so that you have your own internal deadlines for each stage.
Chapter Five considers the literature review. Chapter Six begins the discussion of data
gathering and provides detailed information about quantitative research. Chapter Seven
continues the discussion of data collection through an exposition of qualitative research.
Some research questions require a mixture of methods, so Chapter Eight explores the
use of mixed methods, case studies, and evaluation research. Chapter Nine
investigates narrative research which has risen to prominence in recent years. Chapter
Ten explores documentary research, a much-neglected method but beloved of the
founders of the social sciences. Chapter Eleven focuses on action research and self-
study research: methods that are popular with practitioners who wish to improve their
practice. Chapter Twelve discusses writing up the research. The final chapter, Chapter
Thirteen, focuses on publication.
Conclusion
This chapter sets out the foundations of this book which is directed at students who must
complete a research dissertation or project to fulfil the requirements of a Bachelor’s or
Master’s degree. We hope that researchers in the community will also find it useful.
Recent Irish policies have emphasised the importance of research. We highlight the
importance of academic writing as an integral aspect of writing up research. The next
chapter explores the philosophical and theoretical foundations of social scientific
research.
16
Key Messages
1. Academic social scientific research is diverse and pluralistic and has many
definitions. We define it as follows: an ethical and rigorous process of inquiry,
which draws on a robust critical review of literature and uses appropriate
methods to gather empirical data to address research questions or test
hypotheses which aim to advance knowledge and understanding of the issue
being researched and conducted by a reflective and reflexive researcher.
2. This book provides the reader with the knowledge, skills, competencies, and
virtues to undertake an academic research project, dissertation, or thesis.
3. Research is a collaborative activity that involves many people; the researcher,
supervisor, and the academic community.
4. There are many challenges in doing research, but careful planning and a
positive attitude can overcome these. This book is designed to meet these
challenges.
5. Academic writing is a genre of writing which is required in third level
education. It is based on a formal scientific approach using accurate and
precise language. It focuses on a topic while drawing from the referenced
work of others. Students may complete an excellent piece of research but,
when assessed, may lose marks due to poor academic writing. Attention is
drawn to the importance of politically correct language.
17
Resources
British Sociological Association Guidelines for politically correct language.
Available at: https://www.britsoc.co.uk/Equality-Diversity/
Academic writing. Available at: https://grammar.yourdictionary.com/style-and-
usage/academic-writing-skills.html
Avoid the use of sexist language. Available at: https://ualr.edu/writingcenter/avoid-sexist-
language/
18
Chapter 2. Philosophical and Theoretical Foundations of
Social Research
Introduction
This chapter comes with a health warning! It could ‘wreck your head’, (this expression
was used by one of our students), but please do not let it do that. Read the key points at
the end of the chapter first. We are mapping the territory of the philosophical and
theoretical bases of social research methods. The philosophies, paradigms, and theories
are simply ways of seeing and understanding people (social actors) and society. They
are debates. You do not have to come up with a solution. Choose the paradigm that
resonates or sits comfortably with you. In the methodology chapter of your dissertation,
you will be required to write a short paragraph on the dominant paradigms and to explain
why you chose the particular paradigm, research design, and method of data gathering
to address your research question.
The origins of social research lie in the misty past of ancient Greek and Roman
civilisations in the 600s BC; philosophers posed questions and developed theories. They
wondered about what constitutes knowledge; how do we distinguish between fact,
fiction, and superstition. What constitutes the truth? Other philosophers wondered about
the nature of reality. It was in the period called the Enlightenment (1725-1775) and with
the growth of academic institutions that social scientists developed theories and methods
of research to address philosophical questions and practical societal issues (Sarantakos,
2013; Tarnas, 1991; Hughes,1993; Pring, 2016).
Human history could be understood as progressing from a mythical and theological stage, through a metaphysical and abstract stage, to its final triumph in science, based on the concrete and positive. (Tarnas, 1991, p. 310)
We elucidate the main ideas and paradigms that underpin research methodology,
namely logical positivism (which utilises quantitative methods - surveys and
experiments), interpretivism (which utilises qualitative methods - in-depth interviews,
observations and focus groups), and pragmatism (mixed methods). We then explore
challenges to these theories posed by the critical theorists and postmodernists.
Learning Outcomes
On successful completion of this chapter, the successful student will be able to:
19
• Discuss and debate the philosophical basis for research
• Differentiate the key ideas underpinning logical positivism, interpretivism, and
pragmatism
• Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of critical theory and emancipatory
approaches
Paradigms, Ontology, Epistemology, Methodology
Before thinking about how to approach and design research, we need to tease out ideas
which are central to social scientific research. In terms of social science, a paradigm can
mean: (a) a world view, (b) an epistemological stance, (c) a set of shared beliefs among
members of a speciality area, or (d) a model example of research (Morgan, 2007).
Thomas (2013, p. 106) describes a paradigm as an ‘unchanging model’ and ‘how we
seek and use knowledge’. Hammersley (2012) defines a research paradigm as:
a set of philosophical assumptions about the phenomena to be studied, about how they can be understood, and even about the proper purpose and product of research. (Hammersley, 2012, p. 2)
The term paradigm was first used by Thomas Kuhn in The Structure of Scientific
Revolutions who argued that science was often disrupted by radical crises and
intellectual revolutions where traditional ways of seeing things were overturned by new
ideas and models (Kuhn, 1970). Kuhn described this as a paradigm shift (Scott and
Marshall, 2009; Thomas, 2013). Paradigm shifts have implications for the social
sciences, which we will examine shortly.
Many of the terms used in social scientific research have the suffix ‘ology’, which derives
from the Greek suffix logia, which means ‘to tell about’ or ‘the study of’; for example,
sociology is the study of society and psychology is the study of the psyche (Thomas,
2013). A number of the terms used in social scientific research finish with an ‘ology’,
such as ontology, epistemology and methodology; these terms guide research
(Sarantakos, 2013). We tease out what these terms mean.
Ontology focuses on the nature of reality and posits the questions: What is reality? Is it
subjective or objective? Does an objective reality exist? What are we actually trying to
study? The issue of ontology is not problematic for natural scientists who study physical
things in the natural world, but it does pose problems for social researchers because
people and the relationships they construct with each other are complex, unpredictable,
and difficult to research (Thomas, 2013). Ontology helps us to understand that there are
20
many ways to research the social world with all its intricacies. According to Thomas
(2013, p. 119): ‘Is the social world … best seen as comprising simple variables, or
matters such as the interaction among people?’
Epistemology focuses on the theory of knowledge. The word epistēmē (knowledge) has
a long history in Western philosophy (Tarnas, 1996). The early philosophers wished to
understand how society worked. Epistemology poses the questions: How do we know
what we know? In terms of research, it asks the question: ‘What methods do we use to
acquire knowledge?’ (Abercrombie, Hill and Turner, 2000). Scott and Marshall (2009)
suggest that epistemology is divided into two schools of thought: rationalism and
empiricism, which came to the fore during the scientific revolution in the 17th century.
Both schools wished to secure strong foundations for knowledge that was free from
opinion and prejudice. The rationalists favoured knowledge based on mathematics and
logic, while empiricists favoured knowledge that could be tested, confirmed, or validated
by empirical observation and experiments just like scientific enquiry.
Thus the neutral and empirically verifiable world view of secular science soon found an ardent reception among the educated class offering a commonly acceptable conceptual framework that peacefully cut across all political and religious boundaries (Tarnas, 1996, p. 311).
Methodology (method + study of) is the philosophy or general principles that guide and
justify your research (Dawson, 2012). It focuses on research design and methods. It
asks the question: How can research be designed and executed?
The three most important paradigms are: logical positivism, interpretivism, and
pragmatism.
Logical Positivism
Logical positivism claims that the methods of the natural sciences (particularly physics)
should be used to study people and society (Hughes, 1993). Logical positivism was
advocated by August Comte (1798-1857), a French philosopher who grew up in the
turmoil following the French Revolution and who wished to abandon metaphysical
speculation or theological principles. He published many books, including Plan of the
Scientific Works Necessary for the Re-organization of society (1822) and Cours de
Philosophie Positive (1830-1842, 6 volumes). He argued that it was not God who made
people poor but overarching social structures (Sarantakos, 1994). He believed that
scientific knowledge could be gathered and utilised to improve human existence so that
21
society could be run rationally without superstition or religion getting in the way of
progress. He believed that society evolved from a theological stage, through a
metaphysical stage to a scientific stage (Osborne and Van Loon, 1996). Comte believed
that knowledge could only be gained through the senses and could only be progressed
through observation, experience, and experiments (Cohen et al., 2007; Giddens, 2011).
Thus, laws can be inferred that explain social phenomena and the association between
them. This leads to understanding the causes of phenomena so that scientists can make
predictions (Giddens, 2011). Positivism profoundly influenced the field of psychology;
Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychological laboratory in Leipzig in 1879, where he
specialised in experiments. Comte is also considered the founder of sociology and
humanism. He believed that positive methods or the methods of the natural sciences
could be used to study people. His method flourished in the USA where large scale polls
became very popular (Sarantakos, 2013). The philosophy of logical positivism underpins
quantitative methods, in particular social surveys and experiments.
One of the important features of positivist philosophies of science was the pre-eminence accorded to empirical research in the production of knowledge. All the major scientific advances, it was claimed, had resulted from the patient accumulation of facts about the world to produce the generalisations known as scientific laws. Science, above all else, was an empirical pursuit and it’s basis lay in the observation of what we can term ‘brute data’ that is data which are not the result of judgement, interpretation, or other subjective mental operation. In the same manner as natural scientists describe and classify phenomena by noting such observables as shape, size, motion, and so on, so should social scientists define and chart their phenomena of interest (Hughes, 1993, p. 38)
Durkheim (1858-1917) was one of the first sociologists to conduct a large-scale survey of
suicide across Europe. He argued that researchers should study social facts as ‘things’;
these facts are external to the individual, observable, measurable and have causes in
other things (Durkheim, 1982, first published 1895). Durkheim argued that suicide, which
is a very personal decision, is affected by disruption in society and social upheavals
(Durkheim, 1982). For example, Covid-19 has disrupted all our lives and has led to an
increase in mental health issues like depression. There is some research indicating an
increase in suicide rates among under 18 year olds in the UK as a result of Covid-19
(John, 2020).
Key Tenets of Positivism
• Positivism proposes that knowledge is objective (Sarantakos, 2013).
• Just like science, theories can be tested (Hammersley and Atkinson, 2012).
22
• There is an assumption of determinism in that events have causes and it is the
social scientists job to formulate laws so that they can make predictions (Cohen
et al., 2007).
• In common with the natural sciences, real laws are discoverable and social
phenomena obey laws in the same way as natural phenomena (nomothetic)
(Abercrombie et al., 2000). Universal laws may be discovered by deducting
regular association between variables across all relevant circumstances
(Hammersley and Atkinson, 2012, p. 4).
• ‘Knowledge is limited to what may be tested (confirmed or validated) by empirical
observation’ (Scott and Marshall, 2009, p. 215).
• The model for social research is the experiment where relationships between
variables can be measured (Hammersley and Atkinson, 2012).
• Generality – findings can be generalised to the wider society (Cohen et al., 2007).
• Positivism underpins quantitative methods, which typically test theories or
hypotheses by collecting large amounts of data and use statistics for analysing
the data.
Criticisms of logical positivism include, that it takes meanings for granted and may fail to
understand the phenomenon that it is investigating; it does not take into account the role
of the researcher or team in designing questions; it is dehumanising, in that it reduces
people to statistics; and it legitimises and supports the status quo (Hammersley, 2012).
Post-positivism acknowledges criticism of the scientific method but does not reject it
completely. Despite these criticisms, quantitative methods such as the survey and
experiments are still a very popular method of social research and are examined in
greater detail in Chapter 6.
Interpretivism
The philosophy of interpretivism believes that people cannot be studied in the same way
as the natural world (Pring, 2010). It rejects the claims of logical positivists and argues
that natural science methodologies are unsuitable for studying people because the social
world is different from the natural world. The natural sciences research matter such as
trees, chemicals, nature which has no consciousness, whereas people’s actions have
meanings, beliefs, and motivations. Max Weber, a German sociologist (1864 -1920),
argued that the aim of sociology was to understand the meaning of social action. In his
classical work, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Weber demonstrates
the centrality of meaning in people’s lives (Weber, 1992/1905/1930]. Weber believed that
23
research should seek to discover and understand subjectively held meanings through
Verstehen or ‘empathic understanding’; human actions should not be studied from the
outside and, instead, researchers should place themselves in the position of other
people to see what meaning they give to their actions, what their purposes are, and what
ends are served by their actions (Tucker, 1965). Weber rejected the stimulus response
model of human behaviour proposed by psychologists, arguing that action is social when
a social actor assigns a meaning to her/his behaviour. He argued that we cannot
discover universal laws of human behaviour comparable with those of the natural
sciences.
Interpretivism underpins qualitative methodology and employs methods of data collection
such as in-depth interviews, observations and focus groups that seek to explore,
describe and understand reality as experienced by respondents and the meanings they
bring to their actions.
The key tenets of Interpretivism are:
• … understanding and meanings, perceptions, processes and providing thick
descriptions as described by the anthropologist Clifford Geertz (Geertz, 1975;
Thomas, 2013).
• Uses a naturalistic framework, the researcher acts naturally during data collection
and tries to get close to the people and situation being studied valuing personal
contact and insight.
• Humility: ‘It makes no grand claims about generalisability or causation’ (Thomas,
2013, p. 110).
• The centrality of subjectivity is acknowledged. It starts with the assumption that
there is no such thing as disinterested knowledge (Thomas, 2013).
• Reflexivity – acknowledges the central role of the researcher in gathering data
and how a researcher’s biography can affect the data.
• Design flexibility, with the researcher open to adopting inquiry as understanding
deepens (Patton, 1987).
• Analysis is inductive, ‘moving upwards in levels of abstraction, from more specific
and concrete to more general and abstract; opposite of deduction’ (Punch, 2011,
p. 358).
• The findings of qualitative research are expressed in words rather than numbers.
24
Criticisms of qualitative research include, that it uses small samples, therefore, the
results of research are not representative and cannot be generalised to larger
populations (Sarantakos, 2013). Qualitative research is time consuming and can be
costly. There can be ethical issues due to the researcher getting close to the respondent.
Qualitative research is very subjective and it is not possible to know if the researcher has
interpreted the data in the way the respondent intended. There is no way of measuring
whether data are valid and reliable. Qualitative data may not be rigorous because of the
lack of procedures (Sarantakos, 2013). We provide examples of the use of qualitative
methods of data collection (observations, in-depth interviews, focus groups) in Chapter
7.
Qualitative methodology has been influenced by many schools of thought such as
phenomenology, constructivism, constructionism, symbolic interactionism, and
ethnomethodology.
a) Phenomenology
Phenomenology focuses on a person’s ‘lived experience’. It believes that ‘knowledge is
an act of consciousness’ and the world is experienced and ‘made meaningful in
consciousness’ (Hughes, 1993, p. 140). Phenomenology was informed by the German
philosopher, Edmund Husserl (1859-1938), whose interest lay in the systematic
investigation of consciousness through which people experience the world (Scott and
Marshall, 2009). He worked on a method of bracketing (epoché) or phenomenological
reduction; by this he means setting aside the real existence of an object. An object may
exist physically or in a dream, but the researcher sets aside the real existence of the
object and instead focuses on the experience of it. Husserl emphasised that knowledge
is an act of consciousness; people make sense of the world subjectively and through
one’s experience of it.
Alfred Schutz (1899-1959) built on Husserl and Weber’s work. Schutz, an Austrian Jew
who fought in the first world war, emigrated to New York where he taught sociology and
philosophy. Prior to emigrating, he was deeply influenced by Husserl’s theory: ‘the
constitution of meaning in action in subjects who act in the everyday life world, and
interpret it by intentional acts of consciousness’ (Segre, 2014, p. 305). Weber’s theory on
social action also engaged him: how people engage in social action towards other
people and how these meanings are understood by them. Not only was he interested in
how actions occur in the everyday life world which is socially constructed, but also how
25
social researchers interpret this world. Husserl had proposed that, in ordinary everyday
interaction or the ‘natural attitude’, people can communicate with each other because
they are intersubjective and they understand each other’s meanings, thus giving the
impression that an objective reality exists. Schutz also built on the work of John Dewey
(streams of thought, streams of consciousness, temporal and continuity), George
Herbert Mead (social and temporal nature of reality, components of the self, the ‘I’ and
the ‘me’), and the pragmatists (William James). According to Segre (2014, p. 320),
interpretivists and sociologists who have studied Schutz’s writings commonly reference
the following:
‘the world of common sense and the distinction between subjective
and objective sense;
•its multiple reality structure and its stratification in the contemporary,
the predecessors,’ and the successors’ world environment;
•relevance as a guidance instrument in the world, and the associated
themes of typification and intersubjectivity;
•the theme of social action and the difference between “in order to”
and “because” motives;
•the distinction between common-sense knowledge and knowledge
brought by social science’.
Phenomenology has informed qualitative methodology and narrative inquiry. Two recent
examples of the use of phenomenology in research are presented in Chapter 7.
b) Symbolic Interactionism
Symbolic Interactionism emphasises the role of symbols and language as fundamental
to human interaction (Giddens, 2011). Symbolic interactionism emanated from the
Chicago School, which rose to prominence in the early and mid-20th century in the USA
and came to dominate American sociology. Key writers associated with the Chicago
School include George Herbert Meade, Herbert Blumer, Charles Cooley, William James,
and Irving Goffman. It was Herbert Blumer who coined the phrase ‘symbolic
interactionism’ in 1937 (Scott and Marshall, 2009). There are four key strands:
26
a) People communicate with each other through the use of symbols and only
humans are capable of producing culture. People give meaning to all aspects of
themselves and their lives and to the wider society. Research strategies such as
participant observation or interviewing allow researchers access to people’s
meanings which are always contextually bound, fluid and emergent.
b) The social world is a dynamic and dialectical web which is constantly shifting
consequently people’s interactions and biographies are also in constant flux.
c) The social world is interactive with people constantly interacting with others. They
see themselves in others (the looking glass self, Charles Horton Cooley, 1902)
and take on roles. The basic unit is the self.
d) Beneath these symbols and interactions lie processes and patterns (Scott and
Marshall, 2009).
Segre (2014) defines the basic tenets of symbolic interactionism.
1. Human beings have relevant symbolic abilities in their interactions,
among which are, particularly, the Mind and the Self; therefore, unlike
animals, their behavior does not automatically respond to a stimulus.
2. Individuals were not born as human beings, but become human
beings by virtue of these symbolic abilities and social interactions.
3. Individuals use their Mind and their Self to actively and consciously
interact with the world, dialoguing with themselves and to the others,
and shaping their behavior, though within the limits of environmental
conditionings.
4. During these interactions, definitions of the situation take shape,
and individuals contribute to them and take them into account for their
own purposes. To define a situation involves carrying out some
activities within it: to establish aims, apply the point of view of other
significant individuals or reference groups to a particular situation,
point out to oneself what is relevant for that situation (persons, things,
ideas, etc.), take upon oneself the role of other individuals or groups,
define oneself within a situation (what an individual does, what
happens and what concerns it, how an individual judges itself, what
identity it attributes to itself, how it emotionally interprets what it is
27
experiencing), imagine the future effects of one’s action, and apply
knowledge and memories of the past to a situation.
5. Society does not exist independently of the interactions and the
meanings that are attributed to them. On the contrary, it is formed – in
a non-rigidly structured way – by those interactions and the
associated meanings.
6. The study of those interactions and meanings involves using
methods suitable to obtain a sympathetic comprehension of the
individuals or groups that are the object of inquiry (Sandstrom et al.,
2001, pp. 218–19; see also Charon, 2001, pp. 203–205; Plummer,
1991a, pp. x–xi, cited in Segre, 2014, p. 349)
Rather than being interested in grand theories of society like Talcott Parsons and Karl
Marx, symbolic interactionism is concerned with micro-sociology and how people act in
everyday life. There is a rich body of research which draws from symbolic interactionism,
for example, in The Managed Heart (1983/2012), Arlie Hochschild described how women
in certain occupations (such as flight attendants) engage in emotional labour by
managing their emotions and expressions in order to fulfil their occupational role, asking
the question: ‘How is a person related to an act? (Hochschild, 2012, p. ix). Erving
Goffman was associated with the Chicago School in the 1960s and 1970s and
expounded a number of classical theories. For example, he developed the dramaturgical
theory which posits that people take on roles much like actors in a play and act
differently backstage than front stage (Goffman, 1959). His study on stigma has
universal relevance. Stigma is when a person’s identity becomes tainted because of a
physical, moral, or mental attribute which leads to the internalisation of shame and self-
derogation, consequently the person’s becomes excluded from full social acceptance
(Goffman, 1964). In Ireland, certain groups such as drug users, sex workers, Travellers,
and those who are HIV positive are stigmatised and socially excluded, which prevents
them from accessing some lifesaving health services (Whitaker, Ryan and Cox, 2011;
McGarry and Ryan, 2020). Symbolic interactionism was influential in the labelling theory
of deviance and has informed post-modernist research, semiotics, feminist research, and
constructivism (Abercrombie et al., 2000; Scott and Marshall, 2009).
28
c) Constructivism
Constructivism argues that individuals and groups construct reality: ‘realities are local,
specific and constructed; they are socially and experientially based, and depend on the
individuals or groups holding them’ (Guba and Lincoln, 1994, pp. 109-111, cited in
Punch, 2011, p. 18). The seeds of constructivism are found in symbolic interactionism
and claim that:
different cultures formulate the world symbolically in diverse ways, so that there are multiple, constructed realities – rather than a single reality existing behind the different interpretations (Hammersley, 2012, pp. 25-26).
The roots of constructivism are also found in the academic field of education and are
underpinned by the writings of Piaget, who believed that ‘… the cognitive structures that
shape our knowledge of the world evolve through the interaction of environment and
subject’ (Scott and Marshall, 2009, p. 698). There has been a rise in the theory of
constructivism, particularly in the field of education (Fosnot, 2005):
Constructivism is a theory about knowledge and learning; it describes both what “knowing” is and how one “comes to know”. Based on work in psychology, philosophy, science, and biology, the theory describes knowledge not as truths to be transmitted or discoverable but as emergent, developmental, non-objective, viable constructed explanations by humans engaging in meaning-making in cultural and social communities of discourse. Learning from this perspective is viewed as a self-regulatory process of struggling with the conflict between personal existing models of the world and discrepant new insights, constructing new representations and models of reality as a human meaning-making venture with culturally developed tools and symbols, and further negotiating such meaning through co-operative social activity, discourse, and debate in communities of practice (Fosnot, 2005, preface)
In the field of education psychology, Lev Vygotsky, was critical of research that considered
individuals in isolation. He believed that individuals learn from one another, that knowledge
is co-constructed; and that human learning and development occur in socially, culturally,
and historically shaped contexts in which they have participated. These changing contexts
shape human consciousness (Vygotsky, 1934; Fosnot, 2005).
d) Constructionism
Constructionism, as the name suggests, is interested in ‘social construction’ or the social
processes through which people construct meaning ‘which prioritises interaction over
meaning and, therefore prefers to look at what people do without any necessary reference to
what they are thinking or feeling’ (Silverman, 2005, p. 10). Constructionism stemmed from the
29
Chicago School, symbolic interactionism, and phenomenologists (Scott and Marshall, 2009).
The term entered the sociological lexicon through the book, The Social Construction of
Reality (Berger and Luckman, 1966) and Berger’s study of religion (Berger, 1967).
According to Hammersley:
…constructionism can involve a radicalisation of interpretivism, with increased emphasis on how different cultures formulate the world symbolically in diverse ways, so that there are multiple, constructed realities – rather than a single reality existing behind the different interpretations. Indeed constructionists sometimes challenge the assumption that understanding other people, and perhaps even oneself, is possible; at least in the terms assumed by interpretivism. In other words, we cannot have direct access to meaning, even our own (Hammersley, 2012, pp. 26-27)
Sarantakos (2013, p. 38) outlines basic assumptions of constructionism:
• ‘There is no objective reality; the physical world exists but is not accessible to human
endeavour
• There are no absolute truths
• Knowledge does not come through the senses alone
• Research focuses on the construction of meanings
• Meanings are not fixed but emerge out of people’s interaction with the world
• Meanings do not exist before a mind engages them
• The world is constructed by the people who live in it’
Hammersley (2012, p. 27) teases out the meaning of constructionism:
What is distinctive about constructionism …is that it takes the view that social phenomena can only be understood by describing the processes by which they are culturally constituted as the things that they are. What is involved, if this approach is followed though consistently, is a fundamental re-specification of the goal of inquiry from which that which is characteristic of mainstream social science. The focus becomes not the phenomena themselves, and certainly not what might have caused them or what effects they have, but rather the structures or processes by which they are discursively produced by culture members in situ and over time. Moreover, there is a tendency to see the relations between these structures or processes and their products as internal or logical, rather than as causal, in character (Hammersley, 2012b, p. 27)
Silverman (2005, p. 101) provides an example which helps to understand
constructionism. We can argue that death is an ‘objective fact’, but in the case of the
shooting of President John F Kennedy in 1963, even though allegedly half his head was
shot off, medics spent a considerable length of time trying to keep him alive because of
his status. Had this been someone else who had been shot in the head, he would have
30
been pronounced ‘dead on arrival’. Constructionism is criticised by those who believe
that it ignores social structures by suggesting that people are free to construct their own
realities (Hammersley, 2012).
e) Ethnomethodology
Ethnomethodology is the study of ‘ethno’ (people’s) ‘method’ of creating social order’
(Scott and Marshall, p. 229). Ethnomethodology is best defined by its founder, Harold
Garfinkel:
Ethnomethodological studies analyse everyday activities as members’ methods for making those same activities visibly-rational-and reportable for all practical purposes, i.e., “accountable” as organizations of commonplace everyday activities. The reflexivity of that phenomenon is a singular feature of practical actions, of practical circumstances, of common sense knowledge of social structures, and of practical sociological reasoning. By permitting us to locate and examine their occurrence the reflexivity of that phenomenon establishes their study (Garfinkel, 1967, p. vii)
Harold Garfinkel’s (1917-2011) contribution to research methods can only be understood
in terms of the cultural and temporal context in which he lived. He was a student of the
giant of sociology, Talcott Parsons, whose work focused on social order and who
developed the influential theory of structural functionalism, which posited the belief that
society was based on value consensus and that through the socialisation process, social
actors internalised the norms and values of society (Giddens, 2011). Garfinkel
acknowledged Parsons’ work:
Parsons’ work, particularly, remains awesome for the penetrating depth and unfailing precision of its practical sociological reasoning on the constituent tasks of the problem of social order and its solutions (Garfinkel, 1967, p. ix)
However, he believed that people do not simply internalise culture, or blindly follow the
conventions and rules of society and were not “cultural dopes” but rather ‘creative actors
in their own right’ (Giddens, 2011, p. 87). Whereas Parsons believed in abstract theory,
Garfinkel, influenced by his voluntary work in a Quaker camp, was more interested in
descriptions and experience and how ordinary people produce or ‘do’ social order in a
reflexive manner (Garfinkel, 1967). His first publication, a short story based on the
victimisation of a Black woman on a bus, was based on a true story. Throughout his
career, Garfinkel conducted a wide range of research from exploring how jury members
act as jurors, to research on organisations, suicide counselling hot lines, to conversation
analysis (Segre, 2014). Garfinkel also disagreed with Durkheim’s theory that sociologists
should treat ‘social facts’ as things. Instead, he believed that sociologists had a duty to
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uncover social facts (Giddens, 2011). He was ambivalent about research methods and
used quantitative and qualitative methods (Segre, 2014).
Garfinkel suggested that everyday life is fairly orderly. This order is produced reflexively
by people in everyday life. The way in which the social world is constructed is entirely
taken for granted. Garfinkel (1967) devised some breaching experiments (where social
norms are breached) for his students. For example, some students went into department
stores and started bargaining with the shop assistants, where, needless to say, at first
the shop assistant did not understand what they were doing and became hostile. He also
asked his students to practice breaching experiments at home by asking ‘what do you
mean?’ in response to an everyday question. The effect this had on the other person
was to annoy them. This illustrated how carefully social order is constructed in everyday
life and how by asking a simple question the students were infringing the common-sense
expectations of the other; expectations which are usually tacit or taken for granted
(Segre, 2014). For example, have you ever tried jumping a queue, or bargaining with a
shop assistant? If so, what were the outcomes? In a classic ethnographic study of two
hospitals (private and public), David Sudnow used ethnomethodology (observations and
conversations with staff members) to show the methods that were used by those working
in a hospital to define when a patient was considered dead, in Passing On, The Social
Organization of Dying (Sudnow, 1967). Ethnomethodology is the paradigm that
underpins documentary and narrative research.
Criticisms of ethnomethodology include, that it ignores social structures and the way
people can be constrained by overarching structures. It presents an overly ordered social
world (Scott and Marshall, 2000, p. 124).
For many decades, positivists and interpretivists were at logger heads with each other in
the ‘paradigm wars’ (Hammersley, 2012b) and, while the differences between the two
paradigms may be irreconcilable, the reality is that the best paradigm to choose is the
one which helps to address the research question. Today, it has become common to
incorporate both paradigms in research and this is referred to as mixed methods, which
is underpinned by the philosophy of pragmatism.
Pragmatism
The philosophy of pragmatism blends the key tenets of logical positivism, interpretivism,
and constructivism and underpins mixed methods (this is further discussed in chapter
nine and illustrated with concrete examples). According to Hammersley (2012b, p. 12):
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The term ‘pragmatism’ is attributed to Charles Sanders Peirce, who was a practising scientist and mathematician as well as a philosopher… The whole point of science, for him, was to produce knowledge of the world, and he believed that concepts will only work if they capture what he referred to as ‘reals’.
Pragmatism is a philosophy dating back to ancient Greece, where the word pragmatism
means ‘to work’ (Sharma, Devi and Kumari, 2018). Pragmatism is associated with
American Philosophers such as Charles Sanders Peirce, William James, John Dewey,
Jane Addams, and George Herbert Mead (Burke Johnson and Onwuegbuzie, 2013;
Hammersley, 2012; Morgan, 2007). It is not our intention to delve into the minutiae of
pragmatism, but some principles include: pluralism (there are many versions of reality),
embracing change (nothing remains the same, change is constant), utilitarian (utility is
the test of truth and reality), value change and individualism (freedom based on equality,
liberty and fraternity) (Sharma et al., 2018, p. 75), scepticism (Peirce), and the process of
inquiry (Hammersley, 2012b). John Dewey believed in inquiry-based education based
on learners finding answers to questions. Morgan (2007) proposes a ‘pragmatic’
alternative approach to research which relies on abductive reasoning. This means that
the researcher moves backwards and forwards between induction and deduction,
assessing theories through action and how things work. He further argues that the
artificial clash between objectivity and subjectivity can be replaced with an intersubjective
understanding between the researcher and researched and colleagues in the field. In
relation to whether researchers can generalise from findings, he prefers the term
“transferability”, as coined by Lincoln and Guba (1985). The key is whether research
findings can transfer to other contexts. According to Morgan (2007):
This advocacy of transferability thus arises from a solidly pragmatic focus on what people can do with the knowledge they produce and not on abstract arguments about the possibility or impossibility of generalizability. Instead, we always need to ask how much of our existing knowledge might be usable in a new set of circumstances, as well as what our warrant is for making any such claims (Morgan, 2007, p. 72)
He provides an ‘organizing framework’ (p. 70) for understanding what the pragmatic
framework can offer social scientific methodology.
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Table 3. A Pragmatic Alternative to the Key Issues in Social Science Research
Methodology (Morgan, 2007, p. 71)
Qualitative Approach Quantitative Approach
Pragmatic Approach
Connection of theory and data
Induction Deduction Abduction
Relationship to research process
Subjectivity Objectivity Intersubjectivity
Inference from data Context Generality Transferability
Pragmatism underpins mixed methods research (see Chapter 9).
Critical Theorists
The critical theorists are anti-positivist. They argued that knowledge did not emanate
from our experiences through the senses but, rather, from our rational thought:
A rational society, therefore, is one which in which we all participate in order to create and transform our environment. This provides us with a standard by which we can criticize societies that exist in the present: a society which excludes groups from economic and political participation, or which systematically renders groups hopeless, is an irrational society (Scott and Marshall, 2009, p. 145)
The critical theorists originated in the Frankfurt Institute of Social Research in the 1920s;
also called the Frankfurt School. Initially, they drew on Marx’s writings, believing that
society was based on class inequalities and injustices; research should, therefore, be
critical of society and should be geared towards liberating people from slavery and
improving or transforming society. Habermas was also associated with the Frankfurt
School. He argued that speech and language were more important than rational thought.
His aspiration was for ‘an ideal speech situation’ in which everybody has equal access to
‘information and public debate’ (Scott and Marshall, 2009, p. 145).
Paulo Freire applied critical theory to his ideas about education and created a critical
pedagogy in his book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed. He dedicated his life to the
education of the oppressed and believed that people should co-create knowledge, as
opposed to the banking system, where teachers consider students to be empty vessels
to be filled. Critical theorists were also associated with liberation theology; religious
orders in South America who addressed poverty and social injustices, as well as
spirituality. More recently, critical theorists in Western societies have focused on issues
such as disability, gender, race/ethnicity, and sexual orientation (Hammersley, 2012b, p.
25):
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The focus has often been on how social institutions, including the education system, generate injustices through discrimination and/or legitimate them through implying that they arise through fair competition based on merit. This is true not only of work on social class differences in educational achievement and outcome, but also feminist and anti-racist research focusing on gender and ethnic differences, and some of the work concerned with special education which seeks to challenge ideas and practices that are seen as obstacles to full inclusion of children with special needs.
The critical theorists also include emancipatory research, which we discuss in greater
detail later in this chapter. We begin the discussion of the critical theorists with feminist
theory and methodology.
a) Feminist Theory and Methodology
Feminists argued that society was patriarchal, which was defined as ‘a system of social
structures and practices in which men dominate, oppress and exploit women’ (Walby,
2010, p.30). Although Mary Wollstonecraft wrote the Vindication of the Rights of Woman
in 1792 (Todd, 1989), feminism was to go through many waves before it rocked the
hallowed halls of academia. Women would wait over another 100 years before they were
enfranchised.
Irish women (over the age of thirty) secured the vote in general elections in 1918 when
Ireland was part of the United Kingdom; this was extended to all women over the age of
twenty-one in 1922 with the setting up of the Irish Free State. However, Article 41.2 of
the Irish Constitution (Bunreacht na hÉireann) (Ireland, 1937) spelt out a very definite
domestic role for women:
1. In particular, the State recognises that by her life within the home, woman gives to the State a support without which the common good cannot be
achieved.
2. The State shall, therefore, endeavour to ensure that mothers shall not be
obliged by economic necessity to engage in labour to the neglect of their duties
in the home.
The 1937 constitution reflected the prevailing Catholic values of Irish society which
prohibited the use of artificial contraceptives in 1935; divorce was prohibited in the 1937
constitution (Fahey, 1995; Inglis, 1987). Single women were encouraged to give up
their jobs when they got married; the ‘marriage bar’ prohibited many women particularly
those in the public sector from working once they got married. This marriage bar was
lifted in 1973 (Ferriter, 2012; O’Rourke, McGettrick and Hill, 2018). Children conceived in
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non-marital unions were considered ‘illegitimate’ and unmarried women often entered
Mother and Baby homes to have their babies, which were subsequently adopted
(Department of Children, Equality, Disability, Integration and Youth, 2021). Ireland’s
accession to the European Community in 1973 issued in a huge number of directives
promoting equality; divorce was permitted in 1996 and the use of contraceptives were
legalised in 1985. Academic courses in Women’s Studies and Equality Studies began in
Irish mainstream universities in the 1990s and successive legislation and policies have
endeavoured to promote gender equality in Ireland.
Women in France were not enfranchised until 1944. When French philosopher, Simone
de Beauvoir, was doing much of her writing about women she did not have the right or
power to vote. She argued that “woman” is defined as ‘other’ to the male norm:
Humanity is male and man defines woman not in herself but as relative to him; she is not regarded as an autonomous being . . . she is simply what man decrees. She is defined and differentiated with reference to man and not he with reference to her; she is incidental, the inessential as opposed to the essential. He is the Subject, he is the Absolute – she the other (de Beauvoir, 1949, p. 18 cited in Letherby, 2003, p. 24)
In her book, The Second Sex (1949), De Beauvoir argued that the dilemma for women
was that unlike other minority groups women live in community with men as husbands
and fathers (brothers and sons too) (de Beauvoir, 2010).
The couple is a fundamental unity with its two halves riveted together, and the cleavage of society along the line of sex is impossible. Here is to be found the basic trait of woman; she is the Other in a totality of which the two components are necessary to each other (de Beauvoir, cited in Giddens, 2010, p. 146).
Throughout the 20th century, the feminist movement with accompanying theory and
methodology burgeoned. Leavy and Harris (2019) provide a timeline of the feminist
movement.
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Table 4. Timeline of the Feminist Movement (Leavy and Harris, 2019, p. 21)
First wave Second wave Third wave Postfeminism Late 19th - early 20th century
1960s-1970s 1990s 2000 to present
Known as the “suffrage” period, and its activists as “suffragettes”, as it focused on securing voting and basic equal rights for women
Focussed on the right to education, work, equal pay. Challenged traditional representations and roles of women.
Challenged and to some degree broadened the pervasively White middle-class orientation and agendas of second wave feminism, including not only working-class women and women of colour, but also “non-feminine” women’s concerns, such as queer feminisms “girl power”, and “ladette” culture in the United Kingdom.
Addresses the perception that feminism is over or no longer relevant to the younger generation. Postfeminism celebrates “sexuality”, “femininity” and the impossibility of essentializing ‘women” under a feminist banner.
Feminists argued that academic institutions such as sociology were sexist and complicit
in maintaining women’s subordinate and exploited position (Smith, 1989; Morgan, 1981;
Abbott and Wallace 1997, cited in Letherby, 2003, p. 24). It was argued that theories of
society and research were androcentric, in that what was called science was not based
on universal value-free criteria, but rather on man-made norms (May, 1993; Tarnas,
1996). Feminist methodology emanated from feminist theory and differs from other
research methods.
Key Tenets of Feminist Research
We present the key tenets of feminist research:
1. Political: Feminist research is political research because, not only do feminist
researchers challenge the status quo, but wish to change it (Letherby, 2003;
Leavy and Harris, 2019).
2. Methodology and Epistemology: Dawson (2002) suggests that feminist research
is both a methodology and epistemology that focuses on how gender influences
knowledge and power and their relationship to dominance and exclusion (Leavy
and Harris, 2019).
3. Ethical: As a critical research approach, Leavy and Harris (2019) argue that FR is
ethical:
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These intersectional commitments of feminist research as a field – constitute a feminist research ethics – the political, methodological, and in some cases spiritual beliefs that underpin this area of scholarly research. But this feminist research ethics is not just an abstract idea – it points to additional feminist concerns, including ontology (the nature of knowledge itself), epistemology (what counts as knowledge and how that knowledge is represented), and methodology (the theories and tools of doing research). As a critical research approach it also suggests a range way of ways in which feminist researchers believe in changing the world (Leavy and Harris, 2019, p. 5)
4. Knowledge: Feminist researchers examine issues from a woman’s perspective
and seek to produce ‘unalienated’ knowledge, that ‘which concretely and
analytically locates the product of the academic feminist labour process within a
concrete analysis of the process of production itself’’ (Stanley, 1990, p. 12, cited
in Letherby, 2003, p. 62). Historically, epistemologies were male dominated and
sexist, which were reflected in academic institutions favouring male concerns.
5. Representation: They also challenge men’s representations of women,
according to French philosopher Simone de Beauvoir (1989, p. 143, cited in
Sarantakos, 2013, p. 69):
Representation of the world, like the world itself, is the work of men; they describe it from their own point of view, which they confuse with the absolute truth’.
6. Data collection: Feminist researchers were critical of traditional methods and the
way in which empirical data were collected (Letherby, 2003, p. 68). Traditional
researchers were seen as being involved in ‘hit and run’, in that they rushed into
a research site, invaded their participants privacy, grabbed the information and
ran, and used it to further their own careers (Reinharz, 1984, p. 95, cited in
Letherby, 2003, p. 68). They argued that this method had implications for the
product of research and advocate the use of the participatory model of research
in which there is a non-hierarchical, egalitarian, non-exploitative, collaborative
relationship between the researcher and researched (Letherby, 2003; Leavy and
Harris, 2019).
7. Reflexivity: Feminist research highlights the importance of reflexivity and
acknowledges the role of the researcher in the research process and the
production of knowledge.
8. Relationship of researcher to researched: Feminist researchers criticised the
detached relationship between and researcher and researched (such as in
surveys) and instead they favoured the semi-structured in-depth qualitative
interview because the researcher can get close to the respondent, in fact,
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feminist researcher Anne Oakley (1981) was still friends with respondents four
years after data collection (Letherby, 2003). They questioned whether objectivity
was possible in survey research, in that subjectivity is involved in the writing of
questions.
9. Presentation of research: Feminist researchers present their research in a clear
and accessible manner eschewing elite academic language which may be
inaccessible to respondents (Leavy and Harris, 2019). They are conscious of the
language and the conspicuous use of the personal pronoun “I”, rather than the
neutral language associated with scientific research (e.g. I conducted research
instead of research was conducted) (Letherby, 2003).
Gender specific issues such as violence against women, inequalities in income between
men and women, the lack of women in certain fields such as science, technology,
engineering and mathematics (STEM) and in politics, the sexual objectification of women
in pornography, the sexual harassment of women in the workplace by powerful dominant
men and the growth of the ‘Me Too’ movement (#Me Too), all highlight the fact that
sexism and prejudice against women have not gone away and that feminist scholarship
and research continues to be important. Feminist research methodology focuses on
‘gender related values which have tended to privilege males in both the society at large
and in academic research’ (Tomm, 1989, p. 1).
Social Construction of Gender
More recently, attention has focused on the social construction of gender. In the past,
gender was aligned with biology (cisgender) but today concepts such as ‘transgender’,
‘gender fluid’, ‘non-binary’ are recognised because some do not identify with either a
male or female identity and growing numbers of men and women engage in sexual
realignment surgery. This is endorsed in recent legislation. Following a long struggle for
recognition, the Gender Recognition Act was passed in Ireland in 2015 (FLAC, 2018).
According to Leavy and Harris (2019), feminist research as a critical research
methodology, not only focuses on gender, but recognises how gender intersects with
other identities such as race, class, ability/disability, and the many ways in which
‘privilege or oppression are being exercised at once’ (Leavy and Harris, 2019, p. 4).
Criticism of Feminist Research
Today, feminist research methodology is seen as a legitimate and acceptable research
approach which has its foundations in critical theory and emancipatory research
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(Sarantakos, 2013). However, it is not without its critics. We reproduce three of the main
criticisms provided by Sarantakos (2013, pp. 72-73):
Feminism is simply ‘a multiplicity of standpoints, values, outlooks among feminists’ (Assiter, 1996, p. 8). It is excessively diverse (Marxist feminists, liberal feminists, feminist empiricists, psychoanalytic feminists, post structural feminists, modernist feminists, postmodern feminists etc.,) and does not present ‘a coherent and cogent alternative to non-feminist research (Hammersley, 1992, p. 202) that could justify a feminist methodology.
Objecting to positivist methodological practices is questionable (Hammersley, 1992; Geldsthorpe, 1992, Ramazanoglu, 1992, 2004).
The notion that feminist methodology is for women, on women and by women is neither logical nor valid. Methodologies are not constructed according to their research object. Is quantitative research for men, on men and by men? Do ethnicity, race, ageing, and so on justify the introduction of an ethnic methodology, a racist methodology, ageist methodology and so on?
Feminist theory was also criticised because it was unrepresentative; it did not represent
all women. The first and second wave feminists were Western, white, middle-class, and
educated who advanced theories that purported to represent all women. It was argued
that feminists did not represent the interests of all women and that by omitting Black
women they were complicit in their suppression (Hill Collins, 2010). This led to the
development of intersectionality theory. Black women, whose ancestors were brought to
the United States of America as slaves, experienced generations of segregation and
oppression in relation to work (being ghettoed in service occupations), lack of basic and
higher education, poverty, exclusion from employment opportunities and public office,
and representation (represented as Aunt Jemima on pancake books, prostitutes, or
women on welfare) (Hill Collins, 2010).
In the United States, one would think that the combination of a better-educated public and scholarship designed to shatter old myths would effectively challenge hegemonic ideologies. As the resurgence of White supremacist organizations with staunch beliefs about Black intellectual and moral inferiority suggest, this has not been the case. Instead, old ideas become recycled in new forms. Yesterday’s welfare mother splits into social-class-specific images of the welfare queen and the Black lady. Yesterday’s jezebel becomes today’s hoochie (Hill Collins, 2010, p. 151)
A new approach to analysing Black women’s experiences and the ‘interconnections
among systems of oppression’ (Hill Collins, 2010, p. 149) was proposed by Crenshaw
(Crenshaw, 1991). Intersectionality theory proposed that people had multiple intersecting
identities (race, gender, social class), which work together to produce injustice.
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The matrix of domination refers to how these intersecting oppressions are actually organized. Regardless of the particular intersections involved, structural, disciplinary, hegemonic, and interpersonal domains of power reappear across quite different forms of oppression (Hill Collins, 2010, p. 149)
The goal of Black feminist thought is to empower Black African-American women and to
challenge social injustice, institutional racism, and segregation and promote equality.
This leads to a discussion of critical race theory.
b) Critical Race Theory
Critical race theory (CRT) emanated from the legal profession in the United States in the
1970s and its goal was to draw attention to the way in which the legal system was ‘colour
blind’. It then extended into other academic disciplines such as sociology, education,
women’s studies, queer studies, and ethnic studies (Crichlow, 2015):
The objective of CRT is to understand how a regime of white supremacy and its subordination of people of color have been created and maintained in America, and beyond understanding, attempt to change the vexed bond between law and racial power (Crenshaw et al., 1995, p. xiii cited in Crichlow, 2015, p. 187).
According to Crichlow (2015), CRT highlights inequalities, the oppressed, and those on
the margins of society who are dispossessed and disenfranchised. It is a methodological
tool to challenge inequality and injustice. The three main tenets of CRT are:
1) Recognize interest convergence - interest convergence is the process whereby the
white power structure ‘will tolerate or encourage racial advances for blacks only when
they also promote white self-interests’ (Delgado & Stefancic, 2001). These scholars
contend that efforts to eradicate racism have produced minimal results due to the
insufficient convergence of interests by both white elites and people of colour
2) Reject colour blindness and race neutrality that liberalism promotes, ideologies that ignore the realities of race are embraced it creates a lens through which the existence
of race can be denied and the privileges of whiteness can be maintained without any
personal accountability (Harper and Patton, (2007, p. 3)
3) Refutes and critiques claims of meritocracy that sustain normative white supremacy –
Meritocracy is defined in the dictionary as ‘a system in which the talented are chosen
and moved ahead on the basis of their achievement, or that leadership is selected
based on able and talented persons who are rewarded and advanced from an elite
group whose progress is based on ability and talent rather than on class and privilege’ (The Canadian Oxford English Dictionary, 2012) (Crichlow, 2015, p. 188)
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Scientific theories of race arose in the late 18th century to justify the imperial powers
ruling over subject dominions. Following World War II, ‘race science’ was discredited
because there are no clear-cut races, only a range of physical variations in human
beings (Giddens, 2011). Genetic diversity within populations that share physical traits is
as great as the diversity between them. As such, race is a socially constructed category
which continues to reproduce patterns of power and inequality in society. This is
powerfully endorsed by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) in the Declaration on Race and Racial Prejudice: (UNESCO,
1978). Article 3.1 states:
Any theory which involves the claim that racial or ethnic groups are inherently superior or inferior, thus implying that some would be entitled to dominate or eliminate others, presumed to be inferior, or which bases value judgments on racial differentiation, has no scientific foundation and is contrary to the moral and ethical principles of humanity.
Although there is no scientific basis for the belief that the human population is a
composite of races identifiable by the marker of skin colour, unfortunately ‘race’ remains
a powerful concept, drawn on to justify racism. Article 3.2 and 3.3 the Declaration on
Race and Racial Prejudice (UNESCO, 1978) declares that,
the term "racial discrimination" shall mean any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life.
Racism can be defined as the belief that there are inherent differences between races,
which justify differential treatment, and that the white race is superior. However “race” is
a cultural construct, as can be seen in the reasons given for excluding targeted groups,
be they Blacks, Travellers, or whoever. The factors cited to justify social exclusion are
not biological, but cultural (such as dirt, noise, criminality, threat to property prices, etc.).
The cluster of factors amounts to a stereotype and it is deployed against virtually any
denigrated ethnic group. In his book, Long Walk to Freedom (2004), Nelson Mandela
(Mandela, 2004) states:
No-one is born hating another person because of the colour of his skin, or his background, or his religion. People must learn to hate (Mandela, 2004, p. 748)
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Ethnicity
Ethnicity refers to the social characteristics and culture of specific groups. Ethnic groups
may be differentiated by language, religion, style of dress, history, ancestry. It refers to
the cultural practices and outlooks of a given community of people which sets them apart
from others (Giddens, 2011). For many people, ethnicity is central to the construction of
individual and group identity because it can provide an important thread of continuity with
the past. For example, third-generation American-Irish living in the United States may
celebrate their Irishness by participating in St. Patrick’s day parades. However, the
parade itself may incorporate aspects of American culture e.g. cheer leaders, Wizard of
Oz etc. (Giddens, 2011). Ethnicity can also be synonymous with nationality. For
example, in Northern Ireland, historically there were two ethnic groups: those who
identify with Ireland and those who identify with the UK. Travellers are a distinct minority
ethnic group in Ireland, who, despite being Irish nationals and members of Irish society
since the 12th century, have been stigmatised and socially excluded (Danaher, Kenny
and Remy Leder, 2009; Tormey and Gleeson, 2012). Racism against Travellers is the
most malicious form of racist discrimination in Ireland (McVeigh, 1997; Fanning, 2003).
Recent Irish policies and legislation have targeted discrimination and social exclusion of
Travellers.
c) Emancipatory Research
Emancipatory research originated from those working with oppressed people in South
America (Freire, 1970). Emancipatory research wishes to produce knowledge that will
benefit disadvantaged people (Noel, 2016). According to Oliver (1997, p. 110), ‘the
emancipatory paradigm, is about the facilitation of the politics of the possible by
confronting social oppression at whatever level it occurs’. Emancipatory research
challenges the power relationships between the researcher and the researched; it
wishes to change the social relations of research production and place control in the
hands of the researched not the researcher. It wishes to empower the respondents of
research by creating reciprocity and equality (Oliver, 2014). It seeks to promote social
justice. Emancipatory research includes the voices of the dispossessed, indigenous
people, and those at the margins of society. It has wide application. Behar-Horenstein
and Feng (2015) conducted a systematic critical analysis (using the Johanna Briggs
method) of 45 journal articles which used emancipatory research. They conclude that
students in graduate schools should be taught emancipatory research methods:
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In last three decades of educational research, emancipatory research has been defined by a variety of terminology including among others, transformative research, social justice research, postcolonial discourse studies, feminist research, critical race studies, indigenous research, participatory action research, culturally sensitive research, and Africana womanist research. Engaging in emancipatory research pushes researchers to become aware of their taken granted [for] assumptions' and its central role in research.
Questioning the power relationships that are inherent to the researcher-researched relationship demands that researchers begin to convey their underlying theories-in-use, locate themselves culturally or theoretically, explain the influence of the research on the researcher and vice-versa, and ensure that participants and their voices are adequately represented. (Behar-Horenstein and Feng, 2015, p. 46)
We will return to the application of emancipatory research in the chapters on
participatory action research and evaluation research. Emancipatory research informs
disability theory and research.
d) Disability Theory
Disability theory was promulgated by a small group of activists with disabilities who
argued that they were defined and categorised by the medical profession (Barnes,
Mercer and Shakespeare, 2010). Their disability was regarded as ‘a personal tragedy’
and they were labelled as handicapped (cap in hand in need of charity) or ‘invalid’, in
need of medical interventions and care. Their disability became an overarching identity
and they were relegated to the margins of society, often stigmatised, discriminated
against and hidden from view. Disabled activists formed the Union of the Physically
Impaired against Segregation (UPIAS) and developed a manifesto entitled Fundamental
Principles (1976) which advocated for the social model of disability. This model argued
that society had failed those with disability:
In our view it is a society which disables physically impaired people. Disability is something imposed on top of our impairments by the way we are unnecessarily isolated and excluded from full participation in society. Disabled people are therefore an oppressed group in society (UPIAS, 1976, p. 14, cited in Barnes et al., 2010, p. 163).
The social model of disability embodies human rights and believes that everyone is
entitled to be treated with respect and to a certain standard of living. It proposes getting
rid of obstacles (physical, social and economic) that exclude people with disabilities; for
example, ensuring adequate supports for families, equal access to education, health,
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employment and entertainment, ensuring buildings and public transport are accessible.
The social model is summarised in Table 5 below.
Table 5. Two models of disability (adapted from Oliver, 1991, cited in Barnes et al., 2010, p. 165)
Individual Model Social Model
Personal tragedy theory Social oppression theory Personal problem Social problem Individual treatment Social action Medicalization Self-help Professional Dominance Individual and collective responsibility Expertise Experience Individual identity Collective identity Prejudice Discrimination Care Rights Control Choice Policy Politics Individual Adjustment Social Change
Oliver (1997) argues that the challenge for emancipatory research is, not only how to
empower people, but once people have empowered themselves, exactly what research
can do to expedite this process. He argued that the social relations of research
production must be changed; researchers must learn how to put their knowledge and
skills at the disposal of their research subjects, so that they can use them in whatever
ways they choose (Oliver, 1997, p. 111).
In sum, critical theorists argue that society is based on inequalities and injustices which
may lead to social exclusion and discrimination against certain groups. Government
policies and legislation seek to ensure social inclusion and prohibit discrimination. The
purpose of emancipatory research is to draw attention to social injustices and to make
visible those who have been oppressed in order to create a more just and equal society.
Criticisms of emancipatory critical research include:
• That prior assumptions are made about the nature of the
phenomena being investigated which operate as a form of bias,
leading to particular interpretations of the data being preferred and
negative evidence being overlooked.
• That the main preoccupation is to produce an account which will have desirable political consequences rather than seeking to ensure
its validity.
45
• That, implicitly even if not explicitly, critical research operates within
a grand meta-narrative which reduces all differences to inequality
(perhaps even of one type) and seeks to erase it.
• That material interests tend to be given excessive weight in
explaining actions and the operation of institutions.
• That ‘critical’ research draws evaluative conclusions from factual
data without spelling out or justifying the value assumptions on
which it relies.
• That the criticisms it makes of social practices and institutions are
unworldly, in the sense they neglect the practical constraints under
which all agents operate, some of which derive from basic
characteristics of the human situation, such as scarcity of resources
and the relativity of desire and aspiration (Hammersley, 2012b, p.
26)
e) Post-modernism
Post-modernism is akin to waking up the morning after a big party, with the realisation
that the world has been thrashed, that atom bombs were detonated in Nagasaki and
Hiroshima killing 355,000 civilians in 1945, that the Holocaust was allowed to happen,
and that science has not delivered on all its promises. Tarnas (1996) summarises
postmodern thought as follows:
Postmodern critical thought has encouraged a vigorous rejection of the entire Western intellectual “canon” as long defined and privileged by a more or less exclusively male, white, European elite. Received truths concerning “man,” “reason,” “civilization,” and “progress” are indicted as intellectually and morally bankrupt. Under the cloak of Western values, too many sins have been committed. Disenchanted eyes are now cast on the West’s long history of ruthless expansionism and exploitation- the rapacity of its elites from ancient times to modern, its systematic thriving at the expense of others, its colonialism and imperialism, its slavery and genocide, its anti-Semitism, its oppression of women, people of color, minorities, homosexuals, the working classes, the poor, its destruction of indigenous societies throughout the world, its arrogant insensitivity to other cultural traditions and values, its cruel abuse of other forms of life, its blind ravaging of virtually the whole planet (Tarnas, 1996, p. 400)
In order to understand postmodernism, it is necessary to understand modernism, which
is linked with modernity, a period associated with the Enlightenment (1715-1775) and its
aspirations for freedom and equality. The early sociologists were exercised by societal
changes such as the transition from feudalism to industrialism and capitalism, theories of
rationality, and characterised by urban industrial society with Fordist practices, e.g. mass
46
production, assembly lines, mass markets, mass education, and metanarratives; for
example, grand theories such as structural functionalism or Marxism, which explained
the big picture of how the world or society works (Durkheim, 2010; Clancy et al., 1986).
The early sociologists saw history moving in a certain direction. Marx sought to explain
how capitalism had overthrown feudalism and would eventually give way to socialism
and a utopian equal society. Weber also wrote about the rise of capitalism in Europe but
explained how its origins were rooted in ascetic Calvinism, a prudent lifestyle and the
reinvesting of profits in industry. He was interested in the spread of market and money
relationships but also warned of the growth of instrumental rationality and the iron cage
of bureaucracy (Abercrombie, Hill and Turner, 2000). Durkheim’s model of social change
was based on society moving from mechanical solidarity to organic solidarity.
Mechanical solidarity was characterised by a simple division of labour, shared moral
values where religion played a major role. Organic solidarity was based on a more
complex division of labour with a decline in religion as societies became more urbanised
(Durkheim, 2010; Clancy et al., 1986). Many industrialised western countries went
through a process of deindustrialisation, giving rise to theories of post-industrialisation
(Kumar, 1978).
In 1979, the French philosopher, Jean Francois Lyotard, published The Postmodern
Condition: A Report on Knowledge. Captivated by changes in capitalism and
bureaucratic-scientific rationality, he argued that knowledge in postmodern society was
characterised by the death of ‘grand narratives’, ‘metanarratives’ and teleological notions
about society (Smith, 1999). Instead, in post-industrial societies (a time of heightened
communication) technology, artificial intelligence, small narratives, and language gained
precedence. Lyotard argued that the inhabitants of postmodern society,
…live in a world … where there are no guarantees as to either the worth of their activities or the truthfulness of their statements; there are only ‘language games’; and there are no economic constraints on the cultural realm (Scott and Marshall, 2009, p. 585)
Postmodern society is in a state of flux, characterised by diversity and pluralism.
Baudrillard argued that we are living in an age characterised by the mass media
(Giddens, 2011). Unlike Marx’s prediction that society was dominated by economic
forces, it is now dominated by signs and images that are circulating around the world.
These have become accelerated through social media.
The antecedents of post-modernism are found in French philosophy, notably
phenomenology/existentialism, structuralism and post-structuralism and the influences of
47
writers such as Arrendt, Baudrillard, Bauman, Derrida, Elias, Foucault, and Lacan
(Goudsblom and Mennell, 1998; Hammersley, 2012b; Tarnas, 1996). According to
Tarnas (1996), it was the analysis of language that most defines postmodernism:
Of the many factors that have converged to produce this intellectual position, it has been the analysis of language that has brought forth the most radically skeptical epistemological currants in the postmodern mind and it is these currents that have identified themselves most articulately and self-consciously as “post-modern”. Again many sources contributed to this development – Nietzsche’s analysis of the problematic relation of language to reality; C. S. Peirce’s semiotics, positing that all human thought takes place in signs; Ferdinand de Saussure’s linguistics, positing the arbitrary relationship between word and object, sign and signified; Wittgenstein’s analysis of the linguistic structuring of human experience; Heidegger’s existentialist-linguistic critique of metaphysics; Edward Sapir and B. L. Whorf’s linguistic hypothesis that language shapes the perception of reality as much as reality shapes language; Michel Foucault’s genealogical investigations into the social construction of knowledge, and Jacques Derrida’s deconstructionism, challenging the attempt to establish a secure meaning in any text. The upshot of these several influences, particularly in the contemporary academic world, has been the dynamic dissemination of a view of human discourse and knowledge that radically relativizes human claims to a sovereign or enduring truth, and that thereby supports an emphatic revision of the character and goals of intellectual analysis (Tarnas, 1996, p. 398)
One of the key thinkers associated with post-modernism is the French philosopher,
Michel Foucault, who published widely but also changed some of his ideas over his
lifetime. To understand his work requires a shift in perspective, from asking ‘why’ to
asking ‘how’ (Foucault, 1991). Poststructuralism argues for plural interpretations of
reality and rejects the idea that absolute truths about the [social] world can be discovered
(Giddens, 2006); post-structuralism was popularised by the work of Foucault who not
only engaged in abstract theory, but drew on history to illustrate his arguments.
Foucault’s Methods
Foucault proposed new methods and ways of seeing society. Kendall and Wickham
(2003) explain Foucault’s key ideas as: intersection of power and knowledge, discourse,
history, archaeology of knowledge, genealogy, search for ‘contingencies not causes’ and
scepticism, and how they can be applied to research methods (Kendall and Wickham,
2003). Foucault drew on the work of ancient Greek philosophers and was sceptical about
‘truth’, ‘progress’ and ‘values’. Academic scepticism proposed ‘we cannot know
anything’, whereas Pyrrhonian scepticism proposes that ‘we cannot know anything,
including the fact that we cannot know anything’ (emphasis in original text) (Kendall and
Wickham, 2003, p. 10). It is a rejection of all truth claims, proposing we should suspend
48
judgement, continue investigations indefinitely and report on how it appears to us,
through a process of setting out oppositions of thoughts and appearances. Foucault
advocated that we should suspend ‘second-order judgements’, which are judgements
other than our own; when an object being studied draws on the authority of others, this is
a second-order judgement (Kendall and Wickham, 2003, p.11).
Foucault studied history and used it to theorise issues such as sexuality, madness
(mental institutions and psychiatry), punishment (prisons), the self and the body (Kendall
and Wickham, 2003, p. 11), but unlike other sociologists his work is not teleological – it
does not involve progress or regress. He was interested in how singular events (such as
how a person who is acting in a certain way becomes defined as mentally ill or criminal)
could be imposed uniformly (Foucault, 1991, p. 76). Foucault uses the term archaeology
as an ‘ordering tool’ to describe the salience of history ‘the process of investigating the
archives of discourse’ begging the question: where does the discourse originate or
appear first? Archaeology emphasises ‘appearances and regularities’ and is ‘non
anthropological and non-interpretive’ (Kendall and Wickham, 2003, p. 25). Foucault uses
the term genealogy to develop his theory of power and knowledge and the way in which
institutions and discourse are used as a form of social control. He uses history as a way
of diagnosing the present, and proposes a ‘history of the present’; for example, he
suggested that the genealogy of psychiatry had dubious origins in that it grew from the
need to use empty leper houses for another group of outcasted persons - the mad
person (Kendall and Wickham, 2003, p. 4). Rather than choosing a period of history to
study, he chose a problem-based approach:
But the problem I pose myself is a quite different one: it’s a matter of how the rendering of sexual behaviour into discourse comes to be transformed, what types of jurisdiction and ‘veridiction’ it’s subject to, and how the constitutive elements are formed of the domain which comes – and only at a very late stage – to be termed ‘sexuality’ (Foucault, 1991, p. 86)
Foucault (1991, p. 74) urges us to ‘look between the dots’, to discover the judicial,
religious, medical and political discourses that surround the regime of power-knowledge-
pleasure. Current discussions of incarceration (O’Sullivan and O’Donnell, 2007), Mother
and Baby Homes report (Department of Children, Equality, Disability, Integration and
Youth, 2021) and sex work (prostitution) (Whitaker, 2014) illustrate the salience of
Foucault’s theories.
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Bauman and Postmodernity
In 1992, sociologist, Zygmunt Bauman, published Intimations of Postmodernity, in which
he argued that, from the mid 1990s, changes were evident in western societies, in that
that they went from societies of producers to consumers (Smith, 1999). Bauman’s advice
to sociologists is not to abandon the ‘principles of the Enlightenment’ and instead to
develop a ‘sociology of postmodernity’ through systematic and rational studies of issues
such as globalisation, consumer society, the lives of ordinary people such as the
unemployed, while remaining aware of the ‘moral uncertainties’ of our times (Smith,
1999, p. 166). He suggested that the poor will always be with us but so will the rich!
Researchers should be more concerned about human values and look to reawakening
the citizen inside the consumer rather than being concerned about ‘social-scientific laws’
(Smith, 1999, p. 166). Post-modernity offers an opportunity for a more democratised
world based on a new set of principles and values, openness and plurality (Tarnas,
1996).
Summing it up
If all of this seems very complex, it is! You only need think of your own complex
thoughts, lives, relationships, and interactions with others. Thomas (2013, p. 105)
suggests that it makes rocket science look easy! In some respects, having a paradigm
and a method makes it easy to carry out research in a short period of time, but you must
make the decision regarding what research approach you will use. The approach or
strategy is driven by the research question. We will examine this in the chapter on writing
the research proposal. Cohen et al. (2007) provide a succinct summary of positivist and
interpretive paradigms:
Positivist and interpretive paradigms are essentially concerned with understanding phenomena through two different lenses. Positivism strives for objectivity, measurability, predictability, controllability, patterning, the construction of laws and rules of behaviour, and the ascription of causality; the interpretive paradigms strive to understand and interpret the world in terms of its actors (Cohen et al., 2007, p. 26)
Bryman argues that the chasm between quantitative and qualitative research is not as
large as it seems because quantitative researchers are also concerned with finding
meaning (Bryman, 2010).
Table 6 summarises the differences between the main paradigms: positivism,
interpretivism, pragmatism and critical theorists in terms of the aims of the research. This
50
table is from Thomas (2013, p. 111) and is loosely adapted from Oakley (2000). In this
current work, we have added the column about pragmatism and the critical theorists.
Table 6. Paradigms: positivism, interpretivism, pragmatism, critical theorists
(Thomas, 2013, p. 111, loosely adapted from Oakley, 2000)
Positivist Interpretivist Pragmatist Critical
Theorists
The researcher aims to …
Predict and explain, usually generalising from carefully selected samples
Understand the particular, contributing to a framework of ‘multiple realities’
Explain and understand pluralism (multiple realities)
What works best to answer research question
Expose underlying power structures in society
Challenge status quo
The researcher uses (for example)
Survey, experiment, documentary research
Unstructured observation, case study, unstructured or semi-structured interview, participant observation, documentary research
Survey, interviews, observations, focus groups, documentary research
Survey, interviews, observations, focus groups, documentary research
The researcher aims to be …
Independent, an outsider
An insider, getting close to and interacting with participants
Get an overview and a deep picture of the issue
Insider and outsider
The researcher looks at …
Things that can be quantified and counted
Perceptions, feelings, thoughts, ideas, experiences, actions as heard or observed
Things that can be counted as well as understanding meaning and what works best
Things that can’t be seen, discourses, thoughts, ideas, experiences
The researcher analyses
Variables, decided on in advance of fieldwork
Emergent patterns
Mixture of analysis, variables and emerging patterns
Emergent patterns
The design of the research is …
Fixed Flexible Flexible Flexible
The words sometimes used (often inaccurately) to sum up these approaches…
Scientific, quantitative, nomothetic (discovery of general scientific laws)
Naturalistic, qualitative, idiographic (focus on unique personal experiences)
Triangulation, embedded explanatory, exploratory design
Expose inequalities and exploitation and to make visible those who were invisible or silenced historically
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Do not allow the paradigms and theories to wreck your head. Punch suggests that
students should not become overwhelmed by them, particularly when they see a
challenge in their practice which they wish to address:
My objection is only to the view that all research must be paradigm driven research. I take a similar view to with respect to the philosophical issues involved, and of the areas of debates. … But we can proceed to do research, and to train researchers, mindful of those debates yet not engulfed by them, and without necessarily yet being able to see their resolution (Punch, 2009, p. 20)
Conclusion
In this chapter, we have explored the philosophical basis of social research and
introduced many terms associated with research such as; paradigms, ontology,
epistemology, positivism, interpretivism, constructivism, constructionism, pragmatism,
critical theories, feminism, gender, critical race theory, disability research, and
postmodernism. Philosophies, theories, and paradigms help us to understand a social
phenomenon. Take a sceptical or questioning viewpoint. Do not take any theory as
gospel. Indeed, we are reminded of the line from Hamlet, ‘there are more things in
heaven and earth, Horatio, than are dreamt of in your philosophy’ (Shakespeare, 1949,
originally 1599, Act 1, Scene X, Hamlet). No paradigm has supremacy, thus it is up to
each researcher to decide which paradigm is the most appropriate for addressing the
research question. Before examining research methods, we turn our attention to the
importance of ethics, which will be discussed in the next chapter.
52
Key Messages
• Research methods are built on the teachings of philosophers and are guided by
three key factors, ontology, epistemology, and methodology. Ontology focuses on
the nature of reality and posits the questions: What is reality? Is it subjective or
objective? Does an objective reality exist? Epistemology focuses on the nature of
knowledge. It posits the question: How do we know what we know?
• Methodology is the philosophical basis for guiding research. It focuses on
research design and methods.
• Logical positivism posits the belief that we can use the methods of the natural
sciences to study people. It argues that there is a known world that can be
studied objectively and measured. It underpins quantitative methods of data
collection (surveys and experiments).
• Interpretivism posits the belief that we cannot study people in the same way as
scientists study the natural world. The interpretive paradigm argues that
researchers need to understand the meanings that people ascribe to their
actions. Interpretivism underpins qualitative methodology and data gathering
(ethnography, observations, in-depth interviews and focus groups).
• Symbolic Interactionism emphasises the role of symbols and language as
fundamental to human interaction (Giddens, 2009).
• Qualitative methodology has been influenced by the philosophy of
phenomenology which focuses on a person’s ‘lived experience’.
• The interpretive paradigm also includes theories of constructivism and
constructionism.
• Constructivism argues that individuals and groups construct reality.
Constructivism describes knowledge as emergent, developmental, non-objective,
viable constructed explanations by humans engaging in meaning-making in
cultural and social communities of discourse (Fosnot, 2005).
• Constructionism believes that researchers should focus on the construction of
meanings which emerge from peoples interactions. There are no absolute truths
but researchers should focus on the processes by which people construct culture.
• Ethnomethodology, pioneered by Garfinkel, is the study of people’s methods of
creating social order; he believed that sociologists had a duty to uncover social
facts.
• The philosophy of pragmatism includes ideas such as pluralism, embracing
change, utilitarianism, value change and individualism, scepticism and the
53
process of inquiry. It underpins mixed methods research and argues that
researchers can use the strength of one method to overcome the weaknesses in
the other method.
• The critical theorists challenged the status quo. They believe that knowledge
comes from our rational thought rather than from our experiences through the
senses. Critical theories underpin: feminist theory, and the social construction of
gender, critical race theory, disability theory, and emancipatory research.
• Emancipatory research argues that research should be used to emancipate and
make visible the lives of oppressed groups and promote social justice.
• Post-modernists argued that knowledge in postmodern society was
characterised by the death of ‘grand narratives’ and ‘metanarratives’ and that
society is no longer governed by history or progress (Giddens, 2011). Instead,
post-modern society is characterised by pluralism and diversity.
• A key thinker associated with post-modernism is Michel Foucault who studied
history and used it to theorise on issues such as sexuality, madness (mental
institutions and psychiatry), punishment (prisons), the self and the body.
• Bauman is also associated with post-modernism and advised sociologists to
develop a ‘sociology of postmodernity’ through systematic and rational studies of
issues such as globalisation, consumer society, the lives of ordinary people such
as the unemployed, while remaining aware of the ‘moral uncertainties’ of our
times.
54
Exercises
Watch the following YouTube video Exercises:
1. Ontology, Epistemology and Research Paradigms. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hkcqGU7l_zU
2. Watch the following YouTube video on Auguste Comte in the three stages
(European Philosopher). Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ofmnGmI115E
3. Research Methods: Interpretivism. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EnCvYJlpcX0
4. Positivist v Interpretivist. Available
at:https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nhJ80pRaZ8g
5. Watch the following YouTube video on quantitative methods. Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GoQ9Zg8Fvf0&feature=relmfu
6. UN Women - impact of COVID-19 and women’s central role in responding and
caring (Available at: https://www.unwomen.org/en/news/in-focus/in-focus-gender-
equality-in-covid-19-response?gclid=CjwKCAiA7939BRBMEiwA-
hX5JzU9rmPn92y6TtW5uPRk9i_Ep2vv7RX9dNm-
9ewQsyenXVDi7_lMtRoCPNkQAvD_BwE).
7. Critical Theory: https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/critical-theory/).
55
Chapter 3. Ethics
Introduction
Historically, the needs of science came before the rights of participants, as
evidenced by the terrible harm inflicted on research participants in Mengele Nazi
experiments on children in concentration camps, as well as the Tuskegee Syphilis
Experiment on Black men. In the last few decades, the centrality of ethics in
research has come to the fore, with all colleges and research agencies having
mandatory research ethics committees or boards. Today, all researchers must
obtain ethical permission from an ethics committee, before conducting research.
Researchers are forbidden to gather any data prior to gaining ethical approval.
Complying with ethical standards and ensuring that research has integrity are vital
components of the research process. In this chapter, we will explore how ethical
principles and codes have developed over time and what it means to conduct
ethical research. We also provide detailed information on completing the necessary
forms for ethical approval.
Learning Outcomes
On successful completion of this chapter, the student will:
• Develop an understanding of the pivotal role of research ethics
• Critically evaluate all aspects of ethical considerations in conducting research
• Competently prepare the documents necessary for ethical approval
• Be cognisant of power relations between researcher and researched
• Ensure research complies with data protection and freedom of information
legislation in Ireland
The importance of Ethics in Conducting Research
In general, the study of ethics has a long history in philosophy but a shorter history in the
social sciences (Tarnas, 1996). In philosophy, ethics are principles of conduct for
distinguishing between right and wrong (moral judgements) and for distinguishing
between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour (Thomas, 2013, p. 18; Shamoo and
Resnik, 2015; Resnik, 2019). Ethics in research refers to the ‘search for rules of conduct’
(Pring, 2010) in which the morality of the decisions that are taken in relation to research
56
participants (respect for participants, protecting autonomy and privacy, ensuring
informed consent, non-maleficence, beneficence) can be justified. These issues will be
teased out shortly, but first it is important to understand how and why these rules of
conduct emerged. To understand the centrality of ethics in research is to understand the
history and purpose of university education (Thomas, 2013). Historically, research was
conducted in universities where academics had freedom to conduct research, produce
knowledge, and then broadcast their findings. Academics were in a privileged position
and this freedom also carried responsibilities and duties of care to research participants
(Thomas, 2013). The founder of University College Dublin, John Henry Newman,
described his definition of the university, in The Idea of a University (1850/1962, pp. 15-
16, cited in Thomas, 2013, p. 38):
A university is a place…in which the intellect may safely range and speculate, sure to find its equal in some antagonistic activity and its judge in the tribunal of truth. It is a place where inquiry is pushed forward, and discoveries verified and proved, and rashness rendered innocuous and error exposed, by the collision of mind with mind and knowledge with knowledge.
Newman’s writings suggest that the university is a place where knowledge is, not only
generated, but contested by those of equal intellects (Thomas, 2013, p. 18). College
students are part of this community of inquiry and as such have a duty of responsibility to
conduct ethical research which contributes to knowledge generation.
Examples of Unethical Research
In the past, some researchers, despite having a university education, believed that
science came before ethics, which, subsequently, caused harm and death to research
participants. For example, in 1932 the Public Health Service in Alabama, USA, began
research on the progression of syphilis in untreated males (Tuskegee Study of Untreated
Syphilis in the Negro Male) (Paul and Brookes, 2015). Researchers told their research
participants that they were being treated for “bad blood”. In other words, they deliberately
deceived research participants. In return for participation in the study, the men received
free meals, medical care, and free burial insurance (Thomas, 2013). The sample
consisted of 400 Black men (200 with syphilis and 200 without syphilis) (Paul and
Brookes, 2015). The study continued for forty years, even though a cure for syphilis
(penicillin) became available in the 1940s (Thomas, 2013; Paul and Brookes, 2015).
This cure was withheld from the men, however. Between 1946 and 1948, US Public
Health Service researchers from the USA continued this research in Guatemala. They
deliberately infected 1,300 people with syphilis to see if penicillin would cure them (Paul
57
and Brookes, 2015). When the research came to light after the principal investigator (Dr
John Cutler) died, President Barrack Obama apologised to the President of Guatemala
for the ethical violations. It was only when the truth about the Tuskegee study was
published in the newspapers that the US government set up the National Commission for
the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, which led to
the Belmont Report (Thomas, 2013).
Another example of unethical research comes from New Zealand. Between 1966 and
1980, Dr Herbert Green was granted approval by the National Women’s Hospital to
withhold medical treatment from women (n=100) with carcinoma in situ (CIS) of the
cervix. The aim of the research was to prove that CIS was not a pre-malignant disease.
He followed the women’s progress but left them untreated When the research came to
light, a judicial inquiry (Cartwright Inquiry) was held, which led to a ‘legally enforceable
code of patients’ rights’ (Paul and Brookes, 2015, p. 13).
These examples, and there are many more, highlight the harm that research can do if
ethics are not considered. The Belmont Report (Department of Health, Education and
Welfare, 1979) incorporated ethical principles outlined in The Nuremberg Code (1949)
and the Declaration of Helsinki (1964) (Irving, 2013). We will now tease out the principles
and applications of the Belmont Report which can be used for your own research.
Ethical Principles and Application to Research
The three basic ethical principles that underpin the Belmont Report (1978) are: 1)
Respect for persons, 2) Beneficence, 3) Justice.
Respect
Respect for persons means that we should treat our research participants in a way that
we would like to be treated, or, if you are a parent, how you would like your child to be
treated? Respect incorporates two other ethical principles: 1) autonomy and 2)
protection. Autonomy means that people have a right to make their own decisions and
judgements, thus to deny a person autonomy is to withhold information from them so that
they cannot make a judgement about whether to participate in research. Some people
are not able to make judgements due to immaturity, mental disability, illnesses, or
because they are in institutions that curtail their liberty. These persons require extensive
protection, and research should only be carried out with them after careful assessment of
risk and benefit.
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Beneficence
Beneficence suggests that we ensure the well-being of participants and that the research
will benefit the community in some way. It incorporates the Hippocratic maxim: “Do no
harm” (non-maleficence) and, again, requires careful assessment of the risks and
benefits of the research.
Justice
The principal of justice means that the benefits and burdens of research should be
equally distributed in society. For example, earlier, we examined the Tuskegee research,
which recruited poor Black disadvantaged men into the study on syphilis; even though
white middle class men also had the disease, the Black men did not benefit from the
research or treatment. The principal of justice underpins the selection of research
participants, that, if research participants do not benefit from the research, they shouldn’t
be included.
The Belmont Report provides three principles for the application of the ethical principles.
These are: 1) informed consent, 2) risk/benefit assessment, and 3) selection of subjects
of research.
Informed Consent
Informed consent incorporates three dimensions: 1) information, 2) comprehension, and
3) voluntariness. Research subjects cannot make an informed decision about whether to
participate in the research if they are not provided with information. This information
should include: the purpose, procedures, risks and anticipated benefits, alternative
procedures (if treatment is involved), as well as an opportunity for the participant to ask
questions, and to withdraw from the research at any time. A research information sheet
should also include how participants were selected and the identity of the researcher and
the institution. The information should be comprehensive and written in accessible
language. In the case of children (under eighteen years) or vulnerable persons, a
guardian should assess the situation and withdraw the participant if it is likely that they
would suffer harm. The concept of voluntariness means that research subjects should
not be deceived, cajoled, or coerced into the research but should participate of their own
volition.
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Assessment of Risks and Benefits
Insofar as possible, the risks and benefits of the research should be assessed. There are
many risks and harms inherent in doing research, such as the risk of psychological,
physical, legal, social, and economic harms. There is also the risk of damaging a person
or an institution’s character or the community of researchers (British Educational
Research Association (BERA), 2018).
Selection of Subjects
When selecting research participants, the research should be mindful of fairness and
justice and not simply choose certain classes of subjects (prisoners, institutionalised
people, welfare recipients). Exercise caution in the selection of vulnerable subjects; they
should not be chosen just because they are easy to access or easy to manipulate due to
their vulnerable status.
Professional Ethical Guidelines and Codes
These ethical principles have been incorporated into professional ethical guidelines and
codes which were necessary because they do not allow for subjective interpretation
(Greig and Taylor, 1999). Each academic discipline (Education, Counselling, Law,
Medicine, Nursing, Pharmacy, Philosophy, Psychology, Psychotherapy, Sociology,
Spirituality, Social Justice, etc.) has developed a set of ethical guidelines which the
researcher must comply with. For example, the Sociological Association of Ireland (SAI)
provides research ethical guidelines which uses an amalgamation of ethical codes from
the British, American and Australian Sociological Associations (SAI, 2020).
The British Education Research Association (BERA, 2018) provides ethical guidelines for
educational research, which endorse the five principles set out by the Academy of Social
Sciences (2015):
1. Social science is fundamental to a democratic society, and should be inclusive of
different interests, values, funders, methods and perspectives.
2. All social science should respect the privacy, autonomy, diversity, values and
dignity of individuals, groups, and communities.
3. All social science should be conducted with integrity throughout, employing the
most appropriate methods for the research purpose.
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4. All social scientists should act with regard to their social responsibilities in
conducting and disseminating their research.
5. All social science should aim to maximise benefit and minimise harm (BERA,
2018, p. 4).
In relation to research ethics, attention needs to be paid to the relationship between
researcher and researched.
Power Relationship between Researcher and Researched
It was already noted that some research in the past has harmed or killed participants.
This highlights the inherent power dynamics in research. Research has political
implications because it is the researcher (or agency) who designs and controls the
research. As such, the participant (formerly called the subject) may not have known the
real purpose of the research and, consequently, there is an unequal power relationship
between the researcher and researched. Research participants are diverse, coming from
different, social class, ethnic, gender, ability/disability, and age backgrounds. Historically,
issues to do with sexism, racism, classism, ethnocentrism, and nationalism have
encouraged discrimination against certain groups:
Research produces knowledge, and knowledge is power. Hence, research is the focus of those who have an interest in knowledge, and who wish to own, control and manipulate it so as to produce desired outcomes. It follows that controlling research means controlling power; and therefore controlling research according to plan is an attractive proposition (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 12)
The question that students should ask themselves when reading research is: ‘In whose
interests is this research?’ Inequalities of power between researcher and researched are
most obvious in research with children.
Ethics in Research with Children
Any person under the age of eighteen years is considered a minor or a child in Ireland
(Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1979). When carrying out research with
children, ethical issues such as informed consent, anonymity, and confidentiality must be
adhered to and upheld throughout the whole research process. Researchers must, not
only receive the informed assent of the child over the age of seven years old, but also
the parent or guardian. A person can only give consent if they have reached the age of
18 years, but children can agree to participate in research. If the child objects to
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participation, then their judgement should be respected (Department of Children and
Youth Affairs, 2012). The Department of Children and Youth Affairs (2012) have
developed comprehensive guidelines for conducting research with children in Ireland
(see exercises below).
It is only within the last few decades that it was recognised that children have rights and
should be consulted in matters which affect them. There is an obvious power imbalance
between an adult and a child and, if the adult is a teacher who embodies authority, then
the power relationship is even more acute. Kor (1992), a survivor of the Mengele
experiments on 1,500 sets of twins during the Nazi regime, implores scientists to pledge
the following:
1. To take a moral commitment never to violate anyone’s human rights and human
dignity.
2. To promote a universal idea that says: ‘Treat the subject of your experiments in a
manner that you would want to be treated if you were in their place’ ...
3. To do your scientific work, but please, never stop being a human being. The
moment you do, you are becoming a scientist for the sake of science alone, and
you are becoming the Mengele of today (Kor, 1992, p. 7; Greig and Taylor, 1999,
p. 147).
Researchers must endorse the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child
(UN, 2010) (Children’s Rights Alliance, 2010, https://www.childrensrights.ie/about-us):
• The best interests of the child must be the primary consideration (Article 3)
• Children should be facilitated to give fully informed consent (Article 12)
• Research must be presented to them in a way that they can understand
• Approval and consent must be gained from their parent or guardian
• Children should not experience any discomfort or distress
• Take steps to put child at ease
In the EU funded research, Children Talking; Why do they Smoke? in-depth interviews
were conducted with seventy-five Irish children (age 10 to 11) to discover how they take
up smoking in order to design interventions to discourage children from smoking. Ethical
approval was granted from the Ethics Committee in UCD, from children and their parents
(Hyde, Treacy, Whitaker, et al., 2000; Hyde et al., 2001). The sample was selected from
youth clubs where leaders provided permission to conduct the interviews within a room
or office. To ensure their protection, children were always in sight of the youth club
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leader by keeping the door open in the rooms where the interviews were being
conducted. To protect the researcher from claims of impropriety, a safe distance
between the child and the researcher was adhered to.
When doing research with children, complete confidentiality cannot be guaranteed
because researchers have a duty of care to children. In the course of an interview, if a
child discloses that they are being sexually abused or at risk of harm, the researcher
must abide by The National Guidelines on Child Protection: Children First (Department of
Children and Youth Affairs, 2017) and report the issue to the local social work duty
service where the child lives or to the child protection organisation, Tusla
(https://www.tusla.ie/services/child-protection-welfare/concerns/).
Research with Animals
There is much controversy regarding research with animals. It is argued that the vast
majority of medical knowledge developed over the past 100 years was as a result of
research on animals (Garrett, 2012). It is outside the scope of this book to explore the
dilemmas associated with research on animals. Obviously, animals cannot provide
informed consent. They are totally dependent on humans for their welfare and protection.
Social scientific research usually does not involve animals; however, we have supervised
research projects where animals have a role. Karen McDermott (a student teacher) was
interested in bringing animals into the classroom because there is much research that
highlights the value and therapeutic effects of animals for children (McDermott, 2016).
Ideally, she would have liked to bring in a dog, but she had to settle for bringing in fish
and a chicken because Irish legislation and policy permits fish and chicken in the
classroom (The Animal Health and Welfare Act, 2013; Ireland, 2013). The Department of
Education (2015) also permits the use of animals in schools if they are not harmed and
are cared for appropriately. In a circular letter to principals and boards of management
for schools, the Department of Education and Skills (2015, p. 1) spells out the use of live
animals for research or educational purposes:
The aims of scientific and environmental education at primary and post-primary levels in Irish schools support learning that is experiential. Students are encouraged to develop skills of scientific inquiry and to actively engage in investigations. The curricula provide opportunity for directly observing live animals and fostering an appreciation and respect for life and the environment. The Department of Education and Skills fully supports these activities and advocates that students experience and learn from direct observation. The benefits of students getting first-hand experience, conducting investigations and observing animals in their natural environment…are considerable… The Department acknowledges that any
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use of live animals for scientific purposes raises strong ethical objections for some and comes within the scope of National and European legislation in this circular (Department of Education and Skills, 2015)
Karen ensured that the animals were treated well and that the children did not harm
them in any way. Sadly, the fish died but rather than replacing them unbeknownst to the
children she used it as an opportunity to discuss the death of a family pet.
Sarantakos (2013) suggests that the following points are encapsulated in codes of ethics
for the inclusion of animals in research:
• Animals should be kept under acceptable conditions and should not be deprived
of basic needs for food, water, sleep, and companionship.
• There should be good reasons for subjecting animals to research.
• Animals should not be put under stress or pain, or be injured in any way
(Sarantakos, 2013, p. 20).
We are reminded of the words of the theologian, philosopher, physician, musician, and
Nobel laureate (1952), Albert Schweitzer:
Compassion, in which all ethics must take root, can only attain its full breadth and depth if it embraces all living creatures and does not limit itself to mankind (Albert Schweitzer, 14 Jan 1875-1965)
Is Deception ever Justified?
Although the key tenets of ethics are respect for persons, beneficence and justice, the
Belmont Report (1974) does provide for exceptional situations where researchers may
be less than truthful:
A special problem of consent arises where informing subjects of some pertinent aspect of the research is likely to impair the validity of the research. In many cases, it is sufficient to indicate to subjects that they are being invited to participate in research of which some features will not be revealed until the research is concluded. In all cases of research involving incomplete disclosure, such research is justified only if it is clear that (1) incomplete disclosure is truly necessary to accomplish the goals of the research, (2) there are no undisclosed risks to subjects that are more than minimal, and (3) there is an adequate plan for debriefing subjects (Belmont Report, 1974, p. 7.)
Many research projects (often experiments or ethnography) have been conducted where
research participants were unaware of the true purpose of the research. The most
famous social psychological experiment was conducted by Miligram in the 1960s in a
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laboratory in Yale University (Miligram, 1963; Thomas, 2013). He wanted to understand
how the Nazis had engaged in acts of genocide and was testing the theory that people
are obedient to those they consider have legitimate authority. In other words, they justify
their behaviour by saying ‘we were only following orders’. He invited volunteers from the
street to administer electric shocks (based on a set of criteria) to participants (trained
actors/students). The electric shocks were not real and ranged from ‘Slight Shock’ to
‘Danger’ to ‘Severe Shock’. The volunteers administered the shocks because they were
ordered to by the researcher and, had the electric shocks been real, they would have
killed the research subjects. In this case, although the volunteers were deceived, the
findings of the study justify the deception.
If you intend to conduct research where you do not want participants to know exactly
what you are doing, you will need to justify this situation to the research ethics committee
and explain that all research participants will be informed of the true nature of the
research when it is completed (Thomas, 2013).
Integrity of Research
It is also essential that researchers ensure the integrity of their research at all stages of
the research process. This is emphasised in the National Policy Statement on Ensuring
Research Integrity in Ireland, which provides a framework that can be used across all
academic disciplines:
Research integrity relates to the performance of research to the highest standards of professionalism and rigour, and to the accuracy and trustworthiness of the research record in publications and elsewhere. It is essential that the Irish research system as a whole protects its reputation for the quality and integrity of its research activity and outputs. Therefore, research integrity is best ensured, in so far as possible, when individual researchers, institutions, publishers and funding bodies work together to create effective processes (2019, p. 3)
Whereas ethics refers to the morality of the decisions that are taken in relation to
research participants (protecting autonomy and privacy, ensuring informed consent,
respect for participants, non-maleficence, beneficence), the integrity of research refers to
research processes, methods, and reporting of research. The issue of integrity is
highlighted in all professional codes for research:
All educational researchers should aim to protect the integrity and reputation of educational research by ensuring that they conduct their research to the highest standards. Researchers should contribute to the community spirit of
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critical analysis and constructive criticism that generates improvement in practice and enhancement of knowledge (BERA, 2018, p. 29)
We will return to the importance of ensuring the integrity of research later in the chapter.
Having discussed key ethical principles, we will investigate how to apply them at each
stage of the research process.
Ethical Considerations at all Stages of Research Process
Ethical considerations must be taken on board at all stages of the research process,
such as at the choice of topic, sampling, methods, analysis, and writing up.
Choice of Topic
Choose a topic that is researchable and ethical. For example, as an emerging
researcher, it is highly unlikely that you would ever get ethical approval at
undergraduate level for sensitive topics such as:
• What effect does domestic violence have on the academic performance of
children?
• What are serial sex offenders’ experiences of grooming children?
• What is the role of spirituality for patients dying in a hospice?
• How do religious cults recruit new members?
Each year, Ethics Committees in colleges refuse ethical approval for topics such as
these because they are deemed unethical or too sensitive or dangerous to research.
In carrying out research for an academic qualification, keep in mind that you are
benefitting from doing the research and that the subjects of your research should also
gain from the experience. These topics contravene the ‘selection of subjects’
guidelines set out by the Belmont Report.
Sampling
Although students may be under pressure to conduct research in a short period of
time, it is tempting but unethical to ask friends or family to participate in the research.
Equally, it is unethical to bully or bribe a participant to take part in your research.
Exercise caution in the selection of subjects and particularly avoid selecting
vulnerable groups who may already be over-researched. Usually, a researcher
should not offer money or other benefits to secure a sample; however, in some
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funded research, incentives may be used, for example, as recent participants in a
household budget survey we were surprised to receive a €20 voucher in the post from
the Central Statistics Office. This was simply to acknowledge our participation. It is
polite to thank respondents for their time and, if appropriate, acknowledge their
participation with a small gift.
Field Work and Data Gathering
Field work involves going into the field and gathering data using a variety of methods
such as surveys, observations (action research, self-study research, ethnography) or
qualitative/ narrative interviews. Each method requires different ethical considerations.
Quantitative Data Collection
Quantitative data collection such as surveys have fewer ethical issues than qualitative
research because surveys are often administered via the post, email, or online. Based
on time and resources, you will have to choose the best way to administer the
questionnaire. If respondents do not wish to participate, then they do not complete
the survey. If you are carrying out an online survey, the participant provides ethical
approval by agreeing to fill out the survey or opting in. This is implied consent. If you
administer the survey on a face-to-face basis, you must provide the respondent with a
research information sheet and a consent form. If you are taking a formal approach:
1. Send a letter or other form of communication (email) asking a person to
participate in your research.
2. Explain the purpose of the research and why you are doing it.
3. Explain why they have been chosen.
4. Assure them of confidentiality and that their name or the name of the
organisation they work in will not appear in your thesis or any publication.
5. Be mindful of not wasting a person’s time, so provide a guideline of how long it will take to complete the survey.
These points are exemplified in the cover letter for a survey below.
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Figure 1. Cover Letter Example
Ballyhoo College
3 September 2020
Dear X,
I am doing a research project for x qualification in X College. The purpose of my research is to …. This research has been approved by the Ethics Committee in X
College. You were selected because …
I would appreciate if you could complete this short survey. Please be aware that participation is voluntary and you can opt out without any negative consequences. I will
ensure that any information you give me will be treated with confidentially. You will
remain anonymous in that your name will not appear in the dissertation or in any
publication arising from the research. This research will comply with General Data
Protection Regulation legislation. Data will be stored on a password protected
computer and will be held for three years and then destroyed. The data will only be
used for the purpose of the research. The research may be published but all
information will be anonymous. If you would like your data returned to you, please advise me up to one month before the dissertation is due [date].
By filling out the survey, you are consenting to participate in the research. If you require validation of my research, please contact my supervisor: ……
Many thanks for your participation. If you would like a copy of my dissertation or a one-
page summary at the end, please email me at [email protected].
Yours sincerely,
A……………
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Ethics and Observation
Observation is used in a number of research methods such as action research, self-
study research, and ethnography. It is used widely in many academic fields, such as
teaching, nursing, etc. If a student teacher is conducting action research or self-study
action research, permission to gather observations of pupils must be sought from
children and their parents. Permission to conduct the research will need to be granted by
the school principal and a board of management. The researcher may send a generic
letter to all the parents explaining the research to them and informing parents that, if they
do not respond negatively, it is assumed that their child can participate in the research.
This is called ‘implied consent’ (Thomas, 2013, p. 49). If the parent does not want their
child to participate, the researcher must make additional provisions for the child (such as
sending them to another class). Denscombe (2010, p. 131) reminds us of the ethical
challenges involved in action research:
Because the activity of action research almost inevitably affects others, it is important to have a clear idea of when and where the action research necessarily steps outside the bounds of collecting information which is purely personal and relating to the practitioners alone. Where it does so, the usual standard of ethics must be observed: permissions "obtained, confidentiality maintained, identities protected” (Denscombe, 2010, p. 131)
The same ethical principles apply to ethnographic research as other social scientific
research, however because of the nature of ethnographic research (observing people in
their natural settings), Hammersley and Atkinson (1995, p. 264) argue that some issues
require further explication. They suggest that the researcher cannot always be
completely honest with research participants about the purpose of their research
because it would affect the outcome. For example, if a researcher were observing in a
classroom to see if teachers give more attention to boys than to girls, then the teacher
would simply change their behaviour (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995).
It is most unlikely that any ethics committee would provide approval for ethnographic
research based on covert participant observation. However, Lauder argues (2003), if the
benefits outweigh the harms, then it is ethically justified. There were 272,000 reported
cases of hate crime in Canada. His study focused on racists rather than victims of
racism. Lauder engaged in covert participant observation of an extreme right wing anti-
Semitic White supremacist religious group which had links to criminal groups and drug
trafficking, for the purpose of finding out about the group’s ideology, beliefs, and modus
operandi (Lauder, 2003).
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Ethnography can raise other ethical dilemmas based on role conflict. For example, a
nurse conducting observations in a surgical theatre had to grapple with her twin role of
nurse and researcher who was known to the anaesthetists and other staff. She had to
continually remind them of her role as researcher and seek permission to record
observations (Goodwin et al., 2003).
Interviews and Focus Groups
Qualitative research demands an even stronger focus on ethics because, as a
researcher, you become closer to your participant and may be asking intimate or
personal questions. If you are carrying out a face-to-face interview or a focus group, you
must prepare a research information sheet and a consent form so that the participant
can provide informed consent. Below is an example of a research information sheet and
consent form.
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Figure 2. Research Information Sheet and Consent Form
Research Information Sheet
Date:
Researcher:
Organisation/ College (Name and Contact details):
Supervisor:
Title of Study:
Outline of research
This research will investigate [… ].
Aim and Objectives of the project
The aim of the research is to: […}. The objectives of the project […]
Why were you selected?
You were selected because […].
Research is Voluntary
We would appreciate if you could participate in this research. You are free to withdraw from
the research at any time, without giving a reason for withdrawing, and without your withdrawal
having any adverse effect on you. You are also free to withdraw your data up to one month
before the research deadline [date …].
What would I need you to do?
If you agree to participate, your involvement means [….]. Everything you say will be kept
strictly PRIVATE and CONFIDENTIAL. The results of this research may be published but you
will not be identified in any way. The researcher is happy to answer any queries you may
have. This research has received ethical approval from the Ethics Committee in [….].
o0o
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CONSENT FORM
Date: Researcher’s Name: Organisation: Title of Study: Consent (To be completed by the participant) Have you been fully informed or read the information sheet about this study? YES/NO Have you had an opportunity to ask questions and discuss this study? YES/NO Have you received satisfactory answers to all your questions? YES/NO Do you understand that you are free to withdraw from this research at any time without giving a reason for withdrawing and without your withdrawal having an adverse effect for you? YES/NO Do you agree to take part in this study the results of which are likely to be published? YES/NO Have you been informed that a copy of this consent form will be kept by the researcher? YES/NO Are you satisfied that any information you give to the researcher will be kept confidential? Your name will not appear in the research report. YES/NO
Name of Participant (printed) ___________________________________________ (signature)________________________________________ Date ______________ Signature of Researcher __________________________ Date__________________
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In the consent form, it is advisable to give a deadline for the withdrawal of data,
because the researcher will need to conduct additional interviews if participants
withdraw their data. Hard copies of consent forms must be stored separately from
data and must be locked in a filing cabinet or other secure place. In the case of
telephone interviews or interviews using electronic software such as Zoom or Skype,
it is good practice to send the information sheet and consent form (via mail or email)
to the respondent prior to the interview. Ask them to sign it either by printing and
signing it and then scanning it and returning it to you, or by providing an electronic
signature and then converting the file into a permanent data file (PDF) and returning it
to you (Bell and Waters, 2014).
If written consent is not available, it may be permissible to get verbal agreement. If
research was being conducted in a situation (such as a bar), where the respondent
did not want to be seen signing a form, but agreed to do an interview and understood
their rights as research participants, then verbal agreement is sufficient (Sarantakos,
2013).
Ethical issues must also be taken into account during the course of a focus group or
interview. Regardless of the status of the participants, researchers must take a non-
judgemental stance and treat participants with respect. The researcher is ethically bound
to inform the participants that a recording device will be used. Its purpose is to collect
accurate information. Explain to the participant that the value of a recording is to be able
to listen to exactly what is being said rather than trying to rely on memory. If the
respondent does not wish to be recorded, the researcher must not insist on using a
recording device. At the beginning of the interview, participants must be advised that
they do not have to answer any questions they do not feel comfortable with, or that they
can stop the interview at any time without having to give an explanation. They can also
withdraw their data at a later stage (provide a date) without any harm coming to them.
The research information sheet and consent form act as a contract to protect the
respondent and the researcher from litigation in the future (Bell and Waters, 2014).
There are limits to keeping data anonymous and confidential. Data does have not have
legal privilege (Dawson, 2012). If a respondent discloses that they intend to kill someone
or do serious harm to someone, you have a duty to report this to the relevant authorities
(An Garda Síochána) and you may be called to court to give evidence.
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Once qualitative data has been gathered, make sure that all identifiers are removed from
the data. Ensure that you do not save the original names of the research participants but
replace them with numbers or fictional names (pseudonyms). Participants have a right to
access their data. As such, they may wish to see the transcript of their interview and may
ask you to remove some quotations.
Analysis and Reporting of Findings
Regarding publishing findings, students should ensure the integrity of their research by
reporting their findings honestly and by eschewing plagiarism. The Irish Universities
Association (IUA, 2019) has provided a policy statement on research integrity. Breaches
of integrity include:
• Fabrication of data, i.e., making up results and recording or reporting them.
• Falsification of data, i.e., manipulating research or changing or omitting data or
results such that the research is not accurately represented
• Plagiarism, i.e., the appropriation of another person’s ideas…or words without
giving appropriate credit … (IUA, 2019, p. 23).
Falsification or fabrication of data is a serious crime, especially in large scale studies
because researchers build on the work of previous researchers. Small scale research
projects do not do as much harm; they harm the individual who engages in the
fabrication of data and they harm the respondent because you have wasted their time.
We had one creative student who was too disorganised to conduct interviews, so she
interviewed herself, mimicking the voice of a research respondent!
Plagiarism
Plagiarism is the act of using someone else’s work and claiming it as your own. If you
copy a piece of literature without fully referencing the author, or if you use someone
else’s review and claim it as your own, then you are guilty of plagiarism. Plagiarism is
immoral and unethical. Academic institutions should have policies on plagiarism and
clear protocols in place to deal with it (QQI, 2013). Students may be required to submit
their assignments through software for detecting plagiarism such as Turnitin or Urkund to
determine the extent of other people’s work in their research. In most colleges, there are
penalties if a student is found guilty. The penalties will depend on the degree of
plagiarism. If detected, depending on the college’s policy, the student may be required to
resubmit the work, thus adding to their own workload and time challenges.
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Sometimes, plagiarism is due to academic naivety where a student forgets to include a
reference or uses a direct quotation without giving the page number or is unable to
paraphrase or summarise the work of others. Due to time constraints, it is not unusual for
students to plagiarise their own work. The director of the programme in consultation with
others will have to make the decision whether to penalise the student or not.
Correct referencing is an intrinsic aspect of academic programmes and students must
demonstrate that they are competent in this area. The usual referencing systems are
Harvard, American Psychological Association (APA) and the Chicago School of
Referencing. Of these three systems, the Harvard is a hybrid system, in that various
colleges may have different versions. If your college uses the Harvard system ensure
that you are familiar with it. Today, there are many electronic reference management
systems available; free versions are available for download. In this book, we have used
the Cite them Right 10th Edition Harvard using the Zotero reference Manager (Shields
and Pears, 2013).
Unfortunately, it has become very easy for students to buy essays or dissertations online
and submit them to academic institutions as their own work; this is called impersonation
(Flint, Clegg and Macdonald, 2006). It is a major challenge for academics to deal with
dissertations that have either been bought over the internet or that contain chapters
which include large sections from another person’s research. Usually plagiarised
material is easy to spot because it differs in writing style from the student’s other work. In
some cases, students have plagiarised from dissertations in other languages. Quality
and Qualifications Ireland (2013) suggest that colleges should have a multi-disciplinary
and multi-layered approach, in which assessors and learners receive training and
guidance about what constitutes plagiarism and how to effectively deal with it. They
suggest that policies and penalties for plagiarism should be published so that students
are aware of them. Clarkeburn and Freeman (2007) suggest the way to deal with
academic dishonesty is for students and faculty to work together to develop an honest
academic community. Colleges could also have academic writing modules to support
students with academic writing.
Copyright refers to the legitimate right of the owner or creator of intellectual property. In
Ireland, the Copyright and Related Rights Act 2000 (Ireland, 2000) sets out the rights
of copyright owners and penalties for infringement of copyright. Copyright law protects:
original literary, dramatic, musical and artistic works, film, sound recordings, broadcasts,
and the typographical arrangement of published editions.
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• Copyright protects original works of authorship fixed in a tangible medium of
expression.
• Copyright covers both published and unpublished works.
• Copyright does not protect inventions, discoveries, or ideas. Instead, copyright
law protects the way they are expressed. A trademark protects the words,
phrases, symbols, or designs that identify and distinguish the goods or services
of one party from another.
If a researcher uses an artefact or object that has been copyrighted, then the onus is on
the researcher to ask permission from the author to use their work. Generally speaking,
in academic work, permission is given for students to use information for research
purposes, but they must acknowledge their sources. All books, journal articles and other
works must be referenced in the body of the text and in the references section at the end
of the research.
Collusion and Multiple Authors
Sometimes students work on projects together, and although collaboration is a good
thing, it is important to ensure that your work is your own (QQI, 2013). For example, we
had two students who were carrying out research on the same topic, so instead of
collecting their data individually, they conducted interviews together. When it was
discovered on assessment that they had the exact same data, they had to conduct the
research again. Students are required to sign a declaration form on the front page of
their dissertation/research declaring that the work is their own.
With funded research, there may be many people involved in the research process. All
contributors should be acknowledged, if not on the title of the research, then inside as
contributors. Over the years, we have witnessed many data collectors and students
without whom the research could not be completed be omitted from the research report.
In the credits, at the end of a film, a list is provided of all those who have been involved
in the production of the film, research should be no different (de Vaus, 2009). This is
encapsulated in the Sociological Association of Ireland (SAI) Ethical Guidelines (2018):
They should acknowledge fully all those who contributed to their research and publications. Attribution and ordering of authorship and acknowledgements should accurately reflect the contributions of all main participants in both research and writing processes, including students (SAI, 2018, p. 4)
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The SAI Guidelines are available at
https://www.sociology.ie/uploads/4/2/5/2/42525367/sai_ethical_guidelines.pdf (Accessed
20th April 2021).
Data Storage and Use
The Data Protection Acts (1988, 2003, 2018) (Ireland, 2003, 2018) prohibits the
processing of data without prior consent from research participants. The General Data
Protection Regulations (GDPR) (Ireland, 2018) provide guidelines for the storing of data.
Data must be stored on password protected computers. It should not be stored on
memory sticks because these can be lost easily. Hard copies of data should be kept
under lock and key and should not be shared with others apart from the research
supervisor. The Freedom of Information Acts entitles research participants to know how
their data will be used and provides them with the right to withdraw their data if they
change their minds after an interview. Data may only be used for the purpose for which it
was gathered and should not be shared with others unless you have specifically
explained to your participants in the consent form that the research may be published.
After Submission and Examination
Following the submission of your dissertation, it is considered good practice to debrief
research participants by asking them if they would like a short summary of your research
or a copy of your thesis (BERA, 2018). It is easy to create a one-page summary with
bullet points of the findings. Participants may not be interested but at least they have the
choice. With funded research, participants should be made aware that publications are
available on a website or a one-page briefing document could be created and made
available for participants.
When your dissertation has been submitted and assessed, you will need to store your
data (recordings of interviews, field notes, or hard copies of surveys) for a certain length
of time, in case participants wish to access to their data. Each Higher Education
Institution has its own guidelines for students. Colleges may be guided by The Research
Council UK (RCUK) Code of Conduct in Britain (2013) and the British Educational
Research Association (2018); it asks its students to destroy the data after three years.
The data from funded research should be kept for up to ten years (or longer for certain
types of data such as longitudinal studies). Small scale academic research for
dissertations does not need to be saved for as long as funded research. Students should
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check institutional guidelines. All data from respondents (such as email addresses or
physical addresses) should be deleted.
Research Ethics Forms
Prior to conducting research, students must submit their research proposal (next
chapter) and an ethics form to a Research Ethics Committee for approval. Each Higher
Education Institution provides their own forms to be completed by the student. You
cannot commence gathering data until you have received clearance from the Ethics
Committee, however, you can continue with your literature review. Sometimes an ethics
committee will not approve the research. In that case, it is good to look at your topic and
see if there is another way of conducting the research or changing the focus. For
example, if your research question was – ‘What are serial sex offenders’ experiences of
grooming children?’ – then this could be reframed into the following: ‘What are the
dominant discourses on serial sex offenders in Irish newspapers 2010-2020?’
The ethics form will usually require answers to the following questions (see below).
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Figure 3. Questions for Ethics Review Form
• What is the aim of research and research questions?
• What methodological approach will be used?
• What data collection methods will be used?
• What is the plan or timetable for the research?
• Who are the participants?
• How will participants be selected?
• What are the inclusion criteria?
• Is there any possibility that participants might experience discomfort or embarrassment?
• Is there any possibility that participants or institutions might be harmed by your
research?
• Have you considered informed consent and ethical considerations?
• How will participants be informed?
• Have you prepared a research information sheet?
• Do participants know that they can withdraw from the study or withdraw their data?
• Have you provided a date for withdrawal of data?
• Will you provide participants with information about the findings of your study?
• How will you provide participants with information about the findings of your study?
• Are there any features of the research that may raise ethical concerns?
• Are you aware of Irish data protection legislation and guidelines?
• How will you disseminate the findings of your research?
• How will you guarantee anonymity and confidentiality?
• How will data be stored?
• When will data be destroyed?
• If you intend gathering data abroad, have you included information about visas or other
aspects of the study that may affect ethical issues?
• Is there other information that the Ethics Committee needs to know about?
• Key references.
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Conclusion
This chapter has explored all aspects of the type of ethical considerations a researcher
needs to consider before embarking on a research project. Historically, research has
harmed many people and, consequently, all professions have devised codes of ethics
and colleges have developed ethical guidelines for conducting research. Prior to
embarking on research, an ethics form will need to be completed. It is worth putting time
and effort into writing the form, as otherwise you may have to resubmit. As a researcher,
you must also ensure the integrity of your research. You have a duty of responsibility
towards your research participants, your profession, your college, and to the community
of researchers. Ethics comprises a component of your research proposal, which will be
discussed in the next chapter.
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Key Messages
• Research ethics are the foundation of good quality research.
• The key ethical tenets are respect for participants, non-maleficence (do no harm
to participants), beneficence (your research should benefit participants and
society), selection of participants (be careful about conducting research with
vulnerable people), be extra careful about conducting research with children.
• Your research participants have the right to privacy, anonymity, and
confidentiality. This involves informed consent.
• To ensure the integrity of your research, never falsify or fabricate your results.
• Do not wittingly or unwittingly plagiarise another’s work. Sometimes students
forget to cite sources, and this can be assumed as plagiarism rather than
forgetfulness. All colleges have severe penalties in place for plagiarism.
• Prepare a research information sheet and consent form for research participants.
• Prepare a cover letter for ‘gatekeepers’ (school principals, Board of Management)
explaining research and seeking access to participants.
• Ensure that you have completed the ethics form and have received ethical
approval before embarking on data gathering.
• Remember to include your references in the body of the text and in the list of
references at the end.
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Exercises
1. Explore the Belmont Report (1979). This comprehensive report is only eight
pages long. Available at: : https://www.hhs.gov/ohrp/sites/default/files/the-
belmont-report-508c_FINAL.pdf
US Public Health Service Syphilis Study at Tuskegee. Available at:
https://www.cdc.gov/tuskegee/timeline.htm
The Belmont Report; Basic Ethical Principles and their Application (2017) (30
minutes). Available at:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M6AKIIhoFn4&feature=youtu.be
2. Read the Data Protection Act Ireland 2018. Available at:
http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/eli/2018/act/7/enacted/en/html
Familiarise yourself with the General Data Protection Regulations. Available
at:
https://www.citizensinformation.ie/en/government_in_ireland/data_protection/
overview_of_general_data_protection_regulation.html
3. Check out the British Educational Research Association. Available at:
https://www.bera.ac.uk/publication/ethical-guidelines-for-educational-
research-2018 (Accessed 31 July 2020).
4. Investigate the ethical issues in these BERA case studies. BERA has
published a series of Research Ethics Case Studies to demonstrate how
ethical guidelines can be applied during the research process.
5. What is Ethics in Research & Why is it Important? By David Resnik. Available
at: https://www.niehs.nih.gov/research/resources/bioethics/whatis/index.cfm
Guidance for Developing Ethical Research Projects Involving Children (2012)
Department of Children and Youth Affairs. Available at:
https://aran.library.nuigalway.ie/bitstream/handle/10379/6493/OMCYA_Ethics
_Guidance.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y
6. Investigate this research ethics form for the School of Philosophy and Social
Science in Trinity College Dublin. Available at:
https://www.tcd.ie/ssp/research/ethics/
7. Research Ethics in Social Research (2018) webinar by Dr Claire Hickey for
the Teaching Council. PowerPoint Slides and Webinar. Available at:
https://register.gotowebinar.com/recording/6156352918948212226
https://www.teachingcouncil.ie/en/_fileupload/Research/Ethics-Webinar-
Slides.pdf (Accessed 5th October 2020).
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Chapter 4. Research Proposal
Introduction
Most colleges require students to develop a research proposal prior to conducting
research. Depending on college requirements, the research proposal may vary in length
from 800 to 2,500 words. A research proposal can be thought of as a map for your
journey or comparable to an architect’s plan for a house. According to Denscombe
(2019):
When building a house you have to draw up plans, what materials will be required, when they will be delivered and how all will fit together. The groundwork has to be prepared and practical issues thought about (2019, p. 6).
The more detailed and explicit the plan, the easier it will be to carry out the research.
Some colleges may provide a template for writing a research proposal (see two
exemplars, below). Continuing with our analogy of research being akin to making a cake,
we suggest that all research proposals have key ‘ingredients’. In this chapter, we will
provide a brief description of each ‘ingredient’. These include an: 1) Introduction with
topic choice, aims and research questions, 2) preliminary review of the literature, 3)
methodologies and methods, 4) ethics, and 5) contribution to academic knowledge.
Other aspects of the groundwork include consideration of available resources, as well as
a timetable for completion of research. Two Irish student exemplars are included below
as illustrations of excellent research proposals. The choice of topic is the most important
decision a researcher will make, so this issue is explored first.
Learning Outcomes
On completion of this chapter, the successful student will be able to:
• Identify the key ingredients that need to be included in a research proposal
• Develop a set of skills and competencies to choose a research topic and write a
research proposal
• Write an academically structured proposal
• Demonstrate competence in academic writing and referencing
• Develop time management skills
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Choosing a Researchable Topic
Choosing a topic can be daunting; the baffled first-time researcher might, quite rightly,
ask the question: Where do I start? In this section, we provide ten ideas for choosing a
topic.
1. Convenience: The research dissertation is often the capstone module of an
undergraduate or post-graduate programme and, as such, synthesises the
learning from all the modules covered. Choose a topic that is relevant to the
educational programme you are pursuing or from a module you found compelling.
For example, when doing her master’s degree, Teresa Whitaker found the
module on the Sociology of Language fascinating, so she choose to study the
Irish language in Northern Ireland as her research topic (Whitaker, 1995). This is
a good example of what not to do, in the sense that it involved spending time in
Belfast collecting data, and incurred costs for child minding, travel,
accommodation, as well as researching a fraught and sensitively political area.
2. Feasible: The research must be feasible (Denscombe, 2019). If you are doing a
minor dissertation/project, comprising anything between 7,000 and 20,000 words
you will be very limited in what you can accomplish within the available time
frame. Therefore, keep it small and simple (KISS)! The best piece of research is
a finished piece of research.
3. Curiosity: Satisfying your curiosity on a topic might ignite your research fire
(Thomas, 2013). Although it is a good to have an interest in the topic, a passion
could lead to bias in the research. On the other hand, if you lose interest, the
research can become a burden or a drudge. We have supervised students who
had an evangelical zeal for their topics, which blinded them to many dimensions
of the research.
4. Worthwhile: The research must be worthwhile. The assessors need to see that
there are clear benefits to your research (Denscombe, 2019, p. 2). In the past, as
assessors, we have had to decline permission for proposals on topics that were
esoteric and un-researchable.
5. Relevance: If you are working in a specialist area or profession, it is wise to
choose a topic that will teach you something about your own practice or
something that will provide a deeper understanding of your specialist area or
profession.
6. Constraints: Sarantakos (2013, p. 16) suggests that there are factors that may
affect your choice of topic. These include financial constraints, time constraints,
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lack of expert assistance (if carrying out funded research), research paradigm
(researchers may be committed to a particular paradigm such as emancipatory
research, feminist research etc.), expertise (researchers usually research topics
within their own professional expertise), ideology (researchers may have
ideological interests such as Marxism or Feminism), access to research subjects
(will there be a sufficient sample of suitable people to participate in my
research?), as well as need for data (those engaging in funded research may
need to address topics that provide funding) (Sarantakos, 2013).
7. Availability of literature: Will there be enough literature and/or previous research
in relation to my topic? Or alternatively, we have often heard students say: ‘This
topic has been researched before’. Remember, just as you are unique so is your
research. Even if there has been a lot of research conducted on your topic
before, there will always be a gap for another researcher to research the same
topic from a different perspective. Alternatively, it may be that the research has
not been carried out in Ireland before.
8. Communication: Think of your proposal as ‘selling an idea’. Denscombe (2019, p.
2) suggests that the success of your proposal will depend on your ability to
communicate your ideas to assessors about the importance of your proposed
research.
9. Brainstorm: The first step is to do a brainstorming session. Choose, say, five
areas of interest. Do a quick search for literature on Google Scholar or on online
databases in your college. This will map out the field and show you how the topic
has been dealt with in previous research. Use ‘mind maps’ and colourful
illustrations to prompt your thinking. Then try to narrow down the field into an
appropriate topic. Discuss it with your supervisor (if appropriate) or with a ‘critical
friend’, someone who has already carried out research.
10. Appropriate: When choosing a topic also ask yourself whether you are drawn to
numerical or word explanations, for example, do you describe the weather in
terms of numbers (18 degrees Centigrade) or words, ‘it is a warm day today’? If
you were always terrible at maths but shone at essay writing you may want to
choose a qualitative approach which uses words for explanations, or if you love
numbers and statistics then choose a topic that can be explored using statistics
(Dawson, 2012). That said, ultimately you will need to choose an appropriate
research method that will address your research question.
Having chosen a topic, we will now examine the structure of the research proposal.
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Structure of Research Proposal
Most research proposals follow the same structure. There is an element of a formula
about them. Denscombe (2019, pp. 5-6) suggests:
A well-constructed research proposal offers a blueprint for the research that shows what the parts look like and how they will fit together. It describes what will be done, explains how it will be done, and justifies why the research should be undertaken. A research proposal is an important part of the research process because the success of any project depends on forward planning and organization. A good proposal is based on careful thought about how the project will be conducted and involves the kind of advance planning that is required if a project is to run smoothly.
Having chosen a topic, there are seven basic areas: 1) Aim and objectives, 2) Literature
review, 3) Research question, 4) Methods, 5) Resources, 6) Ethics, 7) Outputs
(Denscombe, 2019) (see Figure 4, below). Successful proposals are those that manage
to address the seven areas in a way that satisfies the requirements of their audience.
Figure 4 The Logic of Research Proposals (Denscombe, 2019, p. 6)
According to Marshall and Rossman (2016, p. 66),
…the finished proposal should demonstrate that (a) the research is worth doing, (b) the researcher is competent to conduct the study, (c) the study is carefully planned and worth doing.
LITREVIEW
RESEARCHQUESTIONS
METHODS
RESOURCES
ETHICS
OUTPUT
AIM+OBJECTIVES
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Although each proposal follows a formula, each proposal is unique, based on a new set
of ideas. As the topic you choose will be limited by the resources available, we will
examine the issue of resources first.
Resources
Inevitably, there are limited resources available for conducting research. Denscombe
(2019, p. 45) suggests the student should ask themselves: ‘How long will my research
take and what will it cost?’ A major resource is time management. Think about your
duties and obligations: Are you teaching / tutoring full time? Do you have domestic
commitments such as children to raise and a home to run? How much time can you
realistically devote to your research? If you are carrying out research while attending
classes or lectures, resist the temptation to leave your research until near the submission
date. From the beginning, try to invest a short period of time on your research every day;
it will be very beneficial in the long run.
We advise students to keep a research diary. This is an invaluable tool, not only for
planning, but also for keeping a record of what you have done. The contents can be
utilised in the writing of the methodology section and literature review. For example, you
could note a journal article that you would like to look up later. As we said earlier, the
best piece of research is a finished piece of research, so there is no point in planning an
ambitious project that you will not be able to complete in the allocated time period. In
some colleges, students are asked to include a proposed realistic timetable in their
research proposal. Look at the date of submission and work backwards. Plan to have
your dissertation completed at least two weeks before the submission date so that you
have time to proofread it, check the references, grammar, academic style of writing etc.
Here is a proposed timetable. Amend it to suit your own institutional requirements.
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Table 7. Timetable for Completion of Research
Action Date
Choose a topic Early September 202_
Research Proposal End September 202-
Meeting with Supervisor End September 202_
• Ethics Review Form • Prepare letters of consent
Research information sheet
October 202_
Literature Review &
Focussed Research Questions based on Literature Review
October 202_
Design Research Instruments November 202_
Methodology Chapter December 202_
2 weeks Xmas Break
Pilot research instruments & get feedback, finalise research
instruments
January 202_
Field work February 202_
Field Work March 202_
Analysis of data April 202_
Methodology Chapter second version May 202_
Findings/Results Chapter and interpretation of data (first
version)
June 202_
Update Literature Review (2nd draft) June 202_
First draft of thesis
• Title • Table of Contents • Introduction • Review of literature • Methodology and methods • Findings/Results/Interpretation of findings • Conclusion & Recommendations • References
Appendices
July 202_
Full draft of Thesis
Check references & appendices
Proofread it, grammar, academic style of writing
Early August 202_
Thesis Submission 30 August 202_
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Another major resource is that of finance. If you decide to include your estimated project
costs in your proposal, they may include computer software, travel, transcribing,
stationery, printing drafts, and extras. If you are carrying out funded research, consider if
you will have enough financial support available for the duration of the research project.
The next section addresses the working title of your proposal.
Working Title
Having chosen a topic, it is important to choose an appropriate working title because it
sets the scene for the whole research process. ‘The title should accurately reflect the
content and the scope of the proposed study’ (Hollins et al., 2010, p. 791). It is usual to
provide a working title where the wording, but not the content, of your research may
change over time. This title may also be used if a separate research ethics form is being
used, and will be used as a title for letters of consent and questionnaires (Hollins, Martin
and Fleming, 2010).
It should be noted that if the title of your research is in question format, that this question
should never have a ‘yes’ or ‘no’ answer, as this can bias your research; for example:
‘Should Homework be abolished? A Quantitative Study’. A more accurate title would be:
Parents and Teachers Views of Homework in Primary Schools in Ireland. The title
usually, although not always, reflects your aim but it certainly should capture the topic.
The working title may be left until all other sections of your proposal have been
completed and may change as your research progresses.
Research Proposal Process: Introduction, Aim and Objectives
The introduction informs the reader what is your research is about. Blaxter, Tight and
Hughes, 2010) suggest that a researcher needs to try out their research proposal on a
non-specialist audience or reader, that is, to explain the topic in simple language: ‘It is
important that you are able to render the strange familiar, as well as at other times, the
familiar strange’ (Blaxter et al., 2010, p.39). The proposal can also explain the rationale
for your research. For example, the rationale is explicit in the following sentence from the
first exemplar:
The Irish Primary School Curriculum is well constructed, based on best international practice using the Kodály Method (KM) as its foundation, however, since 1999 teachers have voiced their concerns over their confidence to teach this curriculum, due to a lack of training and support (Ní Threasaigh, 2000, cited in Collins, 2018).
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The rationale is followed by the aims and objectives. Bell, Bryman and Harley (2019,
pp.11-12) explain what an aim is:
Aims are broad statements of desired outcomes, or the general intentions of the research, which ‘paint the picture’ of your research proposal. Emphasize what is to be accomplished, not how it is to be accomplished.
Similarly, Hollins et al. suggest that stating the aim of the research clearly is crucial and
should not be vague, for ‘it encapsulates what precisely the researcher intends to do’
(2010, p. 793). Denscombe (2019, p. 45) suggests that the aim is what the research is
about.
The objectives of the research explain how you intend to address the aim and how you
intend to answer your research questions. The objectives are written like a clear list of
statements and are often bullet pointed. We provide two examples below. In the first
example, Hazel Collins, an experienced music teacher, was undertaking a Professional
Master’s in Education and wished to find out how she could enhance her pedagogies:
Aim:
To find out how to enhance music literacy using the Kodaly method to children in senior cycle in primary school.
Objectives:
• To integrate a newly developed music pedagogy using information, communication, technology (ICT)
• To find out what difficulties other IPS teachers may have in teaching music • To discover gender breakdown of pupils in regional music lessons providers.
In the second example, Jenny Meyer was studying for a Master’s degree in Forensic
Psychology and wished to research professionals’ opinions about child sexual abuse
perpetrated by females:
Aim
The aim of this study is to explore how professionals (psychologists/psychotherapists) in private practice construct female perpetuated child sexual abuse.
Objectives
· To interrogate the talk of professionals and to examine the kinds of social explanations underpinning the discourses
· To explore what can be learnt from these discursive practices in order to inform forensic psychology practice.
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The next section of the research proposal focuses on a short literature review.
Preliminary Review of the Literature
The preliminary review of the literature identifies previous research on the topic or what
is already known (Denscombe, 2019, p. 45). It puts your research into context and may
provide a theoretical framework. At proposal stage, a full literature review is not required.
In some colleges, it is recommended that a research proposal should contain at least ten
publications (books, journals, policy documents) relevant to your research topic. In this
initial review, if you have chosen a topic based on a module, then check out the reading
list for the module. Consult the databases in your college library and conduct a generic
search engine, e.g. Google Scholar, to identify relevant theories, up to date research,
and specific journal articles in your academic field. Government policies should be
included, if relevant. Search for academic literature undertaken in Ireland and
internationally. Ebeling and Gibbs (2008) suggest that there are three fundamental
reasons to write a literature review:
(1) to learn as much as you can about your research topic; (2) to develop the searching and analytical skills necessary in a research project; and (3) to demonstrate this knowledge through a coherent and systematic text that helps to link what you have learned from previous research to what you are researching for your own project (Ebeling and Gibbs, 2008, pp. 64-65).
The following chapter carries a detailed explanation of how to carry out a comprehensive
review of the literature, but for the proposal a shorter review of the literature is required
(see exemplars below).
In the next section, we investigate how to design the principal research question.
Research Question
The research question reveals what the research is trying to find out (Denscombe,
2019, p. 46). It will determine the methodology, so it important that it is ‘clearly
articulated’ (Hollins et al., 2010, p. 793). The research question is related to the aim
and objectives and should be as explicit, focused, and relevant as possible to the
research topic. Blaxter et al. (2010, p. 50) suggest that the student may consider the
five Ws and H: ‘who’, ‘what’, ‘where’, ‘when’, ‘why’, and ‘how’. The student then needs
to consider which of these questions is the most important or central to his or her
research. In thinking about how to approach a research question, Bryman (2016, p. 7,
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cited in Denscombe, 2010, p. 7) provides examples of more complex types of
research questions students could ask in their research:
(1) Predicting an outcome (does y happen under circumstances a and b?)
(2) Explaining causes and consequences of a phenomenon (is y affected by x or is y
a consequence of x?)
(3) Evaluating a phenomenon (does y exhibit benefits that it is claimed to have?)
(4) Describing a phenomenon (what is y like or what forms does y assume?)
(5) Developing good practice (how can we improve y?)
(6) Empowerment (how can we improve the lives of those we research?)
What methodology would each of these questions need?
In some colleges (see exemplar 1), the research questions are posed at the end of the
literature review. In the following chapters, we will explore the type of questions that
underpin quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods research. Looking at our student
exemplars, their research questions point towards the research methods they will be
using:
· How can I change my instructional pedagogies to help improve children’s music literacy in senior classes?
This question suggests a self-study methodology.
· How do professionals in private practice construct female paedophiles or hebephiles?
This question suggests a qualitative methodology.
• If your research question is focused on measuring or quantifying something, the
question contains some kind of element of measurement, such as: ‘How many
hours does a Leaving Certificate student spend studying every week? It implies
that quantitative methods are appropriate. If you wished to find out if there is a
relationship between variables (what is the relationship between hours of study
and academic achievement?), this also suggests quantitative methods.
• What are the experiences of Leaving Certificate students in St. Marietta College?
This question requires a qualitative methodology.
• If you wanted to find out a person’s experience of contracting and being treated
for Covid-19, then qualitative methods or narrative research would be most
suitable.
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• If your research question was, ‘what were Irish people’s experiences of
emigration to England in 1900?’, then documentary research method would be
the best choice.
• If you were interested in interpreting people’s experience over time or researching
a topic which is self-reflective such as: ‘What are women’s experiences of
dieting?’, then the narrative research method would be appropriate.
• If you are researching changes taking place over time or wish to change your own
practice, such as ‘How can I improve …’, then action research or self-study
research could be used.
• If your research question involves breadth and depth, it may warrant a mixed
methods approach.
• If you wish to evaluate a module, programme, or an initiative, then evaluation
research is the most appropriate.
• It should be noted that the research question could be phrased in such a way that
the researcher is comfortable with the choice of methodology. In other words, if
you hate numbers and statistics, then do not choose a question that demands
quantitative methodology. Likewise, if you love words, then choose a question
that leads you to using qualitative or narrative research.
The next section of the proposal addresses the methodologies and methods.
Methodologies and Methods
In the methods/methodology section, the student chooses the methods that will address
the research question/s. Denscombe (2010, p. 141) suggests that the appropriate
methods are those which will address the research question, the aim and objectives of
the research, provide the necessary information, and are ‘the right ones for the job’.
Hollins et al. (2010, p. 794), stress the importance of selecting an appropriate research
methodology:
The methodology chosen should be a suitable formula to answer the research question… the research methodology directs the whole endeavour. The research methodology controls the study, dictates the acquisition of data and arranges it in logical relationships. The entire process is a unified effort, as well as an appreciation of its component parts.
This section of the proposal should provide answers to the following questions. It should
include at least five references to research publications (journal articles or books):
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• What methodology will you use? (Qualitative, quantitative or other?)
• What research design or strategy will you use? (Surveys, experiments, in-depth
interviews, focus groups, documentary, narrative, ethnography, self-study or
action research, mixed-methods, evaluation, feminist research, emancipatory
research?)
• What is the population from which you will choose a sample?
• Who are your intended research participants?
• What are the criteria for inclusion or exclusion of participants?
• What is the sample size? (Some colleges provide recommendations on sample
size in order to meet the minimum learning outcomes of the dissertation module).
• What type of data collection instruments will you use? (Structured questionnaires,
semi-structured questionnaires, or interview schedules?)
• What type of data analysis will you conduct? (Statistics, thematic analysis etc.?)
The previous chapter was devoted to the centrality of ethics to good research. The ethics
section of the research proposal provides a short summary of the ethics form.
Ethical Considerations
All research raises ethical issues, and as responsible professionals, students must take
ethics seriously, and must conduct themselves and their research ethically. Students
must also comply with Irish data protection legislation and General Data Protection
Regulations (GDPR), which governs the collection and use of data (see previous
chapter). Students must adhere to ethical guidelines developed by their college or other
professional bodies. Hollins et al. (2010, p. 797) advise researchers to declare any
ethical considerations and outline data protection procedures in the research proposal.
They suggest that the researcher should:
Detail any ethical considerations and how these will be dealt with. Provide practical particulars of the measures taken to ensure confidentiality for participants and in relation to the data collected. All research studies require approval from the appropriate ethics committees. Highlight these in the research proposal and complete the associate committee’s application forms. It is requisite to declare any conflicts of interest.
Usually, students are required to submit a separate ethics form. This was discussed in the
previous chapter and an exemplar ethics form was provided. In the research proposal, a
summary of ethical issues is required.
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Outcomes
Some colleges do not require research proposals to include information on outcomes.
However, outcomes are important considerations in deciding whether your research is
worth doing (Denscombe, 2019). One of the main benefits of your research will be your
contribution to academic knowledge. Gilbert (2008) suggests that the outcomes of social
research are two-fold:
It should be used to communicate truth and it can be used as persuasion… individually, ‘sociologists [and researchers] write for the community because they prize the rewards offered them, not financial rewards (often minimal or non-existent) but rewards of status or ‘recognition’ of their labours and their abilities’ (Gilbert, 2008, p. 487).
Research can help students in their academic and professional pursuits. In particular,
your research will be a contribution to the wider world of research in the particular
discipline in which you are conducting your research. Research can also be
‘emancipatory’ in nature (see Chapter 2). The adage here is ‘the truth can set you free’.
Research has been particularly important in uncovering uncomfortable truths about
oppressed groups. An important outcome of research is to promote the reputation of
good research and to protect your own reputation and that of your college (Bell and
Waters, 2014).
In some colleges, you may be asked to write what you consider to be the originality of
your research. In particular, doctoral students are required to make an original
contribution to research (Clark, Foster and Bryman, 2019). However, usually in
undergraduate or master’s research, students are not required to make an original
contribution to knowledge.
Research Proposal Exemplars
The following are two examples of research proposals for master’s degrees in two
different Higher Education Institutions. Although both proposals are short and succinct,
they include the necessary knowledge.
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Research Proposal
Name: Hazel Collins
Adapting teaching methodologies to enhance music engagement in the primary
school classroom: A self-study
Section 2: Review of the Literature (300 words)
Since the introduction of the Irish Primary School Curriculum (IPSC) (NCCA, 1999), teachers have specifically cited the music curriculum as an area of concern (Ni Threasaigh, 2000). The issue is not with the content of the curriculum but the amount of training teachers receives. Eighteen years later the same issue persists. The music curriculum is based on best international practice and has its roots in the Kodály Method (KM). Kodály believed that ‘it is the right of every citizen to be taught the basic elements of music’ (Kodaly, 1974, p. 77). Every child in Ireland is entitled to at least 60 minutes of music education per week. According to Choksy (2000, p. 16) musical literacy should be as common as linguistic literacy. Musical literacy is defined as the ability to read and write notation to create music, which form part of the strands and strand units of the Irish music curriculum (NCCA, 1999). The KM is a child centred approach that is ‘highly structured and sequenced, with well-defined skill and concept hierarchies in every element of music’ (Choksy et al., 2001, p. 83) and so fits well with the philosophy underpinning the IPSC, but it is difficult to implement successfully. The essential tools of the KM include singing, solfa, rhythm syllables, and hand signs (Bowyer, 2015). Progressive teachers and researchers have explored numerous ways to apply technological innovations to music learning (Bauer, 2014). There is evidence that new, technology-based approaches may be increasing in some areas of music education but it appears many teachers are not actively engaging with technology in a manner that could potentially enhance children’s musical experiences (Williams, 2012). Research demonstrates that boy’s engagement with music may be less than girls (Hargreaves and North, 1997).
The following research questions emanate from the literature:
• How can I change my instructional pedagogies to help improve children’s music literacy in senior classes?
• How can I successfully integrate ICT with music? • How can I enhance boy’s engagement with music?
Section 3: Methods (300 words)
A Self-Study (SS) methodology (Hamilton et al., 1998, Samaras, 2002) will be utilised in my teaching pedagogies with approximately 200 children aged 9 -11 in a rural, English medium, non-DEIS, co-educational primary school over a four-week period. The sample comprises children from 3rd to 6th class (average 26 children) in each class (mixed 3rd and 4th class, and mixed 5th and 6th class). Each child will be taught the KM for 30 minutes per week, which will feature the integration of the recently developed Irish music programme for primary schools: Dabbledoo (McKenna, 2016). The rationale for (SS) methodology is that it addresses the research questions, and allows for a deeper understanding of the relationship between theory and practice. Problems can be investigated in context, with potential solutions being implemented immediately. As a developing teacher, SS is vital to achieve ‘a more conscious mode of professional activity, in contrast to action based on habit’ (Samaras, 2002, p. xiii). Data collection will be based on a reflective journal to: record observations, identify issues, design interventions, record planning, and evaluate and reflect each week. Following Dewey’s (1933) work on reflection, data gathered in one week will help inform and improve the lessons for week two and so on. Data analysis will occur alongside data
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collection as data ‘are both the evidence and the clues’ (Bogden and Biklen, 2007, p. 117).
Self-study research has met criticism regarding validity and quality; scholars are continuing to address these issues (Feldman, 2003; La Boskey, 2006; Loughran, 2007), the recommended aspect is to seek support of colleagues to frame, assess and reframe the study on an on-going basis (Lassonde, Galman and Kosnik, 2009). This research will be reviewed and validated by an assigned supervisor and ‘critical friend’ (McNiff and Whitehead, 2005, p. 11) which is a distinguishing methodological component of SS. To improve the validity the data will endeavour to be transparent, open, contextual, detailed and systematic (Samsaras, 2010).
To put the study into a wider context, teachers (n=20) will be surveyed to find out what difficulties they encounter in teaching music. Finally, all music schools (n=6) in the region will be surveyed to find out the gender break down of pupils taking extra-curricular music lessons as it appears gender is a factor in teaching and learning music, with boys having more challenges (Hargreaves and North, 1997).
The data analysis has two components, thematic analysis will be used for the qualitative self-study data (Braun and Clarke, 2008) and statistical analysis will be used for the surveys (Cohen et al., 2007). These data will be triangulated (Roberts-Holmes, 2011) to enhance validity. Reflexivity will be used to strengthen the findings (Bourdieu, 2004; Hammersley and Atkinson, 1983). Section 4. Ethical Issues (200 words)
Academic integrity is ensured at all times throughout this research, in the collection of data, the writing up process and the published work. The study will comply with the revised BERA guidelines: ‘The research ethic of respect for persons requires researchers, in reporting data on persons, to do so in ways which respect those persons as fellow human beings who have entitlements to dignity and privacy’ (BERA, 2000, p. 4). As this is a self-study, where I am the sole researcher, no children, teachers or parents, name and location of the school will be identified. The school principal has already provided verbal consent and further written consent will be sought from the Board of Management and principal. Once the proposal and ethical approval has been granted from the Research Ethics Committee, a research information sheet and letter of consent will be given to teachers whose classes I will be teaching music in. The letter of consent will identify the purpose and aims and objectives of the research, the validating college and an outline of the proposed research. I will endeavour to ensure that no harm or detriment comes to anyone while this research is being carried out in the school. All parties will be assured of anonymity, confidentiality and access to the finished dissertation. A pseudonym will be used for school. I am fully committed to adhering to Hibernia College Ethics Committee. Section 5: Contribution to Academic Knowledge (100 words)
This research will contribute to academic knowledge by widening our understanding of teaching music to children in senior cycle in the Irish primary school context. It will endeavour to identify how a teacher with no formal music training might fully implement the IPSC in her or his classroom while integrating ICT. It will aim to understand whether the KM is suitable for all learning abilities/styles and how a teacher might adapt the method where differentiation might be required. The results of this study will be shared with colleagues and written up as a journal article so that other teachers will benefit from the information.
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The second research proposal, though brief (822 words), contains all the
essential ingredients: working title, theoretical rationale (literature review), aim
and objectives, research questions, methodology, and methods. It does not
include an ethics section because a separate ethics form was submitted (see
previous chapter for ethics form). In this example, rather than a literature review,
the proposal requires a theoretical rationale for the study, whereas in the previous
example a short literature review was required which embodied a theoretical
framework.
MSc Forensic Psychology and Crime Dissertation Research Proposal Form a). Name: Jenny Meyer b) Working title of project: An exploration of professional discourses on female perpetuated child sexual abuse c) Theoretical rationale for the study with explicit references to the main psychological theories to be tested:
Sexual offending has traditionally been socially constructed as gender asymmetrical, perpetuated only by males (Daly, 1998). Consequently, much of the literature has focused exclusively on the sexual crimes of men (Matravers, 2008). This is not surprising as sexual abuse of children challenges sociocultural stereotypes about idealised mother-child relationships and the natural association of femininity to nurturing, caregiving and passivity (Elliot 1993; Hetherton 1999).
Denov (2001) has argued that we live in a culture of denial around female sexual offending and that professional attitudes around female violence and sexual aggression may act to obscure the true extent of the problem. This non recognition in turn may hinder victims from disclosing their sexual abuse experiences at the hands of women and allow female offenders avoid detection, prosecution, registration and mandated treatment (Elliott 1993; McLeod 2015).
According to Gannon and Cortoni (2010) there is evidence of a change in these more traditional discourses in the past decade and female perpetuated child sexual abuse has begun to be acknowledged and studied in the academic literature. A range of methodologies including large scale self-report studies, in depth interviews and case file analyses have all pointed to the existence of female sexual offending (Gannon and Cortoni 2010). However, there is disagreement among researchers as to its prevalence (McLeod 2015). An investigation of calls to Childline (NSPC, 2007) demonstrated that the prevalence of female perpetuated child sexual abuse is an issue for concern. Between 2005 and 2006, the UK charity reported that out of 82% of callers who identified the gender of their abuser, almost half (5% of girls and 44%) of boys reported being sexually abused by a female (NSPS, 2007).
Typology of female sexual offenders
As a result of the empirical research, a typology of female sexual offenders has now been developed and three main types identified; the teacher/lover; the predisposed and the co-offender (Matravers 2008). Each of these types are positioned with different levels of culpability (Mathews 1989). The teacher/lover type is typically a young attractive woman in her twenties who takes advantage of her teacher role to seduce young boys. This type of offender is assigned the highest level of accountability as she is deemed to have abused her position of power to satisfy her own needs (Matthews,
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1989). Interestingly however, victims of such crimes have not been taken seriously and are often been perceived by the public media as “lucky” (Zack, Lang and Dirks, 2018).
The second type “predisposed” is assigned a lower level of culpability and the offender is constructed as a victim with psychopathology who offends against children (often prepubertal) because of her own sexual abuse history in an intergenerational transmission of abuse (Mathews, 1989). The third type, the co-offender is socially constructed as passive and vulnerable to coercion by a male sexual offender to join him in his criminal activities against children (Mathews, 1989).
Overall, research which has examined professional responses to sexual crimes by women have revealed a tendency to exonerate female sexual offenders as harmless and suffering from psychopathology thus neutralising assertions of dangerousness (Kramer 2019). This study will explore professionals’ discursive constructions of female perpetuated child sexual abuse and will examine how their talk opens up or closes down opportunities for action. In addition, it will critically investigate the implications of these discourses, positions and practices for individual subjective experience. d). Aim and objectives of study
The aim of this study is to explore how professionals (psychologists/psychotherapists) in private practice construct female perpetuated child sexual abuse.
The objectives are:
· To interrogate the talk of professionals and to examine the kinds of social explanations underpinning the discourses
· To explore what can be learnt from these discursive practices in order to inform forensic psychology practice
e). Research questions/hypotheses to be tested
· How do professionals in private practice construct female paedophiles or hebephiles?
· Do they represent male and female sexual offenders differently? · What are the implications of these discourses in terms of impact and treatment
issues for victims of female perpetuated child sexual abuse, treatment and rehabilitation of female sexual offenders, professional training around child sexual abuse, jury decision making and legislation?
f). Proposed methodology
This research will take a qualitative approach. Semi-structured interviews will be conducted with a sample of six professionals. Data gathered from transcripts will be recorded and analysed using discourse analysis methodology (Van DijK, 2003). Criteria for selection will be based on type of profession and will include counselling, clinical, forensic psychologists and psychotherapists in private practice with at least ten years’ experience. Participants will be selected because of their position as advocates of child protection in that they are duty bound by codes of ethics to report any child sexual abuse they come across in the course of their work.
Professionals in private practice will be chosen rather than employees of the NHS or HSE equivalent in Ireland. This is mainly due to the lengthy process of gaining ethical approval from these organisations. Access to participants will be gained through the Irish Association of Counselling and Psychotherapy, Psychological Society of Ireland and British Psychological Society websites.
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Assessment of Research Proposal
An assessor or a committee will assess the research proposal based on a set of criteria
outlined beforehand. If an ethics form is submitted at the same time, the proposal and
ethics form will be assessed by an ethics committee at the same time. Usually assessors
are very experienced and will quickly assess whether the research is feasible.
Depending on the college, the student may or may not be awarded marks. If there are a
large number of proposals to be assessed, the process can take up to a month. During
the period, the student should continue working on the literature review. If the proposal is
rejected, it will have to be resubmitted. Generally speaking, the three criteria of
acceptance for research proposals are: (1) The proposal is accepted with small changes;
(2) the proposal is rejected, requires major changes and is returned to the student who is
given a deadline to resubmit with changes, and (3) the proposal is rejected in full; the
student has to reapply with a new submission. The main reason for rejecting a research
proposal is because it did not receive ethical approval. Another reason is due to
incomplete information. Students whose proposal covers more than one research topic
are usually asked to resubmit it and focus on just one topic.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we have outlined all aspects of writing a successful research proposal. A
research proposal can be thought of as a map for your research journey: the more
detailed and explicit it is, the less likely you will get lost. It is worthwhile taking time to
choose a researchable topic that will be beneficial to you in the long run, in terms of your
profession and your own learning. Choose a topic that will be easy to research. We have
provided two exemplars of student proposals. Before submitting your research proposal,
check that all the sections have been covered. The research proposal requires a
preliminary literature review, but you will be required to write a longer literature review for
your dissertation. The next chapter focuses on the literature review.
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Key Messages
• A research proposal contains the following sections or ingredients: 1) working
title, 2) introduction with a rationale or theoretical framework (if used), aim and
objectives, research question or hypotheses, 3) preliminary review of the
literature, 3) methods, methodologies, proposed sample, proposed data
collection instruments, proposed data analysis, 4) ethics, and 5) contribution to
academic knowledge.
• The research proposal should ensure that ethical guidelines comply with
professional and college guidelines.
• Remember that an assessor or committee will be assessing your proposal, so
ensure that it is as good as can be, check the academic writing, carry out a spell
check, number the pages and check references.
• Continue to review literature while your proposal is being evaluated.
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Exercises
1. Carry out a search on relevant databases in your library and a generic search
engine, e.g. Google Scholar, to find relevant literature on your proposed topic and
constantly update it.
2. Construct a timetable for your research proposal and the completion of research.
3. Check out the library in your college for examples of previous research
proposals, they are often included in the appendices of dissertations.
4. Write down possible difficulties you might encounter.
Further Reading
We have included two templates for research proposals. More detailed information is
available from How to do your Social Research Project or Dissertation (Clark, Foster and
Bryman, 2019).
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Chapter 5. Literature Review
Introduction
A literature review may stand alone as an assignment or may underpin empirical
research for a dissertation at primary, master’s, or doctoral degree levels. The
dissertation is often the ‘capstone module’ of a degree and students synthesise their
studies in this final research paper. In the previous chapter, we discussed the research
proposal in which you will have chosen a research topic and conducted a preliminary or
exploratory review of the literature. Once the proposal has been approved by your
supervisor or an academic committee, the next step is to carry out a deeper review of the
literature. The term ‘literature review’ is interchangeable with ‘review of the literature’ but
should not be confused with ‘literary review’, which is to ‘contribute to contemporary
literary debate’ (Hart, 2007, p. 26). There are five distinct stages in writing a literature
review: 1) search for empirical and theoretical literature, 2) read and critique literature, 3)
synthesise literature and develop an argument, 4) write it up paying careful attention to
structure and organisation, and 5) develop research question(s) emanating from review.
An example of a student’s literature review is presented. Following this, we explore more
specialist literature reviews such as: meta-analysis, systematic review, and integrative
review. Finally, we will discuss common mistakes made by students. This chapter begins
with a discussion of the purpose and definition of a literature review.
Learning Outcomes
On completion of this chapter, the successful student will be able to:
• Be competent in conducting a search for appropriate literature
• Discuss and debate the role of theory in research
• Have the skills to read and critique literature, develop an argument, and organise
a literature review
• Identify an appropriate and researchable question
• Describe and discuss meta-analysis, systematic review and integrative review
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What is a Literature Review? Purpose and Definition
The purpose of a literature review is to put your study into context or to ‘situate the study
in the ongoing discourse about the topic and develops the specific intellectual traditions
to which the study is linked’ (Marshall and Rossman, 2006, p. 25). The literature review
will bring to your attention what has been researched before in the particular area of
interest and how it has been researched (the methodology that was used). It will make
you ‘familiar with your topic’ (Hart, 2001, p. 2). The purpose of a literature review is three
dimensional (Punch, 2009). First, in terms of empirical studies, it describes and critiques
current knowledge. Secondly, in terms of theoretical literature it draws on the history of
the thinking and ideas on the topic including key concepts and theories. Thirdly, it posits
the question: ‘What is the relationship of my research to the literature being reviewed?’
(Punch, 2009, p. 98). According to Hart (2018, p. 3), ‘a literature review is analysis,
critical evaluation and synthesis of existing knowledge relevant to your research
question’. Sarantakos (2013, p. 150) suggests, ‘a literature review can be seen as a
secondary analysis and a critical appreciation of previous research findings’.
(Sarantakos, 2013). Hart (2007, p. 12) suggests that the purpose of research ‘is to
contribute in some way to our understanding of the world’ and the literature review ‘can
provide an academically enriching experience, but only if it is done properly’ (Hart, 2007,
p. 26). It should demonstrate that the researcher has acquired a ‘sufficient range of skills
and capabilities at an appropriate level’ (Hart, 2007, p. 172). An assessment of your
literature review should show:
1. You have worked on your project,
2. You have reviewed the literature relevant to the topic with thoroughness and
open-mindedness,
3. You have identified the key ideas, concepts and methodologies from the literature
4. You have taken a cross-disciplinary approach,
5. You have recorded your sources accurately and consistently,
6. Your analysis is systematic, comprehensive and relevant (Hart, 2007, p. 194).
The literature review may also highlight gaps in the research that will justify a particular
study. However, addressing a lacuna or gap in the literature is for doctoral students
rather than students at a bachelor or master’s degree level. Students often ask the
question, ‘How long should the literature review be?’ As a rough rule of thumb, a
literature review should be between one fifth and one third of a dissertation, so for a
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10,000-word dissertation the literature review should be circa 2,500 words, with a
minimum number of twenty references.
Searching for Relevant Literature
The first stage in a literature review is conducting a search. Technology and online
databases have made searching for literature much easier but students need to be
discerning about sources because not all internet sites are considered dependable for
information. Therefore, ensure that the internet sites that you are exploring are reliable.
You also need a plan of how you will search the literature and where you will record your
search:
A literature search is a systematic search of the accredited sources and resources. It involves identifying paper and electronic sources relevant to your topic and method(s) by preparing a clear plan for the search that includes a justifiable vocabulary that defines what will and will not be included in the search. The search will include establishing a robust scheme for the management of what will be a massive amount of information and paper (Hart, 2018, p. 3)
• If your research is based on a module you have completed in college, then the
first step is to consult the recommended reading list. It seems obvious, but it is
also a good idea to ask the lecturer of that module to recommend readings. The
lecturer may have completed a doctorate or research in the area and may be
very happy to supply additional readings.
• Define the parameters of your research. The proliferation of publications means
that there may be an overwhelming amount of literature on a particular topic so
you will have to be very specific about search terms. Use appropriate search
terms and keywords. We have provided an example of a literature review about
enhancing young boys’ engagement in and enjoyment of music (Collins, 2018;
2019). In the search for literature, Collins used the search terms: ‘teaching
music’, ‘music engagement’, ‘boys and music’, etc. More advanced search will
include Boolean strings like: ‘music And engagement Not Adults’. Boolean
searches use a combination of keywords such as ‘AND’, ‘OR’ and ‘NOT’. The
word ‘NOT’ excludes the following term. The word ‘OR’ expands the search,
while the term ‘AND’ narrows the search to published works that include both
terms. Quotation marks may also be used (see exercises at the end of this
chapter).
• Use keywords in a generic search engine such as Google Scholar to access
online electronic articles and abstracts of published literature. You may find an
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article for which you have to pay. Your college has paid for access to certain
databases, therefore check its databases to see if the article is available free of
charge.
• Next, you will need to consult recent empirical studies on the topic in question by
conducting a search for peer-reviewed Journal Articles on the on-line databases
in your college or academic institution. Specific databases are dedicated to
different academic disciplines, such as CINAHL for nursing and healthcare,
EBSCO for teachers (the Irish Teaching Council provides access for registered
teachers to EBSCO). Other databases include Science Direct or T&F (Taylor and
Francis) etc. The link to Journal Search in the online library will bring up a
plethora of databases for specific subjects. It is best to use peer-reviewed articles
from high quality journals because these have been rigorously critiqued prior to
publication. The search engine will also allow you to specify the years you are
interested in, so search for articles published in the last ten years. Online libraries
allow you to email the journal article or abstract. Bell and Waters (2014) suggest
setting up a new email address for the purpose of your research.
• As well as international research, we recommend that students in Irish colleges
put their research into an Irish context. Search for Irish journals and publications
on your particular topic in your academic discipline, like Irish Education Studies
(Taylor & Francis) or Irish Journal of Sociology (Sage Publications) etc.
• Consult the physical library or the online library in your college or your local public
library for print or electronic digital books on your topic. Trinity College Dublin
(Dublin University) has a comprehensive library and a unique tradition, in that the
library is a repository for all English language publications from Ireland and the
UK. Researchers can apply for a one day reading ticket or avail of inter library
loans.
• Edited books on a specific topic can provide a wealth of diverse information, for
example, Voices of Educators in 21st Century Ireland, examines fifteen topics
related to various aspects of education (Whitaker et al., 2018). Students carrying
out research on community and voluntary work in Ireland might consult an edited
book, Managing with Heart: Studying Community and Voluntary Services
(McCann and Curran, 2008), which was written by students who completed the
Master of Arts in Management for the Community and Voluntary Sector in All
Hallows College Dublin. All chapters are focused on the management of
community and voluntary services in Ireland.
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• When consulting books, the most up to date publications are the best, because
they build on older textbooks. That said, you may wish to consult the original
writings or seminal texts of classical key writers. For example, if your research is
in the area of education, classical key writers could include seminal writers in the
field such as, Paulo Freire, Lev Vygotsky, Friedrich Froebel, or John Coolahan. If
your research was in the social sciences, seminal thinkers/writers include Max
Weber or Emile Durkheim; or might include Freud or Jung in the field of
psychology.
• Many books are now available to download as e-books and can be borrowed in
exactly the same way as a paper book from an online library. Unfortunately,
referencing systems have not caught up with citing electronic books downloaded
to Kindle, which instead of having page numbers, lists pages by percentages. A
study of eBook use among academics from 2006 to 2011 found that the
advantages included, ease of searching, 24/7 availability, less expensive than
print books, and can be downloaded remotely (Staiger, 2012). In addition, they
are more sustainable than print books. The disadvantages included, being
difficult to navigate and annotate, reading on a screen, and ‘loss of ability to
perform customary research practices such as perusing and shelf-browsing
because of e-books' lack of physicality’ (Staiger, 2012, p. 355). He also warns
about the danger of students reading the book at a superficial level rather than
engaging in the argument posited by the authors.
• Wikipedia is an excellent free open access resource and can be a useful starting
point, particularly if it brings up a topic with a reliable, relevant reading list.
However, Wikipedia is usually not used in academic references unless other
source of information cannot be found.
• Depending on the topic, policy documents such as those published by the
Department of Education, Health or Justice are important sources of information.
Policy documents are long, but they are usually accompanied by an executive
summary that gives an overview of the policy.
• Grey literature such as government white papers, company reports, conference
papers, unpublished master and doctoral dissertations are also valuable sources
of literature. Dissertation collections are available: ‘British Education Index,
Theses Canada, Dissertation Abstracts International (for North America) and
Education Research Theses (for Australia) (Punch, 2009, p. 99). Abstracts are
also available: Education Abstracts, Social Science Abstracts, Psychological
Abstracts, and Sociological Abstracts (see Punch, 2009, p. 99).
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• Journalistic reports in newspapers can be helpful. Exercise caution, however,
because a journalist is expressing an opinion. Sometimes research is
summarised in newspapers. It is advisable to trace the original research.
• Information, knowledge, and research are updated regularly, so it is advisable to
get into the habit of checking the Internet frequently to find the most current
relevant literature. For example, if the duration of your research is a year or two
years, designate a day and time to look for references. With smart phones, it is
also easy to look for references during ‘down times’ such as when you are using
public transport travelling to and from college.
• Students sometimes ask, ‘how many references?’ To that we answer: ‘cut the
cloth to suit the measure’. It depends on the length of the dissertation and the
amount of time available to complete it. There should be enough references to
support your argument. Blaxter et al. (2010) warn against over referencing or
under referencing. They suggest that references should be used to: 1) justify and
support you arguments, 2) allow you to make comparisons with other research,
3) express matters better than you could have done so, and 4) demonstrate your
familiarity with your field of research (Blaxter et al., 2010, p. 130).
The first step in writing a literature review is to simply gather together the relevant
literature on the particular topic of interest. How do we decide whether a publication is
relevant? Well:
Judgements of relevance in this literature searching are guided by the research question for the literature review, and by the topic for the broader theoretical literature (Punch, 2009, p. 99)
Only you can decide whether material is relevant. Our experience of writing and
supervising the writing of literature reviews is that it is not uncommon to delete a tranche
of literature review before the final dissertation is completed. When you are satisfied that
you have found relevant literature the next step is to commence reading and
summarising it, or extracting relevant issues from it. Reading copious amounts of
literature can be a chore, so we draw on the work of Day (2013), who provides some
useful ideas to enhance reading skills.
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Reading Skills
Reading the work of others is a major aspect of research. Day (2013, p. 67) suggests
that there are many different kinds of reading, and that there are ways to improve your
efficiency at reading. Table 8 describes different kinds of reading:
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Table 8. In Depth Reading Using Day’s (2013, p. 16) SP3R model
Some reading techniques in relation to academic writing Intention Reading Technique Method Searching for key words or phrases to determine if the material contains information of relevance
Scanning Rapidly searching for key words or phrases, e.g. ‘Smith and Jones (2012), ‘action research’, ‘global warming’.
Gaining an overview, e.g. to determine whether the material is worth reading and, if so, how
Skimming Rapidly searching the text and other features for items that reveal the structure and content of the material, e.g. summaries, headings and subheadings, beginnings and endings of paragraphs and sections, visual elements
For a variety of purposes, but all concerned with developing a thorough grasp of some or all of the material.
In-depth reading Using methods such as SP3R to read text in detail, more than once, while annotating and/or taking notes.
Consolidating existing knowledge, e.g. when checking notes and annotations made from work previously read.
Rapid rereading Using a moving pen or pencil as a guide to rapidly re-familiarise oneself with work previously read.
Day (2012) recommends using the SP3R model to gain a deep knowledge and
understanding of material and to become an active reader. SP3R is an acronym for:
Survey, Purpose, Read once, Read again, and Review.
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Table 9. SP3R Model
SP3R
Survey Skim or scan document. This gives an overview of the structure and content, including headings, subheadings, introduction, and conclusion. By surveying it, it will reveal whether the article is of any use to the reader; perhaps it is not relevant. It also helps the reader to know what the purpose of reading it is. If the purpose was to use it in an essay and the reader discovers that it is not relevant, then you have achieved your purpose.
Purpose Why am I reading this article? What is the purpose of my reading? What do I hope to learn? ‘Purpose is about action, what you will be able to do as a result of reading the material’, (Day, 2013, p. 74). If you discover that the particular article/paper is not relevant, then keep the reference, with a note saying that this article is not relevant.
Read
Once: When reading a journal article, it is recommended that you read the abstract, introduction and conclusion first, and also look at the headings. Then read it for understanding, if it is a printed article, then you could highlight certain sections or underline with a pencil. If it is an online book or article that you have downloaded, then you can also highlight certain parts in colour. You can also annotate the article by adding questions and or critical comments in the margins.
Read
Again The next reading is for note taking purpose and this will deepen your understanding of the content of the article. You can also check whether you have answered the questions you have set yourself.
Review The final reading is to ensure that your notes are comprehensive and that you are able to refer to these notes when writing your paper rather than going back to the original article. You will have taken note of key points. Alternatively, if your reading threw up new questions, then see if you are able to answer them. Reviewing ensures that you have a deeper understanding of the material.
Keeping Notes
A key aspect of academic reading and writing is note taking. Blaxter et al. (2010, p. 114)
suggest that your note taking should be meticulous and should record: the author (s),
title, date of publication, publisher and place of publication, book chapter, and website.
Keeping notes brief and focused, but sufficiently detailed, is important. As Day suggests:
‘The best notes can be transformative, involving capturing aspects of the original
material and shaping them into something of greatest value to the reader’ (Day, 2012, p.
77). Notes can contain key words, short phrases, and abbreviations. They are a precious
resource for your work. There are many methods of keeping notes, so choose the best
method for you. Notes can be written in a linear way following the structure of the article,
or if you are visual person, they can be recorded in mind maps, spider diagrams or
concept maps. Flow diagrams or charts are useful for depicting step by step processes
because the shapes are linked by arrows. A matrix is useful as a table of columns and
rows to display different viewpoints or themes. There is simply not enough time to read
all the literature in a deep manner. Blaxter et al. (2010) suggest that students should
skim books to get the main message. Usually the concluding chapter of a book highlights
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the main points. Download and keep a record of the relevant articles either in a
designated notebook or in an electronic repository such as Dropbox, Endnote, Onenote,
or Reference Manager (Bell and Waters, 2014). Keep a record of the reference and the
date that you read the article.
Critical Reading
In ordinary everyday life, being critical means being disparaging or rude but in
academic research being critical involves carefully considering the theories, opinions
and evidence to support arguments posited by other writers. The next level of reading
goes deeper and requires you to read the literature in a critical way. When reading a
research article, consider some important points and questions:
• What type of article is it? Empirical or theoretical?
• What was the aim and objectives of the research?
• Was a theoretical framework used?
• If qualitative research, what was the research question?
• Did the research answer the research question?
• If it is an empirical study what was the methodology? Did the researcher
use qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods?
• What was the sample size? Was it a large scale or small-scale study?
• What were the key findings/results/outcomes?
• Were the findings justified by the sample size? Or were the claims too
broad for a small study?
• If it was a theoretical article, what theory was the author using? Did they
provide criticisms of the theory?
• What values underpinned the research?
• What did the author(s) conclude from the research?
• Were there any ethical issues in the research?
• Were there inherent biases or prejudices revealed?
Blaxter et al. (2010, p. 118) define critical reading as:
• ‘One that goes beyond more description by offering opinions, and making a
response to what has been written.
• One that relates different writings to each other, indicating their difference
and contradictions, and highlighting what they are lacking.
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• One that does not take what is written at face value.
• One that strives to be explicit about the values and theory which inform and
colour reading or writing.
• One that views research writing as a contested terrain, with which
alternative views and positions may be taken up.
• One that shows an awareness of the power relations in research and where
writers are coming from.
• One that uses a particular language (authors assert, argue, state, conclude
contend) may be carefully qualified, and may use an impersonal voice’.
In a similar vein, Bell and Waters (2014, p. 97) discuss the importance of evaluating
sources. They argue that it is the researcher’s job to consider the worth of the
literature. Researchers could ask the following questions:
• Have you only drawn on source material that supports your point of view,
without making efforts to consult a range of sources?
• Have you really made an effort to carry out a critical examination of the
evidence?
• Is the research well designed and are the data collection instruments suitable
for the purpose?
• Do you see any terms that suggest partisanship or bias?
• Duffy (cited in Bell and Waters, 2014, p. 97) argues that ‘writers will rarely
declare their assumptions so it is the task of the researcher to expose them if
possible’. Duffy poses the questions: ‘Does the evidence supplied
convincingly support the author’s arguments?’ in other words can you expose
the assumptions of the writer?
Once you have gathered and critiqued the literature, the next stage is to synthesise it
and write it up.
Organising the Literature Review
Organising the literature review can be challenging. It takes time to critique the literature,
to see how various pieces fit together, and to create a structure. If you do not have a
structure, the literature review can look like ‘an amorphous mass of unstructured writing,
which makes it difficult for the reader to navigate and comprehend’ (Punch, 209, 102). It
is like putting a new jigsaw puzzle together; the overall picture is the one you have
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created. As Marcel Proust said: ‘The real voyage of discovery consists not in seeking
new landscapes, but in having new eyes’. This quotation was used by Dun Laoghaire
Rathdown County Council at a viewing point on the Dublin Mountain Way and seemed
very appropriate for envisioning how your literature review creates a new view of a topic.
o The literature review as a piece of academic writing must be clear and have a
logical structure (Hart, 2011, p. 172).
o It should not read like a furniture catalogue but should be organised in such a
way that recurring themes are evident (Bell, 2005; Bell and Waters, 2014).
o These emerging themes should be grouped together. As you read the literature,
select major and minor themes and develop an argument. Then, continue by
illustrating this argument by providing evidence from various writers who share
the same viewpoint. For example:
Music interventions benefit motor, language, social, and cognitive skills development (Perkins et al., 2013; Eerola and Eerola, 2014; Swaminathan and Schellenberg, 2017) and can also have therapeutic effects on children with special needs (Dumont et al., 2017; Collins, 2018).
o You may also look for writers that disagree with this particular point of view. The
reason for selecting several authors writing on the same topic is to build on
existing knowledge so that, in turn, your research will add to knowledge on this
topic. When writing up your review of literature, it is good practice to quote
sparingly from the literature albeit with correct referencing. For example:
The Kodály Method complements the philosophy of the Irish Primary School music curriculum as it is a child-centred approach that is ‘highly structured and sequenced, with well-defined skill and concept hierarchies in every element of music’ (Choksy et al., 2001, p. 83; Collins, 2018)
o There may be topics in which ideological divisions or controversies occur, writers
may take one side of an argument but you as a researcher will have to choose
which side of the argument you are on. If these controversies arise, it is important
to flag them in the introduction and throughout the literature review. For example,
the NACD (2009) conducted research whose aim was ‘to gain an understanding
of the local risk environment (i.e. the physical, social, economic, and policy
environment) within which problem drug-using sex workers in Dublin live and
work and how they perceive and behave in response to risk’ (Cox and Whitaker,
2009, p. 13). The literature was divided ideologically between those who wished
to abolish prostitution because they considered it was based on exploitation and
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those who consider prostitutes as ‘sex workers’ in need of human rights, and
legal and social protections. These issues were further teased out in other
publications (Whitaker, Ryan and Cox, 2011; Whitaker, 2013b; Whitaker, 2019).
o The final stage of a literature review is to synthesise the literature (Punch, 2009).
Developing a Theoretical Framework
Theory has a central role in research. Academic research is always about developing,
testing or using theory to illuminate patterns in the data. Even small-scale research
projects need some kind of theoretical framework. Theory can be tested or can enlighten
data depending on whether you are interested in hypothesis testing or whether you wish
to answer a research question. There are many definitions of what constitutes a theory.
For example: ‘Theories have been described as nets cast to catch what we call ‘the
world’, to rationalise, to explain, and to master it’ (Greig and Taylor, 1999, p. 16) or a ‘big
idea that organizes many other ideas with a high degree of explanatory power’ (Collins
and Stockton, 2018, p. 2). A theory can be thought of as a lens on a camera through
which you see the data, or it can be seen as a kaleidoscope:
A kaleidoscope ... (is) the child’s toy consisting of a tube, a number of lenses and fragments of translucent coloured glass or plastic. When you turn the tube and look down the lens of the kaleidoscope the shapes and colours, visible at the bottom, change. As the tube is turned, different lenses come into play and the combinations of colour and shape shift from one pattern to another. In a similar way, we can see social theory as a sort of kaleidoscope – by shifting theoretical perspective the world under investigation also changes shape (O’Brien 1993, pp. 10-11 cited in Silverman, 2005, p. 96).
Researchers may present a number of different theories and then opt for just one
theory, or they may use a particular theory throughout a study, for example,
Vygotsky’s theory of social constructivism, post-modern theory or feminist theory. In
some textbooks, this is called developing a theoretical framework. In the example
provided, Hazel Collins (2018) used a number of different theories or a tool kit of
theories:
This study is grounded in the theory that music education can impact positively on other aspects of the child’s development (Dumont et al., 2017). Investment in music education, particularly for children, can produce many beneficial returns. The theory of skill formation indicates that cognitive, linguistic, social, and emotional skills are interdependent (Heckman, 2006). Improving skills in one area of a child’s life, here music skills, has measurable and multiplying effects on other skills such as cognitive (memory, numeracy, literacy) and non-cognitive (resilience, patience, confidence) skills (Cunha and Heckman, 2007).
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There is a close relationship between theory and research. In the ‘scientific model’,
theory can be used to test hypotheses in experiments and surveys. However, in small
scale research, Robert Merton proposed mid-range theory (MRT) (Layder, 1993):
MRT falls between the ‘minor working hypotheses’ that are typical of the earlier phases of research (and are not really much more elaborate than the hunches or insights that are ordinarily employed in everyday life) and the all-inclusive ‘grand’ theories which aim to explain a wide span of social phenomena … such as Marxist theories … or Parsons’s theory of the ‘social system’ (Layder, 1993, p. 2)
Silverman (2005) suggests that the importance of a theory is how you use it or what
you can do with it in your research. Theory is simply a tool to help us explain what we
are researching. As Pierre Bourdieu advised:
There is no doubt a theory in my work, or, better, a set of thinking tools through the results they yield, but it is not built as such … It is a temporary construct which takes shape for and by empirical work (Bourdieu, in Wacquant, 1989, p. 50 cited in Thomas, 2013, p. 99)
Having written a comprehensive review of the literature the next step is to develop a research question.
Articulating a Research Question
The research question will determine the choice of research methods. Sarantakos
(2013, p. 143) suggests that there are four issues to keep in mind when choosing a
research question, relevance, researchability, feasibility, and ethics.
• Relevance: If the research is for an undergraduate or post-graduate
qualification in professional practice such as teaching, nursing, social work,
psychological counselling, or community work, then the research question
should have relevance, not only for the topic, but also for actual practice.
• Researchability refers to whether the question can be answered through
gathering empirical data. Certain questions (such as, Does God exist? Is God
a man or a woman? Is there life after death?) cannot be answered through
empirical research but may be tackled through hermeneutic inquiry of sacred
texts (Sarantakos, 2013).
• Feasibility refers to whether the researcher can gain access to a sample of
respondents and has the means and resources to conduct the research, within
the designated time.
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• Ethics refers to whether 'the proposed study is ethically justifiable and whether
it follows ethical standards and principles in its design, execution and the
application of the findings’ (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 143)
In thinking about ethical issues, we need to think about whether the research could
potentially harm the subject of research or the researcher (Sarantakos, 2013). In the
following questions, consider who might be harmed:
• What effect does domestic violence have on the academic performance of
children?
• What are serial sex offenders’ experiences of incarceration in prison?
• What is the effect of drug debt intimidation on families of drug users?
• What is the role of spirituality for patients dying in a hospice?
Research questions should also be precise and should lead to ‘doable’ research
(Thomas, 2013, p. 18).
The following is a short literature review on the topic of music written by Hazel Collins
who was an experienced music teacher undertaking the Professional Master of
Education (PME) to become a primary school teacher (Collins, 2018). While doing
teaching practice, she discovered that she was not able to engage boys (in the senior
cycle of primary school, ages 11-12) in music education. Her research focused on
how she could enhance her teaching methodologies in order to improve boy’s
engagement and enjoyment of music. The research question that emanated from her
literature review was: Can adapting teaching methodologies enhance music
engagement for children, particularly boys, in primary school? This summary is from a
journal article she published from her research (Collins, 2019).
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Literature Review
Introduction
This literature review introduces the Kodály Method, outlines the impact of music education for children and reviews the literature on engagement and gender. The benefits and challenges associated with ICT integration are examined. Finally, the research question is stated in the context of the literature. The Kodály Method
The Kodály Method complements the philosophy of the Irish Primary School music curriculum as it is a child-centred approach that is ‘highly structured and sequenced, with well-defined skill and concept hierarchies in every element of music’ (Choksy et al., 2001, p. 83). The essential tools of the Kodály Method include unaccompanied singing, solfa, rhythm syllables, hand signs and movement. Solfa is a musical language, familiar to many as ‘doh, re, mi, fa, so’ and so on. Students who become fluent in solfa can learn new songs more quickly, read unknown melodies, listen analytically, memorise, and compose easily (Bowyer, 2015). Music Interventions and Child Development
Music has a positive impact on the development of primary school-aged children especially if it is based on the Kodály Method (Goopy, 2013; Dumont et al., 2017). Music interventions benefit motor, language, social, and cognitive skills development (Eerola and Eerola, 2014; Perkins, Tinnett, Uncapher, Tiano, and Fugett, 2013; Swaminathan and Schellenberg, 2017) and can also have therapeutic effects on children with special needs (Dumont et al., 2017). Longitudinal studies indicate a transfer effect from music education to academic achievement (Jaschke, Honing and Scherder, 2018). Use of ‘Pop’ Music
The music curriculum recommends the use of classical and traditional genres in the classroom (NCCA, 1999). Similarly, the Kodály Method emphasises the importance of folksongs from the child’s country and the need for music of the highest quality (Choksy et al., 2001). It seems incongruous, therefore, to consider popular (pop) music for use in the classroom. However, a large part of the culture of young people involves listening to different types of pop music and it is undoubtedly a major interest of many schoolchildren (Bonneville-Roussy et al., 2013). Teachers who have incorporated pop music have found it successful in developing musicality, technical skills, and enhancing engagement (Greasley and Lamont, 2011; Vulliamy and Lee, 2016). Gender Differences in Attitudes towards Music and ICT
Evidence suggests that gender plays a significant impact on education. Hargreaves and North (1997) write that girls have more positive attitudes towards music than boys. With regards to the use of technology in the classroom, research indicates that while both genders enjoy using computers, boys enjoy using computers more because they are more confident in their computer abilities (Colley and Comber, 2003). The same trends are found in relation to music technology (Hargreaves and North, 1997). This difference in attitudes is reflected in the substantial gender differences in behavioural engagement in music (Wang et al., 2011). While the Kodály Method is long-established and is highly regarded amongst music educators, it needs a fresh approach for it to remain as relevant today, as it was when it was developed. As Ertmer and Otternbreit-Leftwich (2010) argue, adaptation should advance the existing teaching methods, not replace them. By integrating ICT and by using pop music, increased motivation and engagement can be expected. The following research question emerged from the literature review: Can adapting teaching methodologies enhance music engagement for children, particularly boys, in primary school?
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There are many different types of literature reviews, we have just described the literature
review that underpins empirical research, but there are other types of stand-alone
literature reviews in which secondary analysis is conducted on existing research on the
same topic, namely meta-analysis, systematic reviews and integrated reviews.
Meta-Analysis, Systematic Review, Integrative Review
Generally speaking, meta-analysis, and systematic literature reviews are conducted by
experienced researchers. In some cases, a team of researchers may get funding to
conduct research and, in other cases, an individual researcher may conduct a systematic
review as part of a doctorate. Therefore, in this section, we will provide a simple
description of meta-analysis and systematic literature reviews, but will spend more time
discussing the integrative literature review because it has gained greater popularity in
various academic disciplines and may be conducted by individual students at
undergraduate or postgraduate levels. The arrival of the Covid-19 pandemic has forced
many Higher Education Institutions to review its policies on research because of the
difficulty of collecting data during this period. Instead, students may need to do
integrated literature reviews. In this section, we will examine meta-analysis, and
systematic and integrative reviews.
Meta-Analysis
Meta-analysis is a secondary analysis of existing empirical quantitative research or
‘analysis of analysis’. It combines the results of a number of statistical studies in order to
generate new information. Karl Pearson was the first statistician to conduct meta-
analysis on the effectiveness of vaccines against typhoid fever in 1906 (Sarantakos,
2013). He analysed seven existing studies and concluded that they failed to demonstrate
the efficacy of the vaccine (Engels et al., 1998). According to Sarantakos (2013, p. 308):
Meta-analysis will convert the various figures produced by the previous studies to a common measure, and this will allow proper comparisons and conclusions about the research subject (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 308).
He provides the example of bus driver’s annual income in a number of countries as
recorded in their census data; the results are converted into a common currency so that
comparisons can be made. Bryman (2012, p. 106) provides an example of a meta-
analysis: Avolio et al. (2000) posed the research question: ‘Do leadership interventions
have the intended impact and if so to what degree?’ They conducted extensive research
including a) a search of eighteen electronic databases using 124 keywords and phrases,
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b) an examination of bibliographies of electronic databases previous meta-analyses, c)
emails to 670 leadership researchers, d) manual list of leadership handbooks and other
books. Their research concluded that there was a strong relationship between leadership
interventions and certain outcomes such as task performance (Avolio et al., 2009 cited in
Bryman, 2012).
Cohen et al. (2007) suggest that meta-analyses are becoming increasingly important in
education and social policy. The Curriculum Evaluation and Management Centre at the
University of Durham ( https://www.cem.org) is one of the world’s leading education
centres conducting extensive research on education. The researchers there draw on
evidence-based research to find out what works best in education. FitzGibbon (1984, pp.
141-142 cited in Cohen et al., 2007, p. 291) set out four steps in conducting a meta-
analysis:
‘Finding studies (e.g. published, unpublished, reviews) from which effect sizes can be computed.
Coding the study characteristics (e.g. date, publication status, design characteristics, quality of design, status of researcher).
Measuring the effect sizes (e.g. locating the experimental group as a z-score in the control group distribution) so that outcomes can be measured on a common scale, controlling for ‘lumpy data’ (non-independent data from a large data set).
Correlating effect sizes with context variables (e.g. to identify differences between well controlled and poorly-controlled studies).’
Meta-analysis provides a useful technique for conducting research on existing published
research. Access to online electronic databases has simplified and facilitated the
process.
Systematic Reviews
Systematic reviews are very common in medicine where there is a great need to
evaluate and synthesise existing research in order to allow greater access to high quality
information and evidence. Sarantakos (2013) suggests the procedures used in
systematic review and meta-analysis are similar, but that the process is different in that
systematic reviews can use quantitative and qualitative research and can analyse the
evidence using quantitative or qualitative methodologies:
First, systematic review reduces the amount of available literature by offering a scientifically valid and high quality synthesis of its content; second, it
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allows access to studies that often are not easily accessible. And third, it offers a high quality scientific evidence, certainly higher than its predecessors (e.g. narrative reviews, literature review and expert commentaries), which are no longer used in this domain as often as they were in the past (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 311)
Stages
1) Identify the research topic, and formulate the question
2) Select the data bases and studies
3) Critique existing research and extract relevant information
4) Synthesise the findings
5) Formulate conclusions
6) Publish results
According to Toronto and Remington (2020, p. 2), ‘A systematic review has a single
narrowly focused clinical question, usually formulated in a PICO (P=population,
I=Intervention, C=Comparison, O=outcomes) format and may include meta-analysis’.
Some studies may include a systematic literature search and then a meta-analysis of the
studies identified.
For example, Tracey et al. (2016) argue that there is no diabetes register in Ireland
which makes planning services challenging, therefore research on the prevalence of
diabetes and the complications arising for adults was conducted using data from 1998-
2015. Databases such as PubMed and Embase were searched and a systematic
literature search was conducted. Four nationally representative studies were used to
calculate prevalence rates of doctor-diagnosed diabetes between 1998 and 2015. The
results identified fifteen studies that were eligible for inclusion, showing that the national
prevalence of doctor diagnosed diabetes increased, from 2.2% in 1998, to 5.2% in 2015.
The study concluded that a comprehensive national diabetes register is required in
Ireland (Tracey et al., 2016).
Integrative Reviews
Although meta-analysis was conducted over one hundred years ago, integrative reviews
(IRs) are a recent phenomenon and appear to date from the 1980s in the fields of
nursing, education and psychology (Toronto and Remington, 2020). A cursory search on
Google Scholar of ‘integrative literature review’ found 1,990,000 results. Limiting the
search to the last four years brought up 246,000 publications. Literature reviews are on a
continuum, an integrative review lies halfway between narrative and systematic review/
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meta-analysis.
IRs are popular particularly in nursing and may be the capstone module for graduate
students (Toronto and Remington, 2020). In this section, we draw heavily on the recent
scholarly book: A Step-by-Step Guide to Conducting an Integrative Review edited by
Toronto and Remington (2020) who have sought to clarify the methodology.
The purpose of an integrative review is to enhance knowledge of evidence-based
research in order to inform practice, which in turn will enhance patient care (Toronto and
Remington, 2020). As a methodology, it is useful for all practitioners such as teachers,
social workers, counsellors etc. IR is an important tool for addressing clinical issues in a
holistic way. Toronto (2020) provides an overview of the different types of literature
reviews.
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Table 10. Differences between the Three Common Review Types (Toronto, 2020, p.
3).
Differences between the three common review types
Narrative Integrative Review Systematic Purpose Provides an
overview on a topic of inquiry for research study, dissertation, or stand-alone review
Critical analysis of empirical, methodological, or theoretical literature, which draws attention to future research needs
Answers a single clinical question
Team Member(s) One or more reviewer
Two or more reviewers and librarian involvement recommended
Three or more reviewers included librarian or information specialist and statistician if meta-analysis is performed.
A prioiri review protocol (plan)
No No Yes – Protocol registration encouraged (PROSPERO, Cochrane, Collaboration)
Review Question No Broadly defined purpose and/or review question(s)
Single clinical question generally in the format of PICO
P=population
I=intervention
C=comparison
O=outcomes Established Reporting Guidelines
No No Yes (PRISMA) reporting guidelines
Timeline 2-6 months 6-12 months 12-14 months Use of a systematic search methodology (allows for replication)
No Yes Yes
Sampling Scholarly work on topic
Experimental/nonexperimental
Research - may include theoretical and methodological literature
Experimental research
Eligibility (inclusion and exclusion)
No Yes Yes
Search flow diagram
No Yes Yes (PRISMA flow diagram)
Critical appraisal No Yes Yes
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Differences between the three common review types
Narrative Integrative Review Systematic Data extraction No Yes Yes Analysis and synthesis
Narrative Analysis Narrative and/or thematic analysis with descriptive and qualitative synthesis
Narrative analysis with descriptive and qualitative synthesis (meta-analysis)
Evidence Based Practice implications
No Yes Yes
Toronto (2020) draws on the work of previous writers (Cooper, 1982, p. 84; Russell,
2005; de Souza et al., 2010) to outline the five main stages of research design:
(1) Problem formulation stage, in which the broad purpose of and review
question(s) are clearly stated
(2) Literature search stage, which uses a comprehensive and replicable search
strategy to collect data
(3) Data evaluation stage, in which the methodological quality and relevance of
selected literature are appraised
(4) Data analysis stage, which includes data abstraction, comparison, and
synthesis
(5) Presentation stage, in which the interpretation of findings and implications for
research; practice, and policy as well as the limitations of the review are
presented, and the importance of disseminating the findings is also addressed
(Cooper, 1984).
IR Problem Formulation
The first step lies in identifying a problem or concept in relation to a lacuna or gap in
the literature. The significance of the concept justifies the IR review, and addresses
the issue: ‘if what, then so what?’ Why is this IR relevant? The search criteria and
collection of literature will be informed by the review questions and key concepts. This
involves sampling the literature and developing inclusion and exclusion criteria. These
criteria could include:
• Types of studies or literature
• The phenomenon under investigation
• The characteristics of the population being studied
• Publication language
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• Time period covered by the review and its justification
• Setting (Garrard, 2014; Stern et al., 2014, cited in Devereux Melilo, 2020, p.
17)
A preliminary review is conducted to find a topic and a broad question. Devereaux
Melilo (2020) provides an example “What are the transition-to-practice experiences of
internationally educated nurses working in the United States from 2000 to 2018?”
(Ghazal et al., 2019, p. 399, cited in Devereaux Melilo, 2020, p. 17).
In writing up the IR, the introduction will go from the broad topic to the research
question, which is of paramount importance. It will identify gaps in knowledge and
outline concepts and variables. A theoretical framework may be used to guide the IR.
The reviewer will justify the choice of using an IR (Devereaux Melilo, 2020).
IR Literature Search
The search for literature should be comprehensive and involves searching numerous
electronic databases, hand searches, and ancestry literature. Ancestry literature refers to
literature that led you to your sources. Grey literature includes unpublished
dissertations, conference proceedings; papers and posters can also provide valuable
information. Conference proceedings can be accessed from Conference Proceedings
Citation Index (Lawless and Foster, 2020). Toronto (2020) suggests using the reporting
guidelines from the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-
Analyses (PRISMA).
College librarians play a key role in assisting students. They will be able to recommend
effective search terms, key electronic databases and a citation management system.
Inclusion and exclusion criteria should be noted, including years of publication, study
designs, and language. All literature will need to be screened in order to select the most
relevant (Lawless and Foster, 2020). The literature review for an IR differs from a
literature review that underpins research in that the entire process is documented and
made transparent so that another researcher can replicate or evaluate the study. The
research can be recorded in Microsoft Word (MS) table or in an Excel sheet. This will
include all the characteristics of publication: the title, date, topic, relevancy etc. A flow
diagram will include the articles that were screened and also the ones that were rejected.
The process is iterative in that as themes emerge from the literature, the research
question may need to be adjusted (Lawless and Foster, 2020). A helpful tip is to change
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the names of PDFs so that they are easy to find, and to file them in folders in MS for
easy retrieval later.
IR Data Evaluation
The next step is to evaluate or critique the literature in terms of its relevancy and quality
in relation to the purpose of your IR and the research question. Methodological rigour
should be used to screen for bias. The strengths and limitations of research should be
noted. Questions could be asked: Did the method address the research question? Are
the ethical implications of the research identified? What are the truth claims for this
research? Challenges arise in evaluating the quality of theoretical papers and grey
literature. According to Remington (2020),
…choosing the correct … critical appraisal… tool for the review is a challenge for the writer. Keeping the review purpose and questions in the forefront will guide the appraisal process. Transparency and consistency in the description of the method(s) used to appraise the included literature will enhance the rigor of the IR (Remington, 2020, p. 53)
In chapter six, we looked at the criteria for determining methodological rigour in
quantitative research namely objectivity, validity, reliability and generalisability. In
qualitative methodology, other criteria of trustworthiness are used: namely,
transferability, credibility, dependability and confirmability (Dwyer, 2020; see Chapter 7).
Reflexivity is also an important aspect of qualitative research. It should be borne in mind
that the purpose of the IR is to enhance practitioner knowledge founded on evidence-
based research so that the practitioner can ultimately enhance client care. The purpose
is not to become a statistician. There may be research that the reviewer finds difficult to
decipher because it uses higher order statistical tests and analysis beyond the
comprehension of a reviewer.
IR Data Analysis
Data analysis and synthesis are the most challenging aspect of an IR (Toronto, 2020).
The data is integrated and synthesised but the method is more transparent than in a
traditional literature review. A table or matrix is developed in which the data is checked
for similarities, differences and patterns and its ability to address the research questions.
Here, the reviewer is moving into a higher level of abstraction from facts to concepts
(Toronto, 2020). Here is an example of the type of headings that could be used for data
analysis.
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Table 11. Data Analysis IR (Dwyer, 2020, p. 58)
Author(s) Year Method Sample Quality
Rating
Results/findings
The data is analysed using inductive qualitative methodology which we have already
described in other sections of this book; the main methods include, the constant
comparative method, thematic analysis and content analysis (Dwyer, 2020). This can be
done manually using the matrix described above or with a software package such as
QSR NVivo.
Synthesising the data involves bringing the findings together and interpreting them to
create new knowledge and understanding of an issue. The analysis and synthesis of
data is a messy iterative process that will take a number of drafts to finally produce a
coherent picture. It will address the research questions. Generally speaking, it is
presented under new themes which have emanated from the literature (Dwyer, 2020).
IR Presentation Stage: Discussion, Conclusion
The final stage in the IR is the discussion and presentation chapter in which reviewers
spell out what their findings mean, compare and contrast them with background literature
and make recommendations for practice, research, theory and policy (Toronto, 2020).
The final chapter answers the “so what” question. In terms of the structure, Toronto and
Remington (2020, p. 74) liken the IR to an ‘hourglass’. At the bulbous part at the top is
the introduction, background, purpose of research and review question; in the narrow
section in the middle is the literature search and synthesis; in the wider section at the
bottom is the discussion, comparison of findings to background literature, and then the
conclusion. If a theoretical framework is used, the findings are interpreted in light of the
theoretical framework. Limitations of the IR are discussed and may include the
shortcomings of the selected literature, the time available to conduct the review or the
fact that it is conducted by a single reviewer. It is also important to include the strengths
of the review. The essential elements of an IR are summarised below (Toronto and
Remington, 2020, p. 82):
• ‘Provide a brief summary of the review’s purpose and major findings.
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• State how the review findings contribute to the understanding of a phenomenon
or questions(s).
• Interpret the findings in relation to the literature cited in the background section.
• Describe how the findings fit into the present body of nursing knowledge.
• Place the review in the ongoing conversation and context of the current literature
by comparing and contrasting the review findings to the work of other authors.
• State how the findings support, enhance, or contrast with prior evidence.
• Identify implications for research, practice, education, and/or policy.’
They also point out common mistakes made by students:
• ‘Simply repeating the information in the results section without any interpretation
• Drawing conclusions or formulating implications that cannot be supported by the
literature
• Not making connections to the theoretical framework if used to organize the
review
• Not discussing the methodological limitations of the review or review’s sample
• Not providing implications for nursing practice, research/theory, education, and/
or policy
• Inserting new information/citations in the conclusion section of the review.’
(Toronto and Remington, 2020, pp. 82-83)
The discussion and conclusion chapter will finish with an overall conclusion that will
provide a brief summary of the findings and their contribution to the field. It will not
contain new findings nor include any references. It highlights the main points and gives
the reader a ‘take home’ message (Toronto and Remington, 2020, p. 82).
Finally, when the IR is completed, it is presented to the wider professional community
either in a peer-reviewed research paper, a poster or presentation at a workshop or
conference or in a newspaper or on social media (Sethares, 2020).
Common Mistakes in Literature Reviews
Our thirty years of experience in supervising students has brought common mistakes
in Literature Reviews to our attention:
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• Carelessness: Not paying careful attention to formatting issues such as page
numbers, headings etc.
• Cut and paste: Beware of cutting/copying and pasting from online journals and
e-books directly into the literature review. If you do, then highlight what you
have done so that you can go back and rephrase or summarise the work.
Sometimes text includes a hyperlink to a web site but without a reference.
Students often engage in unwitting plagiarism and it is embarrassing for the
student and the supervisor if the student is accused of plagiarism. The
penalties are high from having to redo the assignment to being hauled in front
of a college committee to being expelled from the programme.
• Too many quotations: It is not uncommon to see many long unnecessary
quotations in a review. The review has to demonstrate that you have mastered
the literature in a particular area, so the literature will need to be digested
(summarised and paraphrased); see discussion earlier in the chapter. Use
quotations sparingly for illustrative purposes.
• Incoherent: Sometimes students will summarise various pieces of literature
without presenting an overall story or argument.
• Multiple drafts: The first draft of a literature review is rarely good enough for
the final version of your dissertation. It will take at least five drafts to ensure it
is coherent and flows. If doing qualitative research, it may necessary to add
additional references when you are interpreting your data.
• References: Ensure all readings are correctly referenced utilising the
recommended referencing system in your college.
• Currency: Although it is wise to include seminal texts and theories, newer
empirical research may provide new evidence and insights into certain issues.
• Save: Finally, do not forget to save your work. Although computers today are
much better at saving material, it is not unheard of for a computer to crash and
for the student to lose their precious work. It is important to save your work on
an external hard drive. We knew a student whose laptop was hit by lightning
and, consequently, the hard drive reverted to factory settings. Fortunately, the
student had drafts of chapters she had sent to her supervisor.
• Omissions: Forgetting to include peer reviewed journal articles.
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Conclusion
In this chapter, we have teased out all the essential ingredients of a literature review and
we have provided an example of one student’s work. A literature review forms a major
part of a research dissertation. It needs to be clear, systematic, coherent, and evidenced
based. We have explored specialist literature reviews, such as meta-analysis, systematic
review and integrative review. It is tempting to keep searching for literature but, at some
stage, the student will need to move on and collect data. The next chapter begins our
exploration of quantitative methodology and methods of data collection.
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Key Messages
• There are five distinct stages in a literature review: 1) Search for empirical and
theoretical literature, 2) Read and critique literature, 3) Synthesise literature and
develop an argument, 4) Write it up paying careful attention to structure and
organisation, and 5) Develop research question(s) emanating from review.
• Use Day’s (2012) SP3R model for active reading: Survey, Purpose, Read once,
Read again and Review. When writing up a literature review you will have to
mention, paraphrase, summarise, and critique the work of others.
• Remember to save all references; there is nothing more frustrating than
searching for a reference the night before the dissertation is due to be submitted.
• Ensure you use relevant and current literature and conduct regular online checks
to see if new research has been published on your topic.
• Be like a detective who needs to collate and review evidence in order to solve a
crime. Leave no stone unturned in your quest.
• Ensure you are in compliance with the reference system in your college (Harvard,
APA, Chicago etc.). All direct quotations require a page number.
• Avoid plagiarism. Ensure all literature cited is referenced to correct source.
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Exercises
Check out some of the following websites:
1. Reference Managers: Endnote, Zotero, Mendeley
Endnote. Available at:https://endnote.com/wp-content/uploads/m/pdf/en-online-
qrc.pdf
Zotero. Available at: https://www.zotero.org
Mendeley. Available at: https://www.mendeley.com/reference-
management/mendeley-desktop
2. The Beginner’s Guide to Boolean Search Terms. Available at:
https://www.socialtalent.com/blog/recruitment/the-beginners-guide-to-boolean-
search-terms
3. Trinity College Dublin, Library. Available at:https://www.tcd.ie/library/
4. Mind maps. Available at: https://www.lucidchart.com/
5. Different Referencing Systems
What system is your college using?
1) Chicago School of Referencing, (16th edition)
https://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html
2) APA (American Psychological Association)
https://www.apa.org/pubs/books/publication-manual-7th-edition-spiral
3) Harvard System of Referencing – check out your college guide.
4) The Literature Review by David Taylor University of Maryland
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2IUZWZX4OGI
Advice about writing literature reviews
http://advice.writing.utoronto.ca/types-of-writing/literature-review/
6. Search
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Carry out a keyword search for literature using the search engine Google Scholar
https://scholar.google.com Identify: print books, e-books, empirical research peer-
reviewed journal articles and theoretical articles. Check the list against your online
library using its data bases. Conduct a hand search in the physical library in your
college for additional print books.
Further Reading
Hart, C. (2018) Doing the literature review: Releasing the research imagination, (2nd
edition), Sage: London.
Toronto, C. E. and Remington, R. (Eds) (2020) A Step-by-Step Guide to Conducting an
Integrative Review. Switzerland: Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020. This is an edited
book of seven chapters written by different authors. It is just over 100 pages, is well
referenced and contains many examples of aspects of IRs and illustrations. If there is no
copy in your library, it is well worth purchasing it, if you intend to use this methodology. A
digital copy is also available and can be downloaded to an electronic device.
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Chapter 6. Quantitative Methodology and Methods
Introduction
In this chapter, we explore quantitative research methodology. At its most basic,
quantitative research deals with ‘quantity’, measurement, and statistics. Most of this
chapter is devoted to survey research because this is the most common method used by
students. In our experience, some students were afraid to carry out quantitative research
because they believed that they were not good at maths at school or believed that they
knew nothing about statistics. This chapter is designed to allay any negative perceptions
or fears about statistical analysis. We explore how to design, pilot, and administer a
questionnaire and then how to code it and conduct basic statistical analysis on data
gathered. Examples of large scale national and international research, as well as student
research, are presented. We have noticed that many students doing small scale
research projects today are using online survey tools, so we have included a critical
discussion of their use. In the final part of the chapter, an example of the use of
experiments in social research is presented. Following the completion of a literature
review, the overarching research question is posed, along with sub-questions. The
research question determines the method, so it is important that it is accurate, relevant,
and appropriate for using quantitative methods of data gathering. Allen, Titsworth and
Hunt (2017) provide a succinct summary of the purpose of quantitative research:
The purpose of quantitative research is to generate knowledge and create understanding about the social world. Quantitative research is used by social scientists, including communication researchers, to observe phenomena or occurrences affecting individuals. Social scientists are concerned with the study of people. Quantitative research is a way to learn about a particular group of people, known as a sample population. Using scientific inquiry, quantitative research relies on data that are observed or measured to examine questions about the sample population (Allen et al., 2017, p. 7)
This chapter commences by explaining the key tenets of quantitative research
methodology and compares them with qualitative research methodology.
Learning Outcomes
On successful completion of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Describe and discuss the key tenets of quantitative research methodology and the
differences between quantitative and qualitative methodology
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• Identify the advantages and disadvantages of quantitative methods and the role of
surveys in conducting research
• Critically review the design of research questions and how to code a quantitative
questionnaire
• Appraise the appearance and layout of a questionnaire
• Critically reflect on the robustness of a questionnaire (objectivity, validity, reliability
and generalisability)
• Conduct simple statistical data analysis
• Reflect critically on the use of experiments in social research
Key Tenets of Quantitative Research Methodology
In this section, we tease out the main tenets of quantitative research methodology and
explore how these differ from qualitative research methodology. It is suggested that there
are ten main differences that distinguish quantitative methodology: paradigms, intentions
(measurement and hypothesis testing), type of data, setting, theory, research instrument,
prediction, inference, and position of researcher to research.
(1) Paradigms
The paradigm which underpins quantitative research methodology is logical positivism,
which seeks to emulate the methods and claims of the natural sciences (physics)
through gathering objective measurable empirical data from experiments or surveys
(Chapter 2).
(2) Intentions
The intention of quantitative methodology is to measure something (either responses to
a question in a survey or in an experiment), whereas the intention of qualitative research
is to find meaning or to understand what is going on in a social situation (Thomas, 2013).
The main instrument of data collection in quantitative research is a questionnaire
administered in a survey, whereby the researcher gathers this data. It is comprised of
questions or variables pertaining to characteristics of a phenomena (attitudes, opinions,
beliefs) that the researcher is trying to measure and make comparisons. Collected data
are then statistically analysed and meaningful research conclusions are drawn from this
analysis. This is discussed further in the chapter. According to Bell (2005) the aim of
surveys is to,
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obtain answers to the same questions from a large number of individuals to enable the researcher not only to describe but also to compare, to relate one characteristic to another and to demonstrate that certain features exist in certain categories (Bell, 2005, p. 14)
The aim of research experiments is to establish a causal relationship between two
variables or to determine cause and effect. According to Cohen et al. (2007):
The essential feature of experimental research is that investigators deliberately control and manipulate the conditions which determine the events in which they are interested, introduce an intervention and measure the difference that it makes (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007, p. 272)
Experiments are widely used in the field of medicine and pharmaceuticals. Two groups
with similar characteristics are chosen; a drug is administered to one group of people
(experimental group) and a placebo is administered to the second group (control group).
The effects of the drug can then be measured and the results compared. Bryman (2016)
suggests that true experiments are rarely used in sociological research but are used in
other academic disciplines such as psychology. The most famous (now considered
highly unethical) social psychological experiment was conducted by Miligram in the
1960s in a laboratory in Yale University (Miligram, 1963). A longer discussion of the use
of experiments in education research is provided at the end of the chapter.
(3) Data and Research Design
Quantitative research deals with ‘quantity’, numbers (numerical data), measurement, and
statistics. In survey research, the variables (questions and responses) use data as
numerical units. Using statistical tests, variables can be manipulated and tested to
determine if there is an association or correlation between one variable and another
variable (discussed in greater detail below). Qualitative research uses words, sentences,
or phrases. In qualitative research, variables are considered artificial constructs because
they fracture the social world (Thomas, 2013). In quantitative research, the questionnaire
is designed prior to data collection, whereas in qualitative research the research design
is flexible, with the researcher open to adopting inquiry as understanding of the issue
deepens (Patton, 2002).
(4) Setting
In quantitative research, surveys are conducted in settings to enable the researcher to
gather data at a distance, whereas in qualitative research data is gathered in natural
settings such as the home, the school, or the street (see Chapter 7). Experiments are
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commonly used in settings where variables can be excluded or controlled or where
associations and relationships between variables can be determined (correlations).
Despite the best efforts of social researchers to determine the association between
variables, their efforts may be hampered. For example, the Western Electric Company
plant at Hawthorne, USA carried out research to determine which working conditions
were most conducive to high productivity (Harvey and MacDonald, 1993; Sarantakos,
2013). Researchers investigated the effects of changes in variables such as the level of
heating and lighting in the plant and the length of the working day. The results of the
study were inconclusive. Researchers decided to look at the relationship or association
between lighting and productivity; as the lights grew brighter productivity increased.
However, when they reduced the lighting the productivity remained the same. This
finding was similar to other variables they tried to study. The research concluded that
changes in productivity were the result of all the special attention that was being paid to
the workers! The variable ‘being researched’ was far greater than the other variables that
the researchers had tried to study. Thomas (2013, p. 142) calls this ‘the experiment
effect’. In other words, it was the experimenter or researcher’s effect that caused a
change in the variables. The ‘Hawthorne effect’ is also called the reactivity effect
(Sarantakos, 2013). Research participants may change their behaviour because they
know that they are being studied.
(5) Theory
In keeping with the spirit of positivism, theory comes first in quantitative research. In
large scale empirical studies theory is tested using hypothesis testing. The null
hypothesis suggests that there is no association between variables. Defining theory is
not easy. Scott and Marshall provide a definition:
Generally speaking, there are three different conceptions of theory in sociology. Some think of generalizations about, and classifications of, the social world. The scope of generalization varies from theorizing about a particular range of phenomena to more abstract and general theories about society and history as a whole. Others believe that theoretical statements should be translated into empirical, measurable, or observable propositions, and systematically tested [positivism]. Finally, yet others argue that theory should explain phenomena, identifying causal mechanisms and processes, which although they cannot be observed directly, can be seen in their effects (Scott and Marshall, 2009, p. 761)
In qualitative research, theory usually comes last and is developed from or through data
generation and analysis although ‘prior theorising is important’ (Hammersley and
Atkinson, 1995, cited in Miles and Huberman, 1994, p. 22). Table 12 summarises the
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differences between theory construction in quantitative and qualitative research
(Sarantakos, 1993, p. 15).
Table 12. Differences between Qualitative and Quantitative Research viz Theory
Feature Quantitative Research Qualitative Research Logic of Theory Deductive Inductive Direction of Theory Building
Begins from Theory Begins from reality
Verification Takes place after theory building is completed
Data generation, analysis and theory verification take place concurrently
Concepts Firmly defined before research begins
Begins with orienting, sensitising or flexible concepts
Generalisations Inductive Generalisations Analytic or exemplar generalisations.
The role of theory in qualitative research is discussed in the next chapter.
(6) Hypothesis testing
Central to good research is that we have a research question that we are trying to
answer (de Vaus, 2014). Researchers may wish to go further and may wish to find out
the association of one variable to another. A hypothesis is a hunch or guess that there is
an association between two variables. A researcher may begin with a theory (women are
more religious than men), which is ‘subjected to empirical scrutiny’ (Bryman, 2012, p. 24)
through the collection of data. Then, the hypothesis may be confirmed or rejected, after
which the theory is revised. This is called the process of deduction and is graphically
illustrated by Bryman (2012, p. 24) below.
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Figure 5. The Process of Deduction Bryman (2012, p. 24)
de Vaus (1996) provides an explanation of hypothesis testing. He starts off with the
suggestion that there is an association between gender and religiousness. For example,
we might expect that overall women are more religious than men. However, women in
the workforce might have similar levels of religiousness as men. He did secondary
analysis on a large international data set of 25 countries (Australian Values Study
Survey) which included representative samples. They tested the hypotheses that there
would be no differences (null hypothesis) between the religiousness of women who were
in the workforce and men. Statistical analysis supported his hypothesis that there were
few differences between the percentages of men and women (in the workforce) who
were highly religious.
(7) Research Instruments
The research instrument used in survey research is a structured standardised
questionnaire whereas in qualitative research the research instrument is a Topic
Guide/Aide Memoire/Interview Schedule or a semi-structured questionnaire. Bell (2005,
p. 14) suggests that ‘surveys can provide answers to the questions what, where, when
and how questions but it is not easy to find out why’. We cannot find out what caused
something but we can find out the association and strength of relationships between
variables. Surveys use structured questions using forced choice or closed answers,
3.HYPOTHESIS
4.METHODS
5.DATACOLLECTION
6.RESULTS
7.HYPOTHESISCONFIRMEDORREJECTED
1.LITERATURE
REVIEW
2.THEORY
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although open-ended questions can also be used. The following is an example of a
closed or force choice question.
Closed or forced choice question:
Q. 1 Did the Budget affect you economically? Yes ☐ No ☐ Unsure ☐
In qualitative research, questions are open ended in order to elicit elaborate responses,
for example, ‘Could you tell me how the budget affected you?’ Probes are then used to
obtain deeper responses: ‘You mentioned that you had to make savings, can you tell me
about the savings you made?’ (see Chapter 7).
(8) Prediction
The early social scientists were ambitious, believing that similar to the natural scientists
they could predict the future. For example, we can say with complete confidence that the
sun will rise tomorrow, that the tides will go in and out but the question is: Can we make
predictions about the social world? There are those who argue that we can. Prediction in
quantitative research is an estimate made from observations about an association
between two variables. For example, prior to general elections large scale polls are
carried out to predict who might win the next election. A politics poll might ask the
question: ‘Who will you vote for in the next election?’ Research participants would
indicate their choice in the poll. After the election, comparisons could be made between
the predicted results and the actual outcomes of the election. This is called predictive
validity (Sarantakos, 2013).
Another example is where a teacher concerned about a child’s academic attainment at
school may refer (with parental consent) the child to an educational psychologist who
measures the child’s IQ tests, discovers the child has a low IQ and can predict that the
child will not do well in standardised academic tests and is in need of additional
academic support. That said, much research has questioned the use of the standardised
tests MICRA-T and DPRT-R in Irish primary schools as not being fit for purpose for
children with special education needs (Beechinor, 2018; Burbage, 2018).
(9) Inference
One of the key tenets of quantitative methodology is the rationale behind large scale
samples, which argue that we can statistically infer from a sample to a given population.
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If we use large scale representative samples we can statistically infer with a ‘confidence
level’ of 95% - 99% that x is related to y. Confidence intervals are based on sampling
issues and probability theory which will be explained later in the chapter (de Vaus, 1996).
• For example, if x= tea, y=population, and if we surveyed a representative sample
of 10,000 respondents in Ireland, and the results indicated that 90% say that ‘tea
is their favourite non-alcoholic drink’.
• We can statistically deduct or infer that the majority of the population would say
that ‘tea is their favourite non-alcoholic drink’.
The process of deduction is used in quantitative research (surveys and experiments),
whereas with qualitative research analysis is inductive; meaning that relationships are
derived inductively from the data (discussed in greater detail in the next chapter).
(10) Relationship between Researcher and Researched
In quantitative research, the relationship between the researcher and researched is
distant. In order to reduce bias the researcher tries not to influence the researched when
they are completing a questionnaire, whereas in qualitative research, the relationship is
more subjective because the researcher tries to get close to the respondent. Objectivity
is a key aspect of experiments and survey design, whereas in qualitative research the
centrality of subjectivity is acknowledged (Thomas, 2014).
In this section, we have teased out the key tenets of quantitative research and compared
them with qualitative research. Next, we explore survey research.
Survey Research
The main method of data collection in quantitative research is the survey, which is a
carefully designed structured questionnaire administered to a large number of people at
the same time. A dictionary definition of survey is to ‘take a general or comprehensive
view of … a situation’ (www.dictionary.com). The word survey is also a verb. Imagine
standing on top of a hill and surveying the landscape. The researcher who carries out a
survey gets an overall picture of a situation or a snapshot in time. According to de Vaus
(1996, p. 3), ‘the distinguishing features of surveys are the form of data collection and
the method of analysis’. Bryman (2012, p. 60) provides a definition:
Survey research comprises a cross-sectional design in relation to which data are collected predominantly by questionnaire or by structured interview on
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more than one case (usually quite a lot more than one) and at a single point in time in order to collect a body of quantitative or quantifiable data in connection with two or more variables (usually many more than two), which are then examined to detect patterns of association.
In Ireland, the census of population is an example of a comprehensive large-scale
survey conducted by the Central Statistics Office (CSO) on a regular basis to enumerate
the population and provide information to government specifically for planning and policy
purposes. Surveys have many advantages (de Vaus, 1996; Sarantakos, 1996; Bryman,
2012).
Advantages of Surveys
o Questionnaires are designed to ask and receive information on the same set of
questions from a sample of people.
o Surveys can be quick to administer and inexpensive, depending on the type and
size of survey.
o Surveys can be replicated by another researcher because the same questions
can be used.
o In online and postal surveys, respondents can complete questionnaires at a
convenient time. The researcher can instruct those answering a questionnaire to
‘please return this completed questionnaire to researcher by date…’
o Surveys can offer greater anonymity and confidentiality because the researcher
does not always need to be present when the survey is being completed.
o Surveys can increase objectivity because the participant can be completely
honest in their responses.
o Surveys enable the researcher to describe and compare answers to the same set
of questions.
o In large scale survey research, where representative samples are used, we can
make inferences to the whole population (this is explained in greater detail
below).
o Surveys can gather a lot of information in a short period of time from a greater
number of people than in qualitative research; quantitative data collection is often
less time consuming that qualitative data collection.
o Epidemiology or the gathering and use of statistics in health is imperative for
global organisations such as the World Health Organisation (WHO) and national
organisations. This is evident during the current pandemic because statistics can
help to identify the national and global spread of the virus, the number of people
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tested, the number of people in hospitals, the places where there are clusters, the
management and administration of the vaccines.
Disadvantages of Surveys
The disadvantages of surveys include: (Sarantakos, 1996; Bryman, 2012):
o They do not allow the researcher to probe, prompt or clarify an issue.
o There is no opportunity for the respondent to elaborate on an issue.
o There is no researcher present to answer: ‘What do you mean by that question?’
o In a postal survey, the researcher does not know whether the correct respondent
or some other person not sampled has answered the questionnaire.
o In self-completion questionnaires, the respondents may not answer questions
they feel are not relevant to them and they may also skip questions.
On a philosophical basis, quantitative methodology has been criticised because it fails to
distinguish people and institutions from the world of nature. That is, the natural physical
world (oceans, trees etc.) and the social world (families, society, organisations) are
treated in the same way. This is called reification (Hughes, 1993). According to Pring
(2010, p. 38), if a survey question asked, ‘Is your child’s school a successful one?’, two
parents might interpret the question in completely different ways. One parent might think
it successful because of the sports facilities, whereas another parent might think it
successful because child was getting high grades in examinations. Both parents might
not realise the implications of what they are agreeing to. And if they knew the
implications, then they may have given different responses. If the two parents were
evaluating the answer to the question using different criteria, then by adding up the
scores at the end suggests that all parents have shared the same meaning whereas in
reality they interpreted the questions differently. As Pring explains:
It is seen to 'reify' (that is, make it into a 'thing', existing independently of my or others' thinking about it) that which is significant only in relation to the thoughts, feelings, intentions of the people concerned. It quantifies that which is not open to adding and subtracting and multiplying. It is, in other words, an extension of the 'scientific/mathematical' paradigm (Pring, 2010, p. 38)
Quantitative research has been challenged by those who argue that it is reductive. It
dehumanises human beings because they are reduced to quantifiable numbers. For
example, in the current Covid-19 pandemic we hear that x number of people have died,
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of whom x% were men and y% were women, the median age of death is x, or of those
who died x% had an underlying medical condition (HSE, 2020). National and
international comparisons are available (WHO, 2020) but these figures do not tell us
much about those who have died and the bereaved; for example, in a news report a
woman stated: ‘my sister is not a statistic’.
Despite these criticisms, quantitative methodology remains an important tool for
gathering data about the social world. De Vaus (1996, p. 355) suggests that good
surveys require ‘creative imagination, reflection, puzzling, interpretation and insight’. An
important aspect of a good survey is the choice of sample.
Sampling in Quantitative Research
Once we have chosen our research question (a question that requires numerical
responses), we decide from whom we want to gather data. Please note data is the plural
of datum. The people with the characteristic that we are interested in are called the
population (denoted with a capital N). For example, say we wished to conduct research
on Irish Leprechauns. Suppose the census data revealed that there were 2800
Leprechauns living in Ireland. It would be too expensive and time consuming to survey
the entire population of Leprechauns, so instead we choose a sample (denoted by a
lower-case=n). We would like the sample to be representative of all the Leprechauns.
The size of the sample contributes to our confidence in generalising the findings. There
are two types of samples: probability samples and non-probability samples. Generally
speaking, small-scale student projects use non-probability samples, but in order to
comprehend non-probability samples it is important to understand the theory behind
probability samples.
(a) Probability Samples and Simple Random Sample Techniques
A probability sample is considered the gold standard for selecting a sample because it is
based completely on chance, therefore there is no possibility of researcher bias because
they cannot influence the sample (Denscombe, 2010, p. 27). Probability samples use
simple random sample techniques. In statistical terms, the concept ‘random’ does not
have the usual meaning of ‘haphazard’ but means that each person in the population has
an equal chance of being selected, therefore when the data from the survey has been
analysed we can be confident that it represents the population of interest (de Vaus,
1996; Sarantakos, 2013; Lankshear and Knobel, 2004). Think of it as a pot of soup; we
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taste a small sample and are confident that the rest of the soup tastes the same. To
select a random sample, the following steps are taken:
• The researcher develops a sampling frame, this is a list of all of the people s/he is
interested in.
• To continue with the example; there are 2,800 Leprechauns in Ireland. We list the
all the Leprechauns from 1 to 2,800 (0001, 0002, 0003…2800). Then using a
table of random numbers we choose the Leprechauns that correspond to the
numbers in the random sample table. Random sample tables have been in use
since 1927 and are available in statistics textbooks (Argyrous, 2013). They are
also available online, for example, see
https://mathbitsnotebook.com/Algebra2/Statistics/STrandomtable.html. A random
sample table can be pages long. Here, we present an annotated table from de
Vaus (1996, p. 63).
• Usually, the random numbers are in 5 digits, so we decide whether we will use
the first or last two numbers; if the first number in the table is 74605 and we have
chosen the last two numbers then our first respondent would be Leprechaun
number 05 (de Vaus, 1996, p. 63). If we go across the table horizontally, the next
Leprechaun is 66, the next is 41 etc.
Table 13. A Table of Random Numbers (de Vaus, 1996, p. 63)
74605 60866 92941 77422 78308 08274 62099
20749 78470 94157 83266 37570 64827 94067
88790 79927 48135 46293 05045 70393 80915
64819 73967 78907 50940 98146 80637 50917
55938 78790 04999 32561 92128 83403 79930
The next step is choosing a sample size that would represent the entire population.
Sample Size for a Representative Survey
Students always ask the question: how do we know what size sample to use? The
answer to this is ‘it all depends’! If we wanted to be 100% confident that our results
represented the entire population, we would simply survey the entire population.
According to de Vaus (1996, p. 61), the sample size depends on two factors: ‘the degree
of accuracy we require for the sample and the extent to which there is variation in the
population in regard to the key characteristics of the study’. Based on probability theory,
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a normal population is distributed like a bell curve; so called because it is shaped like a
bell. The vertical line denotes the sample mean (or average), which will be discussed
later in the chapter. Bryman (2012, p. 196) provides an example:
Let us say that the average consumption of alcohol consumed in the previous 7 days is 9.7 units of alcohol (sample mean). How confident can we be that the sample mean level of alcohol of 9.7 units is likely to be found in the Population mean?
If we take an infinite number of samples from the population, the sample estimates of the average (mean) of the variable under consideration will vary in relation to the population mean. This variation will take the form of a bell-
shaped curve which is known as the normal distribution. The shape of the distribution implies that there is a clustering of sample means at or around the population means. Half the sample means will be at or below the population mean (to the left of the curve and the other half of sample means are at or above the population mean (to the right of the curve).
As the curve tails off to each side this implies that fewer and fewer samples generating means depart from the population mean. This variation of sample means around the population means is called the sampling error. This is a measure using a statistic known as the standard error of the mean- an estimate of the amount that the sample mean is likely to differ from the population mean.
Figure 6. Bell Curve
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According to (Bryman, 2012, p. 196):
The variation of sample means around the population means is the sampling error and is measured using a statistic known as the standard error of the mean … 95% of all sample means will lie between + or – 1.96 of standard deviation errors from the population mean.
Sarantakos (1993, p. 149) provides a useful table for working out the size of a
representative sample. The smaller the population, the bigger the sample has to be, so if
there were N=10 people in the population, the sample would be n=10, if N=30 then n=28,
if N=100 then n=80, if N=800 then n=260 based on a 95% confidence interval.
Therefore, from a population of 2,800 Leprechauns a representative sample size would
be 338. The size of the sample contributes to the generalisability of the research. In
Table 14 below, N=population and n=sample size.
Table 14. Table for determining sample size from a given population (annotated)
(Sarantakos (1993, p. 149)
N n N n N n N n N n
10 10 100 80 280 162 800 260 2800 338
30 28 140 103 340 181 1000 278 4500 354
60 52 200 132 460 210 1600 310 10000 370
95 76 270 159 750 254 2600 335 1000000 384
The simple random sample technique suggests that there is a ‘normal’ distribution of, say,
each age group in a population, as represented in a bell curve, but let us imagine
researchers may have to deal with populations where age is not equally distributed, like
the village of Ballyhoo, where a lot of young people have emigrated for work.
Stratified Random Sampling
As the name suggests, stratified random sampling ‘is designed to produce more
representative and thus more accurate samples’ (de Vaus, p. 45) because it is more
representative of each group in a population. This occurs when we divide the population
into strata based on certain characteristics such as gender, age, residence, income etc.
Perhaps we wish to find out the opinions of people in relation to Direct Provision in
Ballyhoo. Suppose that the demographic profile of Ballyhoo reveals that there are more
people over sixty years of age than people under 30 years of age. In this case, we would
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then need to stratify the sample so that the under 30 age group would be accurately
represented. We may be interested in comparing the opinions of those in their thirties
with those in their sixties. We may further wish to divide these strata into male and
female, and may want half to be single and the other half married. We would then
devise a sampling frame, perhaps from the electoral register of the people in the town.
The next step is to choose the number of respondents from each group, then merge
these subsamples into one sample (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 132). This will give a more
accurate picture of the opinions of each sub-group in the population (de Vaus, 1996).
There are many more types of representative samples such as cluster sampling, multi-
stage sampling, area sampling, multi-phase sampling, panel studies, and spatial
sampling. These can be investigated in advanced textbooks. Big samples are typically
used in large scale funded research. Due to time constraints and lack of financial
resources, small samples based on non-probability theory are usually used in student
research.
(b) Non-probability Samples
For student projects non-probability samples (convenience, purposive, snowball) are
usually used, employing much smaller samples and providing descriptive data and
statistics (Thomas, 2013). The data gathered is non-inferential and not representative.
This means that we cannot infer from the data to the population as a whole. Non-
probability samples include:
o convenience (choosing a convenient sample, such as all the teachers in a staff
room), or
o purposive (choosing respondents for the purpose of the research), ‘cases are
judged as typical of some category of cases of interest to the researcher’ (de
Vaus, 1996, p. 78) for example, if the researcher was conducting research on
children on the autism spectrum they might choose teachers who work in an
Autism Spectrum Unit in a school. Here ‘the judgement of the investigator is more
important than obtaining a probability sample’ (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 166).
o snowball sample involves the researcher asking a respondent if they know
another person with similar characteristics who may be interested in participating
in the research and thus the sample grows like a snowball (Punch, 2009;
Thomas, 2013).
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These types of samples elicit useful information regarding the sample itself but the
information is not generalisable to the whole population and, thus, caution must be used
in interpreting the statistics.
Creating a Questionnaire
Following the completion of a literature review, the overarching research question is
posed, along with sub-questions, and the aim and objectives of the research. It is
imperative to develop a researchable question (who, what, where, when, how, which) in
order to provide the answer in your research. The research question determines the
method so it should be accurate, relevant, and appropriate for using quantitative
methods. It is worthwhile putting time, effort, and discipline into the design and wording
of the questions because once a questionnaire is distributed there is no turning back.
Based on concepts arising from the literature review, indicators in the form of questions
are designed (de Vaus, 1996). First, you must ask yourself: what is my research
objective or what is the concept I am trying to measure? According to de Vaus (1996, p.
81): ‘The art of questionnaire design involves thinking ahead about the research
problem, what the concepts mean and how we will analyse the data’. In quantitative
methodology, questions are considered variables. De Vaus (1996, p. 27) defines a
variable as ‘a characteristic which has more than one category (or value)’. For example,
eye colour has different categories: brown, blue, green, grey, hazel, age has many
categories; the responses to questions display how people vary or differ from each other.
Here are some simple rules for designing a questionnaire for a survey:
• The structure of a questionnaire usually consists of four main sections: (a) social
profile or demographic questions (gender, age, income), (b) general questions
about the research topic (c) specific questions relating to the research topic and
(d) concluding type questions drawing the survey to a close.
• Be careful with the order of questions in a questionnaire, your questionnaire may
be divided into clearly defined parts that address different aspects of the research
objective under group headings. By doing this it helps the flow of the
questionnaire. It helps to start with easy questions before proceeding with more
difficult questions.
• To prevent confusion ensure each question is numbered consecutively.
• Do not ask two questions in one question, for example: Did you know that it is
possible to work 12 hours per week and also claim social welfare allowance?
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Respondents may answer yes to the first part of the question and no to the
second part. The data would have to be discarded. A better way is:
Q 6 (a) Did you know that it is possible to work 12 hours per week without forfeiting benefits?
Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2) Not Applicable ☐ (9)
If answer to Q. 6 (a) is ‘Yes’, then go to Q. 6 (b). If ‘No’ then go to Q. 7.
Q. 6 (b) Did you know that you can also claim social welfare allowance?
Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2)
Q. 7 …………………………………
• The questions should be short and clear.
• Exercise caution with the use of language. Ensure you use appropriate language
that respondents can understand. Do not use specialist academic language with
lay people, because the respondent may not understand what the question
means, for example, ‘Do you feel that your husband has a self-actualising
autonomous personality structure? (Kane and O’Reilly-de Brun, 2001, cited in
Lavin, p. 78). This might be appropriate for psychologists and psychoanalysts but
not appropriate for lay people. That said, if you are asking questions from
colleagues from a similar academic discipline who understands the same
terminology, then by all means use specialist language.
• If designing questionnaires for children, ensure that the language is child friendly.
Emoticons can be used for responses to Likert Scales.
• Exercise caution when asking questions about the past, because people may
have trouble remembering the information (Bell, 2014).
• Avoid presumptive or assumptive questions. For example, the following question
is assumptive in that it assumes that the respondent has eaten in the ‘Students
Retreat’ in Ballyhoo college:
Q. Does The Students Retreat provide excellent ‘value for money’ food?
Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2) Don’t know ☐ (3)
• The question should be prefaced with:
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Have you ever had food in The Students Retreat in Ballyhoo college?
Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2)
• Avoid leading questions because these might influence a respondent to
answer in a particular type of way, for example:
Q. It is very common for young people to use alcohol before 18 years of age; do you
approve of introducing alcohol in a safe family environment before the age of 18?
Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2) Don’t know ☐
A better way to ask is to divide the question into two. For example:
Q. 1(a) Is it common for young people to start consuming alcohol before the age of 18
years? Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2) Don’t know ☐
Q. 1(b) Do you approve of adolescents under the age of 18 having a drink with their family?
Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2) Don’t know ☐ (3)
• Be careful of negatives or double negatives such as:
Q. Do you not think that the government should decriminalise cannabis use?
A simpler question would ask:
Should the government decriminalise cannabis use? Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2)
or
Should the use of cannabis be legalised? Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2)
• In addition to ‘yes’, ‘no’, some questions should have a ‘don’t know’ or ‘not
applicable’ (n/a) response.
• Sometimes a respondent forgets to answer a question or chooses not to answer
a question, so a code is included for missing data (this is explained in greater
detail later in the chapter). An example is:
Q. Do you like travelling on the LUAS?
Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2) Don’t Know ☐ (3) N/A ☐ (9) (Missing Data, 99)
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If a person has never travelled on the LUAS (Dublin electric tram) then they might answer
– ‘don’t know’ or ‘not applicable’. (It is convention that ‘Not Applicable’ or n/a is denoted by
code 9, provided no other question has nine answers)
There is no need to preface the following question with: In your opinion…
Q. In your opinion should doctors be paid more? Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2)
The question works equally well without the preface:
Q. Should doctors be paid more? Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2)
• Be careful with the word ‘feel’ because it means many things, to feel hot or cold,
angry or sad, it is better to use a more appropriate verb or a direct question.
• Leave sensitive questions to the end of the questionnaire (Bell, 2014).
• Follow-on and filter questions should be clear. For example:
Q. 5 (a) Do you use public transport to get to college?
Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2)
If ‘Yes’ go to Q. 5 (b) If ‘No’ Go to Q. 6
Q. 5 (b) Which types of public transport do you use?
Bus (public) Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2)
Bus (private) Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2)
LUAS Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2)
DART Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2)
• Remember to include page numbers on the questionnaire.
• If administering the questionnaire by post or email, include a statement as to when
you would like the questionnaire returned, such as, ‘please return this completed
questionnaire to researcher by [date…]’
• Allow a column on the right for coding the questionnaire (Bell, 2014). There is more
information about coding later in the chapter
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The next section discusses the types of questions which are used in questionnaires.
Question Design
Questionnaires may contain a number of different types of questions such as: closed
questions or forced choice questions, categorical questions, Likert Scales, Ranking,
Semantic Differential format, open-ended and filter questions.
(i) Closed ended or forced choice questions
The first concept that you may wish to explore is the demographic or social profile of the
participant. In recent years, gender has become a contested term, so it is good to include
non-binary as a response for those who do not identify with being female or male.
Q. What is your gender? Male ☐ (1) Female ☐ (2) Non-Binary ☐ (3) Rather not say ☐
(4)
This type of question is called a closed question or forced choice question, respondents
can only give one answer or tick one box.
(ii) Questions with Categories
The next question may relate to age. Age can be considered a sensitive topic for
people as they grow older, therefore it is usual to design a question where the answers
are in categories. Be careful not to put people into two categories such as age group
21- 25 and age group 25 - 30 because you cannot determine which the correct
category is (two categories each have 25 years of age). Therefore, you will have
missed an important opportunity to collect data on age. Categories must be mutually
exclusive. For example:
Q. 2 Can you please state which age category you are in:
AGE : 20 years or under ☐ (1), 21-25 ☐ ( 2), 26-30 ☐ ( 3), 31-35 ☐ (4).
(iii) Open-ended Questions
Open-ended questions can be simple demographic questions such as:
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Q. What county do you live in? __________________________________________
Q. What is your country of origin? ________________________________________
Or they can illicit deeper, richer data that can add considerably to your understanding of
an issue. The responses can simply be coded and counted or they can be analysed
using qualitative thematic analysis. If you use thematic analysis, you will need to draw on
epistemological arguments in your methodology chapter. Thematic analysis is explored
in Chapter 7.
(iv) Filter Questions
Filter questions are designed to allow the respondent to skip a question that is not relevant
to them. For example:
Q. 10. Did the Budget affect you? Yes ☐ (1) No ☐ (2) Unsure ☐ (3).
If yes go to question 10 (a) If no go to question 11.
Q 10 (a) In what way (s) did the Budget affect you?
Please state………………………………………
(v) Questions Using Likert Scales
Likert scales provide more information than a yes or no answer. The answers reflect the
strength of people’s opinions on a topic. Bryman (2016, p. 154) suggests that the goal of
the Likert Scale is ‘to measure intensity of feelings about the area in question’. Renis
Likert developed Likert scales in 1932. They typically use attitude statements using the
standardised responses on a continuum: strongly agree, agree, cannot decide, disagree,
and strongly disagree. These are called five-point scales. Likert Scales are easy to
construct (Sarantakos, 2013). The important thing to remember is that respondents are
asked their response to a statement rather than a question (Thomas, 2013). Here is an
example:
The Irish government needs to do more to tackle homelessness.
Strongly Agree ☐ (1) Agree ☐ (2) Undecided ☐ (3) Disagree ☐ (4) Strongly Disagree☐
(5).
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(vi) Rank Order Questions
Unlike questions where only one response is valid, rank order questions ask
respondents to rank the order of importance of items based on a set of criteria (Thomas,
2013). For example, rank in order of importance the following statements: Number 1 is
most important and number 5 is least important.
Continuing Professional Development (CPD) is important for college lecturers because:
It allows lecturers to keep up to date with current knowledge, policy and research. It means that lecturers can take time off work. It promotes collegiality. CPD enhances pedagogy. Lecturers are encouraged by the National Forum to engage in CPD.
When the data is analysed, all the numbers are summed and it will provide the
researcher with information regarding how lecturers view CPD and what they consider
the most important and least important aspects of CPD.
(vii) Semantic Differential Formats
Semantic differential formats involve designing a question and selecting words at two ends
of a continuum or at the opposite ends (de Vaus, 1996, p. 66). Thomas (2013) suggests
that the words should be opposites.
Respondents are asked to circle the number that most applies. For example:
How would you describe the lecturers in Ballyhoo College?
Helpful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unhelpful Use student centred practices 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Didactic Friendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Distant Organised 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Chaotic Fair 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unfair Approachable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Unapproachable Provides timely feedback 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Takes ages to give feedback
Appearance and Layout of a Questionnaire
The appearance and layout of a questionnaire are important because it reflects on you
and your professionalism, and it could influence the responses to the questions:
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• An untidy or hard to follow this creates a poor impression and also reflects on
your supervisor and the reputation of your college.
• The questionnaire may end up in the bin.
• A good layout makes it easier for respondents to answer the questions.
• A good layout makes the data easier to extract later for data analysis purposes.
• The questions should be well laid out with enough space for open-ended
questions.
• Start with easy questions, and leave the thought provoking questions to the
middle or end (Thomas, 2013).
• The questionnaire should not be too long, as this could lead to respondent fatigue
and non-completion of the questionnaire.
• It is important that there are no spelling or grammar errors, this will reflect badly
on you as a researcher.
• Number each question in order.
• Ensure that questions follow in a logical and coherent manner.
• Questions that examine the same concept can be clustered together.
• Include an explanation at the beginning of the questionnaire about how to
complete the questions, such as ‘tick the box’ or ‘circle the applicable answers’.
Provide information about the purpose of the research and why the respondent
was chosen. For ethical reasons, explain that participation is voluntary and that
they can opt out and that by completing the questionnaire respondents are
consenting to the data being used in a dissertation or research report. The
researcher should explain that they will not be identifiable and that the data are
confidential and anonymous. These issues are explored fully in Chapter 3 on
ethics.
• Time considerations: Be very honest about how long it should take to complete
the questionnaire. We remember a researcher calling to our door and asking us
to complete a survey which they said would take five minutes but instead took
thirty minutes to complete. At the end of the questionnaire, thank the respondents
for their participation and contribution to the research.
Thank you very much for your co-operation. All information will be treated anonymously and in the strictest confidence. Your responses will form part of an overall pattern of data
in the research.
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Pilot Study
The questionnaire can be piloted when you are confident that the finished questionnaire
addresses your research question. It is important to ask your supervisor to check it
because it is hard to see our own mistakes. A different set of eyes can spot errors. We
have had situations where students did not send their final version of a questionnaire to
us, and consequently collected data some of which had to be discarded because the
questions were incorrectly worded. If your supervisor is satisfied with it then it can be
piloted, that is, it can be sent to a similar but much smaller sample (de Vaus, 1996). Bell
and Waters (2014) suggest that questionnaires should be piloted to ensure that 1) all
instructions and directions are clear, and 2) to remove irrelevant questions. Some
questions may be deemed leading and should be deleted. The wording of other
questions may be improved following feedback from the pilot group. If the pilot group
provide a lot of ‘don’t know’ responses, then the question should be re-evaluated for
relevance (Sarantakos, 2013). Ask the pilot group how long it took to fill out the
questionnaire so that you can assess the length of time it takes to complete; this
information can then be included in the finished questionnaire. It is important to be
honest and transparent with respondents. Piloting the questionnaire increases its validity
and reliability.
Administering the Questionnaire
Once the pilot study has been completed and you are happy that the questionnaire is
considered good enough to be given to respondents, a decision is made about how best
to administer it. It can be administered on a one-to-one basis using a paper
questionnaire or using a laptop computer with the researcher present. It can be
administered through the post as a self-administered questionnaire. Alternatively, the
questionnaire can be sent to respondents as an email attachment or a link to
SurveyMonkey or Google Forms can be included in an email. Sometimes students add a
link to their Facebook page (see exercises at the end of the chapter).
Coding Questionnaires
In this section, we examine how to code a questionnaire. This will be followed by a
discussion about how to conduct data analysis. If you intend using SurveyMonkey or
Google Forms you do not have to code the questionnaire because these programmes do
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the coding and data analysis for you (In that case, skip this section and go straight to
data analysis). When designing the questionnaire, it is important to think ahead to how
you will analyse the data. Although the responses to questions can be coded prior to
data collection (pre-coding) or when data collection has taken place (post-coding), it is
better to design a coding guide at the same time as designing a questionnaire because
the questions you ask will determine the data analysis.
Coding is simply applying a number to the responses to the questions in the questionnaire:
• Each questionnaire is given a unique number or identity. The first questionnaire is
numbered 1 or 01 and each questionnaire returned is given a consecutive number.
• When inputting the data into a software programme such as Excel or the
Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), the variables or questions
are entered along the top (horizontal) and the cases (or respondents) down the
left side (vertical). According to de Vaus (1996), the distinguishing feature of a
survey is that it produces a variable by case matrix.
• A variable label is created for each question which summarises the question. A
variable is a characteristic which has more than one category (de Vaus, 1996),
e.g. the responses to your questions. For example, what is your gender? The
variable label is ‘Gender’ and the responses (or value labels) are assigned a
code: ‘Male’ (1), ‘Female’ (2), Non-Binary (3) and ‘Rather not say’ (4).
• Codes are applied to the responses to all the questions (see sample
questionnaire).
• When inputting questionnaires into SPSS or Excel, codes must also be assigned
to missing data; this is where a respondent chooses not to answer a question
Yes = Code 1, No = 2, Not Applicable = 9,
Where a question is not answered the researcher codes Missing Data=99,
• We provide an example of the first page of questionnaire which asks questions
about gender, age, income and country of origin, and whether or not the budget
impacted them. We have assigned codes to the responses.
• Age is often put into categories. For example, 20 or under (value 1), 21 -26 (value
2), 27-32 , (value 3), 33 – 38 (value 4), 39 and over (value 5). Be careful that the
level of measurement in each category is the same; do not set up your
questionnaire in such a way that a person could put their age into two categories
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such as 21-26 and 26-32; (age 26 is in the two categories) because this will
make the data impossible to analyse. We have created a variable label for age
category called ‘agecat’.
• We have labelled Country of origin as COUNTRY and assigned codes to the
countries: Ireland (1), England (2), Nigeria (3), Eastern Europe (4) etc.
• A question asking about education at 3rd level could be labelled as ‘edulev’ (an
abbreviation of education level) and the responses are coded numerically:
Bachelor’s Degree (1), Higher Diploma in Education (HDip) (2), Professional
Master of Education (PME) (3) and Doctorate (4).
• Coding makes the job of totalling results and data analysis easier.
• When inputting the data, make sure that there is always a number corresponding
to the codes. The computer programme does not accept a blank cell. If left blank
on the questionnaire, it must be coded as missing information (code 99).
For example, say research was being conducted on how the current budget affected a
sample of Irish people, we might be interested in whether gender, education level,
income or ethnicity affected the impact of the budget. We provide a sample page of a
questionnaire to which we have assigned codes.
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Table 15. Sample Questionnaire
001 Questionnaire Number Code
Q.
1
What is your gender?
1. Male (1) 2. Female (2) 3. Non-binary (3) 4. Rather not say (4)
1
Q.
2
What is your age?
1 20 or under 2 21-26 3 27-32 4 33-38 5 39 and over
2
Q. 3
What is your country of origin?
1. Ireland (1)
2. England (2)
3. Nigeria (3)
4. Eastern Europe (4)
5. Other, please specify ………
1
Q.
4
What is the highest level of education you have achieved at third level?
1. Bachelor’s Degree (1)
2. Higher Diploma in Education (HDip) (2)
3. Professional Master of Education (PME) (3)
4. Doctorate
1
Q. 5
Which of these describes your income level?
1 €0 2 €1 - €9,999 3 €10,000 - €20,000 4 €21,001 - €30,000 5 €31,001 - €40,000
3
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6 €41,001 - €50,000 7 €51,001 - €60,000 8 €61,001 - €70,000+
Q.
6
Did the Budget affect you?
1. No
2. Yes
3. Unsure
1
The following is a variable by case matrix of the data received. It provides information
about each of the respondents.
Table 16. Coding Guide
Question
Number
Question Variable Name Coding
Questionnaire Number ID 001-999
1 What is your gender? GENDER 1 = Male
2 = Female
3 = Non-binary
3 = Rather not say
99 = Missing
2 What is your age? AGECAT 1 = 20 or under
2 = 21-26
3 = 27-32
4 = 33-38
5 = 39+
99 = Missing
3 What is your country of origin?
COUNTRY 1 = Ireland
2 = England
3 = Nigeria
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Question
Number
Question Variable Name Coding
4 = Eastern Europe
5 = Other: Please specify ……………..
99 = Missing
4 What is the highest level of education you have achieved at 3rd level?
EDULEV 1 = Bachelor’s Degree
2 = Higher Diploma in Education (HDip)
3 = Professional Master of Education (PME)
4 = Doctorate
99 = Missing
5 Which of these describes your income level per year?
INCOME 1 = €0
2 = €1 - €9,999
3 = €10,000 - €20,000
4 = €21,001 - €30,000
5 = €31,001 - €40,000
6 = €41,001 - €50,000
7 = €51,001 - €60,000
8 = €61,001 - €70,000+
99 = Missing
6 Did the Budget affect you? BUDGET 1 = No
2 = Yes
3 = Unsure
99 = Missing
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When finished coding the variable by case matrix appears like this:
Variable by Case Matrix
ID GENDER AGECAT COUNTRY EDULEV INCOME BUDGET
001 1 2 2 1 3 1
002 2 2 2 1 4 1
003 2 2 1 1 5 3
004 1 3 1 3 3 2
005 99 4 1 1 3 2
006 1 2 3 2 2 2
007 1 3 1 4 99 3
008 2 99 4 2 99 99
009 1 2 99 4 3 1
010 2 3 3 3 99 1
Looking back at the page from our sample questionnaire, respondent number 001 is a
male aged between 21 and 26 years old, whose country of origin is Ireland. His highest
level of education achieved at 3rd level education was a Bachelor’s degree. His income
bracket was between €10,000 - 20,000 euro annually and the budget did not affect him.
The general convention for coding open-ended questions is:
1. List answers from as many of the questionnaires as possible.
2. From this list, make out a list of possible codes or themes by selecting words or
ideas that come up frequently in the answers and then break them down under the
relevant codes.
3. Assign a code to each of the answers.
4. This data can then be analysed and interpreted using thematic analysis, which is
described in Chapter 7,
Having coded and inputted the data into a statistical programme, you begin the data
statistical analysis. Data can also be analysed manually.
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Statistical Analysis
As undergraduates in the social sciences, we conducted secondary analysis of large-
scale data sets such as the Eurobarometer Survey using SPSS (Available from:
https://ec.europa.eu/commfrontoffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/Chart/index). Statistical
analysis included: univariate, bivariate, multivariate analysis, and regression. However,
we have observed that students today may not have access to SPSS and usually use
basic statistical analysis such as univariate and bivariate analysis, measures of central
tendency and dispersion. Therefore, our discussion will be limited to these types of
analyses. For more advanced statistical analysis, we have provided a list of textbooks at
the end of the chapter. Statistical data analysis is a way of summarising a lot of data and
discovering patterns and associations in the data.
Frequency Tables
When the data has been inputted into Excel or SPSS, the first thing we do is an eyeball
check to see if each cell has a number and if these numbers are correct. Do any
numbers stand out? For example, we have four possible answers to the question on
gender: male, female, non-binary and rather not say; if the number 7 is in the cell, we
know that this is a typo. When all the data has been inputted into a software package,
usually the first data analysis is called frequency distributions in which we examine one
variable (univariate) such as, age or gender etc. This simply means looking at how
frequent a response to a question is made, for example, what was the gender
breakdown in the survey? How many men and how many women took part in the
survey?
Measures of Central Tendency
Then, we look for patterns in the data by using measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion. Depending on the type of data that is being analysed, measures
of central tendency will tell us the average or typical response to a question (de Vaus,
2013). These measures are called the mode, the median, and the mean. The measures
of dispersion are called the variation ratio, the range and the standard deviation. These
are illustrated in the following table and show how the three measurements interrelate.
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Measures of Central Tendency and Dispersion
Table Measure of Central Tendency and Measures of Dispersion
Level of
Measurement
of Variable
Measure of
Central Tendency
Measure of
Dispersion
Nominal Mode Variation Ratio
Ordinal Median Range
Interval Mean Standard Deviation
Before discussing measures of dispersion, we need to explore the different types of data.
There are three types of data: nominal data, ordinal data and interval/ratio data. Each
requires a different type of statistical analysis.
Nominal Data
Nominal data as the name suggests names something such as your gender, the country
you are from; there is no intrinsic order In terms of measurement it does not have a zero
point so it is not divisible. It is also described as categorical data in that you are either in
one category or another; for example, if you are from Ireland then you cannot also be
from France. Nominal data are considered the lowest level of measurement (Frankfort-
Nachimas and Nachimas, 1992).
Ordinal Data
Ordinal data refers to the order or the ranking of data, for example, questions may be
designed in a questionnaire where responses are put into categories for example:
• Age – youngest, young, old, oldest
• Size – Smallest, small, big, biggest
• Quality – poor, moderate, excellent
• Achievement at school – poor, moderate, high
• Likert Scales – strongly agree, agree, neutral, disagree, strongly disagree
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With ordinal data, it cannot be stated whether the intervals between each value are the
same (de Vaus, 2014).
Interval and Ratio Data
Interval data describes data in which there are equal distances between the values such
as on age, income, years of experience working, IQ scores, temperature, etc. With a
Fahrenheit scale, the difference between 20-degree and 21-degree Fahrenheit can be
measured. Ratio level data have a unique zero point such as weight, time, length
(Frankfort-Nachimas and Nachimas, 1992).
Mode
The mode or modal measure is used for nominal data (Frankfort-Nachimas and
Nachimas, 1992). This is the most common response to a question. For example, say a
researcher wished to find out what was the most popular vegetable eaten by 16
Leprechauns. The research question is: What is your favourite vegetable? Vegetables
were listed as follows:
Leprechauns’ Favourite Vegetable
The mode represents the most frequently occurring value/response in the data set.
However, the problem with the mode is that you can have more than one mode. In the
data set above, the modal categories are potatoes and carrots, in that they both occur
three times, so the data is bimodal. Although the advantage of the mode is that it is easy
to see, the disadvantage is that there can be more than one mode (Frankfort-Nachimas
and Nachimas, 1992).
Vegetable Code Number (n) Artichokes 1 1
Beans 2 1 Cauliflower 3 1 Carrots 4 2 Potatoes 5 3 Broccoli 6 2 Spinach 7 2 Peas 8 1 Cabbage 9 3 Total 16
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Median
The median is the measure of central tendency that is used for ordinal data: the median
represents the data which falls into the middle category. For example, in this set of
numbers:
15, 16, 17, 18, 19, the median is 17, which is the number in the middle.
And in the following set of numbers:
4, 5, 6, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 14, 15, the median is 7.5 because the two points in the middle are 7 and 8. You take the mid-point between the two which is 7.5
In the reporting of COVID-19 statistics, the median of cases is used (HSE, 2020).
Mean
The mean is the most appropriate measure of central tendency for interval or ratio data,
where there is a natural zero point for example, income, age, years of working
experience. To find the mean, the incomes are added and then divided by the number of
cases to get the average or mean (total is €200,000 divided by 5 which gives the mean
or average income as €40,000). To find out if there is any variance away from the normal
distribution, the cases can be plotted on a graph such as the bell curve. Take the
following range of incomes.
Calculating the Mean
Case Income 1 €30, 000 2 €35, 000 3 €40,000 4 €45, 000 5 €50, 000 Total €200,000 Mean €40,000
Measures of Dispersion
Measures of dispersion are used in conjunction with measures of central tendency. They
are a reflection of how well the measure of central tendency summarises the data. The
appropriate measure of dispersion to use depends on the type of variable or the level of
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measurement of a variable (see Table above). The measures of dispersion are the
variation ratio, the range, and the standard deviation.
Variation Ratio
The variation ratio is a simple measure of dispersion used with nominal data and describes
the proportion of cases that are not in the modal category. It is expressed as a proportion
and has a value between 0 and 1.0. The higher the variation ratio, the less well the modal
category describes or summarises the data.
Range
The range measures the distance between the lowest and highest score or value, so we
can say incomes ranged from €30,000 to €50,000 in the table. The greater the range, the
more variability there is and, therefore, the less well the median summarises the data.
Standard Deviation
Measures of dispersion tell us how the data are dispersed. The standard deviation
(symbolised by s) provides a ‘measure of the summarising value of a mean and tells us
within what range of the mean a given percentage of cases lie’ (de Vaus, 2014, p. 148).
It is calculated by adding up all the deviations from the mean and then obtain an overall
average of these deviations to measure the dispersion (de Vaus, 2014). The standard
deviation is the square root of the variance, which is the average of the squared
deviation scores from the mean. The standard deviation is used more frequently than the
variance due to the removal of the square. For example, compare the following two
tables.
Calculating the Standard Deviation
Table A Table B
Age Number Age Number 30 0 30 40 35 10 35 10 40 20 40 0 45 40 45 0 50 20 50 0 55 10 55 10 60 0 60 40 100 Total 100 Mean 45 Mean 45 Standard deviation
5.5 Standard deviation
14
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The distribution of ages in the two tables is very different, yet they have the same
means. The standard deviation would tell us how far each case deviates from the mean.
In Table A the standard deviation is 5.5 and in Table B the standard deviation is 14. The
lower the standard deviation, the better the mean is as a summary measure.
Dependent and Independent Variables
Depending on the type of analysis we are doing, we may also need to know if our
variables are dependent or independent. The dependent variable is the variable that
depends on something else. For example, if we wished to examine the relationship
between education and income, we could say that the income you earn depends on the
level of education, this would make income the dependent variable and education the
independent variable.
Bivariate Analysis
Bivariate analysis means looking at two variables at the same time, for example, say we
asked 100 people whether the budget affected them. Fifty men and fifty women
responded to the survey. Their responses were as follows:
Cross-tabulation Table
Question: Did the budget affect you economically? Gender Yes No
Female (n=50) 10 40
Male (n=50) 40 10
Total (100) 50 50
Reading the above data 50 percent of the total population say ‘Yes’, 50 percent of the
total population say ‘No’. When further analysed, the data indicates that the majority of
women (40) were not affected by the budget economically, whereas the majority of men
were affected. This is also called a cross-tabulation or a contingency table and this can
be calculated in Microsoft Excel using pivot tables (see exercises at the end of the
chapter).
Chi-Square
Chi-square is a popular and frequently used statistical test (Cohen, 2007; Sarantakos,
2013). It works with nominal, ordinal, and interval/ratio data (Cohen et al., 2007). It tells
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us whether two variables are related to each other or correlated, and whether ‘the
collected data are close to the value considered to be typical and generally expected’
(Sarantakos, 1996, p. 385). The key to the chi-square test is based on what is observed
and what is expected. As Denscombe explains:
The chi-square test uses the extent of difference (in the cells of a contingency table) between what was observed and what might have been expected in order to calculate whether we can have confidence that the observed relationship was actually due to something other than pure chance – whether it was real or a fluke (Denscombe, 2010, p. 256)
Cross-Tabulation Example
This is best explained with an example. Some researchers argue that men have a
greater level of interest in politics than women. How would we establish whether this is
true? We could draw on results from the 2005 ISSP Role of Government Survey
(n=1000) and carry out Pearson’s Chi-square test to establish if there is an association
between gender and interest in politics among Irish people. Based on these results men
do appear to have a greater interest in politics. Overall, nearly half of men (46%) stated
that they were either ‘very interested’ or ‘fairly interested’ in politics compared to just over
one-quarter of women (27%). In contrast, almost half of women (46%) reported that they
were either ‘not at all interested’ or ‘not very interested’ compared with 30% of men. As
the ‘level of interest in politics’ variable is ordinal and the ‘gender’ variable is nominal the
appropriate test of statistical significance is Pearson’s Chi-square represented by x2 =
48.971, p<0.00. This test confirms that the gender differences are significant with a p
value of p<.000. According to Denscombe (2010, p. 256), chi-square can only be used
Table 2Level of Interest in Politics by Gender
Level of Interest Male Female TotalVery interested 12.6 4.7 8.0Fairly interested 33.6 22.4 27.2Somewhat interested 23.9 26.7 25.6Not very interested 16.1 28.1 23.0Not at all interested 13.7 18.1 16.2Total N 422 576 998X2=48.971, p<.000
Crosstabulation Table – Example
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on large samples, there has to be a minimum of five in each cell. Correlation should not
be confused with causation; it can reveal the strength of a relationship between variables
but not whether one variable will cause another.
Graphical Representation
It is said that a picture tells a thousand words. The use of tables and graphs, which are
very easy to create in Excel, can enhance the presentation of your findings. Tables can
also save on word count. We illustrate the use of tables and graphs representing
univariate and bivariate analysis. Teresa Whitaker conducted a small-scale survey with
graduate teachers of a master’s programme to determine the outcomes of the
programme for their professional development (Whitaker, 2017b; Whitaker, 2017c). A
questionnaire with 49 questions was designed and administered to all the graduates
(N=131), of whom 40 responded to the survey. The theoretical and conceptual
framework focused on what it means to be a professional. Some of the common traits of
professionalism include: personal responsibility, autonomy, intellectually based extended
training, presence of recognised knowledge, high status, commitment to ongoing
professional development (Sexton, 2007). Professions provide an important public
service; they involve theoretical as well as practical experience; they have a distinct
ethical dimension that is expressed in a code of practice; they require a regulatory body
for the purposes of recruitment and discipline and they require a high degree of
autonomy (Seery, 2008, cited in Carr, 2000). Questions were designed to measure these
aspects of professionalism.
In terms of demography, teachers were asked about how many years of teaching
experience they had. This univariate analysis is illustrated in a pie chart.
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Teachers were asked how the master’s programme had contributed to their professional
development. The answers are illustrated in the following table and in the bar chart
below it.
How the Master’s Degree Contributed to Professional Development
As a result of the master’s degree: Yes I now use evidence-based practice in my pedagogies 92% My confidence as a teacher increased 95% My competence as a teacher increased 95% I am confident about doing research 98% My teaching pedagogies are now more innovative 85% I integrate theory with practice 95% I draw on evidence base research to inform my teaching practices 95% I shared the findings of my dissertation with my colleagues 78% I collaborate with other colleagues (teachers, principals, SNAs) 80% I have engaged in other educational programmes or courses 58% I engage in online or face-to-face networks with other teachers 40% I am now more inclined to go to education conferences 60% I attended at least one conference or educational event in 2016. 52% I presented my dissertation research at a network/conference as a poster or presentation
28%
I published an article or another publication based on the results of my dissertation research
12%
2%
30%
30%
10%
28%
YearsofTeachingExperience
5
6-10yrs
11-15yrs
16-21yrs
Over22yrs
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This data is illustrated in a chart.
Other Dimensions of Professionalism
The majority (88%) of teachers were in agreement that the master’s had contributed to
their professional development in terms of Knowledge of Teaching, Learning and
Assessment. The majority (92%) believed that they were better teachers since
completing the master’s degree and 97% believed that they were making a difference in
children’s lives. 92% believed that they were better teachers. The majority (93%) agreed
that they abided by the Code of Professional Conduct for teachers. Most (90%) engage
in critical reflective practice and 80% collaborate with colleagues. However, only 66%
agreed that they know more about education systems in other parts of the world. This is
illustrated in the bar chart below.
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
Inowuseevidence-based…
Myconfidenceasateacher…
Iamconfidentaboutdoing…
Myteachingpedagogiesare…
Iintegratetheorywithpractice
Idrawonevidencebase…
Isharedthefindingsofmy…
Iengageinonlineorface-to-…
Iattendedatleastone…
Teacher'sProfessionalDevelopment
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Other Dimensions of Professional Development
The Meaning of Professionalism for Teachers
In an open-ended question, teachers teased out what professionalism means to them.
Some teachers put in two or three comments. Thematic analysis revealed the following
themes: caring for pupils, doing a good job as a teacher, being respected, being ethical
and adhering to high standards, being collaborative, and engaging in reflective practice.
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
KnowledgeTLA
Confidence
CompetenceCPD
Promotion
InnovativePedagogies
Praxis
Evidencebasedpractices
Research
Collaboration
Recognition
Betterteacher
Pupilslives
Autonomous
Reflective
%ofParticipants
Aspectsofprofesionaldevelopment
02468101214161820
Caringforpupils
Mentoringnewcomers
Doingagoodjob
Ethics&Standards
Respected
Knowledge
Reflective
Collaborative
Num
berofResponses
Meaningofprofessionalism
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Bivariate analysis was conducted on ‘years of experience’ and ‘increase in knowledge’.
More experienced teachers, those teaching between 11-15 years and those teaching
over 21 years gained most in knowledge.
Enhanced Skills – Innovative Pedagogies
The majority of graduates (85%) believed that their teaching pedagogies were more
innovative as a result of competing the master’s degree as illustrated in a crosstabulation
of ‘Experience’ and ‘Innovative pedagogies’. The largest group to agree were those
teaching between 11-15 years.
Innovative Pedagogies by Years of Experience
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
StronglyDisagree
Disagree Undecided Agree StronglyAgree
Experience(years)
IncreaseinKnowledge
0-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
Over21
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
Yes No
Experience(years)
InnovativePedagogies
0-5
6-10
11-15
16-20
Over21
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This research demonstrates how a post-graduate master’s programme contributed to
teacher’s professional development; it empowered, transformed and enriched teachers,
and enhanced their knowledge, skills, competencies, and confidence. The data revealed
the ways that the teachers share common traits of professionals such as: personal
responsibility, autonomy, intellectually based extended training, presence of recognised
knowledge, commitment to ongoing CPD (Sexton, 2004). All teachers agreed that strong
values underpin their teaching, which resonates with Seery’s (2008) assertion that
teaching by its nature is ethical because the ultimate cause is the good of the student.
Teachers believed that professionalism meant caring for pupils, doing a good job as a
teacher, being respected, being ethical and adhering to high standards, being
collaborative and engaging in reflective practice. The data supported assertions
(Sugrue, 2004; OECD, 2005) that teachers today need to be lifelong learners and act as
role models for their students. Graduates were on a continuum of education which
involves initial teacher education, in-career development, innovation, integration and
improvement (The Teaching Council, 2011).
Online Survey Tools
There is absolutely no doubt that the Internet and online data gathering programmes
have transformed the way we think about surveys. In addition, large data sets are
available for secondary analysis; this is where the researcher analyses data which has
being carried out by others. We have witnessed more and more students using online
data gathering programmes for designing and administering surveys such as
SurveyMonkey and Google Forms (available at: https://www.google.com/forms/about/).
There are a number of advantages and disadvantages to using online survey platforms.
Advantages of online data gathering programmes:
• Much of the donkeywork of coding questionnaires and inputting data into
programmes like SPSS or Microsoft Excel is eliminated, the questions are written
within the programme.
• Students who might be weak at statistics no longer have to do the analysis.
These programmes produce statistical analysis and compelling graphics,
however, there is a missed opportunity to learn basic statistical analysis.
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Disadvantages of online data gathering programmes:
• Students do not have to engage with statistics so they may not learn basic
statistical analysis.
• There might be a tendency to forget about sampling and theoretical frameworks
and drift into ‘empiricism’, or letting facts speak for themselves (de Vaus, 2014)
however, theories are needed to help interpret meaning and to help ‘produce
plausible accounts’ of how ‘observations are interrelated’ (de Vaus, 1996, p. 22).
• Both programmes SurveyMonkey and Google Forms provide a limited number of
questions free of charge. There is a financial cost for including more than ten
questions in SurveyMonkey. Google Forms permits twenty questions free of
charge.
It is a good idea to develop the questionnaire beforehand and pilot it before inputting it
into an online programme (Bell, 2014). This will enhance the validity of the questionnaire.
Once a student has conducted a robust literature review and has identified a key theory
(or theories), and has submitted the questionnaire to the supervisor (or colleague) for
checking for mistakes, and has piloted questionnaire, then there is no reason why he or
she would not carry out a good piece of research using online survey tools.
Determining the Robustness of Research
How can we be sure that research reflects the truth? Is our research worthwhile or
trustworthy? The four pillars for assessing the robustness of quantitative research are: a)
objectivity, b) validity, c) reliability and d) generalisability. These are a useful set of
criteria for evaluating a journal article that uses empirical data.
(a) Objectivity
In the history of the social sciences, objectivity was considered the most significant
aspect of social research (Sarantakos, 2013). Social researchers believed they could
emulate the methods of the natural sciences whose goal was to produce objective
knowledge free of researcher personal bias, prejudice, subjective views, assumptions,
and personal values. It was based on the idea that researchers should and could be
neutral observers of people and society and by using rigorous methods and
measurements (standardised questionnaires or scales), large scale representative
samples, researchers could protect the objectivity of research. It was argued that to
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achieve objectivity, researchers should be unbiased and value free, and research should
aspire to value neutrality portraying reality as it is. This raises questions:
1. Is it ever possible to have knowledge that is free of bias or prejudice?
2. Is it possible to conduct objective research?
3. What role do our values play in the research design?
More and more researchers and theorists question whether objectivity is possible in
social scientific quantitative research. de Vaus (1996) explains that researchers must
look at how their values impact on the research and that tests and scales should be
evaluated for validity and reliability:
We should acknowledge that data collection and analysis are affected by our values and that this may cause us to fall short of the ideal of full and thorough analysis. But this is not to say that we should give up our attempts to stand back from our values and assumptions and test them against the data. We should look at all the data we collect rather than that which suits our purposes. We should rigorously test our scales and evaluate the validity and reliability of our variables. We should look for ‘negative results’ and do all we can to report inconvenient results. It is only by doing this that we can extend our knowledge beyond that which our beliefs and prejudices dictate. If there is one lesson to be learned from history it is that those who believe that they have the final truth and that they know what is good and right for the rest of us are almost certain to be mistaken (de Vaus, 1996, p. 343)
Feminists and other oppressed groups argued that large scale quantitative research was
simply reproducing the status quo (de Vaus, 1996; Sarantakos, 2013). According to
Bryman (2012, p. 84):
There is a greater awareness today of the limits to objectivity, so that some of the highly confident, not to say naive, pronouncements on the subject, like Durkheim’s, have fallen into disfavour. A further way in which values are relevant to the conduct of social research is through adherence to ethical principles or standards.
Objectivity is enhanced by using rigorous methods, basing the questions on issues that
arise from the findings of published literature. With our supervisor or colleagues, we can
question our own assumptions and values prior to designing the questions. We can take
an impartial stance, acknowledge our own position, and ensure that our research is
reflexive (see chapter 7). We can consciously try to distance ourselves as far as possible
from all aspects of the research (Lankshear and Knobel, 2004). Our research report
should be an accurate representation of the data (Gaukroger, 2012). We can report all
our data truthfully and avoid make sweeping assumptions about the impact of our
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research. By publishing our research, we can ‘subject it to the critical scrutiny of others’
(Pring, 2010, p. 62).
(b) Validity
In quantitative research, validity refers to the ability of the questions in the questionnaire
to measure accurately the concept that is being measured (de Vaus, 1996; Lankshear
and Knobel, 2004; Sarantakos, 2013). Demographic descriptors usually measure the
gender, age, occupation etc. of respondents, so we can argue that those questions
provide a valid measure and description of the demographic features of the sample.
This is called internal validity. In psychometric research it is argued that a questionnaire
can measure a person’s IQ and the same questionnaire can be used with everybody.
However, in small scale research projects it may not be possible to determine the validity
of a questionnaire, so Bell (2014) provides a wider meaning: the test of validity is
whether ‘the design of research to provide credible conclusions; whether the evidence …
can bear the weight of the interpretation that is put on it’ (Bell, 2014, p. 122, cited in
Jupp, 2006, p. 1). To increase the likelihood of your questionnaire being valid, it is
important this it is scrutinised by other experts in the field who will deem it to have
internal and external validity (Sarantakos, 2013). Cohen et al. (2007, p. 134) suggest that
validity must be faithful to its positivist principles, namely:
• Controllability (control variables) • Replicability (study can be replicated) • Predictability (could predict outcomes, for example, what party will win the next
election) • Derivation of laws and universal statements of behaviour • Context-freedom • Fragmentation and atomization of research • Randomization of samples • Observability
In our experience of supervising student research, it would be not be possible for small
scale student research projects to achieve these ideals. Nonetheless, small scale
research can provide many valuable and insightful contributions in many areas of
research.
(c) Reliability
Reliability refers to the extent to which a method of data collection is consistent and
repeatable and is not distorted by the researcher. So if the same questionnaire was
administered to another sample, it would provide the same results. In large scale
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research projects, instruments will be tested and retested to see if they provide the same
results (Cohen et al., 2007). For example, the same IQ tests may be used by educational
psychologists in many different contexts. Every year, the academic achievement of
students in schools is measured by standardised tests; experts in the fields of education
and research design these tests. It is important that these are objective, valid, and
reliable. In a small-scale research project, it is most unlikely that a student will be using a
scale or a test, therefore it is important that the research instrument is checked by the
supervisor to ensure that the questions are reliable, and then the questionnaire should
be piloted on a small but similar population to increase the validity and reliability (Bell
and Waters, 2014). Students may replicate research using research instruments
published in peer review articles but obviously must cite the original author.
(d) Generalisability
When the findings of research are said to be ‘generalisable’, it means that they are
generalisable to a whole population. We would expect that the results from large scale
funded research conducted by state agencies (Economic and Social Research Institute
(ESRI), and National Advisory Committee on Drugs (NACD), would be generalisable to
the entire population of Irish people because they use large scale representative
samples. However, if a researcher surveyed twenty lecturers in Ireland, the findings from
the data only describe those who were surveyed; the research is descriptive. Bell and
Waters (2014) argue that in ‘relatively small projects, generalization may be unlikely, but
relatability may be entirely possible (Bell and Waters, 2014, p. 229). Relatability means
how well the data relates to the overall picture.
In the next section, we will look at two examples of large-scale research which fulfil the
criteria of objectivity, validity, reliability and generalisability. This is followed by two
examples of small-scale research in Ireland and finally an example of a quantitative
experimental research project conducted by a master’s student.
Examples of Large-scale Research in Ireland
There are many agencies in Ireland who conduct large scale studies using surveys, for
example, the Central Statistics Office (CSO) collects data regularly for the Irish Health
Survey which provides data on health status, health care usage and health determinants
of the population (CSO, 2016). In the first stage of sampling, they sample 26,000
households and in the second stage they randomly select an individual over eighteen
years of age from each household (n=10,323). A postal questionnaire is sent to this
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individual who is asked to complete it and return it to the CSO. The data collected
provides a snapshot of the health of the Irish population and allows comparisons to be
made between Ireland and other European countries (available at:
https://www.gov.ie/en/publication/612079-healthy-ireland-survey-2018/).
Since 2002, the National Advisory Committee on Drugs has been gathering data on illicit
drug use on a regular basis (2002/03, 2006/07, 2010/11, 2014/15) from a representative
sample of 7,005 Irish people over the age of fifteen, to inform the Irish government on
illicit drug use so that treatment services are available for those affected (www.nacd.ie).
The survey follows guidelines from the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug
Addiction (NACDA, 2016). Using Computer Assisted Personal Interviews (CAPI),
questionnaires are administered on a face-to-face basis.
For student projects at undergraduate and post-graduate (Masters) levels, non-
probability samples (convenience, purposive, snowball) are usually used, employing
much smaller samples and providing descriptive data and statistics (Thomas, 2013).
Student Research
It is possible to carry out robust, meaningful quantitative research utilising small samples.
Here are two examples of research carried out by students undertaking the Professional
Master of Education (PME). Students are required to write a 10,000-word dissertation
based on a minimum prescribed amount of data gathered while doing teaching practice.
In the first example, Anita-Jane Nolan’s (2018) research focused on teachers’
perspectives of managing children whose parents had died and whether teachers
believe they have adequate training and were confident in helping children to cope
following a parental death. She designed a paper questionnaire comprising forced
choice, rating scales and open-ended questions, and administered it to a purposive
sample of thirty-two respondents, of whom, twenty-six completed the questionnaire.
Anita-Jane conducted statistical analysis using Excel. The results of her survey indicated
that 88% of respondents believed that teachers should receive training to manage
childhood bereavement and 73% stated that they would seek external support for a child
whose parent had died (Nolan, 2018).
In the second example, Elaine O’ Donoghue (2018) wished to find out how prepared Irish
primary school teachers were to treat pupils who had an asthma attack or anaphylaxis.
She used an online questionnaire to elicit the opinions of teachers and school principals
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(n=239) on issues to do with training, confidence, and perspectives in light of new Irish
legislation (The Medicinal Products (Prescription and Control of Supply) (Amendment)
(No. 2) Regulations 2015) (Ireland, 2015). This legislation allows schools to possess and
administer adrenaline pens for anaphylaxis and salbutamol for asthma, by specially
trained staff members. Using snowball sampling techniques, she posted the
questionnaire to the principals of 3,262 primary schools asking the recipients to forward
the invitation to participate in the research to interested teachers. She cited the principal
limitation of her research as ‘self-selection’ bias, meaning that respondents may have
self-selected due to an interest in the topic (O’ Donoghue, 2018).
These two examples of small-scale research reveal that it is possible to conduct good
research that is ethical, well grounded in the literature, poses a research question, uses
transparent and rigorous methods, conducts basic statistical analysis, and discusses the
limitations of the research. The research enhanced the student teachers’ knowledge and
teaching practice and, by publishing their research, has made it available for the
teaching profession.
Use of Experiments in Education
William (Billy) Walsh is a mathematics (maths) teacher in an Irish post-primary school.
For his master’s degree, his research focused on improving student interest,
performance and enjoyment of maths (Walsh, 2016a). The literature review confirmed
his own observations that students dislike, fear and lack confidence in studying maths.
Indeed, in the USA, research revealed that people found it ‘socially acceptable to take
pride in not being good at mathematics’ (National Council of Teacher Mathematics,
1991, p. 92).
Billy chose an experimental method. His experiment consisted of using traditional
methods of teaching to Control group A (talk and chalk, textbook, notes on whiteboard
and practicing sample questions). Research Group B were taught using games
(Roulette, Deal or No Deal) and storytelling, as outlined in Maths Heroes (Walsh, 2016b)
as well as traditional methods. The dependent variables were the opinions and
performance of students in maths and the independent variable was the teaching style or
pedagogy. At the end of the four-week experiment, Groups A and B were given a 30
minutes test. Statistical analysis was carried out on the quantitative data and thematic
analysis was used for the qualitative data.
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Billy chose students from Transition Year (approximately 16-year olds) who would not be
under academic pressure to prepare for state exams. To select a sample, he analysed
the results of the Junior Certificate maths exam using measures of central tendency and
measures of dispersion (mean, mode, median, standard deviation, and range). From the
four class groups, he chose two groups (A and B) who were most similar in terms of their
maths ability. These classes consisted of thirty students of mixed ability and gender.
The confidence interval was 95%, the margin of error of 0.18 or 18%. He used a ‘toss of
a coin’ to decide which group would be the research group and which would be the
control group (Gallin and Ognibene, 2012). He received ethical approval for his research
from the school principal, the board of management, pupils and their parents. To
increase validity and give his study greater depth, he used a number of research
instruments:
• Pre experiment questionnaire
• Analysis of test scores
• Post-experiment questionnaire
• Face to face semi-structured interview with four students selected from the four
quartiles of the initial class test results.
At the end of the four-week teaching block, Group A and Group B were given the same
30-minute maths test; it had a practical and theoretical dimension. The research group
(Group B) attained an overall grade of 75% compared to 62% for the control group
(Group A). The result from the practical test showed that Group B attained a mean
average grade of 86% compared to 61% obtained by Group A. The differences in the
two groups were not as stark for the theoretical aspect of the test (Group B scored 64%
compared to Group A - 63%). These findings suggest that storytelling and game play are
beneficial for critical thinking and practical problem solving (aspects of the curriculum
that are less susceptible to rote learning). The post-experiment questionnaire found very
positive responses among Group B; for example 89% agreed that they enjoy maths
compared to 24% of Group A. In response to the question: ‘Maths is taught in a way that
makes it relevant to my everyday life’ 91% of Group B agreed, compared to 15% of
Group A. The findings were further corroborated by the data from the in-depth interviews
which revealed that prior to the intervention students hated maths and daydreamed
throughout the class. After the intervention, the students reported that the pedagogies of
games and storytelling were very beneficial, with one student stating that he, ‘learned
more by playing one game than he would have by being made to attempt twenty practice
questions’ (Walsh, 2016, p. 41). Another student stated ‘after playing a game or listening
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to a story I seem to be more awake, alert and interested’ (Walsh, 2016a). Overall, the
findings indicate that game play and storytelling pedagogies had a positive impact on the
students in terms of enjoyment and interest of maths, while performance in maths
increased.
The Department of Education and Skills (2017) has highlighted the importance of
Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics in its policy document and outlines
its vision:
In line with our ambition to have the best education and training service in Europe by 2026, Ireland will be internationally recognised as providing the highest quality STEM education experience for learners that nurtures curiosity, inquiry, problem-solving, creativity, ethical behaviour, confidence, and persistence, along with the excitement of collaborative innovation (DES, 2017, p. 12).
The changes in Billy’s pedagogies succeeded in nurturing his students’ curiosity, sense
of inquiry, problem solving in maths in an enjoyable learning environment.
Conclusion
In sum, we have examined many aspects of quantitative methodology (surveys and
experiments) in this chapter. We have guided the reader through survey design, from
choosing a research question to choosing samples, designing questions and
questionnaires, to conducting basic statistical analysis. Examples of research both large
and small scale have been examined. The internet and technology revolution mean that
much research today is conducted online but the basis of survey research remains the
same. In conclusion, the foundation for survey research is a structured set of data
obtained using reliable valid instruments from carefully chosen samples. Clear research
questions and well thought through concepts remain as central as ever (de Vaus, 2014).
We have dedicated less time to experiments as they are rarely used by students but
have provided an example of an experiment used by a teacher who wished to enhance
his students’ knowledge and enjoyment of mathematics. Quantitative methods are an
excellent way of gathering data in a short period of time and the use of new online
software makes analysis easy even for the most maths adverse student. In the next
chapter, qualitative research methodology and methods are explored.
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Key Messages
• In terms of epistemology, quantitative methodology emanates from the
philosophy of logical positivism, which proposed that there is a known world
which can be quantified and measured through the use of surveys and
experiments.
• The key tenets of quantitative research methodology differ from qualitative
research methodology in terms of the intentions (measurement versus finding out
more about…), data (numbers and statistics versus words), setting (unnatural
versus natural), role of theory, research instrument (experiments, questionnaires,
versus topic guides), prediction and position of researcher to research (distant
versus close).
• In surveys, data collection is through a carefully designed structured
questionnaire, which is administered to a large number of people at the same
point in time providing the researcher with a snapshot in time.
• There are two types of samples: (1) Probability samples use random sample
techniques and produce inferential data, and (2) non-probability samples use
small samples and produce descriptive statistics. Normally, the latter are used in
small-scale student research.
• There are many different types of questions: forced choice, Likert Scales,
semantic differential scales, categorical questions and open-ended questions.
Choose the types of questions that best answer your research question.
• Care must be taken to design questions which address the objectives of your
research because once a questionnaire is administered there is no turning back.
• The appearance and layout of a questionnaire are important.
• To ensure informed consent, always include a cover letter with the purpose of the
research, why you are conducting the research and what is required from the
respondent, e.g. instructions on how to fill out the questionnaire. Remind
respondents that they need not participate in the survey if they do not wish to and
that the data will be anonymous and confidential. Thank them for their
participation and ask them if they would like a one-page summary when the
research is finished.
• Always pilot the questionnaire with a small but similar population.
• The robustness of research is evaluated using the criteria of objectivity, validity,
reliability and generalisability. Although absolute objectivity can never be
achieved, researchers can try to increase objectivity by examining their own
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values, assumptions and prejudices. The extent to which findings from the data
can be said to be valid and reliable, is whether the research questions address
the aim and objectives of the research, have been approved by the supervisor
and have been piloted with a similar sample. The data from surveys is only
generalisable to the whole population when large samples are used. Otherwise
we say that the findings from the research are descriptive.
• Statistical analysis is used in quantitative research. The most basic statistics
include frequency distributions (looking at one variable), cross tabulations (two
variables), measures of central tendency (mode, median, mean) and measures of
dispersion (standard deviation), tests of association (chi-square).
• Questionnaires can be administered in many ways: on a face-to-face basis, by
telephone, email, post, or on a Facebook page.
• Survey research has been revolutionised by technology. Today there are many
platforms available online (SurveyMonkey, Google Forms etc.) for conducting
surveys that not only allow the researcher to input the questions but they also
conduct statistical analysis thus simplifying the process for students.
• Experiments are used in research to measure the impact of one variable on
another and to determine the effect by controlling for other factors.
• We would expect the following ingredients in the methodology chapter of a
student project: introduction with research question, research paradigms –
different approaches and justification for choice of methodology and method,
population, sample, data gathering instrument, pilot study, administration of
survey, statistical analysis, worthiness or robustness of research (objectivity,
validity, reliability, generalisability), as well as a sprinkling of imagination.
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Exercises
YouTube Tutorials
Check out some or any of the following useful tutorials from YouTube.
1) Creating, Testing and Sending a Survey
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DGcDNzaWBq4
2) Create a survey with SurveyMonkey
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7xdCDJxxoRk
3) Create a survey with Google Forms
https://www.google.com/forms/about/
4) Dr. Nic. Understanding Confidence Intervals: Statistics Help
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tFWsuO9f74o
5) Dr Nic. Calculating the Confidence interval for a mean using a formula- statistics
help
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s4SRdaTycaw
6) Frequency Distribution Histogram using Excel by Eugene O’ Louglin
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UASCe-3Y1to
7) Introduction to Pivot Tables, Charts, and Dashboards in Excel (Part 1)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9NUjHBNWe9M
8) Chi Square using SPSS
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ahs8jS5mJKk
9) Chi Square test for independence
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LE3AIyY_cn8
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10) Choosing which statistical test to use - Dr Nic’s Maths and Stats and– statistics
help
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rulIUAN0U3w
11) Dr Nic’s Maths and Stats - Types of data – Nominal Ordinal or Interval Data
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hZxnzfnt5v8
12) Random numbers
https://mathbitsnotebook.com/Algebra2/Statistics/STrandomtable.html
13) Free regular workshops on all aspects of research and SPSS are hosted by the ESRI on their research Growing Up in Ireland these can be accessed at this link: here.
https://www.growingup.ie/information-for-researchers/growing-up-in-ireland-data-workshop/
14) Experiments and Quasi Experiments
• Read Lankshear, C. and M. Knoebel (2004) A Handbook for Teacher Research
England: Open University Press, pages 149- 156.
• The Experimental Method
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ay1o8XjoMVk
Further Reading
Allen, M. (2017), The Sage Encyclopaedia of Communication Research Methods.
https://.dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781483381411.n476
Argyrous, G. (2013), 3rd edn, Statistics for Research: With a Guide to SPSS, UK:
Blackwell.
Bryman, A. (2016) Social Research Methods. 5th edn. Oxford, England: Oxford
University Press.
De Vaus, D. (2014) Surveys in Social Research. Australia: Routledge (Social Research
Today).
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Fielding, J. and Gilbert, N. (2006) Understanding Social Statistics 2nd revised edition, US:
Sage Publications Inc.
Sarantakos, S. (2013) Social Research. 4th edn. England: Palgrave MacMillan
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Chapter 7. Qualitative Methodology and Methods
Introduction
This chapter explores qualitative methodology and methods of data collection for
qualitative research such as, observations, the in-depth interview, and focus groups. The
role of theory in qualitative research is elucidated. We explore how to design a research
instrument, and how to analyse and interpret data. The second half of the chapter
investigates focus groups and highlights their advantages and disadvantages. It will
consider Irish examples of the use of ethnography, interviews, and focus groups in large-
and small-scale research. It will also examine Irish studies which have used
phenomenology and interpretive phenomenological analysis. Finally, we will examine the
criteria for determining the robustness of qualitative research and then explore the
importance of reflexivity and reflective practice.
Learning outcomes
On successful completion of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Describe and discuss qualitative research methodology and methods of data
gathering
• Critically evaluate participant observation and ethnography
• Review the design of a qualitative research instrument (topic guide, semi-
structured questionnaire or aide memoire) and research questions
• Have acquired the skills to competently conduct interviews and focus groups
• Reflect on the criteria for judging the robustness of a qualitative methodology
• Have the ability to conduct simple thematic analysis
• Explain the role of focus groups in gathering qualitative data
Qualitative Methodology Paradigm
Qualitative methodology emanates from the philosophy of interpretivism or naturalism.
Its roots are in the work of Max Weber and interactionist perspectives such as
phenomenology and ethnomethodology (Miles and Huberman, 1994). In terms of
epistemology, it is anti-positivist. It claims that reality can never be fully understood and,
at best, can only be approximated (Abercrombie et al., 2000). At its heart is
understanding the meaning a social actor brings to their actions (see Chapter 2 for a
longer discussion).
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Qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005, p. 3)
Here are some key features of qualitative research:
• Qualitative research is empirical research, which is expressed in words and not in
numbers (Punch, 2009).
• Usually does not involve measuring or quantifying a social phenomenon.
• Qualitative research is unapologetically subjective, in that the researcher focuses
on the ‘inner’ world of experiences of respondents and seeks to understand them.
In a process called ‘inter-subjectivity’, the researcher seeks to understand how
people interpret the world (May, 1993, p. 9).
• The researcher is empathic.
• Qualitative research is context sensitive; findings are placed in a social, historical,
and temporal context.
• In qualitative research, although the researcher will use questions that have
already been developed, the researcher is an important instrument of data
collection because it is their expertise which will produce good data (Patton,
2002; Marshall and Rossman, 2006).
• The relationship between the researcher and the researched is a close
relationship, with the researcher getting close to the people, situation and
phenomena under study (Silverman, 2005; Sarantakos, 2013).
• The research design is flexible, in that the researcher can adapt the questions as
understanding of the issue deepens (Patton, 2002).
• Sample sizes tend to be small with the intention of eliciting deep, rich descriptions
and accounts.
• Data analysis is inductive, in that meaning and relationships are derived
inductively from the data.
• Questions in interviews are open-ended to stimulate elaborate responses.
• It is important that the researcher is reflexive and take their own biography into
account when collecting data.
• Researchers should also be reflective and consider issues to do with power
relations.
• The validity of qualitative research is evaluated by the methods researchers use
to study the world. Validity can be enhanced by considering the refutability
principle, the constant comparative method, comprehensive data treatment,
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deviant-case analysis and using appropriate tabulations. Validity can also be
enhanced by keeping a research log, which provides an audit-trail. Researchers
ensure that all aspects of the research are transparent.
The main methods of data collection are observations, interviews, and focus groups.
Observations as a method of data collection originated in the field of ethnography.
Before discussing ethnography, we draw attention to the role of theory in qualitative
research.
Role of Theory in Qualitative Research
What is the role of theory in qualitative research? As undergraduates, we were taught that
theory was central to good research. In relation to ethnography, Hammersley and Atkinson
(1996, 237) suggest that there are two types of theories: macro theory which looks at
large scale systems of social relations and micro theory which examines specific types of
face-to-face encounters or local forms of organisations. We mentioned before that Miles
and Huberman (1994, p. 22) suggest it is helpful to develop theory before the field work
because ‘it helps to lay out an orienting frame and then map the variables and relationships
on to it in order to see where there are overlaps, contradictions, refinements and
qualifications’.
There is no such thing as theory free data, as all data rely on underlying assumptions. This
is explicated and asserted in a recent publication (Collins and Stockton, 2018), which
compares and contrasts the main discussions about theory in sociology. This is described
in the following framework:
Theoretical Framework
A theoretical framework is at the intersection of:
1. existing knowledge and previously formed ideas about complex phenomena,
2. the researcher’s epistemological dispositions, and
3. a lens and a methodically analytic approach
Working through these three components renders theory a valuable tool to the
coherence and depth of a study. Although there may be instances where the exploratory
nature of a study overrules the benefits of a theoretical framework, theory-free research
does not exist (Lincoln & Guba, 1994). A researcher who cannot articulate a theoretical
framework may not have done the difficult and essential work to unearth their deepest
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operating principles and preconceptions about their study. The belief that preconceived
notions do not exist or impact a study is, in fact, a theoretical disposition (Collins and
Stockton, 2018, p. 2).
We concur with Collins and Stockton (2018, p. 2) that theory is a ‘big idea that organizes
many other ideas with a high degree of explanatory power’. Your literature review will
have produced ‘sensitising concepts’ and theories and these can be considered tools for
the interpretation of your data. Mason (1996, p. 136) argues that qualitative research is
about puzzle solving and presenting plausible explanations about the social world;
qualitative data analysis should have a wider relevance to some explanatory body of
knowledge, which act as theoretical explanations. Instead of the term “theoretical
framework”, the term “conceptual framework” is used by some theorists. Collins and
Stockton (2018 p. 5) draw on the work of Marshall and Rossman (2011, p. 7) who
suggest that the conceptual framework:
Should show how she [the writer] is studying a case in a larger phenomenon. By linking the specific research questions to the larger theoretical constructs or to important policy issues, the writer shows that the particulars of this study serve to illuminate larger issues and therefore hold potential significance for that field (Marshall and Rossman, 2011, p. 7)
Collins and Stockton (2018, p. 8) suggest that the ‘literature should be organised
logically and visually into a conceptual framework’ and … from there, the theoretical
framework can be a fulcrum and pinnacle portion of a qualitative study. This idea is
illustrated in a diagram with an explanation.
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Figure 7. Qualitative Process Collins and Stockton (2018, p. 8)
…includes arrows pointing from the theoretical framework to the method and research questions, with special attention to the analytic process (where theory can influence predetermined codes), trustworthiness (the deductive approach should include a search for negative or discrepant cases in relation to the theory), epistemology, and the role of the researcher (how does the selection of theory indicate something the reader needs to know about the researcher??). There is also an arrow from the theoretical framework to the findings because of the influence of the analytic approach, which also feeds into the discussion. There are numerous ways to construct and design qualitative work, but our purpose here is to encourage direct links between the theoretical framework and many aspects of the research project design. When these links become explicit, the explanatory power and legitimacy of qualitative research will continue to grow (Collins and Stockton, 2018, p. 8)
Theory can be used to illuminate and make sense of the data and analysis can be
developed at the same time in a dialectical process. In this situation, you move
backwards and forwards between the analysis and the process of explanation or theory
construction. Although this is usually referred to as induction, the term abduction is now
being used in the literature (Collins and Stockton, 2018; Morgan, 2007). It is also
important to include criticism of the theory and to note the ways in which your findings
do not fit neatly into the theoretical framework (Collins and Stockton, 2018). Put simply,
do not force the data into a theoretical framework.
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Heng (2020) laments the absence of a theoretical framework in many publications of
qualitative research. She conducted a review of 43 qualitative research articles on
Chinese international students’ experiences of studying in a different country; of these,
12 lacked a theoretical framework. Heng urges scholars to generate theories in order to
support international students.
Grounded Theory
In the 1960s, there was a reaction to highly abstract sociological theory such as
structural functionalism, and also a reaction to empiricism (logico-deductive methods),
which is data that doesn’t have a theoretical explanation (Abercrombie, Hill and Turner,
2000). In response, two nurse/sociologists called Glaser and Strauss proposed grounded
theory, that is, theory that emerges from the data. Rather than examining what people
are saying, their interest lay in the incident, for example, ‘what is going on here?’ (Glaser
and Strauss, 1968). They presented their ideas in Awareness of Dying which led to the
acceptance of grounded theory in medical sociology (Glaser and Strauss, 1965). The
distinctive procedures and canons of grounded theory are explained by (Corbin and
Strauss, 1990, pp. 6-12)
Table 17. Procedures and Canons of Grounded Theory
1) Data collection and analysis are interrelated processes. 2) Concepts are the basic units of analyses. 3) Categories must be developed and related. 4) Sampling in grounded theory proceeds on theoretical grounds. 5) Analysis makes use of constant comparisons. 6) Patterns and variations must be accounted for. 7) Processes must be built into the theory. 8) Writing theoretical memos is an integral part of doing grounded theory. 9) Hypotheses about relationships among categories should be developed and verified as
much as possible during the research process. 10) A grounded theorist need not work alone. 11) Broader structural conditions must be analyzed, however microscopic the research. 12) Data collection and analysis are interrelated processes. 13) Concepts are the basic units of analyses. 14) Categories must be developed and related. 15) Sampling in grounded theory proceeds on theoretical grounds. 16) Analysis makes use of constant comparisons. 17) Patterns and variations must be accounted for. 18) Processes must be built into the theory. 19) Writing theoretical memos is an integral part of doing grounded theory. 20) Hypotheses about relationships among categories should be developed and verified as
much as possible during the research process.
Many of Glaser and Strauss’s ideas such as the constant comparative method,
systematic coding of data, theoretical sampling and data saturation, have entered
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mainstream qualitative enquiry, however we respectfully suggest that grounded theory
method is not for emerging researchers because it is very time consuming.
Ethnography
In the 1940s, American sociologists and social psychologists in the Chicago School
influenced qualitative methodology by using ethnography from the field of anthropology
to study city life. Anthropologists studied remote tribes in foreign exotic places describing
and interpreting cultural behaviour (Dawson, 2001). At that time, Chicago was
experiencing an influx of immigrants from all over the world. The Chicago School
believed the street rather than the laboratory should be the subject of research and
would provide data. Studies were done of ‘the hobo’, the Jewish Ghetto, the Negro
family, and studies were also conducted with doctors, waitresses, and musicians. Their
main approaches were qualitative, using interviews, participant observation, and case
studies. One of the earliest ethnographic studies was carried out by William Foot Whyte
in 1943 called Street Corner Society, which focused on an Italian slum district in an
American City (Scott and Marshall, 2009).
Participant Observation
Participant observation was used by ethnographers and anthropologists as a method to
study primitive and exotic cultures. This method was adopted by sociologists and
educational researchers and was pioneered by the Chicago school to study groups and
communities. The aim is to describe and understand a culture from the native’s
perspective and discover tacit knowledge (Spradley, 1980). It involves immersing oneself
in the culture as a participant and learning to see the world through the native’s view or
to walk in their shoes. This method was most famously illustrated in Paul Willis’ seminal
study of how working-class lads get working class jobs, entitled Learning to Labour
(Willis, 1977). He used participant observation and generally ‘hanging about’ schools to
discover how some boys did not identify with the values of the school (work hard, get
good results to go to college to get a good job) and how they engaged in resistance and
developed a counter culture that would prepare them for the type of work they would get
when they left school (unskilled factory work etc.). As a method of data collection,
ethnography,
…involves the ethnographer participating, overtly or covertly, in people’s lives for an extended period of time, watching what happens, listening to what is said, asking questions – in fact, collecting whatever data are
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available to throw light on the issues that are the focus of the research (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1996, p. 1).
As undergraduates, we completed small ethnographic projects (in teams of three or
four). We chose a topic, conducted a literature review, chose a theoretical framework,
conducted observations, wrote up, analysed, and interpreted our fieldnotes. Later as
lecturers, we taught and supervised small research projects that were conducted within
the academic year. Students chose a range of topics such as raves, animal rescue
centres, classrooms, nursing homes, public transport etc. Students found them fun and
learnt a lot from their research. Due to General Data Protection Regulations, students
today may not be allowed to conduct similar ethnographic research.
Like other research methods, there are distinctive steps in doing ethnographic research:
topic selection, ethical approval, literature review, theory, asking ethnographic questions,
gaining access, data collection, writing ethnographic records, analysing and interpreting
data and writing up the ethnography (Spradley, 1980; Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995;
Miles and Huberman, 1994). The first step is to select a topic.
Topic selection: Choose a topic and research site that you are interested in. Is it a
private or a public space? At the beginning, you will have to gain permission and ethical
approval from gatekeepers to access it. In selecting a topic, be aware of the scope. For
instance, will it focus on macro or micro ethnography; for example, studying a whole
culture, or a small aspect of a culture (Spradley, 1980)? How many hours do you have
available to complete the study? Doing ethnography in your own country has challenges
in that everything is familiar. If it is a small project, there is not enough time for immersion
in the setting (Thomas, 2013).
In the past, ethnographers may have entered a foreign culture without knowing much
about it, but today students are required to conduct a literature review. This is to identify
‘foreshadowed problems’ and also to identify relevant theories which will assist in the
interpretation of data (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1996, p. 25). Based on the work of
Berg (1995), Sarantakos (2013, p. 220) outlines four stages in carrying out ethnographic
research:
1. ‘Accessing and entering the field of study. Access may be gained through
insiders or gatekeepers. Researchers may decide to conduct covert research by
keeping their identity secret or they may explain that they are doing research.
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2. The researcher goes invisible or simply blends into the group and tries not to
influence behaviour. They have conversations and interviews with natives and
learn about the norms and values of the group.
3. The researcher watches, listens and learns about the group, observes
relationships and sub-groups, keeps detailed field notes, may use recordings etc.
4. The final stage involves the researcher exiting the group, ending relationships
and emotionally detaching from the group’.
Conducting Research Based on Observation
Observation is on a continuum. At one end, there is complete participant observation
(PO) where researchers immerse themselves in a particular culture or setting and go
native and at the other end is non-participant observation; for example, those who study
others through one way or two-way windows. If those they are observing are not aware
that they are being studied, this is called covert research. There are serious ethical
implications to doing this type of research based on whether it is ethically proper to study
people as objects of research without their consent (see chapter on ethics). Overt
research is when permission is gained from those you are studying, where participants
know you are observing them and you have received ethical approval from them to
conduct the research.
Everybody observes at some level, there is nothing nicer than sitting in a roadside café
or on public transport and people watching. Imagine you are in a foreign country where
the natives are speaking a different language, have different norms and values, eat
different food, and observe different religious practices; you will make many assumptions
about the culture. As a methodological tool, when observation is used by researchers it
is systematic, inquisitive and theoretically informed (Harvey and McDonald, 1993, p.
148). Observation is also an essential element of action research and self-study
research. Harvey and McDonald define participant observation:
Participant Observation enables the researcher to experience the natural setting at first hand through being directly involved. By being part of the group the researcher is able to appreciate the meanings that the members of the group have about the activities they are involved in and the world in which they live. The researcher, by being part of the group, is able to develop the awareness of the relationship between the actions of the subjects, their values and norms, and the constraints of organisational procedures that affect the subject group. The researcher therefore understands the meanings in the same way as the subjects themselves (Harvey and McDonald, 1993, p. 154).
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While conducting participant observation, Spradley (1980, p. 81, reprinted 2016)
suggests that researchers start with ‘grand tour’ questions, which describe every aspect
of a situation. From here, more specific questions can be addressed based on: space,
object, act, activity, event, time, actor, goal, feeling (Spradley, 1980, pp. 82-83), (see
Appendix 4 for nine-by-nine matrix of questions). According to Marshall and Rossman,
observation entails the systematic noting and recording of events, behaviours and artefacts (objects) in the social setting chosen for study. The observational record is frequently referred to as field notes – detailed, non-judgemental, concrete descriptions of what has been observed (2006, p. 99).
Detailed fieldnotes are written up, either during the observation or as early as possible
afterwards. The golden rule is not to sleep on your observations. The sooner you write
the fieldnotes, the greater your recall will be (Harvey and McDonald, 1993, p. 151).
Fieldnotes can be written on one side of an A4 page; the other side is kept for notes,
memos, and interpretations. Record the date, time, place of the observations, social
actors, what people are doing etc. The field notes should be concrete descriptions of the
setting and all that it entails. Marshall and Rossman (2006) provide an example of
fieldnotes on classroom observations.
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Table 18. Fieldnotes (Marshall & Rossman, 2006, p. 100)
Date: Time: Place:
Field notes Memos and interpretations
There are 17 children in the room. There are 3 adults: 1 teacher, 1 classroom assistant, and 1 student teacher (the student teacher is an older woman).
The room is in the basement of the school. The school is a brick building approximately 90 to 100 years old. The room is about 40 feet by 30 feet. The room is carpeted and is sectioned off by furniture. There is an area with big books and a chart in the left-hand back corner of the room. Next to that is a shelf with a mixture of small books, tapes, and big books in baskets. Next to that is a small area with several tables in front of the kitchen area. There are many small chairs pulled up to the table. In the front of the room is an area with a sand table. There is a semicircle table in the left-hand corner of the room. The walls are colourful with papers that have been made by the children. One wall has papers with apples on them. Another wall has pictures of children with their names on the front of the papers. There are several small windows in the room and the florescent lighting seems to be the major source of light.
The teacher seems to have done a great job of making the room seem very inviting. The space itself is not optimal.
The children have just come into the room. They have put their coats and backpacks onto their hooks in the hall outside.
Most of the children appear to know the routine
Analysis and interpretation of data follow the same pattern as analysis and interpretation
of other types of qualitative data which we examine later in the chapter.
Participant observation can be used on its own or as part of a mixed-methods study. For
example, for her Master’s degree, Marjorie Fitzpatrick (nee O’Neill) carried out a mixed
methods study utilising quantitative and qualitative data. The aim of the research was to
investigate the relationship between adult religious education and dimensions of
religiosity. For the quantitative aspect of the study, she surveyed a sample (n=30) of
students who were participating in an adult religious education programme. For the
qualitative aspect, she used participant observation in a parish retreat. Her role was both
as participant and observer, in that she was co-running the retreat with a nun. The
fieldwork involved attending meetings with parishioners on a weekly basis over a nine-
week period. Because of her dual roles as researcher and participant, she did field notes
during the meeting but instead transcribed them afterwards using Spradley’s (1980) nine
steps coding frame (see Appendix 4). She used thematic analysis and then compared
the results with the data from the survey. For her, the advantage of carrying out
participant observation is that she immersed herself in a rewarding transformative
experience while carrying out research. The disadvantages were role conflict, in that it
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raised ethical issues about her role as participant observer and researcher; and being
unable to write up field notes during the actual event (O’Neill, 1993).
Examples of Irish Ethnographies
Irish Travellers were the focus of two ethnographies conducted by researchers from
North America. Californian anthropologists, Sharon and George Gmelch, conducted an
ethnographic study in Dublin in the 1970s. They immersed themselves in Traveller
culture by living with them in a barrel topped caravan for a year and conducted
participant observation. George was a keen photographer and took 2,400 photos during
the study. Forty years later (2012), they returned to Ireland and shared the photos with
the Travellers who were delighted to be reunited with them and to see the photographs.
A documentary entitled Unsettled – from Tinker to Traveller was made noting the
changes in Traveller culture over four decades. The photos were donated to the National
Folklore Collection in UCD (Gleeson, 2012). They produced a textbook on ethnographic
research, entitled In the Field: Life and Work in Cultural Anthropology’ (Gmelch and
Gmelch, 2018), which contains a chapter on Irish Travellers and clearly describes their
ethnographic methods.
Jane Helleiner, a Canadian anthropologist, on a yearlong visit to Ireland in the 1980s
noticed caravans parked along the road, and encampments outside towns. When asked
about their owners, she was told they were ‘dirty, dangerous and best avoided’ (2000, p.
5). Helleiner returned to Ireland in the late 1980s to conduct an ethnographic study of
Irish Travellers (Helleiner, 2000), in which the goal was to,
better understand the history of anti-Traveller racism and how Travellers engaged with and struggled against racism in their everyday lives while working to create and recreate a distinct identity and way of life (Helleiner, 2000, p. 10).
Jane lived in a caravan in a Traveller encampment in Galway for nine months and
sought permission from some of the older members of the Travellers to conduct
research. There were approximately eighty Travellers, comprising fourteen families living
there. Helleiner conducted participant observation, observing everyday activities,
conversing, socialising, and conducting interviews with Traveller children, women, and
men; joining women in one of the larger trailers at night, assisting women with writing
letters or filling out forms. Her data also included an examination of archival sources
such as biographies, autobiographies, discourses about European racism, newspaper
reports, government minutes, and parliamentary debates, ‘which revealed examples of
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elite discourse that constructed Travellers in racist ways and through such constructions
legitimated anti-Traveller action’ (Helleiner, 2000, p. 14). On her very first day there, she
was disturbed to hear about a vigilante attack on another group of Travellers in Galway;
subsequently, she became involved in attending and recording minutes at meetings of a
newly formed Traveller Committee. She was aware of the importance of reflexivity not
only in the writing up her research but also in the representation of Travellers because
previous research had often depicted them in a very negative light.
Traveller activist Nan Joyce, for example, has written about how “you get foreigners coming and writing books about us: some of those books are very hurtful - the people who write them should be sued” (Joyce and Farmar 1985:116 cited in Helleiner, 2000, p. 22).
Conversations and interviews are used as data collection methods, not only in
ethnography, but as a stand-alone qualitative data collection method.
Designing a Researchable Question
In your research proposal, and literature review, you will already have developed an
overarching research question. This is where your uniqueness and imagination come
into play. Here are questions based on some of the examples:
o How do professional therapists in private practice construct female paedophiles
or hebephiles? (Meyer, 2020).
o How do people bequeath property in their last will and testament? Did this
change as Ireland modernised between 1951 and 2000? Did inheritance favour
males? (Whitaker, 2005)
o Händel’s ‘Messiah’ was first performed in Dublin in 1742. Marjorie wondered:
What part did music play in the cultural life at the time? What was the role of
music in the court society? (Fitzpatrick, 2016)
These research questions may be multi-faceted and may be broken down into a number
of different areas or sub-questions in order to access data that are typically rich, detailed,
descriptive, and deep:
A general question is normally too broad to be answered directly, to broad to satisfy the empirical criterion for research questions. Its concepts are too general. It therefore requires logical sub-division – or ‘unpacking’ – into several specific research questions (Punch, 2011, p. 60)
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Designing a Research Instrument
The data collection instrument for the collection of qualitative data is not as structured as
a standardised, structured questionnaire in a survey but is more flexible and responsive
to issues being raised by the respondent, which may be relevant to the research topic.
The in-depth interview is the key data collection method in qualitative methods. It allows
the researcher to explore the concepts or themes that they wish to investigate through
carefully constructed open ended questions. Patton (2002) provides three categories of
interviews: the informal, conversational interview; the general interview guide approach;
and the standardised open-ended interview. In small scale projects, where time is of the
essence, a semi-structured or even structured questionnaire can be used (Sarantakos,
2013):
Qualitative, in-depth interviews typically are much more like conversations than formal events with predetermined response categories. The researcher explores a few general topics to help uncover the participant’s views but otherwise respects how the participant frames and structures the responses. This method is based on an assumption fundamental to qualitative research: The participant’s perspective on the phenomenon of interest should unfold as the participant views it (the emic perspective), not as the researcher views it (the etic perspective) (Marshall and Rossman, 2006, p. 101)
The general interview guide approach, topic guide, interview schedule (Thomas, 2013)
or ‘aide memoire’ consists of a list of topics that you wish to explore. These topics and
questions derive from your review of the literature but also your own imagination. At the
outset of your research, you may have had a question, then following the review of the
literature you may have other questions. According to Thomas (2013, p. 199):
This schedule of issues, questions and probes is just a guide from which you can deviate as necessary; it’s a structure to help you conduct the interview; it is not a straitjacket.
The first stage is have a brainstorming session. In the topic guide approach, look at the
research question and list the most important topics. Three or four topics are sufficient
for an undergraduate or master’s degree. Under each topic, develop a list of open-ended
questions. The reason why the in-depth interview is flexible, is because if you had four
topics to discuss and your respondent mentions the fourth topic at the beginning of the
interview, you can explore this topic first and then return to the other topics. The
respondent may also raise a relevant issue that you had not thought of and provide
valuable data.
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The topic guide can also be the basis for the semi-structured questionnaire, a list of
relevant open-ended questions is written down and then the researcher explores the
issues that arise during the interview by using probes or prompts. We return to the
probes and prompts below in the section on interviewing. When designing the questions,
think ahead to the interview, where you may start with a grand tour question (can you tell
me all about x), and then more specific and serious questions, the final questions should
be lighter. A useful final question to ask at the end of an interview is: ‘What advice would
you give to others in the same situation?’
The preparation for the interview begins beforehand. Bearing in mind that the respondent
is giving some of their valuable time, be careful not to waste it. If the respondent is in the
public domain, you may be able to find out information about them prior to the interview.
The respondent may ask for a copy of the questions beforehand; if so, it is good practice
to send them the questions by mail or email. Indeed this is recommended by Grant
McCracken (McCracken, 1988) and also by feminist researchers.
Pilot Study
It is important to pilot or pre-test the topic guide or semi-structured questionnaire before
commencing your fieldwork. This will demonstrate whether the instrument is suitable and
whether respondents understand the questions etc. According to Sarantakos (2013, p.
278), the purpose of a pilot study ‘is to discover possible weaknesses, inadequacies,
ambiguities, and problems in all aspects of the research, so that they can be corrected
before the actual data collection takes place’.
• Was the language appropriate for the respondents?
• Did respondents understand the questions?
• Did the questions flow?
• Was the structure of the instrument effective?
• Was it too long or short? Did it generate too little or too much data? (Sarantakos,
2013)
• Do you need to make any changes to the research Instrument? (Sarantakos,
2013)
The pilot interview will also provide information about your own role as an interviewer
(Marshall and Rossman, 2006).
• Did you have fears?
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• Were you able to manage the recorder?
• Did you put the respondent at ease?
• Were there awkward silences?
• Did you explain the purpose of the research?
• Did the respondent sign the consent form?
If the pilot interview went well, there is no reason why you cannot use the data in your
study. The next issue to consider is who you will interview or how you will find a sample.
Qualitative Research Samples
In qualitative research, small samples are used to elicit deep information and ‘thick
descriptions’ (Geertz, 1975), whereas in large-scale quantitative research random
sampling strategies are used in order to develop inferences or to generalise the findings
to the population. In qualitative research, the sample will be based on finding the most
suitable people (‘respondents’ or ‘participants’, key informants’ or ‘interviewees’), to
answer the research questions (Thomas, 2013). According to Punch (2009):
Across the various qualitative sampling strategies, there is a clear principle involved, which concerns the overall validity of the research design, and which stresses that the sample must fit with the other components of the study. There must be an internal consistency and a coherent logic, across the study’s components, including its sampling. The sampling plan and sampling parameters (setting actors, events, processes) should line up with the purposes and the research questions of the study (Punch, 2009, pp. 163-164)
The idea of sampling a population comes from quantitative ‘empirical’ research,
nonetheless, in qualitative research we still need to find a group of people to answer the
research questions (Thomas, 2013). Non-probability samples are used (Harvey and
MacDonald, 1993; Silverman, 2005):
• Purposive – finding a sample for the purpose of the research (Punch, 2009).
• Convenience sampling, as the name implies, draws on a sample that is
convenient, for example, say a teacher was doing research on teachers’
experiences of teaching music in the classroom. The teacher might choose to
interview other teachers in the school in which she was working. Convenience
samples can be biased.
• Snowball sampling is where one respondent may introduce you to another
respondent, for example, if a researcher was interested in a particular group of
people with certain characteristics and knew one member of that group. That
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member may provide a contact, who in turn would provide another contact, thus
creating a snowball sample.
• Targeted sampling is similar to purposive sample and is a particular group of
respondents who can answer the research questions who are targeted for
inclusion.
• Theoretical sampling is used in grounded theory; this means that the collection of
data is informed by emerging theory.
Researchers using grounded theory continue to add new units to their sample until the
data have reached ‘saturation point’, that is, until no new data are emerging. According
to Marshall and Rossman (2006, p. 70):
Purposive and theoretical sampling, which is guided by the theoretical framework and concepts, is often built into qualitative designs. For example, research on professional cultures would suggest that the researcher should sample among individuals, events, and sentiments in the early stages of initiation into a profession. Often, however, researchers’ site selection and sampling begin with accessible sites (convenience sampling) and build on insights and connections from the early data collection (snowball sampling).
In qualitative research, the data elicited is subjective because the researcher is seeking
to find out about the respondent’s inner world and how they interpret that world. ‘Our
central interest, as researchers, is now focused upon people’s understandings and
interpretations of their social environments’ (May, 1993, p. 8)
Gaining Access
The next step is to decide how to gain access to the sample:
• Will you gain access informally by simply approaching the respondent or will
you gain access formally? Will you phone, write a letter, or send an email?
• Will you approach the respondent directly or through a host organisation? For
example, to access to sex workers, the researchers gained access through
organisations that provide harm reduction services to sex workers (NACD,
2009).
• Will you approach the respondent through a gatekeeper? For example, if you
wanted to interview doctors (general practitioners) about their experiences of
treating people with Covid-19, you may need to gain access through the
doctor’s receptionist or secretary. Exercise caution in using gatekeepers as
they may influence the type of data you collect, for example, say your friend’s
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father was the Chief Executive Office (CEO) of a large corporation. You ask
his assistance to interview some employees, but unfortunately they associate
you with the CEO and are not honest with you.
• Do you have to negotiate with gatekeepers? If you wish to interview a child,
you will have to get parental consent and also you will have to get consent
from the school to conduct the research there.
Venue
The next consideration is the choice of venue which may impact on data collection. You
need to consider whether interviews will be conducted on your territory or theirs or
whether to use a neutral venue, for example, a teacher who is interviewed in a school
may not feel free to criticise any aspect of the education system, or may be intimidated
by the proximity of the school principal. You must always consider your own personal
safety, if a respondent invites you to their home make sure that there will be someone
else there or ask a friend to come along and sit outside in a car. It is not worth
endangering your own life for an interview. We have conducted interviews in all sorts of
venues, such as cafes, cars, respondents’ homes, restaurants, youth clubs, schools and
even over the telephone. During the Covid-19 pandemic, face-to-face interviews were
not possible, so students used technology such as Zoom, Skype, or Google Meet.
Although these platforms are very convenient for conducting interviews, it is best to
interview face-to-face in order to build trust and rapport. This bond might prove more
difficult when using technology. Face-to-face interviews also provide an opportunity to
observe body language.
Presentation of Self
Once you have chosen your sample, it is important to consider presentation of self in
terms of what clothes you will wear when conducting your interviews. It might not be
appropriate to wear torn jeans and a sloppy tee shirt if you intended interviewing the
CEO of an organisation. Equally, it would not be appropriate to wear very formal clothes
such as a suit if interviewing a homeless person. Take time to consider your subject and
take care to choose appropriate clothes. The bottom line is respect for the respondent
who has given some of their valuable time. The main thing is that you feel confident and
fully prepared for the interview. We have had experience of students interviewing us and
then forgetting to switch on their recorders, necessitating the need to conduct another
interview.
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Interviewing Techniques – Probes and Prompts
An essential aspect of the interview is putting the respondent at ease at the beginning of
an interview and seeking to ‘establish rapport’ by using small talk (Thomas, 2013, p.
195). In Ireland, we are very skilled at talking about the weather, so it is a good ice
breaker at the beginning of an interview. The next step is to introduce the research,
provide the respondent with a research information and consent form. Assure them that
the information is strictly confidential and anonymous and that their name will not appear
in the research. Give them the opportunity to ask questions. If you intend to record the
interview, introduce the device in a practical manner. If they do not want it recorded, you
will have to take notes quickly during the interview or just write key words, and then
immediately afterwards write up the notes.
Your personal demeanour and how to conduct yourself will impact on data collection.
Thomas (2013) suggests that if you take time to arrange an interview, the respondent will
be willing to help you. This has certainly been our experience:
If you take the trouble to schedule a visit you can be more or less guaranteed a response. Most importantly, though, you will be able to relate to interviewees while you are talking to them; you will be able to hear and understand what they are saying and use gestures or words to encourage them to say more (or less). You will be able to watch and listen for nuances of their behaviour which will give you important clues about how they feel about a topic. Because of the primacy of the personal contact, your appearance, demeanour and tone are important – how do you want to be seen? As ‘one of us’ (i.e. like the interviewee)? As a person in authority? As a neutral observer? … Or what? Your decision should influence the way that you look, sound and behave (Thomas, 2013, p. 194)
With qualitative research, the researcher is also the research instrument, therefore good
interviewing skills are important (Marshall and Rossman, 2006; Sarantakos, 2013;
Thomas, 2013). One of the most important skills is that of listening. Michael Quinn
Patton (1987) suggested the reason we have two ears and one mouth is that we should
listen twice as much as we talk! Questions are open-ended which ‘provides the
respondent with the freedom to answer the question … in a way that suits their
interpretation’ (May, 1993, p. 78). Listen carefully to the respondent, give them time to
think and reflect, and resist the urge to cover up silences. As stated earlier, you can start
by asking a grand tour question (can you tell me all about …?) and then go on to more
narrow, specific questions or follow up questions.
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Probes
The use of probing questions can provide deeper information. According to Sarantakos,
(2013, p. 289):
Probes are questions or neutral statements that encourage the respondent s to extend or amplify a partial, irrelevant or inaccurate response, and/or to stimulate and assist them to answer a question, without affecting the direction of their thinking and without causing bias or distortion. Probes are employed in interviews where open discussion is allowed such as intensive interviewing. Two types of probing are non-directive probing and the summary technique.
Non-directive probing means you ask a question which will not affect the direction of the
interview, such as “Can you tell me more about that?” Sarantakos, (2013). Another
method of questioning is to summarise what the respondent has said, thus motivating
them to give additional information, such as: “You said earlier that the pandemic had a
negative effect on your relationship with your neighbour. Can you tell the ways that this
manifested?”
Probes help to induce more in-depth responses. They are used to clarify an answer or
elicit examples or evidence:
• Encourage elaboration: “Can you tell me more about that?” “Are there any other
reasons you think that?” (Bryman, 2012, p. 223)
• Corroborate something that has been said earlier: “You mentioned earlier … can
you give me examples …?”
• Be careful of assuming you understand what your respondent is saying,
sometimes a respondent may say: “You know what I mean?”, you may say, “No,
I’m not sure I understand, can you tell me more about that?”
• Clarification of an issue. “Can you explain what you mean by that?” For example,
in the NACD (2009) research on illicit drug use, respondents used terms which
we had never heard before such as ‘chasing the dragon’, ‘coming down’, ‘jump
overs’, ‘skin pop’, ‘speedball’, etc. We asked them to clarify the meanings.
• Continuation probe: “Can you tell me more about that?”
• “I see”; demonstrates that you have been listening.
• Elicit a story: “Can you tell me the first time you tried...”
According to Thomas (2013, p. 198) probes encourage respondents:
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To proceed with aspects of their answers; these may be verbal – for example ‘Go on…’ or non-verbal, a tilt of the head or a nod or a raising of the eyebrows (but preferably not all three at once).
During the Celtic Tiger years, Ireland experienced an unprecedented level of immigration
of diverse ethnic groups. In 2008, Devine, Kenny and Macneela, 2008 carried out
research which focused on the experience of racism among immigrant children.
Fieldwork was conducted over two school years in a sample of primary and post-primary
schools with 132 children of diverse ethnic background. Observations were conducted in
classrooms and the school yards. Consider the questions asked by the interviewer: “Did
you ever hear of racism?” “What is a racist?”
Interviewer: Did you ever hear of racism?
Child 1: Yeah you really hate black people and you’re sexist. (Majority ethnic
females, senior class, Oakleaf Primary)
Interviewer: What is a racist?
Child 3: You’re white and there’s coloured people and you don’t like any coloured
people or you’re black and you don’t like any white people.
Child 1: Michael Jackson is a racist
Child 2: Because he changed his colour. He got all the surgery done because he
doesn’t like black people. (Majority ethnic, seniors, Riverside Primary)
(Devine et al., 2008, p. 372).
Prompts
The use of prompts may be used in interviews. The prompt may involve showing a
photograph or an example of something to stimulate the respondent’s memory. Although
it is very important not to put words into people’s mouths, sometimes if the respondent is
not coming up with the type of information that you are trying to elicit, then prompt
questions might be necessary, for example, if you were interviewing an employee in a
large organisation about bullying. She or he was saying that everything was fine, and
there were absolutely no problems or challenges, then you might put in a very directive
question such as “How does your employer deal with situations of conflict in your
organisation?” Or “Were your feelings ever hurt by another employee at work?”, or,
“Have you ever seen witnessed your colleagues being bullied at work?”
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The Course of the Interview
During the interview, it is important to pay attention to your demeanour.
• Try to adapt a friendly non-threatening demeanour. Explain that there are no right
or wrong answers.
• Sometimes respondents can reveal shocking information but try to retain an
interested neutral, value free stance.
• Do not interrupt the respondent unless they have gone off on a completely
different tangent that is not relevant to the research topic.
• Listen to the respondent and use follow up questions; do not stick rigidly to the
pre-listed questions.
• Try to end interview on a positive note. Thank respondent and assure them that
the information is very helpful to your research.
• Do not rush the end of the interview. Provide the respondent with enough time to
come out of ‘interview mode’ before leaving. Change the topic of conversation.
Unfortunately, our experience has shown us that sometimes the most insightful
things are said at the end when the recording device has been switched off.
Learning How to Conduct an In-depth Interview
It can be daunting for students/emerging researchers to conduct their first interview. We
were fortunate to learn from the best and were taught interview skills by those who had
conducted qualitative research. Tutorials offer an opportunity for students to practice
interviewing techniques. Students find the following exercise helpful. In a tutorial, ask
students to break up into groups of three. One person plays the role of the interviewer,
one the respondent and one an observer who provides feedback to the interviewer.
Students may choose their own topic or choose between a list of generic non-sensitive
topics such as: experiences of owning a companion animal (cat, dog, rabbit etc.),
workload in college, social life in college, balancing work with study, voluntary work etc.
This triadic can alternate roles so that each person gets a turn. Allocate a time period for
the exercise, say ten minutes. Practice the following aspects of interviewing:
• Introducing the topic, research information sheet and consent form,
• Explaining why it is important to record the session
• Practicing listening skills
• Allowing silence during the interview
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• Summarising the respondent
• Using probes and prompts and follow up questions
• Closing and exiting the interview
For those conducting research outside the college context, three people could engage in
this exercise to help the researcher to develop interview skills.
Feminist Interviewing
Feminist interviewing promotes the use of the participatory model of research, which can
be achieved by giving respondents a list of themes before conducting interviews
(Letherby, 2003). Following transcription, the interviews are returned to the respondents
who can add or edit the contents (see feminist ethnography by Jacqueline O’Toole in the
chapter on narrative research). Feminist interviewing is built on a feminist research
methodology (see Chapter 2). Feminist research focuses on the lived experience and
gendered social realities of women (Landman, 2006). It seeks to be non-hierarchal and
to treat the research participant as an equal partner in the research process; it
encourages an egalitarian, non-exploitative relationship between the researcher and
researched (Letherby, 2003). This approach is summarised in the box below based on
Oakley’s research conducted in 1981 (cited in Landman, 2006, p. 431). A feminist
approach to the research interview is as follows:
Oakley's (1981) Feminist Interview
1. The interviewer presents her own identity in the process, not only asking questions, but also
sharing knowledge,
2. Reciprocity invites an intimacy that encourages revelations from the researched relating to
her material reality;
3. Develops a participatory model of research that challenges power relationships between
researcher and researched;
4. Produces work that challenges prevailing stereotypes of the researcher and the researched.
Feminist research uses the active voice and the personal pronoun “I” rather than the
neutral language associated with scientific research (Letherby, 2003). For example, ‘one
out of every six American women are raped’. If we use the active voice ‘men raped one
out of every six women in the USA’ (see RAINN https://www.rainn.org/statistics/victims-
sexual-violence).
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Example of the Use of In-depth Interviews in an Educational Context
Three examples are provided of qualitative research using in-depth interviews. The first
example demonstrates how the researcher endeavoured to find a representative sample.
The last two examples also illustrate sampling decisions and thematic analysis and the
importance of student teachers conducting research to enhance their own professional
practice.
Joyce Senior (2009) conducted interviews with ten young boys with Attention Deficit
Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and their parents in order to get insight into the reality of
the difficulties experienced by both the person with ADHD and their families in relation to
their educational experiences. In order to make the ‘case studies’ as representative as
possible, the final sample comprised four boys aged 10-12, four 12-18, two 18-21, the
majority were from middle class backgrounds, with two from a lower socio-economic
class, all from the Greater Dublin Area. In terms of education, the boys were from upper
primary school through to post-Leaving Certificate. The students’ narratives revealed that
they experienced major exclusionary pressures in the form of negative attitudes and
stigmatisation. Students spoke about being called names such as pigs, muppets, and
idiots and/or had been told that they were lazy, stupid or apathetic. One nine-year-old
child said:
Yes, I’ve been called a muppet, an idiot and stupid. He’d physically take me and lift me by the arm out of the seat and drag me up to the top of the class and say, “Look at this boy, he’s an idiot” (Senior, 2009, p. 62)
The researcher acknowledges the importance of her research because ADHD is gaining
greater recognition in the international and national community as constituting one of the
most important predictors of psychiatric and social difficulties in adulthood (Senior,
2009). The next example draws on student research.
Student projects may use small sample sizes. For example, Emer O’Connor (student
teacher) conducted research on teacher strategies for motivating students to learn in the
classroom. She conducted five semi-structured interviews with a purposive sample
comprising two newly qualified teachers and three teachers who had various years of
experience. She used thematic analysis to analyse the data. Four themes emerged from
the data: intrinsic motivators, positive teacher-pupil relationships, teacher challenges
including the challenges for newly qualified teachers motivating pupils’ learning
(O’Connor, 2018). The third example also draws from student research.
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Sarah May Keyes conducted five in-depth interviews with a sample (convenience and
snowball) of teachers to explore the ways in which Irish Primary School Teachers
respond to pupils with English as an additional language (EAL). Her inclusion criteria
were that primary school teachers had two years’ experience and were teaching in a
primary school. She conducted thematic analysis of the data. Four themes emerged: 1)
Training in EAL; 2) Differentiation Strategies for EAl pupils; 3) inclusion; and 4)
Language support for EAl. Her findings suggested that there was a lack of training for
teachers in EAL. Teachers adopted strategies, altered their pedagogies, and used best
practices to accommodate the needs of the EAL students (Keyes, 2018).
Phenomenological Research
Phenomenological research also uses qualitative methods of data collection such as the
in-depth interview and focus groups. Emanating from the philosophy of phenomenology,
it seeks to describe a person’s ‘lived experience’ of an experience or an event (Mapp,
2008). It emphasises that only those who have experienced a phenomenon can actually
explain it to others. Researchers, therefore, seek to provide an understanding of a
phenomenon from the perspective of those who have lived it (Mapp, 2008). In seeking
understanding, the researcher must do a phenomenological bracketing, that is they ‘must
suspend belief in the phenomena of the external world, to put them aside and focus on
the consciousness of that world’ (Wilson, 2002, p. 8):
Within phenomenology, with its emphasis on understanding the person's experience of the world and his/her situation, the research methods are the methods of philosophy. Those methods include, for example, conceptual analysis; linguistic analysis; hermeneutical method and praxis; historical-critical method; literary philosophy; and formal logic (Wilson, 2002, p. 6)
Phenomenologists are vigilant about presuppositions in that they seek to reach the
“Lebenswelt” of the respondent, ‘capturing the “essence” of an account – what is
constant in a person’s life across its manifold variations’ (Miles and Huberman, 1994, p.
8). Phenomenological research is a popular methodology in the field of nursing and is
growing in popularity in other fields. We provide two examples from the Irish context of
phenomenological research: one which utilised focus groups as a method of data
collection and the other which used interviews.
A Phenomenological Study of Suicide in Irish Travellers
Travellers are the most socially excluded, stigmatised, and marginalised minority group
in Irish society with poorer health outcomes, lower levels of education and employment
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(Tobin, Lambert and McCarthy, 2020). The All Ireland Traveller Health Study revealed
that on average, depending on gender, Travellers have a life expectancy of 65 years, 13-
15 years less than the national average; infant mortality rates are four times the national
average; and there are higher mortality rates among men, particularly from suicides than
in the general population. Mental health issues are also prevalent in Travellers (Mc
Gorrian et al., 2013, cited in Tobin et al., 2020). Historically, suicide rates were low
amongst Travellers due to the strong community ties and religious beliefs, but in the past
fifteen years, suicides have increased and are now six times greater than the national
average. Stigma and shame surround suicides and the lack of awareness of mental
health issues also add to the silencing of the issue. Sometimes suicides are followed by
‘bereavement suicides’, that is where a bereaved person unable to cope with the pain of
loss and grief takes their own life. Tobin et al. (2020) utilised semi structured group
interviews and interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) to understand how grief is
experienced amongst Travellers in the context of high mortality rates, and bereavement
from multiple or sudden deaths. The sample consisted of ten Traveller Community
Health Workers (all Travellers) whose role involves working as primary health care
workers within the Traveller community in order to increase awareness of health issues
and improve health outcomes; they liaise with health and state services. Three group
interviews were conducted, which were considerable preferable to individual interviews,
because the group facilitated the discussion of sensitive topics among colleagues. Open-
ended questions were used to facilitate the discussion in order to find out the lived
psychological experience of grief as it is experienced by Travellers. The data were
recorded and transcribed and subjected to Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis (IPA),
which took not only the individual’s lived experience and reflections on ‘the meanings,
effects and consequences of those experiences’ (Tobin et al., 2020, p. 135) but also the
socio-cultural context into account. Five major themes emerged from the analysis: Living
with tragic death, Surviving families, Communicating tragic death, Accessing services,
and Discrimination.
An Interpretive Phenomenological Study of Key Word Signing with Children with
Down Syndrome
The second exemplar focuses on the use of sign language with children with Down
Syndrome (DS). Children with DS are increasingly being included in mainstream
education, which is recognised as being beneficial for their academic development and
socialisation. However, they usually have impairments, such as syntax deficits, which
hamper their ability to communicate (Bowles and Frizelle, 2016). To enhance their
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communication skills, children with DS are taught a uniquely Irish sign language system
called Lámh (Irish word for hand) to enhance communication [see:
https://www.lamh.org/communication/lámh-signs-online].
Lámh is based on key word signing (KWS) and has proved to be an effective and easy to
learn communication method for people with intellectual disabilities. It is particularly
valuable for children with DS because it builds on their strengths of visual processing
and imitation. Previous research highlighted the benefits of KWS as a method to
enhance the intelligibility of communication). In order to be successful communication
partners (staff and peers) also need to understand how to use and interpret KWS. To
date, no research has focused on peer attitudes. The aim of the research was to find out
the attitudes of children with Down Syndrome and their peers towards the use of sign
language Lámh. Eight interviews were conducted with children aged between six and
eight years of age from two different schools.
An Interpretive Phenomenological analysis approach was used based on the writing of
Smith and Osborn (2008, cited in Bowles and Frizelle, 2016, p. 286) which involved a
detailed interpretive account of a small sample (eight children) selected from two
schools. In School A, the class teacher had received no formal training, whereas in
School B the class teacher had received Lámh training. Four children with DS from
school A and B and four peers were invited to participate in the study, which was
explained to them in child friendly language; parents provided ethical consent for their
children to partake. Prior to the research being conducted, the researchers visited the
children in their classrooms. In terms of managing the differential power relations
between researcher and child, the researchers visited the children in their classrooms to
gain familiarity. Rehearsals were conducted with the children to demonstrate to them
how to give a negative response to a question they did not want to answer. The
interviews were conducted in a quiet room with a familiar staff member present. Before
the interview took place, a game was played with the children in order to further develop
rapport. Props such as visual materials and task-based activities were used to enhance
engagement. A flexible interview schedule was prepared where questions could be
modified in light of children’s responses. During the interview process, the children were
also monitored for signs of stress. In terms of data analysis, IPA follows much the same
steps as thematic analysis:
The transcript was read a number of times, and the left-hand margin was used to mark initial thoughts, document connections and form preliminary interpretations. Following the initial notes, the right-hand margin was used to
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document emerging themes that best captured the quality of the text. The emergent themes were listed on a sheet of paper, and an attempt was made to identify connections between them. Some of the themes clustered together to form superordinate concepts. The researcher always referred back to the primary source of material to ensure that the connections related to the words of the child being interviewed. In continuing the analysis with other transcripts, divergences and convergences in the data were acknowledged. The researcher recognised the different themes in subsequent transcripts, but also identified responses which supported the initial themes. Themes and overarching themes were generated (Bowles and Frizelle, 2016, p. 287)
Two superordinate and four subordinate themes were identified: Attitudes supporting the
use of KWL in mainstream schools (Valuing KWS, Positive differentiation) and Attitudes
relating to KWL difficulties (Remembering KWS, Making KWS, Signing in Unstructured
Environments). The data revealed that the peers appreciated the use of KWL but
sometimes had trouble remembering the signs and their meanings (Bowles and Frizelle,
2016). The study recommended that all teachers in mainstream schools are trained in
the use of KWL, and that children are taught a limited number of KWL signs in order to
enhance communication with children with DS in the structured environment of the
classroom and the unstructured environment of the playground.
In the next section, we explore the use of focus groups in gathering qualitative data. We
consider the advantages and disadvantages of focus groups and investigate Irish
examples of the use of focus groups in educational research.
Focus Group Research – Background and Method
When Robert Merton accepted Paul Lazarfield’s (head of Office of Radio Research)
invitation to accompany him to a radio station to get feedback from a selected group of
participants on the contents of a radio show in 1941, little did he realise that it would lead
to the emergence of a new type of data collection – the focus group (Merton, 1990).
Merton had spent the summer of 1932 as a research assistant to Pitrim A. Sorokin in
Harvard University, interviewing homeless men and women on the streets of Boston,
thus gaining a wealth of interview skills. In the radio station, Robert observed as an
audience were asked to press a red button if they heard anything in the content of the
programme that evoked negative reactions and a green button when positive reactions
were evoked. The group were interviewed by a professional interviewer and Robert
passed notes to Paul about all the things that the interviewer was doing incorrectly, such
as asking leading questions, not asking specific questions about content and not eliciting
spontaneous responses. Paul suggested that Robert act as next interviewer with a
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different group, which he did and 'thus began my life with what would eventuate as the
focussed group-interview’ (Merton, 1990, p. 10).
Merton et al. published a book entitled The Focussed Interview a Manual of Problems
and Procedures in 1956, which provides the foundation for focus group research. It was
republished in 1990 and Merton reflects on the impact of the original work:
“This manual should be read by those who are attempting to understand the problems involved in subjective or motivation research in whatever field it may lie.” Precisely so. Useful for marketing research, to be sure, but not only for marketing research. Rather, a set of procedures for the collection and analysis of qualitative data that may help us gain an enlarged sociological and psychological understanding in whatsoever sphere of human experience (Merton, 1990, p. 52)
Originally, Merton et al. (1956) called a group interview a focused interview of groups, or
the focused group-interview. Today, it is widely known as a focus group (Merton, Fiske
and Kendall, 1956). Focus groups are widely used in marketing research, social science,
and applied research. A focus group is conducted with anything from four to ten people
with an interviewer who is called a moderator. A small group of people is asked to focus
on a topic or issue of interest and discuss it in depth. Focus groups are considered a
very democratic method of data collection because the data is generated through
interaction and the alternation of responses in the group. A focus group can be defined,
as a carefully planned discussion to obtain perceptions on a defined area of interest in a permissive, non-threatening environment. A group environment will, through mutual stimulation, encourage discussion related to topical issues; increase the motivation to address social and especially critical issues…allow significant points of view to be presented in a real, emotional and summated form as spontaneous expressions (Sarantakos, 1993, p. 249)
The criteria for an effective focus group interview are outlined below:
1. Range. The interview should enable interviewees to maximize the
reported range of evocative elements and patterns in the stimulus
situation as well as the range of responses.
2. Specificity. The interview should elicit highly specific reports of the
aspects of the stimulus situation to which interviewees have
responded.
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3. Depth. The interview should help interviewees to describe the
affective, cognitive and evaluative meanings of the situation and the
degree of their involvement in it.
4. Personal context. The interview should bring out the attributes and
prior experience of interviewees which endow the situation with these
distinctive meanings (Merton et al., 1990, p. 52)
Focus groups are a qualitative method of data collection in which a group of people is
interviewed at the same time. Focus groups combine elements of observation and
individual interviews.
Focus Group Method
Focus group research design follows the same sequence: literature review, development
of a research question, choice of research methodology and methods, choosing a
sample etc. The research instrument is the same as that for an in-depth interview: a topic
guide with list of topics and questions or a semi-structured questionnaire or an interview
schedule (see discussion earlier in this chapter). If possible, ask another researcher to
act as an assistant (Krueger and Casey, 2015). The assistant’s role is to record the
interview, keep notes, provide a summary at the end, and ensure that research
information sheets and consent forms are filled out. The assistant may also help with the
analysis of the data. It can also be helpful to administer a short demographic
questionnaire which helps to provide contextual details and a demographic background
to the research.
Selecting a Sample
Select a sample of respondents who have an expertise in a particular area:
o Depending on the topic being explored, the sample may be homogenous (such
as school principals) or diverse (lecturers and students) (Sarantakos, 2013).
o Choose a sample size anything from 5 – 10 people (Kreuger, 2002).
o If the group is too large, some people may not get the opportunity to speak or
they may be too intimidated to speak. It is better to have two small focus groups
rather than one large one.
Venue
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Decide an appropriate venue: hotel, hall, school, or own home. The room should be
large enough with preferably no background noise (Sarantakos, 2013). Choose a seating
arrangement where everybody can see each other clearly and maintain eye-to eye-
contact (such as a circle). Ensure the venue is comfortable (Kreuger, 2002). It is also
possible to conduct a virtual focus group using technology such as Zoom or Skype.
Preparation
Prior to the meeting:
• Send each participant a letter or email invitation.
• Phone or text as reminder prior to meeting.
• Ensure your recording device is working (batteries or charger if using mobile
phone). Always use two devices in case one does not work.
• Bring hand-outs or visual aids or prompts.
• Practice introduction without referring to notes.
• Prepare research information sheet, with consent and ethics forms.
Managing the Focus Group
• Set up device(s) for recording the interview prior to arrival of participants.
• Make name badges for participants
• Put chairs in a circle and number them.
• Welcome each respondent on arrival and direct them to their chairs.
• Open the session by introducing the study in an honest, firm general manner.
• Use a topic guide or semi-structured questionnaire with a list of questions.
• It is advisable to have an assistant who records who is sitting where, so that
when it comes to transcribing the interview, you will know who is saying what.
• The moderator should lay down the ground rules, such as:
a) Only one person to speak at a time
b) Ask respondents not to engage in side conversations because they are
distracting
Conducting a Focus Group
• Open the discussion with an icebreaker, thank people for attending and explain
the research to them.
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• Explain to the respondents why they were chosen.
• Provide the respondents with a research information sheet, consent and ethics
forms (and, if used a demographic survey) and ask them to sign the consent form
and return it to you. Explain their rights, they can withdraw their data up to x date.
The data is confidential and they will be anonymous.
• Tell the respondents how long they can expect to be there. ‘This discussion will
last for one hour …’
• Tell respondents that there are no right or wrong answers but you are looking for
a variety of information and all responses are valid.
• Ask respondents not to interrupt each other but to listen to each other in a
respectful manner.
• Ask respondents to kindly switch off mobile phones (Kreuger, 2000, p.3).
• Point out where the fire exits are.
• Explain where the bathrooms are and if people need to use the facilities to leave
the group quietly and return quietly (Kreuger, 2000, p. 3)
• As an ice-breaker, ask each person to say a few words about themselves, their
name and biographical information, if appropriate.
• Introduce a general question relating to a specific topic for discussion. This
should be followed by a relatively unstructured group discussion.
• Introduce new topics or different dimensions of topic as each topic is exhausted.
• Do not seek group consensus.
• Ensure the questions are open-ended questions.
• Try to encourage everyone to participate; draw out quieter people and try to
subdue dominant people.
• Show you are interested by appropriate body language. Avoid saying: “that’s
good” or “excellent” (Krueger, 2000, p. 2).
• Use probes, prompts and pauses. Probes include: “Would you explain further?”,
“Would you give an example?”, “I don’t understand” (Krueger, 2000, p. 2)
• Good questions to end the discussion with are: “If you had one minute to give
advice, what would you say?” or “Of all the things we discussed, what to you is
the most important?” Or “Have we missed anything?” (Kreuger and Casey, 2015,
p. 12).
• At the end of the discussion, summarise the main points and ask if there is
anything else people would like to add.
• When the discussion is completed, thank the respondents for their contribution to
the research.
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• Accompany the participants to the door, thanking them individually for their
contribution as they leave (Kreuger and Casey, 2015).
Advantages of Focus Group Research
• They are time efficient in that you can elicit data from say eight people at the
same time; eight in-depth interviews would take a much longer period of time.
• They are fairly inexpensive; the only cost is the venue and transport.
• The researcher’s role is less intrusive than in an individual interview, and it
requires little input other than asking questions.
• The data is rich and descriptive because of the variety of people involved, their
interactions with each other, and their responses to questions.
• They are considered a democratic method of gaining information because the
data is generated through the alternations of the people in the group.
• The group has more power in a focus group, compared to an individual
respondent in an interview.
Disadvantages of Focus Groups
• If moderator is not skilled, the discussion could veer away from the topic and
there is a risk of collecting data that is not relevant.
• The issue of power dynamics in the group must be managed by the moderator.
• One dominant person in the group could take over, who could be very persuasive
which may result in a false group consensus. In our student days, when we were
learning to conduct focus groups, we had a situation where two people started
fighting with each other.
• Like other types of qualitative research the findings are not representative.
• Group conditions might force people to hide their true opinions or they may wish
to please the moderator (Sarantakos, 2013).
• Shy or quiet people may be excluded.
• Some companies hire people to conduct focus groups. Respondents are paid to
participate in the group, with the result that the data that is generated is very
biased and unrepresentative.
The data from focus groups are transcribed and analysed in exactly the same manner as
other qualitative data. Focus groups may be used as a stand-alone method of data
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collection or they can be used in mixed methods research. In the following section, we
explore research which utilised focus groups as a data collection method.
Examples of Focus Groups in Educational Research
In this section, we provide two examples of Irish research in education which used focus
groups. In the first example, Kenny and McLaughlin (2004) conducted research that
examined the difficulties facing teachers and very young children in dealing with conflict
and diversity in Ireland, north and south of the border. Here is an excerpt from the
research which explains not only how they used focus groups but also uses prompts
(materials and pictures) to stimulate discussion and collect data (Kenny and McLaughlin,
2004):
Focused group sessions were conducted with the classes, led by the class teacher who discussed the process with the researcher and took the lead in deciding which of a possible range of diversity-related stimulus materials and activities would suit the class in question (this planning discussion was a rich ground for gathering insights relating to the project).
The researchers offered materials (picture collections) for use but the choice was the teacher’s: in many cases they opted for suitable items from their classroom resources.
These sessions started with the teacher engaging the children in a discussion of the selected stimulus material, usually a story or set of pictures illustrating diversity; this was followed by art work on the theme, and the session closed with a circle time discussion.
Topics covered in circle time included bullying, fighting and name calling (which names hurt most, and why, were revealing questions), helping others, feelings, being left out, disabilities, different people we know etc.
The teachers led these sessions while the researcher observed. Field notes were made during and after the sessions (Kenny and McLaughlin, 2004, p. 23).
The second example explores student teacher, Kara Burbage’s, research on
standardised assessment in the Irish primary school in particular in relation to children
with special education needs (SEN). Her research question was: “What are the benefits
and limitations of mandatory standardised assessment from teachers’ perspectives?”
She used a mixed methods approach with an online survey (n=28) and a focus group of
teachers including teachers who worked in a specific unit for children with SEN. The
survey was administered first, it had a range of open questions to analyse attitudes
towards standardised assessment as well as closed and multiple-choice questions in
order to inform the questions for the focus group. The focus group enabled her to get
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in-depth views of teachers’ perspectives. She concluded that there was a need for
change in assessment practices because the ‘one-size-fits-all’ approach does not work
as it does not cater for children with special education needs or children whose first
language is not English (Burbage, 2018).
Focus groups, interviews, and observations generate a voluminous amount of data. In
the next section, we will discuss the management and analysis of qualitative data.
Management and Analysis of Qualitative Data
Qualitative data require a careful management strategy; these data have derived from
field notes, in depth interviews or focus group interviews. Typically, qualitative research
involves collecting a lot of data which need to be organised and managed. Patton (2002,
p. 440) says:
The data generated by qualitative methods are voluminous. I have found no way of preparing students for the sheer mass of information they will find themselves confronted with when data collection has ended. Sitting down to make sense out of pages of interviews and whole files of field notes can be overwhelming. Organizing and analyzing a mountain of narrative can seem like an impossible task.
It is essential that data are recorded accurately, with dates, names, and pseudonyms.
We recommend keeping a special journal for recording all aspects of the research
because it will be an important source of information for writing up the methodology
chapter and ensuring the validity and transparency of your research. All interview data
should be stored in a separate folder on your computer. Qualitative data analysis begins
when the first interview is conducted and proceeds on a cyclical basis as each new
interview adds to the cycle of analysis. Analysis is inductive in that meaning and
relationships are derived inductively from the data. Data analysis involves a number of
steps: 1) immersion in the data or familiarising yourself with data, 2) generating
categories and themes, 3) coding the data. Marshall and Rossman (2006) summarise
the challenge of bringing order to a large amount of data:
The process of bringing order, structure, and interpretation to a mass of collected data is messy, ambiguous, time-consuming, creative, and fascinating. It does not proceed in a linear fashion; it is not neat (Marshall and Rossman, 2006, p. 154)
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Immersion in the Data
Immersion in and familiarity with the data is the first step in qualitative data analysis
(Marshall and Rossman, 2006). Digital recordings can be saved or downloaded on to the
computer or mobile phone and then listened to carefully, so that you hear and
understand exactly what your respondent is saying. Transcribing interviews is a long
laborious process which can take up to eight hours to transcribe a single interview. The
value of transcribing the interview is that you will become familiar with the data. There is
software available today that will transcribe the interview, but you will need to check that
it has transcribed it accurately. You may need to fill the gaps. When the interviews have
been transcribed or the observations have been written, they should be read and re-
read.
Generating Categories and Themes
The next step is to generate categories or themes. The questions which were initially
proposed will provide an initial framework for analysis. Inductive analysis is the process
of ‘discovering patterns, themes, and categories in one’s data’ (Patton, 2002). The
researcher may create analyst-constructed typologies; these are typologies that are not
necessarily used by respondents but are reflected in the themes and patterns which are
emerging from the data. As data may fit into more than one theme or category, some
researchers may utilise a matrix, however, Patton warns against trying to force data into
categories or using the matrix to lead the analysis.
As the researcher goes through the process of analysis, many textbooks recommend the
writing of analytic notes or memos. According to Marshall and Rossman (2006, p. 161):
Writing notes, reflective memos, thoughts, and insights is invaluable for generating the unusual insights that move the analysis from the mundane and obvious to the creative.
Writing, rewriting, thinking, making notes, studying the data are all part and parcel of
qualitative analysis. Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) also recommend that researchers
write analytic notes and memos:
While reading documents, making fieldnotes, or transcribing audiovisual materials, promising analytic ideas often arise. It is important to make notes of these, as they may prove useful in analysing the data. ... Equally important are the regular review and development of analytic ideas in the form of analytic memos. These are not fully developed working papers, but occasional written notes whereby progress is assessed, emergent ideas are
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identified, research strategy is sketched out, and so on. It is all too easy to let one’s fieldnotes and other types of data pile up day by day and week by week (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995, p. 191).
They point out that these notes may be appended to the field notes or interview data or
written in a research journal or diary. This journal will help the researcher ‘to retrace and
explicate the development of the research design, the emergence of analytic themes,
and the systematic collection of data’ (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995, p. 192).
According to Silverman (2005, p. 186),
... good data analysis is never just a matter of using the right methods or techniques but always is based on theorising about data using a consistent model of social reality. This commitment to theorising about data makes the best qualitative research far superior to the stilted empiricism of the worst kind of quantitative research.
The final stage is coding the data.
Data Reduction and Coding
The next stage is ‘data reduction’ – a process where data is selected, summarised,
coded and where patterns are seen in the data. Similar chunks of data are gathered in
themes or categories and a coding scheme is applied systematically to them (Miles and
Huberman, 1994, p. 9). The number categories or themes may be reduced by
subsuming similar ones into broader categories or clustering the data. Silverman (2005)
suggests that researchers should search for alterative understandings and use the
‘constant comparative Method’ or ‘deviant cases’ to look for differences in the data. Do
not exclude data that questions existing theory or that does not fit into your codes. The
new list of categories and sub-categories are worked through and repetitious or very
similar headings are amalgamated to produce a final list. The data in these themes or
categories are summarised and illustrative quotations are selected.
In our student days, we used a ‘cut and paste method’, we cut out all similar pieces of
information and labelled them and then stuck them together on one sheet of paper under
a code name. Even today, different colour highlighter pens can be used for different
codes. Or data can be colour coded on the computer if manual analysis of the data is
being undertaken. In a Microsoft Word document, interviews (or observations) can be
transcribed on one half of an A4 page (divide the page into two columns) and use the
other half for analyses, memos, interpretations or reflections (Miles and Huberman,
1994, p. 9). This is a straightforward technique. If carrying out a large-scale qualitative
study, a software package such as QSR NVivo can be utilised.
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The researcher may discover ‘indigenous typologies’ or emic perspectives (e.g. insider
perspectives) emic phrases or (phrases that the participants use) or etic phrases (labels
that the researcher uses):
Sorting and sifting through these materials to identify similar phrases, relationships between variables, patterns, themes, distinct differences between subgroups, and common sequences (Miles and Huberman, 1994, p.9)
It is important to be aware that coding is not the purely technical exercise it is with
quantitative data, new meanings and understandings may arise in qualitative data and
codes may change.
Qualitative data analysis is succinctly summarised by psychologists (Braun and Clarke,
2013) who define thematic analysis as a ‘method for identifying, analysing and reporting
patterns within data’ (Braun and Clarke, 2013, p. 174). They outline six phases of
thematic analysis used in qualitative research (Braun and Clarke, 2006).
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Table 19. Phases of thematic analysis (Braun and Clarke, 2006, p. 87):
Phase Description of the process
Familiarising with data Transcribing, reading and re-reading the data, noting down initial ideas.
Generating initial codes Coding interesting features of the data in a systematic fashion across the entire data set, collating data relevant to each code.
Searching for themes Gathering data and collating codes into potential themes. Reviewing themes Checking the themes in relation to the coded extracts, and the
entire data set, generating a ‘thematic map’ of the analysis. Defining and naming themes
Ongoing analysis to refine each theme and generate clear definitions and names for each theme.
Producing the report Selection of vivid, compelling text extracts relating the analysis to the research questions and literature producing a scholarly report.
When the thematic analysis is completed, the data can then be interpreted in light of
existing theories.
Interpreting the Data
The next step is to interpret the data and develop links to theory. This is succinctly
described by Patton (2002, p. 480):
Interpretation means attaching significance to what was found, making sense of the findings, offering explanations, drawing conclusions, extrapolating lessons, making inferences, considering meanings, and otherwise imposing order.
The researcher examines how existing literature and the initial theoretical framework can
illuminate or help to understand the data. This is an exciting process and this is where
you may discover an original insight that will bring new understanding to a phenomenon
or will contribute to the literature.
This is most easily explained using an example. Under the Irish National Drug Strategy,
the National Advisory Committee on Drug’s remit was to advise Government about ‘at
risk’ groups such as those engaging in illicit drug use and prostitution. Using a Topic
Guide and semi-structured questionnaires, interviews were conducted with 35
respondents who engaged in illicit drug use and sex work. One of the questions asked
respondents how they started taking drugs; this is a good example of ‘a deviant case’ or
constant comparative method of analysis, in that most were initiated into drug use
through peers, but some were not, they were introduced to drugs in the context of
romantic relationships with older persons.
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As in other research (Mayock, 2000; Parker, et al., 1988), the vast majority of interviewees were initiated into drug use through peers or friendship networks, whereby the availability and use of drugs within their social circles facilitated initiation. Participants rejected the notion of peer pressure; for example, Angela described how at 13 she and her friends ‘decided that we would all try’ heroin. Florence, in explaining her initiation into drug use, said, ‘… the crowd I got in with was doing it, and I wanted it, no more, no less, I wanted it, do you know what I mean?’ In many instances participants were first introduced to drugs within the context of an older peer social network and/or older siblings. Similar to other research, both male and female friends were instrumental in introducing the women interviewed to drug use (Taylor 1993). However, many of the women had older boyfriends; as Noreen, who first started smoking cannabis and drinking alcohol at 11, explained, ‘We started going out with older fellows. Well, actually that was always the way it was; the younger girls went out with the older fellows.’ (Cox and Whitaker, 2009, p. 71)
We advise students to examine other dissertations from their college. Some colleges
suggest that the data analysis chapter stands alone, with another chapter on data
interpretation. Other colleges suggest that the analysis and interpretation are presented
together in one chapter.
Using Electronic Software Packages to Analyse Qualitative Data
There is no doubt that new technology has changed the face of data analysis. Today
computer software packages such as QSR NVivo can assist with the management of
qualitative data analysis. These highly sophisticated systems allow the researcher to
manage the analysis of large data sets. For example, interviews were conducted with 75
children to discover how they took up smoking. It would have been very difficult to
analyse the data manually so instead Teresa Whitaker used Nu*dist a precursor to QSR
NVivo to manage data analysis (Hyde, Treacy, Whitaker, et al., 2000). Also, in the NACD
research on drug users engagement in prostitution, a total of 75 interviews were
conducted and the data analysed using QSR NVivo (Cox and Whitaker, 2009). Unlike
SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) software programmes cannot do the
thinking for the researcher, Marshall and Rossman (2006) note, that software is only a
tool to help with some of the mechanical and management aspects of the analysis. In the
research projects listed above, emerging themes were checked and double checked by
the research team until a final list of themes was agreed.
Ensuring the Robustness of Qualitative Research
How can we ensure that our research is robust, truthful, and trustworthy and will stand
up to scrutiny and not be written off as ‘anecdotal’? Qualitative research is often criticised
because it uses a small number of cases which have often been chosen through non-
probability sampling, suggesting that these small-scale studies are subjective and cannot
claim representativeness. Consequently, they cannot produce findings that are valid
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enough to support the development of a theory. Qualitative researchers argue that you
cannot judge qualitative research by the standards set out by quantitative research. In
quantitative research, issues such as objectivity, validity, reliability, and
representativeness are sacrosanct, but other criteria are used to ensure the robustness
or rigour of qualitative research.
Validity
Validity is simply another word for veracity or truth. Hammersley (1990, p. 57, cited in
Silverman, 2005, p. 212). ‘By validity, I mean truth: interpreted as the extent to which an
account accurately represents the social phenomena to which it refers’. Miles and
Huberman (1994) reviewed 26 tactics to evaluate whether the findings from qualitative
research are good:
That term [good] has many possible definitions: possibly or probably true, reliable, valid, dependable, reasonable, confirmable, credible, useful, compelling, significant (add others of choice) (Miles and Huberman, 1994, p. 277)
We draw on a summary of these issues here, as well as those from Silverman (2005, p.
212), who suggests that validity can be enhanced by the use of five interrelated ways of
thinking: the refutability principle, the constant comparative method, comprehensive data
treatment, deviant-case analysis and using appropriate tabulations.
Table 20. Criteria for Ensuring the Validity of Qualitative Research
The Refutability
Principle
The refutability principle suggests that qualitative researchers should ‘seek to refute their initial assumptions about their data in order to achieve objectivity’ (Silverman, 2005, p. 212). They must overcome the temptation to jump to conclusions just because there is some evidence leading them in an interesting direction. They must subject the evidence to every possible test.
The Constant Comparative Method
The constant comparative method means that the researcher should always look for another piece of data through which to test out hunches or hypotheses. Start analysing your data as soon as you have transcribed the first interview. Generate a set of categories or themes from it. Then with each new interview you analyse, compare whether your data fits into the existing themes or refutes it (Silverman, 2005).
Comprehensive Data
Treatment
Comprehensive data treatment means thoroughly inspecting all the data repeatedly in a comprehensive manner ensuring that all data are relevant and none are wasted (Silverman, 2005).
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Deviant-case Analysis
Deviant-case analysis means checking your data for variation, deviant cases or anomalies. This strengthens the validity of the research (Silverman, 2005, pp. 215-216).
Extrapolation A key feature of quantitative research and surveys is whether the findings can be generalised to a population but this is usually not possible with qualitative research, therefore, Silverman suggests that instead qualitative research should think about to what extent researchers can extrapolate from their findings … ‘extrapolation better captures the typical procedure in qualitative research’ (Silverman, 2005, p. 136, cited in Alasuutari, pp.156-157).
Reliability/Dependability
Auditability
This is based on whether the ‘process of the research is consistent, reasonably stable over time and across researchers and issues’. (Miles and Huberman, 1994, p. 278)
Internal Validity
Credibility
Authenticity
Based on whether the findings are authentic, make sense, are credible to the people who were studied and readers. (Miles and Huberman, 1994, p. 278)
External Validity
Transparency
Fittingness
Is the method transparent? Has the researcher explained how they chose the research design, research instruments and the parameters of the research? Are the findings transferable to other contexts? (Miles and Huberman, 1994, p. 279)
Utilization
Application
Action Orientation
What does the study do for respondents? If it is research that was conducted for evaluation or policy; what actions will lead from it?
Credibility
The research reflects methodological excellence and the study was conducted in a manner that it credible or believable, is professional, accurate, systematic and transparent (Lincoln and Guba, 1985)
Transferability
We need to know whether the findings of a study have a larger impact. Do they “fit”, how far can they be generalized”? (Miles and Huberman, 1994, p. 279). Although the findings of qualitative research are usually not generalisable, they may be transferable. Transferability suggests that the findings or some of the findings of the study will be useful to other researchers who are studying similar situations (Lincoln and Guba, 1985)
Dependability
How dependable is the research? This is where design flexibility comes in, the researcher may have to change the design of the study as the social world changes and as their understanding of the research setting becomes deeper (Lincoln and Guba, 1985)
Confirmability
‘The meanings emerging from the data have to be tested for plausibility, their sturdiness, their “confirmability” – that is their validity. Otherwise we are left with stories about what happened, of unknown truth and utility (Miles and Huberman, 1994, p. 11)
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These criteria simply aid the researcher in examining the robustness of research. It is not
essential to include all these criteria but students should reflect on the robustness or
trustworthiness of their research.
Can you Quantify Qualitative Data?
Generally speaking, qualitative researchers do not quantify or count responses,
however, in some situations counting may be appropriate. Silverman (2005, p. 220)
provides an example of how he counted responses to a study on how often the word
‘well’ was used in a clinic. Two types of patients were being seen: one group had Down
syndrome and the other didn’t. When he tabulated the results he discovered that the
word ‘well’ and the absence of reference to ‘wellness’ proved to be critical in
understanding the clinical consultation. These words were used far less often when
discussing issues with the parents of children who have Down Syndrome (Silverman,
2005). This tabulation was within the interpretative tradition and was within the context of
a qualitative study.
Criteria for Good Quality Qualitative Research
Marshall and Rossman (2015, p. 266) provide the following criteria for good quality
qualitative research:
• The design and methods are made explicit so the reader can judge whether they
are adequate and make sense.
• The rationale for using qualitative methodology and methods is clearly stated.
• A pilot study is conducted.
• Gaining entry to the field and managing role as researcher, data collection
methods, recording the data and exit from the field are made visible.
• Choice of sample is clearly stated.
• Data collection and analysis procedures are made explicit.
• Researcher states prior assumptions and biases that may affect the study and
engages in self-reflection.
• Ethical standards are maintained.
• Researcher remains reflexive and takes into account oppressive power structures
and inequalities in society.
• People in research setting will benefit from the research.
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• Researcher keeps an audit trail so that procedures, protocols, and decisions are
available for scrutiny (Marshall and Rossman, 2015)
Keeping a critical reflective journal can enhance the trustworthiness of research.
Critical Reflective Journal
Writing a critical reflective journal is a key aspect of undertaking qualitative research.
Reflective practice has been central to good practice in academic disciplines such as
teaching (Del Carlo, Hinkhouse and Isbell, 2010) and nursing (Jasper, 2005; Dubé and
Ducharme, 2015) and is now prescribed for those lecturing/teaching in third level
education (National Forum for the Enhancement of Teaching and Learning,
2016)(Whitaker, 2017a). Reflective practice is also central to being a good qualitative
researcher (Del Carlo et al., 2010, Ortlipp, 2008). As undergraduates, we were
encouraged to keep diaries where we recorded each aspect of the research process.
The following research illustrates the benefits of keeping a critical reflective
Ortlipp (2008) draws on her use of critical reflective journals during the research process
to highlight how reflective journals can assist the researcher enacting changes to
research design, increase transparency, and trustworthiness by making the unconscious
conscious and by creating an audit trail. She maintained two different journals: one for
the four years prior to doing a doctorate, and another written during her doctorate (two
and a half years). Her research focused on how supervisors understand and practise
assessment of the practical aspect of the programme for student teachers enrolled in
early childhood education courses in colleges in Australia. She reflected on how
researchers bring their own “baggage” to research (Ortlipp, 2008, p. 696). She was fully
aware of her own biases and prejudices as a practicum supervisor and the fact that she
was unhappy with a recently developed competency-based assessment because she
believed it was inadequate and industry driven. Writing a critical reflective journal allowed
her to make changes to the research design by helping her to clarify her research aims:
It became my practice to integrate theoretical material from my reading and to use my research journal as a place for “writing as a method of inquiry” (Richardson, 1994, p. 516). It was through written reflections in my journal that I clarified my research aims and approach where I asked, explored, and answered ontological, epistemological, and methodological questions about what I could know, my relationship to what could be known, and how I might come to know it (Guba & Lincoln, 1994). I wrote in order to learn and to understand issues around methodology so that I could settle on a way of conducting my research and justify my decisions. I began to see the relevance and suitability of this reflective writing process for the way I was conceptualising my study and enacting my research as an individual with
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particular personal experiences, desires, and ways of looking at the world. Reflective journal writing enabled me to articulate my ideas about conceptual frameworks for analysis of the data and led me eventually to reject an interpretivist constructivist framework (Ortlipp, 2008, p. 700).
Ortlipp (2008) reflected on the fact that all her research participants were women and
that she was not a neutral observer because she was also an assessor. These
reflections led her to an ‘interpretative crisis’ and to change her research proposal and
research design from an interpretivist to a feminist one. The growth of critical, feminist
and post-structural research exhorts researchers to make every aspect of the research
transparent, by acknowledging values, choices, assumptions, experiences, difficulties,
history and the ‘messiness’ of research (Ortlipp, 2008). Therefore, she incorporated
strategies to achieve reciprocity such as personal disclosures in interviews, and giving
interview data and analysis back to respondents via email communications so that they
could comment. Her research empowered them and encouraged changes in their
practices (a process called praxis). Ortlipp (2008) argues that it is only when we write
down our thoughts, feelings, and desires that they become visible and conscious, so a
reflective critical journal can make the unconscious conscious.
Reflexivity
In recent years, the term reflexivity has grown to prominence and is considered an
essential feature of qualitative research (Bondi, 2009, p. 328). Reflexivity has many
meanings within the research context, for example, Hammersley and Atkinson (1996)
emphasise two aspects of reflexivity: the background of the researcher (race, class, and
gender are critical for understanding experience) and the researcher’s effect on the
production of knowledge. In the past, research has often silenced or rendered invisible
oppressed and marginalised people. Reflexivity means taking on board unequal power
relationships in society and to consider the power relationship that exists between the
researcher and the researched:
... reflexivity calls upon researchers to reflect on their research relationships. In so doing, it aims to ensure that due consideration is given to the impact of unequal social relations, whether of gender, race, class, age or disability, and to the risks of reproducing relations of exploitation or disempowerment within the research. Importantly, reflexivity is more than reflection (Bondi, 2009).
There is also a reflexive process involved in the interpretation of data:
a process of thought and review which involves researchers in questioning their understanding and interpretation of their data and the extent to which
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their own beliefs and values may have influenced that understanding. (Bell and Opie, 2002)
It is very important that we are true to our respondents because it is very easy to let
existing theories and assumptions blind us to the reality of the field. Using Marshal and
Rossman’s (2006, p. 5) assertion that we must examine how we represent the
participants or the ‘Other’ in our work and that we should examine the,
complex interplay of our own personal biography, power and status, interactions with participants and the written word, we are less likely to make mistakes in interpreting the data.
Marshal and Rossman (2006) suggest that researchers should be vigilant about the
dynamics of politics and ethics in research.
Reflexivity and Research on Children
Conducting research with children can bring many challenges. Teachers in their
everyday role are very used to communicating with children, but can their role as
teachers impact on their role as researcher? You may or may not agree with Greig and
Taylor (1999) when they suggest that doing research with children requires a different
and distinct set of skills:
The techniques which are required to gather data, the ethical considerations and the underpinning theories are different from those involved in researching with adult subjects. Children perceive and understand the world in a different way from adults and whilst the researcher cannot, for very obvious reasons, see the world from the child’s perspective, acknowledging that their worlds are different is a sound starting point (Greig and Taylor, 1999, p. 24)
Bianchi and Robinson (1997, p. 336) also acknowledge that studies of children raise
special issues, particularly because of the unknown abilities of children to report on their
own behaviour and because children’s activities tend to be different from those of the
larger adult population (Bianchi and Robinson, 1997). These issues are being raised so
that if you intend to carry out research with children you must take ethics and reflexivity
into consideration and consider your role as teacher/researcher vis a vis a child.
Consider asking yourself the following questions:
• What power issues are inherent in relationships between teachers and pupils?
• When setting up a research study, how can we factor in power relationships in
the design?
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• Can teachers abuse their positions of power viz carrying out research with
children?
• Are there power issues between the principals and teachers in a school?
• Are there power issues between governmental departmental guidelines and the
implementation of policies in schools?
In sum, qualitative researchers assess the merit or trustworthiness of their research
using criteria such as truth claims (validity), credibility, transferability, dependability, and
confirmability. They acknowledge that their research is subjective so they include a
discussion of reflexivity and reflection. They conduct a pilot interview, ensure their
methods are transparent and visible by leaving an audit trail and are careful to make
sure that each aspect of the research is ethical and will benefit participants. It is not
necessary for students to use all these terms when reflecting on the trustworthiness of
their research, but it is important that students understand and reflect on the truth claims
of their research.
Conclusion
In conclusion, we have examined all aspects of qualitative methodology and methods of
data collection in this chapter including observations, in-depth interviews, and focus
group interviews. We have discussed how to design a research instrument, conduct an
individual or group interview and analyse the data. We have interrogated the role of
theory in qualitative methodology and provided examples of small- and large-scale
studies.
At the moment, there are many narratives or stories dominating the news headlines,
such as Covid-19, Brexit and the American presidential election. In the next chapter, we
explore narrative inquiry or the use of stories in qualitative research.
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Key Messages
• Qualitative methodology originated from an interpretivist paradigm which seeks to
explore, describe and understand people’s meanings.
• Qualitative methods of data gathering include observations, in-depth interviews,
and focus groups.
• Observations involve writing detailed, descriptive fieldnotes.
• In qualitative research, the research instrument can be a Topic Guide, an
Interview Schedule, or a structured, semi-structured or unstructured
questionnaire. The interviewer also acts as a research instrument, in that it is
their ability to listen and to ask follow up questions that will produce rich data.
• Questions are open-ended to elicit elaborate responses.
• The focus group interview consists of gathering a group of people together to
discuss a topic of interest. It is considered a democratic method of data gathering
because it relies on the alternation of responses between the group.
• Thematic analysis is the most straightforward way of analysing qualitative data.
• Data is interpreted in light of theory.
• The criteria for judging the quality of qualitative research include: benefits to
participants, truth claims, transparency by keeping an audit trail in a critically
reflect journal, conducting a pilot study, ensuring reflexivity, credibility, and
transferability.
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Exercises
Participant Observation: Paul Willis used participant observation and wrote up his
research Learning to Labour. This study is teased out in the following YouTube
presentation: Sociology, Unit 2, Education & Methods, Subcultures.wmv
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TWRO5Q_c39c&feature=related
Professor Mike (no surname given) discusses on sociological non-participant observation:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jjaQNid3r6U
Graham R Gibbs: How to conduct an-depth interview using Steinar Kvale’s 10
criteria.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9t-_hYjAKww
Software for analysing qualitative data: Watch the You Tube video below to see one
example of a software package for analysing qualitative data.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q3zDJKvAuhc&feature=related
QSR NVivo also allows people to download a free trial, which lasts a month. There is a
very good tutorial included on how to use the package. Free Trial QSR NVivo
http://www.qsrinternational.com/products_free-trial-software.aspx
Focus Groups
Krueger and Casey (2015) have produced an excellent set of notes on Focus Group
Interviewing and provide a range of Youtube videos: Moderating Focus Groups,
Developing Questions for a Focus Group, Recruiting Participants for a Focus Group,
Analysis of the Focus Group Interview, and Demonstration Focus Group.
https://richardakrueger.com/focus-group-interviewing/
Copyright: Nu*dist a precursor to QSR NVivo
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Chapter 8. Narrative Research
Introduction
As a research methodology, narrative research or narrative inquiry has gained legitimacy
and currency in the past few decades. It is cross-disciplinary, international, and evident
in most academic fields, such as, anthropology, case studies, communications,
counselling, criminology, education, evaluation studies, health, human development,
feminist research, folklore, history, life histories, literary studies, library studies,
longitudinal studies, medicine, psychology, psychotherapy, sexualities, social work,
sociolinguistics, and sociology. It has been embraced by most professions (teaching,
law, medicine, nursing, education, occupational therapy, social work) (Riessman, 2008).
Narrative research focuses on the stories and experiences of individuals and/or groups.
We use the terms “narrative research” and “narrative inquiry” synonymously. Narrative
research method differs from other qualitative research methods, not only in the collection
of data, but also in the ways in which data are analysed. In this chapter, we will look at
definitions, the history of narrative research, research paradigms, methodology, methods,
and analysis. We provide examples of the use of narrative research.
Learning Outcomes
On successful completion of the chapter, the student will be able to:
• Describe and discuss narrative research method
• Reflect on the history of and paradigms underpinning narrative research
• Design a narrative research study
• Have acquired the skills to conduct a narrative interview
• Have acquired the skills to analyse narrative research data
Defining Narrative
In this section, we will tease out the various ways in which narrative, narrative inquiry,
and narrative research are described and defined. There is no simple definition of
narrative (Bruce et al., 2016; Andrews et al., 2008; Gilbert, 2008; Riessman, 2008). The
etymology of the word “narrative” can be traced to the Indo-European word ‘gna’, which
means to know and to tell and how the knowing translates into telling (Elliott, 2007, cited
in Hinchman and Hinchman, 1997 and White, 1987). In the history of the human race,
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narratives are universal and can be found in prehistoric remains such as Stonehenge,
the Giza Pyramids, and the Passage Graves in New Grange; all tell stories of how early
humans viewed the world. Narratives are evident in all aspects of life, such as in myths
and fable, cinema, comics, fiction, stained glass windows, memoir, biography,
autobiography, diaries, archival documents, ballads, and works of art (Riessman, 2008).
The narrative form can be traced to Aristotle’s examination of the Greek tragedy, which
has a beginning, a middle, and an end. The plot which imitates real life (mimesis) follows
a logical sequence. It often has a moral basis and evokes feelings of emotions, love,
fear, and dread (Riessman, 2008).
Narrative Inquiry/Research
In social research, narrative inquiry focuses on the stories that people tell the researcher
(O’Toole, 2018; Bruce et al., 2016; Gilbert, 2008, Riesman, 2008; Hinchman and
Hinchman, 1997). The term “narrative inquiry” was first used in educational research in
1990 and is defined as:
Arguments for the development and use of narrative inquiry come out of a view of human experience in which humans, individually and socially, lead storied lives. People shape their daily lives by stories of who they and others are and as they interpret their past in terms of these stories. Story, in the current idiom, is a portal through which a person enters the world and by which their experience of the world is interpreted and made meaningful. Viewed this way, narrative is the phenomenon studied in inquiry. Narrative inquiry, the study of experience as story, then, is first and foremost a way of thinking about experience. Narrative inquiry as a methodology entails a view of the phenomenon. To use narrative inquiry as a methodology entails a view of the phenomenon. To use narrative inquiry methodology is to adopt a particular narrative view of experience as phenomena under study (Connelly and Clandinin, 2006, cited in Clandinin et al., 2007, p. 22)
O’Toole (2018, p. 17) succinctly summarises narrative inquiry as follows:
Within the social sciences narrative inquiry is conceived of as both a philosophical/theoretical approach that orients the researcher to ‘storied lives’, and as a methodological strategy that focuses on the use of stories as data.
The research method can be described as narrative [inquiry] when data collection,
interpretation, and writing are considered a ‘meaning-making’ process with similar
characteristics to stories (Bell, 2005, p. 21, cited in Gudmunsdottir, 1996, p. 295).
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Langellier and Petersen (2011, p. 8) suggest that storytelling is a common way for people
to make sense of their experiences, claim identities, and ‘get a life’. According to Riessman
(2008), storytelling is both sequential and consequential:
… in oral storytelling, a speaker connects events into a sequence that is consequential for later action and for the meanings that the speakers want listeners to take away from the story (Riessman, 2008, p. 3).
Narrative research (Gilbert, 2008) is underpinned by three interconnected matters:
…the social production of accounts; some of the work performed by the use of stories or narratives; and finally, the narrative-qualities that are present in personal accounts of life (Gilbert, 2008, p. 423).
Riessman (2008) suggests that individual narratives and group narrative differ, in that
individual narratives may be used to ‘remember, argue, justify, persuade, engage,
entertain, and even mislead an audience’, whereas group narratives may be political and
involve power plays and may be used to mobilise others or ‘foster a sense of belonging’
(Riessman, 2008, pp. 8-10).
Place, Time, Social Situation, Biography
Narrative research exhibits certain facets such as place, time, social situation, biography,
and experience. O’Toole (2018) suggests that narrative inquiry is a specific type of
qualitative inquiry that draws from the work of sociologist C. Wright Mills’ (1916-1962)
famous trilogy – ‘biography, history and society’ (Chase, 2011, p. 421, cited in O’Toole,
2018). Similarly, Clandinin et al. (2007) suggest that there are three ‘commonplaces’ or
dimensions of narrative inquiry: 1) temporality, 2) sociality, and 3) place.
1) In terms of temporality, people’s narratives have a past, present and
future.
2) Sociality has two dimensions, the importance of context, and the
relationship between the inquirer and the respondent.
3) The location or where the actual inquiry takes place is important
(Clandinin, Pushor and Orr, 2007).
Clandinin and Connelly (2000) argue that narrative research is the best way of
understanding and representing an experience which is temporal; experiences taken
collectively are temporal (for example, our experience of the pandemic). John Dewey’s
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work on the nature of experience informs the use of narrative in educational research
(Dewey, 1938):
For Dewey, experience is both personal and social. Both the personal and social are always present. People are individuals and need to be understood as such, but they cannot be understood only as individuals. They are always in relation, always in a social context (Clandinin and Connelly, 2000, p. 2).
For example, the term experience helps us to understand how children learn in
interaction with other children, with a teacher, in a classroom, in a community and
society. One criterion of experience is continuity, namely, the idea that experiences grow
out of other experiences, and experiences lead to further experiences (Dewey 1938).
The researcher is concerned, not only with experience in the here and now, but also life,
as it is experienced on a continuum (people’s lives, institutional lives, and lives of things)
(Clandinin and Connolly, 2000).
Squire et al. (2008) describe the usefulness of narrative research:
…we frame our research in terms of narrative because we believe that by doing so we are able to see different and sometimes contradictory layers of meaning, to bring them into useful dialogue with each other, and to understand more about individual and social change. By focusing on narrative, we are able to investigate not just how stories are structured and the ways in which they work, but also who produces them and by what means; the mechanisms by which they are consumed; how narratives are silenced, contested or accepted and what, if any, effects they have. For many of us, problematic as they are, narratives carry traces of human lives that we want to understand. All these areas of enquiry can help us describe, understand and even explain important aspects of the world. (Squire, Andrews, Tamboukou, 2008, p. 1 cited in (Squire, Andrews and Tamboukou, 2008)
As a research methodology, narrative research is evolving (Bruce et al., 2016).
Narrative Research Paradigms
The seeds of narrative research can be found in post second world war anti-positivist
approaches to research and the rise of humanist approaches in sociology and
psychology which championed holistic person-centred approaches, case studies,
biographies and life histories (Andrews, Squire and Tamboukou, 2008). Others locate its
beginnings in the Chicago School of Sociology (1892-1945), where researchers collected
life histories and documents to examine experiences of groups such immigrants (see
discussion of ethnography in Chapter 7). Around the same time, anthropologists began
to adapt life history methods to study communities during cultural change, and this
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tradition persisted into the 1960s. Langellier and Petersen (2008, p. 14) locate the
origins of narrative research in the 1960s and the gradual shift away from realism:
Four movements can be identified at this time: (1) critiques in social science of positivist modes of inquiry , and their realist epistemology (2) the “memoir boom” in literature and popular culture; (3) the new “identity movements” - emancipation efforts of people of color, women, gays and lesbians, and other marginalized groups; and (4) the burgeoning therapeutic culture - exploration of personal life in therapies of various kinds (Langellier and Petersen, 2008, p. 14).
Narrative research also had its genesis in the work of C. Wright Mills who encouraged
social researchers to engage their sociological imagination by examining history,
biography, and the relationship between them in society (Mills, 1959).
Predecessors to narrative research are found in French poststructuralism,
postmodernism, and psychoanalysis (Andrews et al., 2008). The rise of feminist theory in
the 1980s saw narrative research become interdisciplinary (Langellier and Petersen,
2008). Clandinin and Connolly were the first to use the term narrative inquiry in
educational research in the 1990s. Scott and Marshall (2009) suggest that social science
took a ‘narrative turn’. Five types of narrative can be found in sociology: everyday life
narratives, autobiographical and biographical narratives and cultural and collective
narratives (Scott and Marshall, 2009). The narrative turn ‘expresses a shift toward
legitimizing peoples’ stories as important sources of empirical knowledge’ (Bruce et al.,
2016, p. 1, cited in Hyvarinen, 2010).
In the social sciences, the main paradigms which underpin narrative research are
interpretivism and critical theory: post-modernism and feminist methodology (see
Chapter 2 for a deeper explanation of these theories). Interpretivism has many aspects
including: symbolic interactionism, constructivism, social constructionism, and
phenomenology. Symbolic interactionism posits the belief that the self is created in
interaction with the other and societies are not fixed and objective structures but rather,
are made up of fluid and flexible networks of interaction within which we act (Blumer,
1969). Fulcher and Scott (2011) define symbolic interactionism as follows:
Symbolic Interactionism … centres on the idea that people act on the basis of their definition of the situation and that social reality is nothing other than the social constructions built up in interaction (Fulcher and Scott, 2011, p. 835)
Social constructivism is an interpretive framework whereby individuals seek to
understand their world and develop their own particular meanings that correspond to
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their experience (Creswell, 2013). In psychology, social constructivism is attributed to
Lev Vygotsky who believed that knowledge is co-constructed; human learning and
development occur in socially, culturally and historically shaped contexts in which people
have participated and learn from one another (Vygotsky, 1934). These changing
contexts shape human consciousness. Vygotsky was critical of research that considered
individuals in isolation. Phenomenology places an emphasis on the ‘lived experience’
and was influenced by the work of Edmund Husserl and Alfred Schutz (see Chapter 2).
In sum, narrative inquiry is underpinned by a (radical) interpretivist epistemology, post-
modernism, and feminist research methodology, which focus on how individuals
construct and narrate stories with meanings. Riessman (2008) highlights the importance
of human agency in narrative accounts and cases.
Conducting Narrative Research
Narrative research methodology is a rigorous, systematic method that uses qualitative
methodology and methods of data gathering. It often focuses on the experiences of those
who are marginalised or oppressed (Marshall and Rossman, 2006) or those whose
voices have been silenced (Wang, 2017). Developing a research study using narrative
research follows the same steps as other research methods. Later in the chapter, we
provide a step-by-step guide to narrative research conducted by McDevitt and Fitzpatrick
(2020). There are some subtle differences between interviews in narrative research and
interviews in qualitative research. In terms of technique, the narrative interview is the
most ‘highly developed’ interview (Sarantakos, 2013, cited in Maindok, 1996):
• Trust: The role of the researcher is to build trust and to get close to the
respondent in order to establish a relaxed situation that allows for storytelling in
all its forms, in that way it is more like a guided conversation where both
interviewer and interviewee are aware that one story can lead to another (Mishler,
1995). Mishler (1995) suggests that narrative interviewing has more in common
with ethnography, in that the goal is to generate detailed accounts. The
interaction between the researcher and the interviewee is highlighted because the
researcher can influence the interviewee in telling their story (Gilbert, 2008, p.
428).
• Open-ended questions: Similar to in-depth interviews in qualitative research,
questions in the narrative interview are open ended to invite elaborate accounts
because the researcher is trying to learn about the respondent’s interior life and
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their personal experiences. The interviewee has ‘full freedom of expression
without limits posed by questions’ (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 290).
• Intense listening: The researcher needs to engage in active and intense listening
and takes on the role of an equal partner in the research (Marshall and Rossman,
2006) or a co-constructor (Bruce et al., 2016). The aim of the interviews is to find
out the respondent’s perspective on events and the connection between one
event and another (Cohen, Manion and Morrison, 2007).
• Follow up questions: Just like the in-depth interview in mainstream qualitative
research, follow up questions are used; for example, in Riessman’s (2004) study
of divorce, she posed questions such as ‘Can you remember a time when …?’,
followed by ‘What happened that makes you remember that particular moment in
your marriage?’ (Bryman, 2012, p. 582, cited in Riessman, 2004).
• Conduct more than one interview with the same person: Another distinguishing
difference is that researchers may conduct more than one interview with the
same research participant to get a deep understanding of the issue. If the
research topic involves oral history or life-story interviews, it could involve several
sessions with the same respondent, over several weeks or even years
(longitudinal research). These interviews may take more time than other types of
in-depth interviews. Wengraf (2001) describes the biographic narrative
interpretive method in which three separate interviews are conducted with the
same respondent (using different formats and purposes). In the first interview, the
respondent is encouraged to tell the story of his or her life. In the second
interview, the respondent is asked to narrate more about parts of their life
discussed in the first interview and encouraged to tell further stories. On both
occasions, the researcher is concerned to minimise their influence on how the
narrative is told. In the final interview, the researcher takes the lead and asks
prepared questions based on the emerging analysis. During the act of narration,
the interviews record the most significant events and experiences in the
respondents’ lives and reveal their emotions, values, and beliefs (Wengraf, 2001,
p. 145).
Ethics in Narrative Research
Ethics play an important role when research deals with peoples’ experiences, feelings,
and interior lives. We have already discussed ethics in chapter three but there are
specific issues related to narrative research. In narrative research, it is imperative to
respect the individual’s privacy because, as a researcher, you will get close to your
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respondents and they may disclose intimate details of their lives. When discussing
memories, a respondent could become distressed when a past trauma is revisited. The
researcher should remain with the respondent until they feel better or suggest that the
respondent may wish to contact an organisation such as the Samaritans, who offer free
telephone counselling.
Research design is flexible in narrative research and during the course of the research
the design may change, thus necessitating the need to apply for ethical approval again.
Bruce et al. (2016) question the rigidity of ethics forms, which ask for predetermined
research designs that do not allow for emergent designs and changes to the original
design. In their longitudinal research, participants were asked to choose symbols that
represented their experience of living with a serious disease. Subsequently, the
researchers decided to video a sample of the respondents who asked that their identities
be revealed on the website about the research. This necessitated further approval from
an ethics board. They suggest that research ethics boards, who ask that forms be
resubmitted when the design changes, pose barriers to timely data collection and
analysis:
Care must be taken so that the discourses of risk and control which are the purview of institutions do not inadvertently threaten the quality of research and knowledge generated. Bruce et al. (2016, p. 5)
Ensuring the Robustness of Narrative Research
Similar to qualitative research, narrative research can be criticised because it uses a
small number of cases which may have been selected through non-probability
sampling. In the positivist tradition, the robustness of research can be determined by
concepts such as validity, reliability, and generalisability. However, these concepts
can prevent ‘other ways of knowing’ and multiple truths (Wang, 2017). In narrative
research, validity refers to the truth claims of our research and to how our research
answers the research question; what questions or topic were addressed and what
type of truths or insights we were hoping to gain from the interview (Kvale, 1996). In
quantitative research, reliability refers to the ‘consistency across repeated
investigations, in different circumstances and with different investigators’ (Holstein
and Gubrium, 1995, pp. 9-10). In narrative research, it cannot be expected that
answers on one occasion will replicate those on another because they emerge from
different circumstances of production. Rather than a weakness, this is considered as
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one of the strengths of narrative inquiry. Narrative inquiry seeks to understand the
lived experiences and perspectives of the respondent with all their complexities.
Like other forms of qualitative research, it is important for the researcher to be aware of
his or her position or bias regarding the research topic. Reflexivity is the process of
continual reflection upon the research process by a researcher, at the heart of reflexivity
is the idea of self-awareness (Etherington, 2009). We are part of the world we are
studying and our position as a researcher impacts on the data we collect:
One of the strong tenets of narrative inquiry is that we are not merely objective inquirers who study a world we did not help create. On the contrary, we are complicit in the world we study: ‘Being in this world, we need to remake ourselves as well as offer up research understandings that could lead to a better world’ (Clandinin and Connelly, 2000, p. 61).
Our personal biography (age, class, gender, ethnicity) can have a powerful influence on
the data we gather. Researchers also need to consider the issue of power in research.
Reflexivity is concerned with how we depict “the other” in our research, (for a full
description of reflexivity, please see Chapter 7).
Narrative Analysis
There is a multitude of different techniques, approaches, and typologies under the broad
umbrella of narrative analysis (Riessman, 2008):
o Thematic Narrative Analysis,
o Structural Analysis,
o Dialogic/Performance Analysis,
o Visual Analysis,
o Conversational Analysis, Discourse Analysis, and Critical Discourse Analysis
o Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
We provide examples from research to illustrate how data were analysed.
Thematic Analysis
Thematic analysis is the most suitable type of analysis for first time researchers doing
narrative research. It places an emphasis on the content of the text, the ‘what’ is
concentrated on more than ‘how’ it is said - it is the told rather than the telling. We have
discussed thematic analysis in Chapter 7. Data analysis involves immersing yourself in
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the data and interrogating it for recurring themes and sub-themes, which are coded,
collated, summarised, and interpreted. Analysis is inductive, and themes emerge from
the data. According to Bryman, ‘…your findings acquire significance in our intellectual
community only when you have reflected on, interpreted and theorized your data’
(Bryman, 2012, p. 578).
Williams (1984) conducted semi-structured interviews with thirty people who were
diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). His central concepts were ‘narrative
reconstruction’ and ‘genesis’ (Williams, 1997, p. 186). He wished to understand how and
why people come to see the origins of their illness and how they cope with the inevitable
disruption in their lives. He asked participants the question: “Why do you think you got
rheumatoid arthritis?” He used thematic analysis to construct three case studies to
illustrate the process of making sense of the origin of RA. The onset of a chronic illness
necessitates a process of “cognitive re-organisation” and meaning making. The three
cases illustrate noticeable variations in individual’s interpretation of the genesis of the
same disease (Williams, 1997). In the first case, “Bill” blamed his rheumatoid arthritis on
his workplace experience; contrary to medical evidence, Bill still insisted on his
workplace toxicity. In the second case, the woman’s model for the genesis of her illness
was ‘the stress of womanhood’. In the third case, RA was caused because of the
inevitability of illness in society. Williams analysed the narratives and unpacked the
metaphors exploring their functions. He used themes of the language used and also the
cultural contexts encompassing each of the narratives. Through their stories, individuals
revealed different attempts ‘to establish points of reference between body, self and
society and to reconstruct a sense of order from the fragmentation produced by chronic
illness’ (Williams, 1997, p. 187).
Using in-depth interviews and focus groups, Wang’s (2017) research focused on the
experiences and perspectives of Chinese students studying nursing in Australian
universities. She drew on Dewey’s theories and Clandinin and Connelly’s framework of
personal and social (interaction): past, present, and future (continuity); and place
(situation). Having conducted a thematic analysis on the interview, she went further and
conducted narrative representations. She joined the themes by representing them in the
style of narratives/stories (p. 49). She then collaborated with respondents by sending
them drafts for ‘verification and feedback’ and collaborated with them on the meaning of
the stories. Based on feedback, the stories were then revised and ‘re-storied’:
In the process of telling and retelling stories, in the metaphorical three-dimensional inquiry space of narrative inquiry, my participants and I moved
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backward and forward, inward and outward through time, from the personal to the social, shifting situation and place. Within this three-dimensional inquiry space, as the contents of our stories were women alongside each other, continuity and resonance shaped our knowledge and understanding of our experiences (Wang, 2017, p. 49)
Structural Analysis
Structural analysis focuses on how the narrative was performed, and how the narratives
are organised (Riessman, 2008). The narrator describes a sequence of events that
happened which had a significant effect on them. Attention shifts from the ‘told’ to the
‘telling’ and from the narrator’s experience to the narrative itself. Riessman (2008)
suggests that, like thematic analysis, structural approaches are concerned with the
content of the narrative, but adds insights beyond what can be learned from referential
meanings alone:
It can generate insights that are missed when interpretation concentrates narrowly on “what” is said, ignoring how content is organized by a speaker ... Structural narrative analysis is not suitable for large samples, but can be very useful for detailed case studies and comparisons across a few cases. Micro-analysis of several narratives can build theories that relate language and meaning in ways that are missed when transparency is assumed, as in thematic analysis. Because it takes language seriously, structural narrative analysis provides tools for investigators who want to interrogate how participants use speech to construct themselves and their histories (Riessman, 2008, pp., 101-103).
Dialogic/Performance Analysis
Dialogic/performance analysis asks ‘who’ an utterance may be directed to, ‘when’ and
‘for what purpose’ (Riessman, 2008, p. 105). Boris (2015) used dialogic/performance
analysis in secondary analysis of interview data with forty-seven women from Kenya who
were HIV positive. The analysis provided visibility to the women by detailing their stories,
of the impact of a positive HIV diagnosis on their identities and lives, to an audience who
they otherwise would not have reached (Boris, 2015).
Visual Analysis
Visual narrative requires the researcher to read an image closely (for example, pictures,
buildings, stained glass) and conduct an analysis on the details (Riessman, 2008, p.
141). For example, Willer et al. (2018) conducted visual analysis on 131 drawings made
by children whose sibling had died. Three main themes emerged from the data, narration
of identity, narration of life and death, and narration of growing sense-making. The
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drawings and visual narrative analysis provided a unique way of understanding children’s
experiences of the loss of a sibling (Willer et al., 2018).
Conversation Analysis and Discourse Analysis
The two main types of analysis when studying conversation, talk, and language in
narrative research are Conversation Analysis and Discourse Analysis (Wooffitt, 2008).
Conversation analysis emanated from the work of Harold Garfinkel and was developed
by sociologist, Harvey Sacks (Silverman, 1998). Sacks worked on a suicide counselling
hotline in Los Angeles. He transcribed these conversations and they provided him with
the opportunity to discover patterns and structures in conversations, such as turn taking,
openings, closings, power relationships and sequencing (Sarantakos, 2013). When
Sacks died prematurely in a car accident, his lectures were published by Gail Jefferson
and his colleague and collaborator, Emmanuel Schegloff. Conversation analysis is
defined as:
Conversation analysis is a formal qualitative method for the naturally occurring communication that treats talk as sequentially organised and a highly patterned form of social action (Sacks, 1992, cited in Silverman, 1998, p. 68).
Critical discourse analysis and Foucauldian analysis seek to establish the political or
ideological functions served by the linguistic properties of communication and discourses
(Wooffitt, 2008, p, 48). For example, Whitaker (2014) used Foucauldian discourse
analysis to discuss the ways in which discourses about sex work were socially
constructed in Ireland. Foucault argued that discourses related to sexuality were socially
constructed through religious, medical, and legal discourses (Foucault, 1978). Drawing
on the narratives of thirty-five sex workers, she examines the multitude of competing
discourses that frame prostitution and sex work in Ireland namely legal, medical,
religious, human rights, political, harm-reduction, and feminist discourses (Whitaker,
2014a).
Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis
Emanating from the qualitative field of phenomenology which we discussed in Chapter 2,
interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA) seeks to interpret the ‘lived experiences’
of research participants by the researcher putting themselves in the shoes of the
participants and by bracketing or removing their own personal experience (Alase, 2017).
This is accomplished by the researcher reflecting on their own experience as a
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researcher and documenting their journey through the research process in a detailed
manner:
For a research study to be authentic and credible, telling a narrative of the journey should be part of the research study’s narration. The truth of the matter is that life is nothing, but what we make of it as participants in this experiential life journey; it is up to each research study to tell their stories and allow the audience to partake in the journey with them (Alase, 2017, p. 18, cited in Alase, 2016).
IPA is interested in the meaning or the ‘essence’ of the experience, whereas narrative
researchers, are more interested in a chain of experiences as these are weaved into
narrative and how respondents make sense of their experience by encoding it in
narrative. They seek the plot, the connection of events in a semi-causal manner and the
characters that are important in this sense-making process (Smith, 2015). According to
Smith (2015), interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA):
… is a qualitative approach which aims to provide detailed examinations of personal lived experience. It produces an account of lived experience in its own terms rather than one prescribed by pre-existing theoretical preconceptions and it recognises that this is an interpretative endeavour as humans are sense-making organisms. IPA is a particularly useful methodology for examining topics which are complex, ambiguous and emotionally laden. Pain is a prime exemplar of such a phenomenon: elusive, involving complex psycho-somatic interactions and difficult to articulate (Smith, 2015, Abstract)
Statistical Analysis
Although narrative inquiry and research are firmly grounded in qualitative methodology
and methods, Elliott (2007) presents a plausible argument for the use of statistics for
analysing data from longitudinal narrative research. Data from longitudinal studies reveal
social processes that have a chronological dimension, whereas data gathering methods
utilising qualitative and quantitative methods differ. She argues that these differences
could be transcended in the analysis of data. Those with a basic understanding of
statistics could apply ‘statistical stories’ to the data (Elliot, 2007, p. 77).
Advantages and Disadvantages of Narrative Research
Like other qualitative research, narrative research has advantages and disadvantages
(Clandinin, 2000; Elliott, 2005; Riessman, 2008; Earthy and Cronin cited in Gilbert,
2008): The advantages include the following:
o It has extreme flexibility (Elliott, 2005).
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o The researcher can usually get more information from the participant than in a
structured interview (Earthy and Cronin in Gilbert, 2008, p. 432).
o It does not create the illusion of objectivity (Clandinin, 2000).
o It allows the researcher to look at interpreting behaviour in dynamic rather than
static terms (Clandinin, 2000; Riessman, 2008)
o It is particularly valuable to research in the fields of education, medicine,
counselling, psychotherapy, evaluation studies, case studies, longitudinal studies,
criminology, psychology, life histories, anthropology, and sociology (Riessman,
2008).
There are also disadvantages to narrative research. These include the following:
o It depends to a large extent on people’s memories (Clandinin, 2000).
o It cannot study large numbers (Riessman, 2008).
o The reader is limited to the interpretation of the author (Clandinin, 2000).
o Information communicated may not always be verified (Elliott, 2005).
o It can be much more time-consuming in the analysis than other research
methods (Riessman, 2008).
o Ethical approval may prove more difficult than other types of research (Clandinin,
2000; Bruce et al., 2016)
Examples of Narrative Research
The following examples focus on different aspects of narrative research. The first
example focuses on a five-year longitudinal study of thirty-two patients at the end-stage
of life and demonstrates how narrative research can include an emerging and evolving
design. The second example focuses on the co-construction of narratives and teachers’
experiences of creating and using ‘Instruction digital stories’ (IDS) to enhance their
pedagogies. The third examines ethnographic narrative inquiry by examining women’s
stories of slimming and also provides an example of holistic-categorical and form-content
analysis. The fourth example provides an example of using narrative research within a
mixed methods study in an Irish context (McDevitt and Fitzpatrick, 2020).
Longitudinal Narrative Study
Bruce et al. (2016) conducted a five-year longitudinal qualitative narrative study with
thirty-two patients entitled Re-stor(y)ing Life Within Life Threatening Illness. The study
exemplifies challenges in narrative research in terms of its emergent and evolving
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design. The purpose of the research was to understand patients’ experiences and how
they make sense of living with a life-threatening disease, and how they ‘restor(y)’ their
lives. Research participants were interviewed four times each over a three-year period
using a semi-structured format. Research participants were then asked to choose a
symbol that represented their experience of living with a serious disease. Objects
included music, poems, photographs, a stone (a piece of meteorite), a chain, an
embroidered pillow etc. These objects were then photographed. The researchers had not
expected such a wealth of personal symbols and related media. Participants consented
to having these objects displayed as an art exhibition in hospitals and later on a website
(see exercises below).
Co-constructing Narratives
Anne-Marie Clarke, a post-primary school, art teacher in Ireland chose narrative inquiry
for her doctoral research. It focused on four teachers’ experiences of creating and using
‘Instruction digital stories’ (IDS) to enhance their pedagogies (Clarke, 2018). Digital story
is a technology that intertwines story, images, music and voice. Irish education policy
champions continuing professional development for teachers (Teaching Council, 2016)
and the use of technology in the classroom (Department of Education and Science,
2009). The TPACK framework (Technology, Pedagogy and Content Knowledge)
designed by Mishra and Koehler (2006) incorporates technology, pedagogy, and content
knowledge. Teachers also need to be innovative and creative and experiment with
designing lessons (Mishra et al., 2015). Her sample comprised four experienced
teachers of diverse subjects (Mathematics, English, Business Studies, Design
Communication Technology). Together they developed a community of practice (CoP) in
order to collaborate and share innovative pedagogy in a story circle. The venue for their
first meeting was a hotel, and subsequent meetings took place in similar settings in order
to emphasise the social nature of the encounters. The research had two dimensions: the
creation of digital stories and a reflective video at the end of the research to record
teachers’ experiences and reflections. Clarke had multiple roles, researcher, teacher,
and colleague, while the teachers were encouraged to become co-enquirers in viewing
their own pedagogies and practices. The story circle provided the opportunity to deepen
reflection on their practices and to privilege teachers’ voices. All teachers reported that
digital stories resulted in accelerated learning, enhanced student engagement, self-
efficacy, and ownership of their lesson content. This narrative inquiry facilitated the
creation of a community of practice and continuing professional development:
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…time and space were created in order to share, establish trust and eliminate suspicion. The story circle process encouraged listening and respectful critiquing, enabling teachers to overcome fears of criticism or undermining. The success of the community was a direct result of a focused agenda on digital storytelling for both instruction and reflection, regular meetings and personal professional growth within the framework of TPACK (Clarke, 2018, p. 119)
Narrative Ethnography
Jacqueline O’Toole used narrative ethnography to study women’s experiences of
slimming in a slimming organisation (Slim Ireland) in north west Ireland in her doctoral
studies. She was interested in narratives of slimming and how women’s narratives
intersected with the narrative environment which shapes women’s narratives (O’Toole,
2018). Information about slimming is widely distributed across many sites such as
magazines in doctor’s waiting rooms, gyms, friendship groups, magazines etc., and
propagates the message that women should be slim, youthful, fit, and healthy. She
conducted observations in four slimming classes in Slim Ireland (fictional name) over a
year and had many ethnographic conversations and interviews with women about weight
issues during this period. Her final sample was nine women attending classes and two
group leaders of the slimming class. She conducted two interviews with each participant;
the initial interview provided insights about the women’s bodies and lives, while the
second focused on themes which emerged from the first interview. She provided each
woman with the interview transcript and notes and invited comments and feedback from
them. Only one woman chose to change her script. Her data also comprised thirty-two
talks about slimming, donated by one of the group leaders. These notes provided a rich
source of data about institutional story telling.
She conducted a two-stage thematic analysis drawing on the work of Lieblich, Tuval-
Masiach and Zilbert (1998) who proposed a model of analysis which integrates
biography and context into a four-mode matrix comprising holistic-form, holistic-content,
categorical-form and categorical-content (O’Toole, 2018, p. 181). The first stage of
analysis identified a ‘global impression’ and the overview of the progression of the plot.
The second phase focused on ‘dynamics of the plot’ arising from recurrent speech
patterns such as epiphanies, progress/regress and danger. She identified five dominant
narratives themes: confessing, fat phobia, mind/body split, and self-transformation.
Although slimming is often presented as linear chronology, her research found that the
narrative arc was cyclical, in that slimmers inevitably regain weight and will have to
commence slimming again. The dominant narrative contained quests such as ‘failure
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was ever present’ and the hegemonic quest of the ‘slimmer identity’ and ‘slimming is a
life time quest’.
Figure 8. Narrative Arc: slimming as a quest for a better body
O’Toole reflects on the value of narrative ethnography:
At some remove, reflecting on the long hours spent bearing witness to women’s difficult stories of being visible and invisible and their struggles to accept and account for themselves, the necessity of finding a methodological strategy to ‘get at’ both institutional storytelling and personal narratives, was most certainly realised within narrative inquiry (O’Toole, 2018, p. 186)
Using Narrative Research in Mixed Methods Research
Narrative research may also be used as part of a mixed methods study. Marjorie
Fitzpatrick and colleagues conducted a mixed-methods case study evaluation of a
private college in 2016. The research focused on organisational and cultural change
in a non-profit organisation in Ireland over twenty years. Mixed methods were used
including narrative research, qualitative, quantitative, and documentary methods.
The following stages were followed:
1) The topic was chosen: organisational change and organisational culture in a non-
profit organisation in Ireland.
CONFESSING
INSATIABLEAPPETITES
FATPHOBIA
[RE]GAININGCONTROL
SELFTRANSFORMATIONS
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2) A literature review was carried out focusing on organisational change, leadership,
and cultural change.
3) The theoretical framework was based on Kotter’s (2012) work, who proposed that
in order to effect organisational change, eight steps were required: 1) create a
sense of urgency, 2) build a guiding coalition, 3) form a strategic vision and
initiatives, 4) enlist a volunteer army, 5) enable action by removing barriers, 6)
generate short-term wins, 7) sustain acceleration, and 8), and institute change
(Kotter, 2012).
4) A stratified random sample of twenty participants who had worked in the
organisation over three eras: a) pre-1995-2008, b) 2008-2011, and c) 2011-2015)
were selected.
5) An interview guide was prepared consisting of the following topics: 1) urgent
internal and external challenges to the organisation, 2) personal experience of
the vision and mission of the organisation, 3) help or hindrance to organisational
change, 4) the role of leadership in the organisation, and 5) culture and cultural
change within the organisation.
6) A research proposal was designed.
7) A research pack was developed consisting of a research information sheet and a
letter of informed consent for participants.
8) Ethical approval was sought and granted from an ethics committee.
9) Narrative style interviews were conducted and recorded with the twenty
participants. The interviews were transcribed.
10) Thematic analysis was conducted on the transcripts of the narrative data.
11) The four sources of data were collated and interpreted in light of Kotter’s (2012)
theoretical framework.
12) Conclusions were drawn.
13) The research was written up and published as a book (McDevitt and Fitzpatrick,
2020).
Conclusion
In sum, narrative research or inquiry is a qualitative research methodology based on
interpretivist or critical theorists (feminist or post-modern) paradigms. It posits the belief
that we live storied lives. We are the stories we tell ourselves and others and the story
tells us. Narratives allow people to express emotions and to define their own life stories.
Narrative research focuses not only on people’s stories, but how the stories are
produced and how they work. As a research method it places emphasis on people’s
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interior lives, experiences, and life events; narratives are chronological, temporal,
meaningful, social, contextual, and may be sequenced or on a continuum. Narratives are
culturally and historically specific. The stories as defined by the narrator may have a plot,
a beginning, a middle, and an end. They may involve power relationships and
contradictions. The relationship between the researcher and the researched is close and
relaxed and facilitates a ‘meaning making’ process. It differs from other qualitative
research, in that it may involve multiple interviews with the same respondent, which can
be compared with peeling away layers and layers from a person’s experience and
attaching meaning to each of these layers by analysing the experiences. Alternatively, it
can involve a single interview, in which the interviewer seeks to elicit a story and then
drill deeply into the respondent’s experience. For emerging researchers, thematic
analysis is the most straightforward method of analysis. There are ethical issues
associated with narrative research due to the close relationship between the researcher
and researched.
In conclusion, we have teased out the many dimensions of undertaking narrative
research in this chapter. At first reading, it might be tempting to conclude that narrative
research is too complex a research method to use, however it is a fascinating and
satisfying research method that never proves boring. Narrative research may also be
used in mixed methods research, which we explore in the next chapter.
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Key Messages
• Narratives may be read in all sorts of cultural artefacts such as novels, memoirs,
biographies, stained-glass windows, pictures, and buildings.
• Narrative research method is considered a legitimate, valid scientific method
used in social research. It is used in all the major academic disciplines.
• NR emanates from radical interpretivist or constructivist/ constructionist/post-
modern paradigm and uses qualitative methodology.
• It is a philosophical approach and a methodological strategy.
• NR focuses on people’s stories, experiences, and life events; narratives are
chronological, temporal, meaningful, and social. Stories may contain plots and
power relationships.
• NR may give voice to those who have been previously silenced.
• The interviewer has the important role of facilitating people to construct (or co-
construct) their narratives. Interviews are conducted in a relaxed manner to allow
the respondent to tell their story and to express emotions.
• Multiple interviews may be undertaken with the same respondent.
• NR can be used in longitudinal research.
• There are several different models of analysis but thematic analysis is probably
the most accessible for emerging researchers.
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Exercises
1. What is your story? Write an auto-narrative or reflective story (500 words) of your
experience of living through the pandemic. Think of the times we live in, your
biography, your emotions, the social milieu, your personal relationships, your
work and hobbies, or college life. Revisit the story every few weeks and add extra
layers of meaning. Use thematic analysis to analyse it.
2. Conduct an interview with an older member of your family and elicit a story or
stories of experiences of non-sensitive topics such as education, sport, hobbies,
transport and relate them to societal issues in Ireland at the time.
3. Visit the Centre of Transformative Narrative which was set up in Maynooth
University in 2014 (https://www.maynoothuniversity.ie/education/useful-links).
The centre hosts a conference each year, excluding the present year due to
Covid-19. The topics from these conferences inspired a series of articles in Irish
Education Studies (2018). [18 June 2018]
https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03323315.2018.1475149
Useful Resources
1. Narrative Inquiry Research – Getting Personal Dr Gillian R. Rosenberg [13 May
2019] https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-cjp_-JbSOU
2. Rethinking Wellbeing – Professor Catherine Kohler Riessman [19 February 2015]
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D3PVk3CGdeQ
3. Illness Narratives People and families experiences of living with a chronic illness
https://onlineacademiccommunity.uvic.ca/illnessnarratives/
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Chapter 9. Mixed Methods
Introduction
When we were sociology students in the 1990s, the paradigm war between proponents
of qualitative and quantitative research was very evident, not only in college, but also at
conferences. Qualitative and quantitative theorists were at each other’s throats. The
qualitative researchers argued that quantitative research was ‘number crunching’ and the
quantitative researchers argued that qualitative research was anecdotal, subjective, and
used ‘soft data’. Punch (2009) suggests that there were three waves of thinking about
research methods:
a) The first wave was underpinned by the dominance of quantitative methods, which
lasted until the 1970s.
b) The second wave was dominated by qualitative methods
c) The third wave is characterised by the growth of mixed methods.
The legitimacy and acceptance of mixed methods was crystallised by the publication of
the Journal of Mixed Methods Research in 2005 (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2006 cited in
Punch, 2009, p. 289) and the International Journal of Multiple Research Approaches
(2007).
In this chapter, we provide a definition of mixed methods, note the research paradigm
from which it emanates, discuss the advantages and disadvantages of mixed methods,
and then provide examples of large and small-scale research. We then explore case
studies and evaluation research which use mixed methods.
Learning Outcomes
On completion of this chapter, the successful student will be able to:
• Discuss and debate the key tenets and paradigms underpinning mixed methods
research
• Develop skills to design and conduct a mixed-methods, case study, or evaluation
research
• Critically reflect on the robustness of a mixed-methods, case study, or evaluation
research
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Definition of Mixed Methods
Punch (2009, p. 288) provides a precise and distinct definition of mixed methods: ‘Mixed
methods research is empirical research that involves the collection and analysis of both
qualitative and quantitative data’. Mixed methods research can combine all types of
methods of data collection: surveys + interviews or focus groups, participant
observations + interviews + surveys, or documentary research + interviews. We provide
examples later in this chapter. To understand what it means to carry out mix methods
research, Punch (2009) draws on the work of Creswell and Plano Clark (2007, pp. 79-
84) who suggest there are three dimensions to making the decision to use mixed
methods: timing, weighting, and mixing:
1. Timing: the researcher needs to decide whether both sets of data will be
collected at the same time (concurrent) or whether the data will be collected at
different times (sequential).
2. Weighting – the researcher needs to decide whether both data sets have equal
weights or whether one or other will be given priority.
3. Mixing - the researcher needs to make the decision about how the data will be
mixed, whether it will be merged, or whether one set of data is embedded in the
other (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007, pp. 79-84, cited in Punch, 2009).
In our student and early teaching days, mixed methods was used to triangulate data; in
other words, triangulation involved seeing data and theories from more than one
perspective in order to increase the validity of findings (Harvey and MacDonald, 1993).
Since then, knowledge and understanding in the field has expanded. Before we tease
out these issues, we will explore the paradigm from which mixed methods emanates.
Research Paradigm
The philosophy of pragmatism which blends the key canons of logical positivism,
interpretivism, and constructivism is the research paradigm that underpins mixed
methods. Pragmatism is a philosophy dating back to ancient Greece; the word
pragmatism means ‘to work’ (Sharma, Devi and Kumari, 2018) (see longer discussion in
Chapter 2). As the name suggests, pragmatism is associated with what works best or
what is practical in terms of answering the research question. Burke et al. (2013, p. 14)
suggest that pragmatism offers an ‘attractive philosophical partner for mixed methods
research, and … provides a framework for designing and conducting mixed methods
research’. The major advantage of mixed methods research is that it combines the
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strengths of qualitative and quantitative research while compensating for the
weaknesses of each method (Punch, 2009, p. 290). Rather than starting with a theory, a
hypothesis, or a paradigm, the researcher starts with a research question. According to
Punch:
The essential idea of pragmatism is to reject the either-or choices and the metaphysical concepts associated with the paradigm wars, and to focus instead on ‘what works’ in getting questions answered (Punch, 2009, p. 291)
Punch (2009, p. 291) argues that the substantive issue, ‘what is the problem here?’,
comes before paradigmatic or methodological considerations. We argue that the human
species survived for millennia by figuring out what works best, therefore we suggest that
‘doing’ or practice came before theory. This is amusingly summed up in: ‘it works in
practice, but does it work in theory?’ The origin of this quotation is uncertain, it has been
used by statisticians (Anstey, 1948), and was quoted in an obituary of former Taoiseach
and economist, Garret FitzGerald, in the New York Times (Cowell, 2011).
Miles and Huberman (1994, pp. 40, 41) argue that quantitative/qualitative distinctions are
unproductive and if we want to understand the world, words and numbers are needed.
We believe that mixed methods combine the breadth of quantitative methodology (the
bigger picture) with the depth of information afforded by qualitative methodology. For
example, every four years (2002/03, 2006/07, 2010/11, 2014/2015) the National
Advisory Committee on Drugs and Alcohol collects data on the prevalence of illicit drug
use, in order to inform a cabinet committee on social inclusion so that adequate drug
treatment services are in place to prevent unnecessary deaths from overdoses. Whereas
prevalence studies can provide the big picture of the breadth of illicit drug use, they
cannot describe the experiences of drug users or agency workers who provide services
to drug users. In order to find deeper information about the use of illicit drugs among
particular ‘at risk groups’, smaller mixed methods studies have focused on the use of
illicit drugs among homeless people (quantitative survey (n=355) + qualitative data 14
focus groups) (Lawless and Corr, 2005); those engaged in prostitution (standardised
survey measuring drug use as well as 35 interviews with sex workers and 35 interviews
with service providers (Cox and Whitaker, 2009); and research on drug use among the
Traveller population (comprising 20 focus groups with Travellers, 15 one-to-one
interviews with drug using Travellers, interviews with 26 agency workers, 3 focus group
interviews with agency workers (Fountain, 2006).
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Mixed Methods Research
Mixed methods research has advantages and disadvantages. Sarantakos (2013)
provides a summary of the main advantages of mixed methods research.
Table 21. Advantages of Mixed Methods Research (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 54).
Advantages This means that mixed-methods research …
Bi-focal paradigm Focuses on positivism & interpretivism: objectivity and subjectivity; data and meaning
More powerful approach Uses the strengths of the explanatory and the interpretive
research
Diversity of data Can handle two different types of data concurrently and
sequentially
Enrichment Enriches the process and outcomes of the research
Complementarity Entails complementarity which strengthens each other’s
weaknesses
Multi-face contribution Improves two or more parts of the research process
Progressive improvement Meets needs at different stages of the study
Filling gaps Can fill the gaps left by the single study
Flexibility of choice Can move freely from one research model to the next as the
research requires
Completeness Covers various aspects (what and how) of the same topic
Higher credibility Increases credibility of the study
Higher validity Increases validity of the study
Wider coverage Offers wider coverage of research data
Bi-focal approach Covers both structure and process
Higher reliability Improves reliability of the research findings
Wider usability Improves usability of the research findings
Higher generalizability Increases the generalizability of the research findings
Improved capacity Improves the capacity of the research findings
Higher result quality Increases the quality of the research findings
Higher achievement Improves the probability of reaching higher achievement
More powerful research Is more powerful than the research of a single study
Comprehensive results Offers more comprehensive results than the single study
Result flexibility Can produce two different types of results: qualitative and/or
quantitative results
Higher accessibility to grants Offers higher probability of obtaining research grants
Better publishing options Offers higher probability of publishing research findings
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Disadvantages of Mixed Methods Research
Mixed methods research is not without its critics (Sarantakos, 2013), in particular from
qualitative methodologists who argue that there are irreconcilable differences in relation
to ‘ontology, epistemology, methodology, paradigm, research design, ideology of
qualitative and quantitative research, which, they argue, cannot lead to valid and
acceptable research outcomes’ (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 56). We explore these issues in
Chapter 2. Sarantakos (2013) draws on the criticism of Sale et al. (2002, p. 43), who
argue that qualitative and quantitative data cannot be combined for triangulation
purposes but can be combined to complement each other. Further, it is argued that
mixed methods downgrade the status and credibility of qualitative research by putting
pressure on qualitative researchers who are seeking funding for research to include a
quantitative dimension to their research (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 56). The danger is that
the qualitative aspect of the research becomes subsumed in a positivist design.
Mixed Methods Research used by Feminist Researchers
Mixed methods have been used by some feminist researchers who have demonstrated
how mixed methods can be used effectively to further the feminist agenda (Hesse-Biber,
2012). Hesse-Biber (2012) argues that, in feminist research, there is a tight link between
the research design, the research method and praxis. She examines two studies
conducted by feminist researchers which used concurrent mixed methods design to
uncover subjugated knowledge (knowledge of oppressed groups which have been
devalued by dominant patriarchal knowledge) (Hesse-Biber, 2012, p. 139) and promote
social change for women. Hesse-Biber (2012, p. 3) argues that one way of achieving this
is to use “loose boundary concepts”, which are cross disciplinary, flexible, and
deliberately vague. In the first case study, Andrea Nightingale, a feminist geographer,
examined land use in a community forest in Nepal (Nightingale, 2002 cited in Hesse-
Biber, 2012). She used a mixed methods design (QUAL + QUAN) to find out how women
and lower caste men use land forest. The qualitative data included ecological oral
histories, participant-observation, and in-depth interviews; the quantitative aspect
consisted of an inventory of forest vegetation through aerial photography. Instead of
trying to triangulate the data, she embraced dissonant findings. The aerial photos could
not reveal the hidden contentious social relationships among gender and caste
groupings which perpetuated the power of high-caste males, whereas the qualitative
data revealed how women and low-caste men were excluded from the decision-making
process.
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In the second case study, Loretta VikstrÖm, a feminist historical demographer, studied a
small Swedish town called Sundsvall during the period 1860-1893 to discover women’s
occupations. At that time, there was a strict division of labour between men and women,
where women’s work was in the private sphere of the family and men’s work was in the
public sphere of paid work. She used a concurrent mixed methods design but also
focused on dissonant findings. Her quantitative data emanated from the parish register,
which included demographic information relating to social class, marital status, number
of children and occupations. Her qualitative data was derived from advertisements in
local newspapers, which provided information on the type of work that women were
seeking, thus providing glimpses into how women defined their own identities. The types
of work included: domestic service, catering work, and fashion. Hospital and police
records were also scrutinised. During this period, a sawmill was built in the town which
also provided work for women. She triangulated the data sets and found a sample of
204 women who appeared in both sets of data and who worked outside the home, but
this information was not recorded in the parish register because the register reflected the
dominant patriarchal ideology of the time which portrayed women as dependent wives or
mothers in the home (Hesse-Biber, 2012). These two case studies reveal how
concurrent mixed methods triangulated research were used to expose gender
inequalities and help promote women’s issues and women’s visibility.
How to design a Mixed Methods study
Earlier writers of research methods books have reduced the complexity of mixed
methods to four main designs: triangulation, embedded, explanatory, and exploratory
(Punch, 2009, p. 295, cited in Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007, pp. 58-88):
1) Triangulation design is a one phase method which involves collecting quantitative
and qualitative data at the same time and then merging the results at the analysis
and interpretation of data stages.
2) The embedded design can be one phase or two phase and can be concurrent or
sequential. One method cannot sufficiently answer the questions so secondary
data is embedded within the design of the primary data (Punch, 2009, p. 295), for
example, a quantitative experimental study comparing the effectiveness of
different interventions in managing anti-psychotic drugs had embedded
qualitative interviews with patients.
3) The explanatory design is based on two phases of data collection where
quantitative data is collected first and then followed up by qualitative data
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collection to explain aspects of the study not fully explained by the quantitative
data such as outliers, significant and non-significant results or other aspects of
the research not fully addressed by the quantitative aspect of data collection
(Punch, 2009).
4) The exploratory design is also based on two sequential phases of data
collection, however, here the qualitative aspect of the research is designed first
and then when data collection is completed, a quantitative survey is designed
based on the findings of the qualitative research (Punch, 2009). This is often
carried out where there is little previous research in an area and the researcher
wishes to design a quantitative research instrument which is administered to a
larger sample.
Mixed methods can also be used in experiments (Cresswell, 2018, p. 248) and
longitudinal studies.
Longitudinal Research
Longitudinal research as the name implies involves researching social issues with the
same or different samples on different occasions over a designated period of time
(Sarantakos, 2013). It is valuable for documenting continuity and change and identifying
trends in the sample studied (Sarantakos, 1994b).
The Centre for Longitudinal Studies in Ireland (CLSI) was established in 2012 (CLSI,
2012). Its purpose is as follows:
• To increase awareness of the importance of longitudinal research for
academia, practice and policy in Ireland.
• To further understanding in Ireland of the conceptual basis of longitudinal
and life-course research.
• To facilitate the development of the capacity in Ireland to carry out
longitudinal research using both qualitative and quantitative
methodologies.
• To promote the best international standards and practices in longitudinal
research in Ireland.
CLSI is undertaking a number of large-scale research projects, including The Irish
Longitudinal Study of Ageing (TILDA) which is following a cohort of 8,000 people over
the age of fifty, Children’s School Lives (CSL) which tracks the experiences of primary
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school children (n=5,000) and the Growing up in Ireland study. In the next section, we
provide examples of large-scale research projects and small student projects.
Growing Up in Ireland
Since 2007, the Irish government has funded a mixed-methods, longitudinal study of
Irish children (Growing UP in Ireland (GUI)) which follows the progress of Irish children
(n=8,000 9-year olds and n=10,000 9-month-old children). The aim is to establish
evidence-based research which addresses the well-being of children in order to assist
policy formation and the delivery of services for children in Ireland as outlined in the
National Children’s Strategy (2000) (GUI, 2013, p. 7). This study has provided a wealth
of data on many dimensions of the lives of Irish children and establishes what is normal
and what is problematic (Department of Children and Youth Affairs, 2008) (DCYA). In
order to choose a representative sample of 9-month old babies, they chose the Child
Benefit Register from the DCYA as a sampling frame; from this, they chose a simple
systematic random sample, pre-stratified by certain criteria (Thornton et al., 2013). The
members of the original infant data cohort are now twelve years old and the child cohort
are twenty-two years old. Data gathering instruments include questionnaires completed
by primary and secondary caregivers, parents, and parental partners. Qualitative
interviews (n=120) were used to supplement the first wave of ‘Child and Infant’ cohorts.
The 5th wave of data collection will be held in 2021. There are many publications arising
from this research and the data is available for secondary analysis.
Equality and Power in Schools
Education plays a critical role in providing opportunities and in the reproduction of
privilege; it also has a ‘central role in the ordering of political, economic and socio-
cultural relations’ (Lodge and Lynch, 2002, p. 1). The purpose of Equality and Power in
Schools, Redistribution, Recognition and Representation was not only to understand
how education promotes equality and inequality but to understand how the education
system works in post-primary schools in Ireland. This two-year large-scale funded
research study used a triangular approach utilising many different methods of data
collection:
• Student research: 1,557 questionnaires, 1,202 essays about school and 70 focus
groups (four students per group drawn from the original sample classes).
• Teacher research: 380 questionnaires
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• Observation: 162 classrooms observed across all subject areas and observational
studies of meetings, social events, extra-curricular activities, etc. and informal
conversations with staff and students at various school events and in staffrooms.
• The compilation of written information about the school.
The authors concluded that the research was a mammoth task; the data took two years
to gather and the analysis took another two years. However, this gave the research team
time to think and time to give presentations to various groups of teachers. Obviously, it is
well beyond the scope of a single researcher to gather that much data (Lodge and
Lynch, 2002).
These examples of large-scale mixed methods studies illustrate research carried out by
large teams, however, small scale mixed methods studies are also undertaken as a
component of a master’s or bachelor’s programme and completed within a short period
of time.
Examples of Small-Scale Research
We provide two examples of small-scale mixed methods research projects which were
completed as an aspect of a master’s programme. The first example uses an
explanatory method and the second uses an asynchronous convergence model of
mixed-methods.
a) Student Research
For her dissertation on the Professional Master of Education, Aoife Wai was interested in
researching how post-primary schoolteachers in Ireland were supporting students with
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). The prevalence rate for students with ASD in Ireland
is 1.5% who are particularly vulnerable during the transition from post-primary education
into higher education, adulthood and work. There are over 65,000 people in Ireland who
have ASD, of whom 80% are unemployed despite having third level qualifications (Wai,
2019). Individual Education Plans (IEPs) are recommended by the National Council for
Special Education (NCSE) as well as forging links to specialist services and
employment. Parents also require support during the planning of the transition from
second to third level education. Teachers have an important role to play in supporting
students with ASD, facilitating their development of self-advocacy and agency, life and
social skills, as well as developing career awareness. The aim of the research was to
find out teachers’ perceptions of their ASD specific training and their support of students
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with ASD, particularly in relation to the transition planning process and their professional
development needs. The research questions which underpinned the study were as
follows:
1. What learning opportunities have teachers experienced in relation to supporting
students with ASD?
2. What is their comfort level in supporting students with ASD under a variety of
contexts (behavioural, educational, social/emotional, life skills)?
3. What are the professional development needs in this area, perceived challenges
and successes in relation to supporting students with ASD in the current Irish
education system?
A mixed-methods sequential explanatory method was chosen (Tashakkori and Teddlie,
2010). There were two different data collection time points. First, a questionnaire was
designed and twenty teachers were surveyed representing the quantitative aspect of the
study. This was followed by the collection of qualitative data: four in-depth interviews
were conducted with teachers.
b) Student Research
The second student example explores Diarmaid O’Meara’s research for his Professional
Master of Education which focused on ‘Dance’ as a strategy for social and cultural
inclusion. Dance is an alternative literacy where children’s individuality can be
celebrated, but if teachers feel unprepared to teach dance they may avoid teaching it
(O’Meara, 2018), which represents a lost opportunity for inclusion. The aim of this
research was to explore teachers’ attitudes towards and their awareness of Dance for
social and culture inclusion and the barriers which prevented their implementation of
Dance in the classroom. The research questions posed were as follows:
What are primary teachers' attitudes towards Dance and are they aware of the
potential of Dance for social and cultural inclusion?
What barriers prevent teachers from implementing Dance in its socially and
culturally inclusive capacity?
What strategies might be effective in supporting teachers to implement Dance for
social and cultural inclusion?
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An asynchronous convergence model of mixed-methods was used (Creswell and Plano
Clark, 2007). The first phase of data collection involved conducting semi-structured
interviews with a purposive sample of four dance experts from the field of education.
Subsequently, a questionnaire was designed which was administered to a quota of
primary school teachers (n=22). The findings of the research were presented separately,
with quantitative statistics first followed by thematic analysis of qualitative data (O’Meara,
2018).
Having discussed mixed methods research, we will now turn our attention to case
studies in which a mixed methods design may be used.
The Case Study
The history of the case study in social research can be traced to sociologist Frederick Le
Play who used the case study method to accompany his use of statistics in studying the
household budgets of the poor in France in 1829 (Le Play, 1961). The case study can
be defined as the examination of a single ‘case’. The case could be a hospital, a school,
or a class in a school or a single individual such as a student with agoraphobia or, as
Bell (2005), notes an ‘instant’ in time such as the setting up of an organisation. The
Oxford Dictionary of Sociology explains a case study as:
A research design that takes as its subject a single case or a few selected examples of a social entity – such as communities, social groups, employers, events, life-histories, families, work teams, roles, or relationships – and employs a variety of methods to study them (Scott and Marshall, 2009, p. 63)
According to Punch (2009):
…the general objective is to develop as full an understanding … as possible… to understand the case in depth, its natural setting, recognizing its complexity, its context, its holistic focus, preserving and understanding the wholeness and unity of the case (Punch, 2009, p. 119).
Yin (2018, p. 15) suggests that case study research is an ‘all-encompassing mode of
inquiry with its own logic of design, data collection techniques and specific approaches to
data analysis.’ Yin presents a two-fold definition (scope and features) of a case study. A
case study is an empirical method that:
• Investigates a contemporary phenomenon (‘the case’) in depth and
within its real-world context, especially when the boundaries between
phenomenon and context may not be clearly evident.
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The main feature of a case study relies on multiple sources of evidence which when
combined, need to converge in a triangulating fashion (Yin, 2018, p. 15).
Silverman (2005, p. 127) elaborates on Punch’s (1998, p. 153) proposition:
Each case has boundaries which must be identified as an early stage of the research (e.g. if you are studying a school, does this include classroom behaviour, staff meetings, parent-teacher meetings etc.?)
Each case will be a case of something in which the researcher is interested. So, the unit of analysis must be defined at the outset in order to clarify the research strategy.
Case studies seek to preserve the wholeness and integrity of the case. However, in order to achieve some focus, a limited research problem must be established geared to specific features of the case.
Diverse methods of data collection such as observations, in-depth interviews, surveys,
focus groups etc., are used in case studies to gather data. It would be very difficult to
study every aspect of a case, therefore researchers must decide what facets of the case
they will focus on. Similarly, decisions about who and what they will sample within the
case will need to be made. Sometimes researchers undertake comparative research by
studying two similar institutions and then look at similarities and differences between the
two cases.
Robustness of the Case Study
The robustness of quantitative research is determined by the key pillars of: objectivity,
validity, reliability, and generalisability (see Chapter 6). The robustness of qualitative
research is based on it meeting certain criteria such as veracity, transparency, reflexivity
and confirmability (see Chapter 7). How do we determine the robustness of mixed
methods? Do the findings of a single case study simply describe the case under review?
Or are the findings generalisable? Punch (2009) argues that generalisability may not be
the objective of the case study, but rather that a particular case is so unique in its own
right, the researcher is not seeking to generalise the findings. Researchers may be
interested in studying an atypical or negative case, for example, when a researcher
studies a particular disease ‘in order to learn about health’ (Punch, 2009, p. 121). Punch
suggests generalisability may be possible where the research develops concepts or
propositions from the study that can be applicable to other cases.
Bell uses the term ‘relate to’ or relatability rather than generalisability (Bell, 2005). She
quotes Bassey (1981, p. 85):
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An important criterion for judging the merit of a case study is the extent to which the details are sufficient and appropriate for a teacher working in a similar situation to relate his decision making to that described in the case study. The relatability of a case study is more important than its generalizability.
Bell further draws from Bassey’s (1981, p. 86) work and argues that, if case studies
… are carried out systematically and critically, if they are aimed at the improvement of education, if they are relatable, and if by publication of the findings they extend the boundaries of existing knowledge, then they are valid forms of educational research.
That said, case studies can be criticised due to ‘selective reporting’ and challenges for
other researchers to cross check information (Bell and Waters, 2014).
Recommendations from a Case Study
Although the findings of a case study may not be generalisable, even a small case study
can develop recommendations to a broader field. This is exemplified in a small case
study of a student with mental health issues (agoraphobia) who having failed in other
colleges to complete an initial teacher education (ITE) programme was able to complete
it in College A due to the reasonable accommodations in place (Whitaker, 2016).
Qualitative interviews were carried out with ‘Mark’ (pseudonym for student in question),
the Registrar, the Director of School Partnerships. Two sets of documents were
analysed: College’s Quality Assurance Documents and the Teaching Practice
Assignment Form. The case study identified learning points for social inclusion of
students with non-visible disabilities (agoraphobia) in a college that uses an online
blended approach to teacher education and provided recommendations for best practice
for colleges (Whitaker, 2016).
Evaluation Research
Evaluation research may also use a mixed methods design, case study, or may rely
solely on quantitative or qualitative research. According to Creswell and Creswell (2018,
p. 248):
Mixed methods evaluation design consists of one or more core designs added to the steps in an evaluation procedure typically focused on evaluating the success of an intervention, a program or a policy.
Sarantakos (2013) suggests that evaluation research is an ‘applied research method’ in
that its goal is to identify a problem, search for a solution, and provide an answer
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(Sarantakos, 2013, p. 344, cited in Walker, 1985). The purpose of evaluation research is
to evaluate the strengths and limitations of a particular event, issue or programme.
Those who receive funding for societal interventions or programmes are accountable for
the way the funding is used and the social good they promote. Sarantakos (2013, p.
470) defines evaluation research as:
A type of applied research which is employed to assess the implementation, operation and ultimate effectiveness of policies and programmes (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 470)
There are two types of evaluations: formative and summative (Punch, 2009). Formative
evaluation is undertaken during a programme to see how the programme can be
improved or how to make it as ‘workable as possible’ (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 347). It asks
the question: ‘What can be done to make this programme [or module] work?
(Sarantakos, 2013, p. 347). Summative evaluation is historical and retrospective (Punch,
2009) and is conducted at the end of a programme. It might ask the question: ‘Is the
programme good enough to continue?’ (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 347). The results can be
used to improve or continue a module or programme. Evaluation research is used
extensively in colleges to evaluate modules and programmes. It also examines
processes and outcomes of programmes (Punch, 2009). In the first instance, the
researcher consults with the stakeholders to find out their issues and concerns. In
common with other research, the aim and objectives or the research questions are
defined and the most suitable methods to address the research questions are chosen.
Critical Transformative Evaluation
Patton (2017) argues that all evaluations are ultimately pedagogical in that researchers
and participants learn from each other. He recommends a pedagogy of evaluation based
on Paulo Freire’s book, Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1968). Freire worked with
nonliterate, impoverished people in Brazil and believed that people in communities only
become interested in inquiry when it is directed to their needs. Freire and his colleagues
developed a pedagogy of critical consciousness that identified the cause of people’s
needs. A pedagogy of evaluation entails examining how and what evaluation teaches; all interactions between and among people are pedagogical, something is always being
taught, conveyed, and proselytized. Patton uses ten principles from Freire’s writing to
illuminate how his principles interface with the principles that underpin evaluation
research (Patton, 2017).
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Table 22. Pedagogy of Evaluation (Patton, 2017)
Freirean Pedagogical Principle Applied to Evaluation
1. Use evaluative thinking to open up, develop and nurture critical consciousness
People living in poverty develop a false consciousness thinking that they are inferior and useless because they have been indoctrinated by the powerful. Their consciousness can be raised by a pedagogy which creates awareness of the source of dominance and their oppression. By raising their consciousness they will be empowered to take action. Evaluation research should transition from value-free to values-based evaluation.
2 Consciousness resides in communities of people, not just individuals
By participating in the evaluation process or the process of inquiry together as a collective, participants can engage in issues that collectively affect them.
3 Critical consciousness pedagogy must be interactive and dialogical
Historically, the education system has relied on a banking system, whereby students were mugs to be filled by the jugs of teachers. Freire spoke against this banking system, arguing that teaching and learning should be dialogical and interactive with students and teachers learning from each other. Evaluation should be inclusive, democratic, embrace pluralism, be negotiated with stakeholders including the poor. In line with this, Patton draws on the work of Arrendt (1968) who emphasises the importance of people learning how to think in order to resist totalitarian thought that led to the Holocaust.
4 Integrate reflection and action Freire is critical of the separation of reflection and action and argues that to be fully human is to be aware of humanity and its historical forms. Evaluators need to be aware of reflective practice and illiterate people could engage in reflection to inform action. Evaluators should reflect on how well social justice is reflected in community reflection. Evaluators need to evaluate the ‘extent to which social justice evaluation leads to greater social justice’ (Patton, 2017, p. 61)
5 Value and integrate the objective and subjective
The essence of critical consciousness is objective reality that is experienced and understood subjectively. For many people living in poverty it is an oppressive reality it is not a perception. Freire believed that objectivity and subjectivity are in a dialectical relationship. The role of the evaluator is to engage in intersubjectivity based on knowledge being socially constructed in human relationships.
6 Integrate thinking and emotion Freire believed that emotions and reason are connected in a holistic, humanistic dialogue. Evaluators should involve an integration of understandings (cognition) and feelings (emotions), teaching participants how to express feelings about the process and result.
7 Critical consciousness pedagogy is co-intentional education among those involved in whatever roles
Freire believed that education should be co-intent-ional in that teachers and the oppressed should engage in reflection and action together to re-create knowledge that would liberate the oppressed. Evaluators need to collaborate with their participants and consider the process of evaluation regarding the learning and behaviour changes that take place.
8 Critical consciousness is both process and outcome, both
Critical consciousness was, for Freire, a pedagogy for people to become more human through engagement and inquiry. His idea of pedagogy was that people would
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Freirean Pedagogical Principle Applied to Evaluation
method and result, and both analytical and change-oriented.
develop new knowledge, behaviours, which would lead to social, cultural, economic and political change change. Evaluators need to ensure they use critical analysis to make the inquiry a mechanism for bringing about social, cultural, economic, and political change.
9 All pedagogy is political Freire believed that education is political in that it is directive and never neutral. Evaluators are tasked with improving the quality of life for those who are in poverty, socially excluded, marginalised, or stigmatised. As a political activity, evaluation should promote social justice.
10 Critical pedagogy is fundamentally evaluative.
Evaluators are involved in tacit pedagogical principles. Critical pedagogy is an ongoing process that aims to bring about long-term and lasting change.
According to Patton (2017), evaluations embody assumptions, values, premises,
priorities, sense making processes and principles. Evaluations influenced by a Freirean
pedagogy will incorporate social justice and democracy.
Case Studies in Evaluation Research
Case studies can also be used in evaluations. Yin argues that there are three types of
uses of case study research in evaluations (2018, p. 15):
(1) Case study research as a part of a larger evaluation.
(2) Case study as the primary evaluation method; which (a) focus is on the initiative
(b) focus on the outcomes and (c) focus on initiatives and outcomes.
(3) Case study research as part of dual-level evaluation arrangements (Yin, 2018).
McDevitt and Fitzpatrick (2020) used the case study approach to evaluate the closure of
a large private college in Dublin. They gathered a combination of data including carried
(quantitative data using surveys (n=63), qualitative interviews (n=37), narrative inquiry
interviews (n=20), and an examination of documents (n=25) for the case study. The aim
of the research was to evaluate how organisational change related to cultural change in
an Irish third level college over a twenty-year period (1995-2015) (McDevitt and
Fitzpatrick, 2020). There is a longer discussion of this research in Chapter 8.
Examples of Small-Scale Evaluations
Evaluation research may be used for large or small-scale research. In the past,
evaluation research was described as bread-and-butter research (Patton, 1987), in that
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emerging researchers or early career researchers could find work conducting evaluation
research. For example, Whitaker et al. conducted two small scale evaluations of dance
performances for the Arts Council (Whitaker, Kingsley, Whitaker 1998; Whitaker, White,
Whitaker, 1998). In response to the need to identify new and potential audiences, the
Arts Council provided funding for audience development for arts organisations. The
Dance Theatre of Ireland responded to the Arts Council’s invitation for proposals for
creative and practical ideas for audience development and designed a dance
performance called Tombs, which was performed in four non-theatrical settings to attract
new audiences. Meetings were held with stakeholders to reveal the type of information
that they were seeking. The aim of the research was to determine whether the Dance
Theatre of Ireland did indeed manage to attract a new audience, an audience who do not
normally attend dance performances or never attended a dance performance.
A mixed methods design utilising surveys and video research was chosen.
Questionnaires were designed and administered to the audience, of whom 231 people
responded. The video element involved filming parts of the performance and venue, and
conducting short qualitative interviews with audience members (Whitaker, Kingsley and
Whitaker, 1998). The data were analysed and written up in a research report, which was
given to the stakeholders and to the Arts Council.
The second evaluation was conducted for a production entitled Off the Wall a colourful
dance experience combining photography, lights and music projected onto the entire
frontage of the Gallery of Photography at Meeting House Square in Temple Bar in Dublin
on two consecutive evenings for two hours. The evaluation consisted of a survey of the
audience, videos of aspects of the venue and performances, and participant observation.
Paper questionnaires were distributed to audience members circa (2,000) of whom 117
responded. Research questions were forced choice and open ended. Video research
was used, members of the audience were asked about their impressions of the
production; whether they had attended contemporary dance performance in the past and
whether they would attend performances in the future. The finished edited video was
approximately seven minutes long. The research was written up as a report which
included participant observation notes. A video presentation was presented to the
stakeholders (two dance companies) and to the funders (Arts Council), (Whitaker, White
and Kingsley, 1998).
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To ensure that public funding is used appropriately and to increase transparency, all
publicly funded interventions should be evaluated. The following describes an evaluation
of a large-scale programme to address educational disadvantage.
Evaluation of Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools (DEIS)
In 2006, the Department of Education and Science (DES) introduced the Delivering
Equality of Opportunity in Schools (DEIS) programme to address educational
disadvantage in Ireland (DES, 2005). It provided additional funding for schools in
disadvantaged areas, access to literacy and numeracy programmes, and assistance with
school planning to 657 primary and 193 post-primary schools. Schools deemed to in the
most disadvantaged areas have reduced class sizes and have access to Home School
Community Liaison Scheme and School Completion Programme (Smyth, McCoy and
Kingston, 2015). The Department of Education and Skills requested an evaluation of the
DEIS programme in 2015. The research methods involved a literature review and
collating the results from other evaluations. The study addressed three key questions:
1. To what extent has the stated aim of the DEIS programme
(namely, to prioritise and address the educational needs of children
and young people from disadvantaged communities) been achieved?
2. Which elements of the programme have worked well and which
have not worked well?
3. What are the key lessons from the DEIS programme and related
policy initiatives in relation to future policy and programmes on
educational disadvantage, and in relation to education in schools
generally? (Smyth, McCoy and Kingston, 2015, p. vi).
In this section, we have provided a brief overview of evaluation research. We advise
those who are conducting evaluation research especially on programmes with large
scale funding to consult the American Journal of Evaluation, which is the journal of the
American Evaluation Association (https://www.eval.org/p/cm/ld/fid=4). As with all
research, issues of ethics, politics, aim and objectives of research, research questions,
research design, analysis and interpretation of results are central to good evaluation
research.
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Conclusion
In this chapter, we have explored mixed-methods, case studies and evaluation research.
We have provided examples of small- and large-scale research. Mixed-methods
research is an excellent way for students to grasp the principles of quantitative and
qualitative methodologies and to combine them in a single study. In the next chapter, we
explore documentary research.
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Key Messages
• Mixed methods research is empirical research that involves the collection and
analysis of both qualitative and quantitative data.
• There are three factors to making the decision to use mixed methods: timing,
weighting and mixing (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2007, pp. 79-84 cited in Punch,
2009).
• Mixed methods research emanates from the philosophy of pragmatism; what works
best or what is practical in terms of answering the research question.
• The major advantage of mixed methods research is that it combines the strengths
of qualitative and quantitative research while compensating for the weaknesses of
each method.
• There are four main research designs associated with mixed methods:
triangulation, embedded, explanatory, and exploratory (Creswell and Plano Clark,
2007, pp. 79-84 cited in Punch, 2009).
• Case studies may also involve using mixed methods.
• The case study can be defined as the examination of a single ‘case’, such as a
school, a class in a school or a single individual such as a student with dyslexia; or
an aspect of a problem such as behaviour in order to understand its complexity
whilst understanding the totality of the case.
• Evaluation research may also use a mixed methods design.
• Evaluation research is an applied research method whose purpose is to evaluate
the strengths and limitations of a particular event, issue or programme. Its goal is
to identify a problem, search for a solution, and provide an answer.
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Exercises
1. Mixed Methods
What is Mixed Methods? By Dr. John Creswell who founded the Journal of Mixed Methods
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1OaNiTlpyX8
Developing Mixed Methods Research by Dr. John Creswell
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PSVsD9fAx38
2. Case Studies
Explore the article on Case Studies in education research on the BERA website.
https://www.bera.ac.uk/publication/case-studies-in-educational-research
3. Evaluation Research
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-Pcr-FBBub8
By Dr. Lisa Moyer
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Chapter 10. Documentary Research
Introduction
Documentary research, much neglected by researchers (Punch, 2009), is where
documents are the raw data and where the method consists of sampling, collecting,
collating, analysing, and interpreting relevant documents for your research. Documentary
research method as a ‘respected method’ can be used in all academic disciplines, social
sciences (sociology, political science, psychology, economics, social work),
anthropology, history, education, medicine, nursing, business, and communication
(Ahmed, 2010). Both authors of this book used documentary research for their doctoral
studies. It is a very useful method for exploring the historical dimension of sociological
analysis, i.e. structural-processual transformations of time.
In this chapter, we will explore the history of the use of documentary sources in social
scientific research. We tease out the origins and paradigms for documentary research
and explore the differences between a literature review and documentary research. How
to conduct research using documentary sources is elucidated. Attention is also given to
‘content analysis’, a method pioneered by journalists which also uses documents and
texts. We also provide examples of the use of the documentary research method in Irish
and UK research.
Learning outcomes
On successful completion of this chapter, the student will be able to:
• Reflect on the origins of the documentary research paradigm
• Critically examine the definition and meaning of ‘documents’
• Discuss and debate the criteria for determining the robustness of documentary
sources
• Consider the steps in designing documentary research: sampling, collating,
analysing, and interpreting documents
• Conduct a small personal investigation using documentary sources
What is Documentary Research?
When we say documentary research, we mean that the documents or materials (be they
photographs, YouTube videos, etc.) are the primary focus of the research. They are our
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concrete data. Our aim, objectives, or research questions focus on some aspect of this
material. Mason (1996, p. 72) points out that the first question a researcher should pose
is: “Why might I want to use or generate text based and/or non text-based documents?”
She provides a number of possible answers to this question: you may believe that you
can trace meaningful aspects of the social world through them, or it may be that they are
the only sources of information available. For example, somebody doing research on
family history may interrogate archival documents to discover that their great
grandparent was a slave in the United States of America or classified as a criminal and
deported from Ireland to Australia (Mason, 1996). Sarantakos (2013) suggests that the
purpose of documentary research may differ from the purpose of those who wrote the
original document.
Documentary Research Paradigm
Ethnomethodology is the paradigm that underpins documentary research (see Chapter 2
for a longer discussion). Harold Garfinkel conceived the theory of ‘ethnomethodology’
(1967, p. 11) as the study of methods used by people in ordinary everyday life where
social interaction is based on tacit understanding; people give meaning to their social
world. Ethnomethodologists believe that there is no real social order, but instead social
life appears orderly to members of society, only because members actively engage in
making sense of social life. The point of ethnomethodology is to make visible how
members of society go about the task of seeing, describing, and explaining order in the
world in which they live. Garfinkel argued that social life is essentially reflexive (1967, p.
11). This is succinctly summarised as follows:
The documentary method has been used to shed light on the commonsense premises guiding subjects in their interpretation of particular events, and the reciprocal trust in member cooperation to observe and keep those premises. These premises include a set of beliefs on reality, the self, and the others, which by ethnomethodologists are called “mundane reason” and are based on the prejudice (as Pollner calls it) of a “real” or “objective” order of events (Segre, 2014, p. 49, cited in Pollner, 1995, p. 22)
In a number of research settings, Garfinkel witnessed how written documents or reports
construct a particular reality. For example, he worked on the suicide hotlines and
observed how staff and police cooperated to produce written reports of suspicious
deaths in such a way that the report would not be later questioned (Segre, 2014, p. 49).
Garfinkel (1967) also researched the way in which death certificates were written. Since
the 1960s, many sociologists have revealed the social processes at work in the
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production of documents. Their concerns lie not with the veracity of the documents but
rather with the social conditions of their production.
Documentary Research used by Sociologists
Documentary research is often seen as the prerogative of the historian, but it has a wide
relevance across the social sciences. The three leading sociologists of the formative
period made far greater used of documentary sources than any other research method.
For example, Karl Marx’s seminal study, Capital, was based on an analysis of
government records, official documents, and laws regulating factory work (Marx, 1867).
The Factory Acts were a series of laws passed in England (1833) which regulated the
length of the working day and the conditions within factories. He produced an analysis on
‘The Working Day’ in his book, Capital (Marx, 1867). Marx studied the reports of the
factory inspectors who enforced the terms of the Act, and sent reports back to the
government. He found that children were depicted as units of time. The Factory Act
allowed children under the age of thirteen to work six hours a day, and the inspectors
described these children as ‘half-timers’. Although the term ‘working day’ seems self-
evident, apparent, and logical, it has also been produced socially. Marx argued that the
working day was the struggle between the workers to reduce the length of the day, and
the owners of the factories to increase the length of the day; this produced the definition
of the working day that appeared in the Factory Acts (UK Government, 1833).
Emile Durkheim’s ground-breaking work on suicide, Le Suicidė (1897), was based on an
analysis of coroners’ reports across Europe. Max Weber’s thesis on the relationship
between religion (Calvinism) and capitalism drew on historical material (The Protestant
Ethic and the spirit of Capitalism, 1905). W. I. Thomas (1863 – 1947) and F. Znaniecki
produced an epic sociological work entitled The Polish Peasant in Europe and America
(1918 – 1920) that was well ahead of its time in discussing issues to do with ethnicity
and immigration. It was described as the earliest major landmark of American
sociological research. The inspiration for this research happened one day as Thomas
was walking down a street in Chicago. A person threw their rubbish from a window and it
landed at Thomas’s feet. It contained letters from a Polish immigrant. He used this letter
as a primary ethnographic source and placed advertisements in Chicago’s Polish-
language newspaper offering money for each mailed letter received from Poland. He
then used other sources of material such as newspaper reports, diaries, and archives of
organisations to produce his classic work, in which he promoted the biographical
approach. Sudnow examined how crime records were generated through plea
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bargaining (Sudnow, 1965). Cicourel examined the way records were assembled on
‘juvenile delinquents’ in the American criminal justice system (Cicourel, 1968).
Definition and Sources of Documents
Over one hundred years ago French historians, Langlois and Seignobos, provided a
definition of ‘documents’:
Documents are the traces which have been left by the thoughts and actions of men [sic] of former times, and it is only through the traces …that we can know the past. For there is no substitution for documents: no documents, no history (Langlois and Seignobos, 1912, p. 17 cited in Scott, 1990, p. 10)
Documents and texts provide an available and rich resource for research (Punch, 2009).
Documentary sources are defined as follows:
Documentary sources are written sources – personal letters, diaries, scrapbooks, memoirs, legislation, newspaper clippings, business accounts, marriage contracts. These might have been produced at the time of the events described, or some time later (Gidley, 2004, p. 250)
A wider contemporary definition of documents includes mass media outputs,
(newspapers, films, radio and television programmes), stamps (Scott, 1990), music,
songs, buildings, statues, photos, headstones, novels, YouTube videos, (see Meyer,
2012), menus, advertisements. In other words, cultural artefacts can be considered as
documents of a society or group which may be studied, albeit in an interpretative sense.
The range of documents is vast. Public documents include: Acts of Parliament, Public
Policies, Insurance Policies, Company reports, Government Green Papers, White
Papers, Wills, birth, marriage and death certificates, census data, court archives, and
prison records (Punch, 2009). Some documents are available for public scrutiny, while
others are not. Scott (1990, p. 14) developed categories for thinking about documents:
Table 23. A Classification of Documents (Scott, 1990, p. 14, Annotated)
Access Closed Top-secret reports but also personal documents such as diaries and letters.
Restricted Documents which require special permission to access from insiders. For example, some journal articles are in data bases and if your college does not have access to the data base, you will have to pay for the article.
Open- archival
Records which are held in an archive which are open to the public subject to getting a ticket for access.
Open Published and open to everybody. The diary of Anne Frank was a private diary which was published.
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Two dimensions of documents are authorship and access. Authorship refers to the writer
of the document. Access depends on whether the documents are in the public or private
sphere. These categories change over time. For example, under General Data
Protection Regulation, many documents which were once closed access are now open
access. The recent Mother and Baby Homes report (Department of Children, Equality,
Disability, Integration and Youth, 2021) conducted research into the institutions for
unmarried mothers in Ireland between 1922 and 1998. Following the publication of the
report, there was a public outcry by adopted children who wished to gain access to their
birth records (O’Rourke, McGettrick and Hill, 2018).
Documents may emanate from primary or secondary sources. Primary sources are
original sources or those which come into being at the time of research; for example, the
minutes of meetings of a sports club. Primary sources are defined as,
… actual records that have survived from the past, which may include texts, such as letters or diaries, or material artefacts like articles of clothing or shards of bone, visual artefacts such as photographs, audio-visual sources, such as film or tape recordings. There were produced in conditions of proximity (in time and space) to the event described (Gidley, 2004, p. 250)
Secondary sources are interpretations of primary sources. For example, if a primary
source was the minutes of a meeting of a sports club, the secondary source is the book
written about the sports club (Duffy, 2005). Secondary sources are defined as follows:
Secondary sources are accounts created by people writing at some distance in space or time from the events described. For example, a historical notebook, written by someone who did not experience or witness the events being described, is a secondary source. But it will draw on primary sources, on the recollections or reports of those who actually did experience or witness the events (Gidley, 2004, p. 250).
Historically, documentary research only involved physical written documents, but today
the definition has widened to include other types of texts such as conversation analysis
and integrated literature reviews.
Documents can also be generated through the research process. A researcher may ask
respondent to keep documents such as diaries and essays (see Lodge and Lynch,
2002). For example, the IMPACT project in the UK, (Brown, 1999, cited in Dowling and
Brown, 2010) used a variety of documents, including examples of school mathematics
activities sent home by teachers; booklets produced by teachers for parents; and
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comments from parental diaries about mathematics tasks. The initiative was designed to
promote greater involvement of parents in the mathematical education of their children
and to foster communication between teachers and parents. An IMPACT diary was
developed in which tasks were outlined and parents wrote about the work they did with
their children on some aspect of school mathematics at home (Dowling and Brown,
2010). The completed sample was 282 diaries and 1,657 tasks from four different
primary schools. These diaries were not produced specifically for the research but were
part of the ongoing work of the school (Dowling and Brown, 2010).
Documentary Research is not a Literature Review
Although documents are written texts, documentary research should not be confused
with a review of the literature. In common with other research, a review of the relevant
literature is required to put your research into context. Documentary research method
includes reviewing each document and analysing it. The major difference between a
literature review and documentary research data is that the documents, as well as being
reviewed specifically in relation to the research question, are also subjected to
secondary analysis using certain criteria: authenticity, credibility, representativeness, and
meaning (Scott, 1990, pp. 12-34). These documents are further interpreted in the light of
theories (see examples below). That said, meta-analysis and integrated literature
reviews (ILRs) are considered documentary research because researchers conduct
secondary analysis of primary data analysis from journal articles in which researchers
have conducted original empirical research (Sarantakos, 2013). The first chapter of an
ILR contains a broad literature review. The findings chapter of the ILR focuses on a
selected number of journal articles which are thematically analysed (see Chapter 5). In
our teaching experience, students who chose to do documentary research either carried
out research on archival/ historical documents, or content analysis; however, the scope
is much wider, as exemplified in the research on YouTube videos.
Archival/Historical Documentary Research
Students who are interested in conducting research on archival material should visit their
local archives. Most countries have official archives. The background to national archives
is that they are bound up with the state, law, and power. The term archive derives from
the Greek arkheion and meant the home of the ‘archons’ or magistrates. This is where
the official documents were stored. The archons had the power to make law and to
interpret the archives (Brown and Davis-Brown, 1998). In the 18th century, states in
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Europe started to adopt a more bureaucratic form of administration and enlarged
systems of surveillance. Archives are also bound up with the modern-nation-state and its
monopoly on law. For example, you can find many records of archaic laws in archives. In
Ireland during the Great Famine, many hungry Irish people were banished to Van
Diemen’s land (Tasmania) for poaching rabbits or fish. ‘Archives, libraries and museums
help to store and create modern “imagined communities” ... archives construct the
narratives of nationality’ (Brown and Davis-Brown, 1998, p. 20).
In Ireland, under the National Archives Act, (1986), the National Archives (National
Archives, no date) store archives of Government Departments and other state agencies
dating up to 1968. Members of the public have statutory rights to consult these records
(Ireland, 1986). A document, which was not open to the public when it was written 30
years ago may be accessed 30 years later under current legislation (National Archives
Act, Regulations, 1988). Documents produced during the ‘30 years Troubles’ in Northern
Ireland are now available for scrutiny.
Historical Dimension of Sociological Analysis
One of the challenges facing sociologists and researchers is how society, social
processes, social actors and social action change over time. Documentary research
provides a method for examining changes and continuities in society. Think back over
the past two years and reflect on how the global pandemic changed our everyday
actions and behaviour. If someone had told us two years ago that we would be unable to
go shopping in our favourite shoe store, or attend a live musical or religious event we
would have thought them mad! We adhere to restrictions such as wearing face masks,
observing social distancing and shopping online. Unless we are immediate family we are
unable to attend the funerals of those who have died, couples have postponed
weddings; live entertainment, eating in restaurants and foreign travel is off the cards. On
a political level we observe how the United Kingdom has exited the European Union and
the impact Brexit is having on political relations with Northern Ireland. We watched
President Biden’s election in the USA and were moved by his use of a quotation from
Nobel Laureate Seamus Heaney in his inaugural speech on January 20th 2021.
History says, Don’t hope
On this side of the grave,
But then, once in a lifetime
The longed for tidal wave
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Of justice can rise up,
And hope and history rhyme.
So hope for a great sea-change,
On the far-side of revenge.
Believe that a far shore is reachable from here.
Believe in miracles and cures
And healing wells.
How can we explain the historical dimension of sociological analysis? In his book The
Rise of Historical Sociology, Smith (1991) teases out the manner in which various
theorists (thirteen sociologists, four historians, and one sociologist-come- historian) have
sought to explain and theorise structural-processual transformations of time. It is beyond
the reach of this book to do justice to Smith’s ideas and analysis. We urge students who
are interested in sociological historical research to study his ideas. Smith (1991)
suggests that the relevant concerns are: ‘first, whether historical sociologists have
operated as ‘outsiders’, or as members of the ‘relevant establishment’; second, the way
they handle the problems of involvement and detachment; third, their orientation towards
theory, empirical generalizations and primary exploration of historical data; and fourth,
the strategies of explanation they adopt’ (Smith, 1991, p.156). He summarises the
writings of these eighteen theorists into four propensities: Examining Magistrate, the
Scientist, the Advocate and the Partisan Expert Witness, and offers the following
summary.
To summarize, distinctions have been made between four ways of handling the relationship between involvement (the capacity to empathize with and evoke the situation of particular participants in specific historical situations) and detachment (the capacity to observe processes and relationships objectively, discounting political/moral commitments and emotion-laden responses). Four tendencies have been identified: an ‘examining magistrate’ is able to achieve a creative balance between involvement and detachment, each complementing the other; by contrast, in the case of the ‘partisan expert witness’ the author’s involvement with a particular viewpoint limits his or her capacity to be detached, and/or the effort to be detached inhibits overt expression or cultivation of that viewpoint; the ‘scientist’ achieves a high degree of detachment, at the expense of involvement; by contrast, the ‘advocate’ expresses a high degree of involvement, at the expense of detachment. (Smith, 1991, p.163)
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Smith (1991) suggests that it is vital for the vigour of historical sociology that all four
viewpoints (the Examining Magistrate, the Scientist, the Advocate and the Partisan
Expert Witness) be taken into account. There is a saying about history repeating itself, if
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we do not want to repeat the mistakes of the past, then we need to understand how
mistakes were made in the first place. Smith (1991) elaborates on the significance of
historical sociology.
… historical sociology can make a major contribution to a more informed and open-minded civic culture. It has the potential to demonstrate by its achievement the practical value of investigating the past and carrying out systematic comparisons between time and space, drawing out similarities and differences, tracing long-term processes, seeking out causes and pursuing effects, indicating the way people shape and are shaped by the institutions which bind them together and keep them apart. Hopefully it may offer a route to increased understanding and more effective action through rational, critical and imaginative inquiry. (Smith, 1991, p. 184).
In examining Brexit and the decline of the west, Smith (2018) suggests that we must use
creativity to counteract collapse. It is within the grasp of the west to pursue civilised goals
of a decent standard of living, happiness, freedom and high moral standards in order to
thwart those who are only interested in conquest, war, death and mayhem.
Comparative Historical Documentary Research on Wills
Comparative historical sociological research can reveal societal transformations and
provide insights into changes in values. The following example is an illustration of
comparative research in historical sociology using documentary research. For her
doctoral research, Teresa Whitaker conducted comparative research on wills probated in
1951 and 2000 to find out if wills reflected change during a period when Ireland
modernised (Whitaker, 2005). During this period Ireland transformed from a largely
agricultural economy and rural society to a post-industrial service economy and urban
society. The seminal work of anthropologists Arensberg and Kimball in the 1930s
illustrated the central role of inheritance in reproducing the farm family rural Ireland
(Arensberg and Kimball, [1940] 2001). However, by the year 2000 the majority of people
in Ireland no longer lived on farms and parents sought to improve their children’s life
chances by investing in education. Wills are legal documents whose contents must
comply with statutory regulations; historically, these laws changed between 1951 and
2000. Bequeathing and inheritance are two sides of a coin. The purpose of the research
was to examine how and to whom people bequeath property and what this can tell us
about intimate personal relationships in Irish society during a period of rapid social and
economic change (Whitaker, 2005).
Theorising Bequeathing and Inheritance
A comprehensive review of literature pertaining to family, social, economic and legal
changes in Ireland was completed. A toolkit of theories (Bourdieu (1976; 1990),
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Durkheim (1957), Giddens (1984;1992), Le Play (Brooke, 1970), Marx and Engels’
(1972), Parsons (1959; 1965), and theorists who focused on Irish inheritance practices
(Arensberg and Kimball, 1940, 2001; Brody, 1973; Commins and Kelleher 1973; Gibbon,
1973,1978; 1983; Hannan, 1979; Hannan and Katsiaouni, 1977; Hannan and Commins,
1992; Gibbon and Curtin, 1978 and 1983; Fitzpatrick, 1983; Varley, 1983; Curtin et al,
1992;) and the work of contemporary sociologists (Bourdieu, 1976; Delphy and Leonard,
1992; Finch et al. 1996; Finch and Mason, 2000, Mullins, 2000) was used to understand
bequeathing practices. The main contemporary theorists writing on bequeathing and
inheritance were Janet Finch and her colleagues in the UK (Finch, Hayes, Jennifer
Mason, et al., 1996). They examined inheritance as an aspect of social action and
agency; when testators write a will they are actively constructing kinship (Finch and
Mason, 2000). Finch and Mason (2000) argued that three features of kinship in
contemporary society deserved sociological attention. First, kin relationships outside the
immediate household continued to operate. Second, couple relationships were changing:
the rise of cohabitation, divorce and re-partnering [and now the legalisation of gay
marriage] deserve that the construction of family and extended family required greater
attention. Third, family connections and relationships provide insights into
comprehending social life in late modern [post-modern] or advanced industrial societies
(Finch and Mason 2000). On the other hand, feminists Delphy and Leonard (1992) saw
inheritance as perpetuating patriarchy and men’s dominance over women, and this was
especially apparent in farm families. They argued that heterosexual marriage created a
domestic mode of production in which women were exploited because they were
maintained rather than paid. Property was transmitted between males -- from fathers to
sons -- resulting in the disinheritance and suffering of wives, daughters and non-
succeeding sons (Delphy and Leonard, 1992). Mullins (2000) disagreed, arguing that
they did not provide enough empirical evidence to support the claim that inheritance
benefited men rather than women. He contended that they did not differentiate between
domestic (apartments and houses) and commercial (businesses) property. His distinction
between the types of property bequeathed provided an analytical framework. Many
research questions emanated from the literature and the initial analysis of wills, here are
just a sample:
1. What were the bequeathing practices in 1951 and did they change between 1951
and 2000?
2. Were women discriminated against in bequests of property?
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3. Did Irish parents differentiate between sons and daughters in 1951 and did this
change by 2000? Were daughters treated differently to their brothers?
4. To whom did childless testators bequeath their property?
Population and Sample
Probated wills are an excellent resource for examining bequeathing practices and may be
considered as ethnographic data in that they reveal aspects of culture. As a publicly
available primary source, wills fulfil Scott’s (1990) criteria of authenticity, credibility,
representativeness and meaning. Wills are both private and public documents; before a
testator (person who writes a will) dies a will is essentially a private document with closed
or no access but after the testator dies wills are probated and become public documents
with open-archival access (Finch et al., 1996; Finch, Hayes, J Mason, et al., 1996). Copies
of wills were available from the National Archives and the Probate Office. Each will was
accompanied by a Schedule of Assets (affidavits of means) which lists the assets of the
testator. The sampling frame was the ‘Wills and Admons’ Book of 1951 which contains
630 pages with around 20 entries in each page (approximately 12,600 entries). The
sample (n=111) for 1951 was drawn from the records in the National Archives of Ireland.
A systematic random sample (n=111) was used so that the wills chosen would not be
biased by arbitrary considerations such as size of the estate or gender of testator (de Vaus,
1996:64). The sample for year 2000 was elicited from the records in the Probate office in
the High Court. Access to these records was restricted because they are computerised
and there is a financial cost involved in procuring a copy of a will and affidavit. Based on
inclusion criteria from characteristics of the 1951 sample, an employee of the probate office
generated the year 2000 sample (n=111 wills and n=111 affidavits).
In total 444 documents were investigated along with the parliamentary debates that
surrounded the introduction of the Succession Act (1965) and relevant legal cases where
the contents of a will was challenged in court. Analysing a large sample of wills can provide
the macro picture of how people bequeath their property, however, it cannot reveal why
they bequeathed their property in the way they did, therefore, in-depth qualitative
interviews were conducted with fourteen key informants (three solicitors, a revenue
commissioner, an employee of Teagasc, eight people whose lives were affected by the
content of wills, and the founder of the Widows Association). Other secondary
documentary sources were also used: the Dáil debates surrounding the introduction of the
Succession Act were examined in order to ascertain the main issues of concern for
politicians. The historical development of inheritance laws in Ireland was explored and
relevant court cases were assessed.
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Data Analysis
Each will and affidavit was transcribed and the particulars from the affidavits were coded
and inputted into software packages to help to manage the data (SPSS). Once the first
sample was analysed a second sample of 111 wills with the same characteristics was
drawn for the year 2000 to enable comparisons to be made. In sum 444 documents were
analysed statistically (univariate and bivariate analysis, measures of central tendency and
dispersion). Categories were arrived at inductively through a thorough immersion in the
will data. Presentation of data combined the analytical distinction between the nature of
the estate (commercial/domestic) that was bequeathed with the type of familial relationship
which was in question (spousal/parent-child/childless single/widowed). The qualitative
data were coded and analysed thematically (Quinn Patton, 2002) using a software
programme for analysing qualitative data (QSR Nud*ist). Although much of the data was
quantified, the study took an interpretive qualitative approach.
Findings and Interpretation of Data
In bequeathing what they value to those whom they value most, benefactors, on their
deathbeds, were making public statements about their most important personal
relationships (Whitaker, 2005;Whitaker, 2007a). Of greater importance than bequeathed
wealth was the relationship of the benefactor to the beneficiary as evidenced by the fact
that some testators who had small estates or were in debt wrote wills. By locating this
study in two periods 1951 and 2000, wills as legally valid public documents reflected
continuities and changes in Irish society. The two cohorts of testators studied in this
research were born circa 1878 and 1928. The first group were born to parents who
survived the Great Famine, and the second group were born just after Ireland’s
independence. Both cohorts lived through dramatic and radical social changes. In writing
their last will and testament, these testators made active public statements about who and
what they value most.
In bequests of farms in 1951 and 2000, impartible inheritance (the passing on of property
to a sole heir), patriarchy (property devolving from fathers to sons) and patrimony (keeping
property in the family) had continued relevance but parents usually tried to make other
provisions for non-inheriting children. Although sons were favoured in terms of farm
bequests in 1951, there was evidence that some farmers were choosing to leave their
farms to daughters in 2000. In bequests of domestic houses parents often left the house
to a daughter in 1951 but in 2000 they usually preferred to divide their estates equally
among their children; other considerations were also apparent including recompense for
care, favouritism, needs and vindictiveness. Although husbands in 1951 usually made
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provisions for their wives in their wills, in 2000 spouses usually bequeathed all their
property to each other -- reflecting an ideological shift to partnership as a basis for
marriage. The enduring importance of extended family was also apparent; the childless
single and widowed created virtual families by bequeathing to siblings, nieces, nephews
and cousins in 1951 and 2000.
Irish society in 1951 was highly conservative, nationalistic, religious, and patriarchal,
where married women were defined as mothers and confined to the private sphere of the
home. Husbands could disinherit their wives and children. It was a society with a large
number of single men and women, where religious institutions ran orphanages and
homes for illegitimate children. Because of the social stigma attached to illegitimacy, it
was a society from which unmarried pregnant women had to travel to England or entered
Mother and Baby homes to give birth to their babies, and most likely put them up for
adoption. It was an Ireland where contraception was illegal and illegitimate children had
no succession rights. The 1965 Succession Act, the feminist movement, the Status of
Children Act, the legalisation of divorce and the decriminalisation of homosexuality, and
the many EU equality directives contributed to the creation of a post-patriarchal society.
The research revealed that will-writing is an inherently subjective and social activity that
is enabled by the law. It is also a moral act reflecting the values of the testator. The
passing on of property from the benefactor to the beneficiary in the public act of testation
reflects and reinforces solidaristic bonds. That will-writing is done by an individual but
evokes the statutory, legal and taxation structure encompasses many of the central
debates of sociology. The relationship between the social actor (or action frame of
reference) and the social structure has been at the heart of sociology since its
naissance. Giddens (1984) sought to reconcile this dilemma, bringing together the three
main tenets of sociological schools of thought namely the functionalist, structuralist and
the interpretative. He strives to resolve the dualism of agency and structure and
suggests that this dualism be re-conceptualised as the duality of structure: structure is
both the medium and the product of the structures of the actions that are recursively
organised by structures (1984: p. 374).
Giddens (1984) sees the agent and structure as co-dependent and interactive and calls
this relationship the duality of structure. Structuration theory explains how social relations
are patterned across time and space and involve recursive reproduction. Rules and
resources are a basic element of structures, and these rules and resources which social
actors draw upon in their everyday life, also produce and reproduce the actions that
reproduce the very structure. Social actors are skilled, rational and talented they are not
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‘cultural dopes’ nor is society the plastic production of social actors. Although Durkheim
(1982 [1895]) posited the idea that the social actor is born into a society that exists
externally to her/him and that society constrains the individual; this study showed that
these influences are not totally deterministic, that even within the boundaries of
testamentary freedom and constraint lies the capacity for actors to make choices and to
honour a wide range of relationships (including that with the Church). However, the laws
that existed externally to the individual have oppressed some groups historically while
enabling others. Therefore any theory of agency and structure must also consider
structural inequalities and the use and abuse of power by individuals and by groups.
Locating this study within the wider cultural context revealed how laws of inheritance
were used to control, discriminate against and subjugate certain groups historically in
Ireland such as women, those in gay relationships or Boston marriages and co-habiting
couples. In this respect Durkheim’s suggestion is appropriate that any study of family
must take into account the state and the law; the legally defined concept of what is a
family has evolved in Ireland and other countries to include marriages other than those
based on heterosexual unions.
There is no institution, even among those that pass for the most sacred, that I consider placed above dispute…our conception of the family is destined to evolve and is already evolving under our eyes (Durkheim, 1906a: p. 549, cited in Lamanna, 2002: p. 61).
Previous Irish research reified inheritance; this research shows that bequeathing in the
year 2000 was fluid and had an evanescent quality. Bequeathing practices changed as
other Irish institutions (family, legal, religious, taxation, education, social mores)
transformed, reflecting a more pluralistic, heterogenous and complex society. In common
with Finch and Mason (2000) bequeathing practices located the individual at the centre
of his or her own universe in a family. Focusing on the subjective act of testation
revealed a complex network of familial relationships, which were affirmed in the public
act of testation at the end of a person’s life. This act of testation highlights the symbolic
importance of a specific relationship or relationships, whether they are spousal, parental,
avuncular, materterine, fraternal, sororal, simply a friend or the Church. By choosing to
write a will, testators are choosing not to have their estates divided under intestacy laws
which privilege spouses, children and next-of-kin. Testamentary freedom does allow
some testators to dispose of their property as they see fit, yet the majority of testators in
1951 and 2000 chose family members as beneficiaries. This research highlighted the
value of comparative historical sociological analysis using documentary research for
illustrating continuities and transformations in Irish society.
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Assessing the Trustworthiness of Documents
Documents need to be evaluated to determine their trustworthiness. Donald Trump,
former president of the United States of America, made the terms ‘false facts’ and ‘fake
news’ fashionable. Fake news refers to fabricated news which has no basis in fact, but it
is presented as being factually accurate and correct. The term “propaganda” was used
historically (Krippendorf, 2012). Some historical documents may prove to be fakes. For
example, Adolf Hitler’s war time diaries were bought by the German magazine, Stern.
Following analysis by experts, they turned out to be sophisticated forgeries (Scott, 1990).
Closer to home, Roger Casement, an Irish Protestant who worked for the British
Consulate and who witnessed atrocious acts of brutality in the Congo and later in the
Amazon documented these in his diaries. He also documented sexually explicit details
of sex between him and other men; his diaries were later used to discredit him and he
was executed for his role in the 1916 rebellion. Controversy still exists as to whether the
diaries are real or fake (Tóibín, 2001). Documentary sources like other sources need to
be treated with scepticism; issues of validity and reliability come into question.
The trustworthiness of documentary research is assessed by four interdependent
criteria: authenticity, credibility, representativeness, and meaning, which provide useful
‘quality appraisal’ criteria for all stages of the research (Scott, 1990, pp. 19-35).
1) Authenticity
A document should be interrogated to see if it is authentic or genuine. For example, it is
very easy to fake photographs with new technology. In assessing the authenticity of a
document, two factors can be taken into account: soundness and authorship.
o Soundness
The researcher could ask the following questions of the document or artefact:
• Is it sound?
• Is it an original or is it a fake?
• Is it a copy of a copy?
• Is it incomplete?
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• Has it been corrupted in transmission?
• Are there significant errors in grammar and spelling?
• If it is an old document: Was it written on the parchment, which is appropriate to
the time it was written?
o Authorship:
• Can a particular name, date, or place which may be inscribed on the document
be authenticated?
• Is it a forgery?
• Can we get both internal and external evidence about the authenticity of the
author? For example, internal evidence is vocabulary and literary style. External
evidence could consist of chemical tests carried out on handwritten documents or
old parchments.
2) Credibility
Drawing on the work of Langlois and Seignobos, Scott (1990, p. 22) suggests that
researchers should adopt an attitude of ‘methodological distrust’. Many official
documents represent the interests of the powerful, so the question could be posed: In
whose interests were these documents produced? Are they sincere?
o Sincerity:
• Are the documents prejudiced?
• How can we appraise if a document is distorted?
• Is the author sincere in his/her point of view?
• Did the author actually believe what they recorded?
• If they are official documents, the author may not have any choice in whether to
be sincere or not.
• Be aware that personal documents can be written for many different reasons.
• How close to the event was the document produced?
o Accuracy:
How accurate is the document?
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Mostly big inaccuracies will be self-explanatory. It is more likely that primary sources are
more accurate than secondary sources or even tertiary etc., because of the time lapse.
3) Representativeness
Researchers will need to question whether the documents represent the totality of all the
available documents on a particular issue. This comes down to their survival and
availability and leads to the following questions:
o Survival
• How have the documents survived over time?
• Due to their sensitive nature, were documents destroyed?
• Did some documents disappear because they were misfiled?
• Official papers are often deposited in archives and may survive and remain
unopened for years before they are opened to the public.
o Availability
Ideally, the researcher must have some idea about the number and type of documents
that might have been produced in the first place and also about their availability. This
involves a search for sources by the researcher, and an attempt to understand the
principles on which the various archives have been constructed in order to compile a list
of the relevant documents and to choose a sample from them.
4) Meaning
The overarching reason for examining a document is to understand the ‘meaning of the
document and the significance of what it contains’ (Scott, 1990, p. 28). For example,
many documents from the 19th century may be written in English that is
incomprehensible today, or documents may be in a different language and may require a
translator. Scott suggests that documents may be read at two levels: the literal and
interpretive.
o Literal
The literal meaning of a document relates to its face value, for example, in the 19th
century the word ‘whitster’ was used in the English census and described a person who
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bleaches textiles but the word is no longer in use today. The word doesn’t tell us about
the life of a whitster, as this would require a deeper investigation and interpretation.
o Interpretative
The interpretative meaning requires the researcher to go beyond surface meanings, to
dig deeper, to examine the genre, style (a personal diary, a government record etc.), and
the cultural context of the document:
The ultimate interpretation of the meaning of the text will derive from the researcher’s judgement that this interpretation ‘makes sense’, given his or her understanding of the author’s situation and intentions (Scott, 1990, p. 31)
There are many ways in which a text can be analysed, either using quantitative content
analysis or qualitative interpretation. Texts may have very different meanings. When an
author produces a text, they have an intended meaning. However, the audience of a text
may apply a different meaning:
The most that can be achieved by a researcher is an analysis which shows how the inferred internal meaning of the text opens up some possibilities for interpretation by its audience and closes off others (Scott, 1990, pp. 34-35).
Conducting Analysis on Documents
Similar to other types of data, documents can be analysed using quantitative, qualitative,
or mixed methods. Like the data from surveys or in-depth interviews, the same sampling
and analysis strategies are applied. The research question determines the methodology.
Sarantakos (2013, p. 13) suggests that there are four types of basic analysis
(descriptive, categorical, exploratory and comparative). Descriptive analysis refers to
simply summarising the data and identifying main trends. Categorical analysis goes
further and aims to define and identify diversity. Exploratory analysis looks for
characteristics and peculiarities and links them to the underlying message; for example,
“How did women’s magazines portray family life in the 1950s?” Comparative analysis
compares social issues across cultures, times or countries; for example, an educational
researcher may be interested in the development of Educational Policy in their own
country, or may wish to compare and contrast the policies of different countries or at
different times.
Hermeneutics in its original meaning meant the art of translating biblical texts with the
intention of understanding and interpreting them in light of the prevailing conditions at the
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time of their construction and with the intention of understanding their creators
(Sarantakos, 2013, p. 334). It is a highly complex method and we urge researchers to
consult specialist textbooks if they intend to use this method for their research.
The two principal methods of analysis are quantitative (see Chapter 6) and qualitative
(see Chapter 7), which are illustrated in the research examples below. However, a
distinct method which encompasses qualitative and quantitative analysis is described as
‘content analysis’.
Content Analysis
Content analysis (CA) is a documentary research method that uses quantitative or
qualitative analysis of documents such as newspapers, texts, speeches, films or ‘other
forms of verbal, visual or written communication’ (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 314). These texts
are analysed in the ‘context of their uses’ (Krippendorf, 2012, p. xiii). As a method of
analysis, the term ‘content analysis’ dates back to 1941, but the roots can be traced to
humans’ conscious use of symbols, language and writing (Krippendorf, 2012). CA is
concerned with meanings, messages, symbols and seeks to understand data, not only
as a collection of physical events, but as symbolic phenomena (Krippendorf, 2012).
Sarantakos (2013) suggests that content analysis focuses on the manifest content
(words, texts, etc.) and the latent content. The latent content refers to the hidden
underlying meaning of texts, ‘the underlying cultural patterns, attitudes, prejudices,
norms and symbols that are inferred or hidden and that ultimately guide people’s
behaviour’ (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 315). The following is a brief summary of the history of
CA from 1600 to the 21st century (Neuendorf, 2017, pp. 201-242; Krippendorf, 2012, pp.
3-17); We have inserted an additional line to reflect the current popularity of CA.
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Table 24. Brief History of Content Analysis (Neuendorf, 2017, Krippendorf, 2012)
1600s
In Europe, the Church feared the spread of non-religious matter through newspapers. Students pursuing degrees in theology conducted content analysis on newspapers.
1700s
In Sweden, a hymn book of the Songs of Zion was passed by the State censorship but was soon blamed for undermining State Clergy. Scholars on both sides of the argument counted the symbols as equal.
1787 Quantitative analysis of newspapers exposed class bias. 1800s
Analysis of newspapers 1881-1893 concluded that religious, scientific and literary matters had been overtaken by gossip, sports and scandal.
1893 Schools of journalism emerged with concomitant analysis of the content of newspapers.
1910 At the first meeting of the German Sociological Society, Max Weber, (sociologist) proposed a large-scale content analysis of the Press but this was never pursued.
1926 Sociologist Malcolm Willey conducted an analysis of the subject matter and social role of country weekly newspapers in Connecticut (USA) comparing the contents with large city newspapers.
1940s Propaganda analysis during World War 2 gave impetus to content analysis. They studied domestic enemy broadcasts and discovered that the German leadership had to prepare the population for any political action that might affect them (through hints) and through propaganda analysis it was possible to foresee major military and political campaigns, Nazi-elite perception of their situation, political changes in the governing group and shifts in relations between countries.
1950s After World War 2 the impetus given to content analysis during the war caused it to spread to numerous disciplines, for example, psychology began to use it in verbal records, answers to open-ended questions in questionnaires and group verbal exchanges. In 1955, the Social Science Research Council’s Committee on Linguistics sponsored a conference on content analysis to which delegates from various academic disciplines came: history, anthropology, psychology, linguistics, literature, and political science. There was a convergence in terms of thought: (a) drawing inferences about the antecedents of communications, and (b) counting frequencies of symbols and reliance on co-occurrences (Krippendorf, 2012, p. 12).
1960s The naissance of computers enabled researchers to put any text into software packages for data analysis and count the frequency of words. Some of these programmes were able to give the context in which the word appeared. The interactive media age has seen the proliferation of content analysis computer software with different capabilities, limitations, and challenges.
2003 The popularity of content analysis as a research method has grown. The term ‘content analysis’ was used in the Google search engine and found 4,230,000 documents, compared with 3,990,000 hits for ‘survey research’ and 1,050,000 hits for ‘psychological test’ (Krippendorf, 2012, p. 17).
2021 A cursory search for ‘content analysis’ in Google Scholar search engine found 6,410,000 results, compared with 2,950.000 for ‘psychological experiment’, 3,180,000 for ‘psychological test’, 2, 590,000 for ‘sociological research, 2,360,000 for ‘qualitative interviews’ and 5,130,000 for surveys.; Action Research, 3,230,000, Self-study research, 230,00; Narrative Research 3,640,000
Content analysis is defined by Krippendorf (2012, p. 18) as ‘… a research technique for
making replicable and valid inferences from texts (or other meaningful matter) to the
contexts of their use’. He suggests that it is a scientific tool that is reliable, replicable, and
valid. Historically, content analysis emanated from journalism and tended to use
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quantitative methods by analysing the data in order to find similarities and patterns,
coding the data and then inputting each document into a statistical package and
manipulating the data (Krippendorf, 2012). However, content analysis can also be used
by qualitative researchers. Krippendorf provides examples of its use in discourse
analysis, social constructivist analyses, rhetorical analyses, ethnographic content
analysis, conversation analysis, and feminist analysis. Harwood and Giles (1992)
conducted a qualitative analysis of a popular television series, The Golden Girls, and
found that it perpetuated stereotypes of older people by making counter stereotype
portrayals laughable (Harwood and Giles, 1992). Feminist scholarship has investigated
feminist issues in texts such as fiction and non-fiction, children’s books, fairy tales,
artwork, sociology textbooks, and citations (Sarantakos, 2013, p. 315).
In terms of research paradigms, Krippendorf (2012, p. xvii) argues that ‘content analysis
is an empirically grounded method, exploratory in process, and predictive or inferential in
intent’. He questions the usefulness of the distinctions between qualitative and
quantitative methodologies, arguing that all texts have to be interpreted: ‘reading of texts
is qualitative, even when certain characteristics of a text are later converted into
numbers’ (Krippendorf, 2012, p. 16). As a research method, the popularity of content
analysis has grown exponentially and has been embraced by many academic
disciplines.
The steps in conducting research for content analysis are similar to those for other
research projects, namely selecting a topic, methodology (defining the exact unit of
analysis), sampling, collecting, and then analysing and interpreting data (see
Sarantakos, 2013, pp. 316 -317; Krippendorf, 2012; Neuendorf, 2017). However, the
literature review is not written separately but is an intrinsic aspect of the research.
In the next section, we illustrate the myriad ways in which documentary research
methods have been used. All that is required is the use of the imagination!
YouTube Videos as Documents
YouTube Videos were used as a documentary source by Jenny Meyer for a minor
dissertation in a Master’s in Integrated Counselling (word count 15,000). Although the
medium of psychotherapy is language, there has been a distinct lack of research using
discourse analysis to examine how psychotherapy works from within medical discourses
and its ruling categories (Meyer, 2012). Meyer’s research aimed to address a lacuna
within the literature by exploring the effects of language on current understanding of
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personality disorder. The aim of the study was to explore how individual bloggers (self-
identifying with Personality Disorder) represent themselves through discursive practices.
The objectives of the research were to: a) interrogate what is said of personality disorder
by those who self-identify with this category b) to examine the kinds of social
explanations underpinning these discourses, and c) to explore what can be learned from
these discursive practices in order to inform clinical/counselling practice.
The theoretical framework was based on Foucault’s work which suggested that our
understanding of madness is in part shaped by the words and language we use to
explain it (Foucault, 1980). However, this language is not neutral and categories of
mental disorder are socially constructed, shaped, and defined by power relations.
Drawing on medical, judicial, and political discourses, Psychiatry has classified mental
disorders into “what is normal” and “what is abnormal”. The American Psychiatric
Association defines Personality Disorders as ‘an enduring pattern of inner experience
and behaviour that deviates markedly from the expectations of the culture of the
individual who exhibits it’ (APA, 1994). The research method used was as follows:
Stage One: Population and Sample: From a population of approximately sixty YouTube
videos, a non-probabilistic sample of eleven videos was chosen of bloggers who
identified with a personality disorder. The criteria for inclusion included: a) Duration of
clip was three minutes or over, b) the number of hits was in excess of 30,000, c) a mix of
different kinds of personality disorders were portrayed (however, the vast majority
identified with Borderline Personality Disorder), d) gender mix, and e) a mix of written
and spoken dialogue (Meyer, 2012, pp. 22-23).
Stage two: Data Collection: all spoken, written, and sung data was transcribed into word
files.
Stage three: Data analysis: All data were collated. Analysis of the data took place
through immersion in the text until there was a clear sense of the material and its textual
and contextual dimensions. The messages and themes from the videos were noted
(Potter and Wetherall, 1995). Extensive memos were written which ultimately led to a set
of research questions:
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• What linguistic tactics are being used: metaphor, connotations, allusions, and
personal accounts?
• What authorities are being called upon? Whose voice is being privileged in the
texts with what effects? Who is being marginalized and what is inevitable if we
don’t call these claims into question?
• What normalizing judgements are at play?
• Who do the participants identify as agents of assessment?
• What contradictions are inherent in the texts?
• Which categories of person gain and lose from the employment of the
discourses?
• Which institutions are attacked or subverted?
Stage Four: The data was interpreted in light of Foucault’s theory. Two major discourses
emerged inductively from the data. ‘Constituting Anticipatory Conformity’ illustrated how
bloggers did not resist the dominant discourse of psychiatry and conformed to its ruling
categories. Bloggers had voluntarily succumbed to what Foucault described as ‘the
psychiatric gaze’, demonstrating how language sets and maintains power relations and
how bloggers, through the socialisation process, use this language to describe
themselves (Foucault, 1986; Foucault, 1980). The second discourse was a ‘Discourse of
Dichotomy’. Bloggers represented themselves as a marginalised group that no one
wants to belong to; they drew attention to their differences in terms of brain structure;
they set themselves apart from others (‘the norm’) in terms of how they believe they
express and experience emotions (Meyer, 2012, p. 44).
Händel’s ‘Messiah’
The premiere of Händel’s Messiah was performed in Dublin on April 13th, 1742 and every
year - apart from the pandemic years - it is performed outdoors in Fishamble Street. As a
choral singer who participates in a choir that sings Messiah annually, Marjorie Fitzpatrick
(nee O’ Neill) wondered: What kind of society gave rise to music of enduring appeal?
What part did music play in the cultural life at the time? Marjorie’s doctoral research
(O’Neill, 2004) used archival and historic documents to explore Händel’s Messiah and
the role of music and power in 18th century court society (Fitzpatrick, 2016). Using the
sociology of music, her theoretical framework drew on Norbert Elias’s ‘figurational
sociology’ whose focus was the web of interdependent power ratios exemplified in his
work The Court Society (Elias, 1969). Elias wished to bridge the micro (social action/
agency) and macro (structure) perspectives of mainstream sociology and suggested that
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figurations of people are the unit of investigation (Mennell, 1996). Goudsblom et al.
(1989) argue that research problems are conceived in processual terms (Goudsblom,
Mennell and Jones, 1989). Elias was interested in ‘the complex interweaving of social
interconnections’ (1989, p. 7, cited in Smith, 1991, p. 47), social processes and
networks, power, and knowledge. Figurational sociology can be compared to a spider’s
web, where all the threads in the web are interdependent. According to Goudsblom
(1977):
It is about people in the plural, human beings interdependent with each other in different ways whose lives evolve in are significantly shaped by the social figurations they form together. These figurations are continually changing some rapid, some slow. They are largely unplanned and unforeseen. The development of human knowledge takes place within human figurations and is one important aspect of their overall development (Goudsblom, 1977, p. 6).
The aim of the research was to find out the role of music in 18th century court society,
and specifically if music reflects cultural changes. A preliminary review of the literature
led to the research question: Is music an indicator of power positions within the court
society?
To address this research question, documentary research method was chosen based on
a qualitative interpretive approach.
Primary Sources: The major primary source of data was the libretto of Händel’s
Messiah which is scriptural in nature. Another primary source was the letters written by
Mrs Mary Delaney (1700-1788) who lived at Queen Anne’s court in London and was a
member of the court society in England and Ireland. While living in the Stanley
household in England, Mary met and befriended Händel; they remained lifelong friends
and she became his patron. These letters were sourced from the National Library in
Dublin and Newport library in Wales.
Secondary Sources: A comprehensive review of literature, with an emphasis on books
that focused on 18th century cultural and political situations, music and religion in the
court society in Great Britain and Ireland, was undertaken. For example, The Keeper’s
Recital, Music and Culture in Ireland, 1770-1790 (White, 1998), and resources which
included the sociology of music, such as, Introduction to the Sociology of Music (Adorno,
1976) and After Adorno, Rethinking Music Sociology (DeNora, 2003). Drawing on the
psychology of music, some of the resources include Music Therapy an Art beyond words
(Bunt, 1994) and The Social Psychology of Music (Hargreaves and North, 1989), The
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Cultural Study of Music (Clayton, Herbert and Middleton, 2003), and The Eighteenth
Century 1688-1815 (Langford, 2002).
Sampling Technique: The entire libretto (music and lyrics) of Händel’s oratorio
Messiah was analysed. A stratified random sample of six volumes of letters written by
Mary Delany was selected. The inclusion criteria were letters that contained references
to music and the court society. Each document was reviewed and examined using
Scott’s (1990) criteria: authenticity, credibility, representativeness, and meaning.
Data Analysis: These three sets of data were analysed using Elias’s The Court Society.
i. The contents of Mary Delany’s letters were analysed thematically (Patton, 2002).
They provided insights into the court society and the role of music within it.
Empirical research on the court society and the power positions within that
society provided insights into the relationship between the dynamics of position
and the dynamics of individuality, and offers an understanding of the connections
between power, social structures, and values. Elias (1969) emphasised the
central role of the monarchy because this centralisation of power of the monarchy
in court society reflected cultural changes throughout Europe. In order to gain
reputations and prestige in court society, its members were very aware that these
were always seen in relationship to the monarch and monarchy.
ii. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the music and libretto Händel’s Messiah
which reflected cultural changes throughout Europe in the eighteenth century.
Händel was an employee and friend of Kings George 1st and George 2nd.. He was
part of the court society in England, the Protestant Ascendancy class in Ireland,
and was a friend and admirer of Mary Delany, who in turn was also a friend of the
King. Music was an important link of interdependencies between members of this
figuration. The music of Messiah was analysed in the context of Elias’s
figurational sociology within the court society using concepts such as muscular
bonding and power.
iii. The libretto of Messiah called the sacred oratorio, because the words are drawn
from scripture, was analysed using the process of hermeneutic inquiry, which is
the scientific interpretation of Biblical texts (Crotty, 1998, p. 87). The libretto was
analysed using the ‘Divine Right of Kings’, which reflected the role of the
monarchy in the court society, particularly identifying changes within the political
cultural and social settings.
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Interpretation of Data and Main Findings: The data were interpreted in the light of
Elias’s (1969) figurational sociology, specifically in relation to the court society in
eighteenth century England and Ireland; an era known in Europe as the ‘Age of
Absolutism’. Elias argued that the Court Society shaped the taste and dictated the
manners, standards, fashions (such as architecture, houses, gardens, horses, and
music) which distinguished their ranks and to which the lower orders aspired. The data
revealed that music is not simply an art form but is implicated in the relationship between
music and power in eighteenth century Protestant Ascendency court society in Ireland.
Music was an essential element for promoting identity and distinction. Members of the
court society were specialists in moulding social conduct; this is what gave them power.
As a member of the Protestant Ascendancy, Mary Delany was the metonym of the court
society, in that she fraternised with its members and had prestige and social power.
Händel changed from writing opera to writing oratorios, reflecting the political and cultural
changes in society. Messiah ‘reinforced the position that Protestantism represented both
the religion and the politics of the court society (Fitzpatrick, 2016, p. 462). Messiah
functioned as a “collective effervescence” because it had mimetic qualities that led to
muscular bonding which empowered those involved in performing the music. Some
argue that Messiah was anti-Deist but a more plausible argument is that there was a
hidden agenda which supported the Divine Right of Kings to rule, reflecting the changes
in the monarchy from absolutism to a more constitutional type of monarchy (Fitzpatrick,
2011; Fitzpatrick, 2016). An analysis of Händel’s Messiah reveals the true cultural power
of music.
Use of Essays in Educational Research
Researchers may ask a participant to keep documents, such as diaries or essays, as
primary data for research. For example, Lodge and Lynch (2002) conducted research in
twelve Irish schools over two years, in order to advance understanding of how schools
promote equality and inequality so that social injustices can be addressed. Part of their
research involved conducting analysis on 1,202 essays written by students.
Subsequently, focus group research was conducted with students to confirm
interpretation of findings (Lodge and Lynch, 2002). They found that the key contexts of
forms of inequality were political, economic, and socio-cultural, with the key forms of
redress being redistribution, recognition, and representation. These are summarised in
Table 25 below.
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Table 25. Key contexts for the generation of inequality and means of redress for
selected social groups (Lodge and Lynch, 2000, p. 185, * some, ** major
significance)
Key contexts of forms
of inequality
Typical forms of inequality
Political Forms of redress
Ethnic minorities
Religious minorities
Age
Groups
Social Class
Gender
Travellers Children Low income/ welfare
Working class
Girls
Political Powerlessness Effective
Representation democratisation
* * ** * *
Economic Lack of adequate resources
Redistribution of goods and wealth
* * * ** *
Socio-cultural
Lack of respect Recognition of culture, values,
lifestyles
** ** * * *
Potentialities of Documentary Research
As a research method, documentary research and content analysis have many
possibilities and potentialities. Drawing on the work of others (Mason, 1996, Thomas,
2011, Sarantakos, 2013 and Neuendorf, 2017), we provide a summary:
• Unobtrusive: There is less interference in the subjects of your research because
the researcher uses documents rather than human actors, for example, the
researcher might use content analysis of letters sent into newspapers but does
not analyse the person who wrote the letters (Ryan, 2013).
• Scope: Documents provide a rich source of high-quality data whose depths can
be mined through software packages for data analysis. Technology has
revolutionised analysis of qualitative and quantitative data. Therefore, there is a
far greater scope for research. Documents can span centuries. The sky is the
limit.
• Continuity and Change: Documentary research can highlight continuities and
changes in society. For example, Teresa Whitaker conducted comparative
research on ‘Last wills and testaments’ probated in the years 1951 and 2000 to
understand how bequeathing and inheritance practices changed as Ireland
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modernised (Whitaker, 2005). Her research demonstrated the enduring power of
family and kinship.
• History: Historic documents may be the sole source of data. The past can be
analysed, brought to life and new meanings provided (Fitzpatrick, 2016).
• Contemporary: Current events as they unfold can also be a source of data.
• Eclectic methodologies: Depending on the research question, a range of
qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methodologies can be used.
• Access: Many documents are easily accessed through open archives.
• Cost: Documentary research involves low costs.
• Time: Conducting analysis on documents is less time consuming that organising
interviews or focus groups or sourcing and waiting for respondents to complete
questionnaires.
• Convenience: Researchers can pose any questions they wish of the documents.
For example, in Meyer’s (2012) research, multiple questions were asked about
the videos on personality disorder, she did not have to interview people with
personality disorder.
• Data: Documentary research can be used to analyse unstructured material for
example, Fitzpatrick’s (2016) research used multiple sources of data.
• Objectivity: There is greater potential for objectivity because the position of the
researcher to the researched is detached. Researcher bias is reduced because
the person who wrote the original document wrote it spontaneously.
• Test re-test: It is possible to replicate tests.
Limitations of Documentary Research
• The researcher could become overwhelmed by the sheer volume of data and find
it difficult to define the actual research topic and question.
• Finding a representative sample could prove difficult. Historical documents are
often destroyed or incomplete. For example, many documents were destroyed in
the burning of the Customs House in 1921 during the Irish War of Independence.
• There may be ethical issues, for example, data is being used for an unintended
purpose so all personal identifiers should be removed. For example, if a
researcher was undertaking research on the exploitation of women in
pornography and was studying actual photos, the researcher should not
reproduce these photos in any publication because you could be collaborating in
the process of exploitation (Mason, 1996).
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• Some documents could prove to be forgeries.
Overview: How to Conduct Documentary Research
In the introductory chapter, we suggested that all research projects face the same steps,
namely, selecting a topic, identifying the aim of the research or the research question,
conducting a literature review, choosing a theoretical framework, writing a research
proposal, obtaining ethical approval, choosing a suitable methodology and methods,
selecting a sample, designing research instruments, piloting research instrument,
negotiating access to respondents, negotiating informed consent (with a research
information sheet), collecting and analysing data, and then writing up the research. With
documentary research, these stages of research remain the same. However, we may not
necessarily devise research instruments prior to collecting data. Instead, the research
questions may be generated as the researcher interacts with the documents, they may
also return to the documents and ask additional questions for a deeper level of
interpretation (Sarantakos, 2013). As with archival documents, when using other
documentary resources, it is important to consider the design of the research, what
documents are relevant, and under what conditions these documents were produced.
Issues of sampling, analysis, and comparability must also be taken into account.
Researchers must also be cognisant of ethical issues. For instance, if the documents
were produced for purposes that were quite different than from those of the research, the
producers of the documents may not be in the position to give consent. To deal with this
challenge, fictional names are always provided (see chapter 3). In sum:
• Choose a topic and conduct a basic literature review. Choose the aim and
objectives of your research. Formulate a researchable question.
• Choose a method (documentary research or content analysis) and research
design or strategy (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods).
• Obtain ethical permission to conduct research
• Find a body of relevant documents on your specific topic.
• Choose a sample.
• Appraise each of the documents under Scott’s four criteria: authenticity,
credibility, representativeness, and meaning.
• Conduct analysis on the sample: statistical analysis if using quantitative methods;
content analysis (quantitative or qualitative methodology), qualitative
methodology (thematic analysis) or mixed methods.
• Interpret the documents in light of the theoretical framework
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• Write up the research report or dissertation
Conclusion
In conclusion, this chapter has explored all aspects of the documentary research
method. We have provided examples of research that involved different types of
‘documents’ such as YouTube videos, Händel’s Messiah, diaries, essays, etc. The
beauty of this method is that it does not intrude in people’s lives but can offer deep
insights into society, culture, and individual lives.
Moving away from documents to the real world of practitioners, the next chapter explores
action research, and self-study research.
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Key Messages
• Documentary research is a research method which uses documents rather than
people as primary sources of data.
• A ‘document’ is defined as more than a ‘written text’. There are many types of
documents or cultural artefacts which can be used as data in documentary
research, including songs, buildings, statues, novels, YouTube videos etc.,
• Documents may be of a historical nature such as archives or may be produced
for the purpose of research such as diaries etc.
• Ethnomethodology is the paradigm which underpins documentary research.
• Documentary research is not the same as a literature review. All research
projects including documentary research contain a literature review.
• Documentary research may include primary and secondary sources.
• Before analysing the documents in relation to the overall research question, the
document is analysed under John Scott’s criteria: authenticity, credibility,
representativeness, and meaning.
• Documents used in documentary research can be analysed either quantitatively
(statistics) or qualitatively using thematic analysis or using content analysis.
• Documentary research is a very useful method for exploring the historical
dimension of sociological analysis, i.e. structural-processual transformations of
time.
• This chapter has provided examples of the various uses of documents in archival
research, psychological research, educational research, and historical research.
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Exercises
1. Visit the National Archives of Ireland (https://www.nationalarchives.ie) and see if
you can find your ancestors in the Census of Ireland 1901 or 1911
http://www.census.nationalarchives.ie
2. Check out your local graveyard and see if you can find a headstone with
information about three generations.
Further Reading
We have presented a preliminary insight into Content Analysis; students are advised to
read specialist textbooks if they are interested in using this method in their research.
Krippendorff, K. (2012) Content Analysis, An Introduction to Its Methodology, US: Sage
Publications Inc.
Neuendorf, K. A. (2017) The content analysis guidebook. 2nd edition. USA: Sage
Publications.
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Chapter 11. Action Research, Participatory Action
Research and Self-study Research
Introduction
Action research is used widely in many academic disciplines such as business and
education research, community studies, nursing and medical studies, psychology, and
sociology. The term action research encompasses a variety of approaches, including,
technical action research, practical action research, emancipatory action research,
feminist action research, collaborative action research, participatory action research, and
self-study action research (Punch, 2009).
Action research seeks to transform a situation through research and action. It is often
referred to as practitioner research, in that a practitioner (teacher, nurse, doctor,
engineer) sees a challenge in their own practice, designs an intervention to change the
practice, and then evaluates the outcomes. Whereas other research begins with a theory
and research question, action research and self-study research begin with a problem in
one’s practice.
Participatory Action Research (PAR) is a more radical and transformative type of
research which seeks to include participants as equal partners in the research. It
involves critical awareness and the building of alliances in the planning, implementation,
and broadcasting of results (McIntyre, 2008).
Self-study research (SSR) emerged from the USA (Samsaras, 2011). It builds on action
research but involves collaboration with critical friends and peers. Its premise is that
individual practitioners such as teachers cannot change the education system but can
only change their own practices. It involves personal reflection, consultation, and
collaboration with other teachers to enhance teaching and learning.
Within these methods, data gathering could involve doing observations, interviews, focus
groups, or surveys. These methods have been explored in depth in chapters 6 and 7, so
we will not be revisiting them here. As this book is directed towards emerging
researchers, we provide examples of students’ use of action research and self-study
research in educational settings. We also provide examples of action research, and
participatory action research in an Irish societal context. Our discussion begins with the
origins of action research and the underpinning paradigms.
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Learning Outcomes
On successful completion of this chapter, the successful student will be able to:
• Describe and discuss the theoretical bases of action research, self-study
research and participatory action research
• Define the differences between action research, self-study research and
participatory action research
• Design a study based on AR, PAR, or SSR
• Conduct analysis on disparate data
• Competently conduct research using AR, PAR, or SSR
Action Research History
Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) coined the term Action Research in 1946 (Lewin, 1946). Lewin
was Jewish and fled to the USA when Hitler came to power in Europe. He became a
professor in Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and is considered the founder
of social psychology. As a member of a persecuted minority group, Lewin was
particularly interested in raising the self-esteem of minority groups so that they could
achieve independence, equality, and co-operation through action research. Lewin
questioned how one could retain the identity or label of a religion (such as Judaism) even
when one no longer practiced that religion. Lewin considered that it was not enough to
conduct surveys about intergroup relations, but instead deeper information was required
to gain insights into people’s motivations:
The research needed for social practice can best be characterized as research for social management or social engineering. It is a type of action-research, a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action, and research leading to social action. Research that produces nothing but books will not suffice (Lewin, 1946, p. 35)
Lewin gives the example of a workshop he facilitated for fifty community members
working in the area of intergroup (inter racial) relations in Connecticut. He suggested that
social researchers and practitioners should cooperate and should be trained together:
‘we should consider action, research and training as a triangle that should be kept
together for the sake of any of its corners’ (Lewin, 1946, p. 42).
Lewin advocated for the use of practical experiments in everyday situations. He was
invited to work as a consultant in Harwood factory. He wanted to demonstrate that there
was an alternative to Taylor’s scientific management and leadership, based on
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communication and co-operation. He divided the work force into two groups. One group
received didactic instructions; the second group was encouraged to ask questions about
the division of tasks. After a few months, the productivity and morale of the second group
was much higher. This confirmed his beliefs that democratic participation worked better
than autocracy at increasing productivity:
Action research must include the active participation by those who have to carry out the work in the exploration of problems that they identify and anticipate. After investigation of these problems the group makes decisions, monitoring and keeping note of the consequences. Regular reviews of progress follow. The group would decide on when a particular plan or strategy had been exhausted and fulfilled, come to nothing, and would bring to these discussions newly perceived problems (Adelman, 1993, p. 9)
Lewin was friendly with John Dewey, who espoused progressive education. Lewin
believed that the school could act as an agency of democratic change within a
community (Adelman, 1993). Lewin was a pragmatist but sought an empirical basis for
his arguments, which was based on an interpretative epistemology (Adelman, 1993).
Lewin classified action research into four categories:
1) Diagnostic action research designed to produce a needed plan of action. The
change agents would intervene in an already existing situation (for example, a
race riot or anti-Semitic vandalism), diagnose the problem and recommend
remedial measures.
2) Participant action research in which it is assumed that the residents of the
affected community who were there to help effect a cure must be involved in the
research process from the beginning.
3) Empirical action research was primarily a matter of record keeping and
accumulating experiences in day-to-day work, ideally with a succession of similar
groups.
4) Experimental action research called for a controlled study of the relative
effectiveness of various techniques in nearly identical social situations (Adelman,
1993, p. 43).
Action Research Paradigm
The paradigms underpinning action research are pragmatism and critical theory (see
Chapter 2). The seeds (Eikeland, 2015) of action research can be traced to the writings
of Aristotle in ancient Greece, who wrote ‘What we have to learn to do, we learn by
doing’ (Ethics (2)). AR has been influenced by a substantial body of literature and by
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theories in philosophy, sociology, social psychology, and education (Somekh, 2006).
These ideas include equal rights to speech, critical reflection on the self, values,
phronesis, praxis, reflexivity and power and values (Somekh, 2006, p. 15).
1) Equal rights to speech
Bridget Somekh, founder and editor of the Educational Action Research Journal (1993 to
2008), teases out the influences of, interalia, Habermas, Carr and Kemis, Gadamar,
Elliott, Arendt and Coulter, Freud, Garfinkel, and George Herbert Mead on action
research. Habermas believed that communicative action was the moral purpose of
human life involving people understanding each other’s ‘lifeworld’ through an ‘ideal
speech situation’ in which people had equal rights to speak, express their feelings, no
opinions were excluded, and were people were accountable for their opinions. Carr and
Kemis (1983) built on Habermas’s work and developed a critical theory and
emancipatory action research which argues that professionals have a right to make
judgements free from external constraints. Elliott (1993) saw professionals as being
involved in a practical science, whereby they could respond to certainty and change,
make decisions in unpredictable situations, using practical wisdom to determine the most
suitable actions which are commensurate with their values:
For Elliott, action research is a process whereby, through the collection and interpretation of data, in the light of personal reflection and self-evaluation, individuals can establish ‘situational understanding’ as the basis for action which integrates practical aims with moral understanding (Elliott, 1993, cited in Somekh, p. 13)
Hannah Arendt believed that the ‘highest form of human action is located in practice
rather than in the sphere of ideas’ (Somekh, 2006, p. 13). Building on her theories,
Coulter (2002, cited in Somekh) distinguishes between labour, work, and action; labour
is oriented to survival, work is about creativity, and action allows for the exercise of
human freedom within a diverse community and this is what defines educational action
research.
2) The Reflective Self
Action research involves critical reflection on the self. Understanding the self is a
complex process, Somekh (2006) draws on the work of Garfinkel who suggested that
much human action is observable, routine and often unconscious. The disadvantage of
this is that we may engage in actions which are in conflict with our intentions, for
example, we may unwittingly be prejudiced against certain groups in society. Somekh
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concludes that the self is not unitary, but rather is socially constructed and multiple. She
defines agency as the ‘capability of self to take actions that will impact on a social
situation’ (Somekh, 2006, p. 15).
3) Power
Issues of power must be taken into account in action research. Somekh draws on the
work of Steven Lukes (1974), who saw power as being three dimensional: 1) power may
be exercised by A over B in an organisation, 2) power may be exercised unconsciously
(such as policies) and, 3) ideological power. For example, Somekh cites her own
research (Pupil Autonomy in Learning with Microcomputers (PALM)), where power
resided in the university and was being exercised over teachers. In Habermas’s theory of
communicative action, power can prevent the establishment of an ‘ideal speech
situation’. Action research in organisations may reveal micro politics and powerful
hierarchies in which those lower down the hierarchy cannot engage in change
processes. Foucault’s conceptualisation of power suggests that it resides in discourses
of knowledge in which something is named and categorised (mental illness, deviant
sexuality, etc.) and power is exercised over a group by a more powerful group. For
example, in education policy in the UK, the discourse of ‘delivery of the curriculum’,
‘attainment targets’, ‘key skills’, ‘national tests’ reduced teachers to technicians and
eroded their professional power and autonomy (Somekh, 2006, p. 19). Norbert Elias saw
power as residing in figurations of people:
For him, power was polymorphous, figurationally generated property of all social interdependencies. He sought categories which, though simpler in themselves, would yet enable him to grapple better with the complexities of inequality actually observed within the flux of social relationships. The eventual outcome was his theory of established-outsiders relationships. Like the theory of civilizing processes, the later theory links changing power ratios between groups with the social habitus of group members (Mennell, 1992, p. 116)
4) Values
Reflection on values is a central aspect of action research. The founders of sociology
(Marx, Durkheim, and Weber) discussed the centrality of values in research. Weber
believed that all social situations are value laden and value neutrality is impossible
(Abercrombie et al., 2000). Somekh contends that the essential values of action research
include a commitment to democracy and social justice; ‘respect for all participants,
sensitivity to culture, honesty and openness, and intellectual engagement to try to
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understand human and social processes’ (Somekh, 2006, p. 127). She suggests that the
knowledge that is generated in action research incorporates phronesis, which Aristotle
believed is knowledge with a moral purpose that includes good judgement and practical
virtue (Somekh, 2006, p. 149) .
5) Praxis
Praxis embodies reflection and action towards the structures that need to be transformed
thus facilitating the oppressed to develop a critical awareness of their own situation and
with the help of teachers to struggle for liberation (Freire, 1970). Praxis is central to good
action research, in that action can be transformed through engagement within a collegial
practitioner milieu, where colleagues share a set of common standards (Eikeland, 2015).
Thus, action research involves a collaborative endeavour (Somekh, 2006).
Eikeland makes important distinctions about the categories of action research,
suggesting that these categories are not mutually exclusive but highlight how action
researchers view their activity (Eikeland, 2015).
1. ‘intervention’ modelled more or less explicitly on experimentation,
as with Kurt Lewin and John Dewey, or on either medicine or
engineering as intervening disciplines,
2. ‘Collaboration’ in knowledge generation and problem solving
between (a) professional researchers external to the practice
being changed and studied, and (b) practitioners internal to it,
3. ‘Applied research’ using mainstream research methods and
techniques in solving practical challenges and problems, and
‘native, practitioner or insider research’ become increasingly
prevalent with indigenous cultures and in professions like
teachers, nurses, and others, where practitioners research their
own practices (Eikeland, 2015, p. 381)
Action research gained popularity in the United Kingdom through the work of Lawrence
Stenhouse who was director of the Humanities Curriculum Project (Stenhouse, 1975).
He encouraged teachers to become researchers and believed that students should take
responsibility for their own learning and that curricula should be relevant to students
(Hopkins, 2008; McNiff, 2002). It is not sufficient for teachers to simply research their
own practice, but rather that teachers should strive towards a synthesis between teacher
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research, school development and reforming the education system, in order to build a
more just and democratic society (Hopkins, 2008, Elliott, 1985, cited in Somekh, 2006, p.
19). In 1978, Elliott established the ‘Classroom’, now called the Collaborative Action
Research Network (see exercises at the end of the chapter).
Somekh (2008, p. 1) suggests that action research is a ‘methodology integrating social
science inquiry with participants’ practical action so that all concerned have a sense of
agency rather than constructing themselves as powerless’. She suggests that there are
eight stages in the action research (AR) cycle:
1. integrates research and action in a series of flexible cycles
2. Conducted by collaborative partnerships of participants
3. Involves the development of knowledge and understanding of a
unique kind.
4. Starts from a vision of social transformation and aspirations for
greater justice for all.
5. Involves a high level of reflexivity and sensitivity to the role of the
self in mediating the whole research process.
6. Involves exploratory engagement with a wide range of existing
knowledge, drawn from psychology, philosophy, sociology, and
other fields of social science, in order to test its explanatory power
and practical usefulness.
7. Engenders powerful learning for participants through combining
research with reflection on practice.
8. Locates the inquiry in an understanding of broader historical,
political and ideological contexts that shape and constrain human
activity at even the local level, including economic factors and
international forces such as the structuring power of globalization
(Somekh, 2008, pp.7-8)
Action Research Cycle and Process
Action research begins from a ‘specific practical or applied problem or question’ (Punch,
2009, p. 136). Take the example of a university lecturer who is having difficulty
controlling students in a vast lecture theatre. The action research process is as follows
(McNiff, 2002):
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Table 26. Action Research Process and Cycle
A practitioner may encounter a challenge in
their practice and ascertain an aspect that
needs to be improved or changed.
Reflect on and document issues.
This is not working in my practice. My
students are being disruptive. How can I gain
control of the class?
Consults evidence-based research to see how
things could be done differently,
What does research say?
Develop other methods of teaching.
Ask students to give presentation.
Encourage students to ask questions.
Make lectures more interactive.
Develop quizzes to test knowledge.
Introduce humour.
Consults and collaborates with colleagues
and those who are affected by the practice
What do my colleagues say?
What are my colleagues doing?
What do my students say? Survey students
and conduct interviews with a small number of
students to find better ways of teaching.
Plans, develops and implements intervention
(s)
Try new pedagogies
Tests the success of the interventions Use surveys, interviews or observations to
evaluate the success of the intervention (s)
Self-evaluation: Review practice again, have things improved? What went wrong? What
went right? What would I have done
differently?
If not start the action research process and cycle again and continue to do it until lecturer
and students are happy with the lectures.
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Figure 9. Action Research Cycle
Source: MacKinnon, Parish, LeBel (2019, p. 5, cited in Interactive Design Foundation, 2016; Koshy, 2005; MacKinnon et al., 2019)
We have been fortunate to supervise many students over the years who used action
research methods in their master’s dissertations.
Student Action Research in an Education Setting
Brendan O’Driscoll was teaching grade twelve Emirati students (aged 18-19) in the
United Arab Emirates. The rationale for choosing action research arose from the
challenges he faced in his everyday teaching practice. Due to his being a White Irish
Catholic teacher in an Islamic Arabic culture, he felt stigmatised and treated as an
outsider or ‘other’ to the culture. His students were acting disrespectfully towards him by
arriving late for class, speaking without permission in class, and had poor motivation to
learn. Brendan reflected on his own cultural values, attitudes, and beliefs in order to
develop greater intercultural competence and promote healthier student-teacher
relationships. He believed that, as a teacher, he had a professional obligation to
encourage a deeper understanding between ethnic groups and that he could act as an
agent for societal change. He aspired to improving his pedagogies and hoped to promote
respect for diversity through intercultural education (O’ Driscoll, 2014).
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The research question was: ‘How can I ensure healthier intercultural student-teacher
relationships in an Emirati classroom with grade 12 male students?’ The sample
comprised a class of fifteen male Emirati research participants (grade twelve Emirati
students aged 18-19). Data collection was through observations of this class for a four-
week period, and the recording of field notes from the wider school culture to inform him
of standard cultural practices and to guide his interventions to effect change. He
consulted with his Arabic and English teaching colleagues, the principal, the secretary,
and and cleaning and waiting staff. He conducted observations of a class being taught
by an Arabic teacher, and how discipline was enforced; although he was not able to
emulate this.
Brendan’s interventions involved learning more about Arabic cultural practices and
traditions, religious beliefs, holidays and celebrations, Bedouin culture and heritage,
Emirati government, family life in the Emirates, and learning key phrases in Arabic to
address the students. On one occasion, he wore the Emirati national dress (kandora) to
class, whereupon the students reacted very positively and began to treat him with more
respect. He created a warmer and more welcoming environment and observed that
students were more engaged, had increased eye contact, and there was more open and
relaxed body language and a convivial expression that was rare before the study. In
keeping with Arabic traditions, at the start of classes, he enquired about their families
and what they might do when they finish school.
Brendan’s interventions led to changes in his attitudes and behaviour, as well as
changes in pedagogical practices and enhanced relationships with students. However,
he found that a hidden curriculum existed in the school which sought to inculcate
nationalist values in young people; for example, every day, students attended an
assembly where the national anthem was played, readings from the Holy Qur’an were
read, and images of Emirati leaders adorned the classroom. In his attempt to move
towards his student’s culture in the direction of his values, better relationships were
made. However, his attempts to facilitate intercultural education did not yield significant
improvements in intercultural competencies because students were entrenched in their
own culture and, unlike Ireland, the country did not have an intercultural education policy
that would have supported his interventions (O’Driscoll, 2014).
This example of a small research project is followed by an example of a large community
intervention in inner city Dublin.
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Community Action Research
The Early Learning Initiative (ELI) at the National College of Ireland is a community
based initiative in the Dublin Docklands that works in partnership with parents, early
childhood education and care services, schools, health services, corporate and statutory
services in order to improve young socio-economically disadvantaged children’s
educational outcomes. Their central concept is Aristotelian virtue, which involves ‘doing
the right things at the right time with the right people for the right end and in the right
way’ (Bleach, 2015, p. 22). The Early Numeracy Project was one of eleven national
projects that aimed to influence early years practice, provision, and policy in Ireland.
Action research was used to develop a three-year numeracy programme for 860 children
from birth to six years old. The research was a collaborative endeavour involving a
community of parents, early childhood care and education practitioners and a third-level
institution. The researchers engaged in community action research which involved
creating a learning community that works together to ‘nurture and sustain a knowledge-
creating system’ based on valuing each other equally (Bleach, 2015, p. 25). This
involved research which was committed to shared learning, capacity-building (improving
people’s awareness and capabilities), and practice (working together to achieve practical
outcomes).
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Figure 10. Action Research Cycle of Early Learning Initiative
The outcomes were positive, in that 96% of practitioners agreed that the numeracy
week helped to improve children’s numeracy. Standardised Tests showed that children
were attaining the same results as the national norm in mathematics. Early childhood
educators (99%) agreed that the training sessions helped to improve the quality of their
practice. Most parents also agreed that the workshops had provided valuable learning
opportunities. Most importantly, the initiative created enthusiasm and excitement about
learning to the community. The Early Numeracy Project programme is an example of
how a local community can use action research and virtuous practices to implement a
national programme and improve outcomes for children (Bleach, 2015).
Participatory Action Research – Theoretical Foundations and Influences
According to McIntyre (2008), there is no overarching theoretical framework that
underpins Participatory Action Research (PAR), although antecedents can be found in
critical theory such as Marx’s and Gramsci’s critical reflections on class struggles,
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feminism, and Freire’s idea that critical reflection was essential for individual and social
change (McIntyre, 2008). Other important influences are the work of critical action
researchers such as Kemmis and McTaggart (2005 cited in McIntyre, 2008) and the
work of Kurt Lewin which focused on group dynamics. Other PAR projects use theories
of organisational behaviour. For example, Argyris and Schön (1989) argued that, in
conventional models of research, participants are passive whereas in PAR participants
are ‘actively engaged in the quest for information and ideas to guide their future actions’
(Argyris and Schön, 1989, p. 513, cited in McIntyre, 2008, p. 4). McIntyre suggests that
there are three characteristics of PAR:
…the active participation of researchers and participants in the co-construction of knowledge; the promotion of self and critical awareness that leads to individual, collective and for social change; and the building of alliances between researchers and participants in the planning, implementation, and dissemination of the research process (McIntyre, 2008, p. ix)
Universities and higher education institutions have important roles to play in facilitating
dialogues on social justice and can act as catalysts for change by cultivating, in
Gramsci’s terms, ‘organic intellectuals’ (Melling, 2018, p. 5). Freire rejected the idea that
poverty was inevitable and championed the belief that transformative, humanising, and
ethical education was possible and that educators have a responsibility to change the
world; a world that is ravaged by war, inhumane conditions for refugees, violence and
terrorism (Melling and Pilkington, 2018). Freire believed that, on its own, education
could not solve all the world’s problems but that it could empower those ‘abjectified by
societies power structures with the tools for effective political dialogue and action’
(Melling, 2018, p. 9). Arising from a conference on Paulo Freire and Transformative
Education: Changing lives and Transforming Communities, a group of educators and
people involved in community organisations came together to explore how they could
affect positive change. They provided many examples of PAR, including the following
example of Community Based Service Learning (CBSL) from the Irish context (Melling
and Pilkington, 2018).
Community-based Service Learning
Community Based Service Learning is an educational programme which allows students
to apply their learning from the classroom to less fortunate people in the community
(Chapman and Ferrari, 1999). In Ireland, the National Strategy for Higher Education to
2030 recommended that ‘engagement with the wider community must become more
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firmly embedded in the mission of higher education institutions’ (DES, 2011, p. 21). In
response, in 2013, All Hallows College, Dublin developed a pilot module that included a
pedagogy based CBSL. This focused on,
…empowering and transforming students as well as developing critical thinking and civic responsibility. In theory this engagement reflects Freire’s learning principle of learning beginning with action, which is shaped by reflection and gives rise to further action (Diviney et al., 2018, p. 192).
This module called Lifespan Development was delivered to second- and third-year
undergraduates of a four-year humanities programme (Psychology and Theology). It
consisted of course work and student interaction with relevant community-based service
providers to apply their knowledge and research skills in a real-life context in a way that
would benefit the community partner. The students used their research skills to identify
and evaluate research on a topic of relevance to the community partner (agencies whose
client groups consisted of homeless people, young people in disadvantaged
communities, elderly people and people living with chronic illnesses) chosen on the basis
of relevance to the module.
Assessment was based on a literature review and poster presentation which were
shared with the community partners. The evaluation was conducted by Marjorie
Fitzpatrick and consisted of surveys administered prior to and after completion of the
module. Students (n=25) were asked to evaluate the pilot module by means of a
questionnaire (both closed and open-ended questions) under the headings: (1) Civic
Engagement, (2) Critical thinking, (3) Collaboration, (4) Academic Development, and (5)
Reflections on the method of assessment. The overall results were insightful and helped
to guide further implementation of CBSL modules (Diviney et al., 2018).
Peer-Led Participatory Action Research
The second example of PAR draws on a recent study by McGarry and Ryan (2020).
Research was commissioned by HIV Ireland to examine the impact of the Criminal Law
(Sexual Offences) Act on the health, well-being, and safety of sex workers, some of
whom are migrant workers. Their research methodology utilised a peer-led approach, in
which sex workers participated in a research advisory group, helped to recruit
participants, informed research design and field work, engaged in peer-led research
workshops, data collection, and reflection:
The commitment to a peer-led approach in this research seeks to challenge exclusionary research practices controlling knowledge production about sex
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workers. A qualitative methodology complements a design which seeks to empower sex worker participation in the research process and to centre sex worker voices (McGarry and Ryan, 2020 p. 24)
McGarry and Ryan (2020) adopted a critical feminist praxis, which highlights the
relationship between knowledge production and power in the research process. A
qualitative methodology was chosen; data collection took place in focus groups because
they can give a voice to marginalised groups (Morgan, 1998, cited in McGarry and Ryan
(2020, p. 24). Four focus groups were conducted (Dublin, Cork, Galway, and Limerick);
the data was digitally recorded, transcribed, coded, and analysed thematically. The study
found that the sex workers were experiencing much structural violence:
This study found that the lived effects for sex workers under current sexual offences laws include the targeting of sex workers, a climate of mistrust and fear both among sex workers and in relation to the authorities, effects on lived lives outside of sex work and particular effects on migrant sex workers. Taken together the findings from this study suggest that the authoritative gaze of the law is negatively impacting sex workers lived lives, and sex workers report feeling hampered in accessing justice, compounding the marginalisation they are experiencing (McGarry and Ryan, 2020, p. 28)
Participatory Image Based Research with Traveller Children
Devine and McGillicuddy (2019) conducted a participatory image-based research with
seventeen young Traveller children (9-13 years) from the Community. This method
seeks to collaborate with respondents and see the world through their eyes. Children
were given disposable cameras to take photos of ‘things they were happy with’ and
‘things they would like to change in their lives’ (Devine and McGillicuddy, 2019).
Historically, Travellers have had a ‘lower caste’ status in Ireland, where there was much
disrespect and neglect by a careless state, defined as:
A careless state is one which eschews principles of equality and social justice, and communicates a ‘devaluing’ through everyday practices of neglect, indifference and dehumanisation of those most at the margins.
This participatory image based research proved a powerful method of empowering the
children and provided an opportunity to see what they valued.
Self-study research is a variant of action research and will be described next.
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Self-Study Research
Self-Study research emanated from the United States of America and was described by
Zeichner (1999, cited in Samaras 2011, p. xiv) as ‘the single most significant
development ever in the field of teacher education research’. The Self-Study of Teacher
Education Practices (S-STEP) started in 1993; it is a special interest group of the
American Educational Research Association. It grew from a desire for teachers to take
control of their profession by placing greater emphasis on the knowledge and learning
derived from researching their own practice (Samaras, 2011). Teachers realised that
they cannot change the education system but can only change their own practices.
The name self-study is a misnomer, in that, although it involves personal reflection on
their pedagogies by the teacher, it also involves consulting and collaborating with other
teachers, in order to enhance teaching and positively impact on students’ learning. It
involves sharing with peers and developing a group of critical friends. According to
Samsaras (2004, p. 13), ‘Quality self-study research involves peer review with mutual
benefits. It is about having and being a critical friend’. It benefits, not only the researcher,
but also the entire community of teachers. She quotes Ham and Kane (2004, p. 117)
who state: ‘It is not research because it is “by me, for me”; it is research because it is
self-consciously “by me, for us”’.
Samaras (2011) distinguishes between self-study research and action research. Self-
study uses the methods of action research, but whereas action research may lead to a
change in a practice in the classroom, self-study research involves a transformation of
the self and the relationship between the self and others. It has its roots in critical
pedagogy and seeks to reconceptualise the role of the teacher within the wider
constraints of policy and politics (Samaras, 2011, p. 57). In order to reach new meanings
and understandings, self-study is collaborative involving a dialogical relationship
between the researcher and a critical friend (typically a trusted colleague). Samaras
suggests that self-study begins with a set of questions:
What question do I most wonder about in my teaching practice?
What causes me to wonder about this question?
Why is this question important to me?
What experiences and perspectives brought me to ask this question?
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Who would benefit from addressing this question (e.g. me, my students, my school, a school division, society at large)? (Samaras, 2011, p. 6)
She argues that the research methodology follows the same stages as other research
methodologies, namely:
a. Clearly identify the problem or focus;
b. Provide a detailed description of the situated practice;
c. Explain the self-study method and why it was chosen;
d. Describe the multiple data sources;
e. Provide a clear explanation of any alternative forms of data employed
such as artistic representation (Feldman, 2003; Mittapalli and Samaras,
2008);
f. Establish trustworthiness (Hamilton and Pinnegar, 2000);
g. Include a thorough and transparent data trail; and
h. Offer a discussion of the findings to themselves, to others, and to the field
(Samaras, 2011, p. 14).
Self-study research is illustrated in the following example.
Student Self-Study research in the Irish Primary School
The starting point of self-study research begins with a research question: “I wonder
about ________ because_______” Samaras (2011, p. 6). In thinking about a research
question, Hazel Collins (2019), a music teacher with ten years’ experience, felt a sense
of anxiety in teaching eleven to twelve-year-old boys music and wondered how she could
change her pedagogies to improve children’s (particularly boys age 11-12) learning of
music. The published literature concurred with her own experience, that many boys lose
interest in music as they grow older. The objectives of her research were as follows:
To reflect on and improve pedagogical approaches and actions
To introduce Information Communication Technology (ICT) into my teaching
To enhance children’s enjoyment of music
To understand key components in effective implementation of interventions
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To establish whether boys’ engagement with music decreases as they get older
and whether other teachers found the same
To gain insight into the context of extra-curricular music engagement.
Hazel engaged two critical friends, one an experienced primary school teacher and the
other her supervisor. Having carried out a literature review, she honed her research
questions. Data involved gathering reflective observations in 28 lessons with 242
children. These observations were shared with her critical friends. She found notable
gender differences in terms of children’s engagement with music. Boys grew less
interested as they grew older. This finding was reinforced by the results of a small survey
with twenty teachers. She developed two interventions: technology (Dabbledoo Music
Programme) and current popular tunes. These interventions were successful, in that
there was an observable difference in boy’s engagement. In terms of changes to the self,
Hazel concluded:
An interesting insight garnered from this study concerns the modernisation of the understanding and interpretation of the Kodály Method on which the music curriculum is based. This research project demonstrates that it is possible to respect the main philosophies underpinning the Kodály Method that folksongs of the child’s heritage and music of the highest quality should be taught while enabling it to be more accessible to both teachers and children in today’s classroom. The use of the Dabbledoo Music programme proved a good partner programme as it was intuitive and user-friendly. The use of pop music is also recommended to further enhance engagement and participation. The integration of quality, age-appropriate pop music was vital to successfully achieving the curriculum learning objectives (Collins, 2019, p. 53)
The self-study methodology facilitated Hazel to interrogate the ways in which her
pedagogies can offer spaces as opportunities to enhance the learning of music. She
continues to share her passion for music with her students.
Conclusion
This chapter has focused on all aspects of action research, self-study research, and
participatory action research. Action research and self-study research are salient for any
type of practitioner research and have grown in popularity particularly in education
research. Participatory action research challenges knowledge production, it engages in
critical praxis where participants are partners in all aspects of the research process, it
may be too demanding for emerging researchers who may have to conduct research in a
short period of time.
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In the next chapter, the focus shifts to writing up your research.
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Key Messages
• The seeds of action research are found in the writings of Aristotle. AR is
underpinned by the philosophy of pragmatism and was influenced by the critical
theorists who wished to challenge social injustices and to effect change on a local
or a societal level. It strives to be democratic and participatory.
• The term action research was coined by Kurt Lewin in 1946, who believed that
research should be combined with action to transform a social situation.
• AR is based on an interpretive epistemology.
• The ideas which underpin AR include: equal rights to speech, sceptical critical
reflection, situational understanding, reflection on the self, values, phronesis,
praxis, reflexivity and power.
• It is considered a legitimate research strategy.
• Action research can be used in small scale student research or in large research
projects in the community.
• In terms of practitioner research, AR involves reflecting and appraising one’s own
practice, designing an intervention, collaborating with colleagues, and then
assessing to what extent the intervention worked. If it hasn’t worked, the action
research cycle continues again.
• Participatory Action Research (PAR) takes a partnership approach with research
participants in designing, conducting, and writing up research, and is committed
to change processes.
• Self-Study research emanated from the United States of America; the Self-Study
of Teacher Education Practices (S-STEP) started in 1993; it is a special interest
group of the American Educational Research Association
• Self-study research uses the tools of action research but involves collaboration
with a trusted critical friend and other colleagues. It involves critical reflection on
one’s own practices and uses multiple data sources.
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Exercises
1. Do the online tutorials on Action Research with the Centre for
Collaboration Action Research Tutorials
https://www.actionresearchtutorials.org
2. Download Jean McNiff’s free Action Research booklet
https://www.jeanmcniff.com/ar-booklet.asp
3. Visit the NEARI website and join up with Irish Action Researchers who
meet on a regular basis. http://www.eari.ie/neari-network-for-educational-
action-research-in-ireland/
4. Bill Ayers: The Call to teach, University of South Carolina, Museum of
Education
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xQIEcXS5uQw
5. Jack Whitehead on Living Education Theory (2014)
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1T3p4kiK07s
6. Jack Whitehead’s talk at Bolton University. It provides a good insight into Living Theory. See https://youtu.be/Jf1kFHLdiPY?t=35 .
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Resources Action Research
• Educational Action Research in Ireland www.eari.ie
• Collaborative Action Research Network (CARN)
https://www.carn.org.uk/?from=carnnew/
• Jack Whitehead’s web site www.actionresearch.net
• Jean McNiff’s website www.jeanmcniff.com
• Action Learning and Action Research around the world
http://www.alarassociation.org/pages/networks/around-the-world
Self-Study Research
www.sagepub/samaras
Breslin, D. and Evmenova, A. (2006) Exploring dissertation interests through self-study,
USA: George Mason University. Available at:
http://mason.gmu.edu/~aevmenov/Portfolio/Growth/Knowing%20Project_Final.pdf
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Chapter 12. Writing up the Research Dissertation
Introduction
As the deadline looms for submission of your dissertation or report. It is important that
the first draft of your dissertation is ready two to three weeks prior to submission in order
to give you enough time to revise and correct it. In this chapter, we will explore all
aspects of writing up and presenting your dissertation. We focus on the structure and
content of your dissertation and provide advice about academic writing.
Learning Outcomes
On successful completion of this chapter, the successful student will be able to:
• Competently complete their research journey by writing up their research and
presenting it in a dissertation
• Examine the module learning outcomes for the dissertation and ensure that their
dissertation reaches the minimum learning outcomes
• Apply critical academic writing skills in the presentation of their dissertation
• Grade their own dissertation
Structure of Dissertation
Generally speaking, the presentation of research in dissertations follows the same
pattern or structure. Students should check the guidelines set out by their college and
the module learning outcomes and should adhere to them. We present a table below
(Table 27) of the usual structure of a dissertation, and, rather than examining each
aspect, we provide questions that could act as a checklist for the content of each
chapter.
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Table 27. Structure of Dissertation
Title Does the title accurately reflect the aim of the research? Abstract What is the word count? Have you included the aim of research, theory,
sample size, research method, main findings, and recommendations? Introduction Have you outlined the purpose and rationale of your research?
Have your provided the background or context?
Have you included a theoretical framework or a group of theories to
scaffold your research?
Have you included a research question and/or the aims and objectives of
your research?
Have you outlined the structure of your dissertation? Have you ensured
that your introduction is aligned with your concluding chapter? Literature Review Is the literature review organised into bodies of work or themes?
Does it have a brief introduction and conclusion?
Have you included policy documents (if relevant) and relevant peer reviewed journal articles?
How extensive is the literature? Have you included seminal writers or major theorists in the area?
How current is your literature? Have you resourced enough peer-reviewed articles from the past ten years?
Does it provide a coherent story or background to your research?
Does your literature review logically guide the reader to the research questions you have posited?
Methodology and Methods
Have you given a brief overview and a critique of the philosophical
paradigms and the reason you have chosen a particular paradigm for
your research?
Have you described your research design?
Have you identified your methods?
Have you described the type of sample, how you selected your sample, sample size, and characteristics of sample (inclusion or exclusion
criteria?)
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Have you provided a clear description of your research instrument?
Have you detailed how you conducted data analysis?
Have you described the trustworthiness of your research?
Have you described the limitations of your research?
Have you provided a summary of ethical issues? Findings/Results Have you organised your findings in a coherent manner?
Do you demonstrate that you understand how to analyse and present
your data?
If you used quantitative methodology, have you presented your findings
graphically using appropriate graphs such as histograms, bar charts, pie
charts, and tables?
If you used qualitative methodology, have you presented your findings in
terms of themes, with pithy quotations to illustrate a theme? Discussion Have you discussed and critiqued your findings in light of the literature
and your theoretical framework?
Did you find anything that challenges your theory or the literature?
Are your findings deep or superficial?
Conclusion and Recommendations
Did you include your original research question?
Have you answered your original research question?
Have you satisfied the aims and objectives of your research?
Was the theory adequate for explaining the phenomenon under study?
Have you provided recommendations emanating from the research?
Have you provided recommendations for further practice?
Have you provided recommendations for future research?
Have you discussed the limitations of the research?
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References Have you ensured that you have included all references and that you are
in compliance with the referencing system advocated by your college?
Appendices Have you included your research instrument(s)? Academic Writing Are all your citations correctly referenced?
Does each chapter have an introduction and conclusion?
Have you checked punctuation, grammar, and spelling?
In the various chapters, in this book, we have spelt out what each chapter should
include, e.g. literature review, methods, data analysis, so we will limit our discussion to
those issues we have not already covered namely: abstract, abbreviations, introduction,
findings, as well as the final chapter, which addresses conclusions and
recommendations arising from the research.
Abstract
Some colleges allocate marks for the abstract and others do not. Generally, you are
given a word count, which could be anywhere between 150 and 500 words. It is hard to
summarise an entire dissertation in 150 words so it will need to be concise. It should
include the aim of research, theory, sample size, research method, main findings, and
recommendations. It is usually single spaced and in a smaller font than the rest of the
dissertation. Here is an example of an abstract of 150 words.
Figure 11. Abstract Exemplar
Professionalism embodies personal responsibility, autonomy, intellectually based extended training, presence of recognised knowledge, high status, commitment to continuous professional development (Sexton, 2007). The aim of this research was to learn about the outcomes of a master’s degree for teacher professionalism. Mixed methods were used to gather data from graduates via online surveys (n=40) and interviews (n=10). The majority agreed that they were better teachers (92%); were making a difference in children’s lives (97%); that it had contributed to their professional development in terms of knowledge of teaching, learning and assessment (88%.); were autonomous (85%) and that strong values (100%) underpin their teaching. To ensure that teachers upskill to face all the challenges posed by 21st century learning environments, it is recommended that the government remunerate teachers to complete a master’s degree and that teachers receive recognition from colleagues and school principals and be given the opportunity to share their ideas.
According to Sarantakos (2013, p. 446), ‘an abstract is an accurate, comprehensive,
concise and informative summary of the [research] report…allowing the reader to gain a
brief overview of the findings of the study’.
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Acronyms
The abstract is usually followed by a list of acronyms, or sometimes abbreviations, that
are used in the dissertation. An abbreviation is a shortened or contraction of a word such
as Dr for Doctor, whereas an acronym is a word made up of the first letters of an
organisation; for example, the Department of Health (DoH) or the World Health
Organization (WHO).
Introduction
The first thing a student needs to do is to check the college’s guidelines because they
usually identify what they expect students to include in their introduction. That said, the
usually ingredients are: the purpose and rationale of your research, a theoretical
framework or a group of theories to scaffold your research, the background or context, a
research question, and/or the aim and objectives of the research. There is usually a
short paragraph then, which outlines the structure of the dissertation or the research
report. In common with other chapters, the first chapter has an introduction and
conclusion. Usually the first chapter is re-written when you have finished your
dissertation and needs to be aligned with the concluding chapter.
Findings or Results Chapter
In some colleges, students present their findings separately, whereas in other colleges,
the findings are presented with a discussion. Present your findings in a clear, confident,
and coherent manner. You are trying to convince the assessor that you understand how
to analyse data. If you used quantitative methodology, you present your findings
statistically and then use appropriate graphs such as histograms, bar charts, pie charts,
and tables. If you used qualitative methodology, you present your findings in terms of
themes, using illustrative quotations.
Discussion
The discussion chapter presents an interpretation of the data in light of the theory or the
literature. It is like weaving a rich tapestry of beautiful colours melding your findings and
interpretations. Sarantakos (2013, p. 461) provides some insights:
o Are the findings adequately interpreted and generalized?
o Are the interpretations legitimate in terms of the nature of the study?
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o Are all issues presented in the previous sections equally considered?
o Is the discussion free of bias and violations of the ethical code?
According to Thomas (2013), the discussion is the fruition of your research:
In it, you are coming full circle and returning to your initial questions and the context provided by your literature review… Your research itself, all of the painstaking work that you have been doing (data collection), is the gin that gives the kick – the element that makes the whole thing exciting (Thomas, 2013, p. 271)
The discussion chapter is the most exciting one in your dissertation. It is like weaving a
unique, rich tapestry of beautiful colours melding your findings and interpretations.
Conclusions and Recommendations
The final chapter includes the discussion, conclusions, and recommendations. You will
have to pull your research together and synthesise your findings and the literature. It is not
enough to summarise your findings but instead you will have to consider how you have
answered your original research question, whether you have satisfied the aims and
objectives of your research and whether your theory is adequate in explaining the
phenomenon under study. To clarify thinking, Murray (2002, p. 232) sets out some
pertinent points:
• You have achieved what you set out to do to the extent that ...
• Your argument for the originality of your work is ...
• Your work confirms/challenges other research in that ...
• Your contribution to knowledge is ... (Murray, 2002)
Link your final statement about your ‘contribution’ to your earlier definition of the ‘gap’ in
the literature. Write a summary for the final chapter that shows the progression of your
argument through all your chapters. Write a shorter version of this summary for your
introduction and abstract. Usually the introduction is written again after the conclusion is
finished so that the research has continuity and coherence.
Silverman (2005) suggests that the final chapter should function to stimulate your readers
by demonstrating how your research has stimulated you! The final chapter is a discussion
of why and in what way the theory that you started with is now different as a result of your
research work. You will also point out the limitations of your research. Typically, research
is constrained by time, resources, and small sample sizes, which mean that your findings
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cannot be generalised beyond the small sample. That said, do not let the limitations of
your research undermine your argument. Silverman (2005, p. 3326) suggests that an
‘imaginative conclusion will move on from the careful descriptions and analysis of your
earlier chapters to a stimulating but critical view of the overall implications of your
research’.
In interpreting and writing up data, Marshall and Rossman (2006, p. 164) warn against
complacency:
Considerations of one’s positionality, ethics, and political stance affect report writing. One may choose to present many truths or multiple perspectives or claim to identify a single truth. Choosing to say “I interpreted this event” rather than “the data revealed” must be a clear decision. Postmodern and feminist discussions help researchers clarify such decisions. Writing your truth about others’ lives is an assertion of power and can violate earlier assertions about working ethically and sensitively with participants (Marshall and Rossman, 2006, p. 164, cited in Tierney and Lincoln, 1997; Lather, 1991).
Research never gets finished – you just stop doing it! Remember your dissertation is like
another grain of sand on a beach or a drop of water in the ocean. Your research is building
on the shoulders of giants, building on the work of those who have gone before you, who
have carried out research and who have published their work in books or journal articles.
Your conclusions chapter will raise all sorts of issues and questions which could be
explored in future research projects. Usually research dissertations require that
researchers write a list of recommendations arising from their research.
Marks Awarded for Academic Writing
Most colleges award marks for academic writing (anything between 10-20 per cent), so it
is worthwhile reducing the number of errors in your dissertation. Academic writing is
synonymous with third level education and is an integral aspect of research. We have
discussed academic writing a number of times in this book, so here we will just
summarise the main points. The dissertation should conform to appropriate academic
writing and principles and should include the following elements:
1) Clear writing style using simple plain English. Use British English (for example,
analyse, criticise, colour, programme) and do not mix it up with American English
(for example, analyze, criticize, color, program) (see exercises in Chapter 1). The
writing should be concise and clear, and avoid colloquialisms and slang (such as
wonderful, fantastic, fabulous, amazing).
2) Read the assessment guidelines carefully and ensure your dissertation
addresses the issues that have been presented and conforms to presentation
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guidelines. It should be well laid out, with recommended line spacing, font size,
paragraphs, headings, and sub-headings.
3) It should contain a table of contents, list of abbreviations/acronyms, list of tables,
abstract and appendices but be very judicous about the use of appendices. Only
include an appendix if it is absolutely necessary. You must refer to the
appendices in the body of your dissertation.
4) Include the title and page numbers.
5) Use the referencing which conforms to the college’s recommended
referencing guidelines (APA, Harvard, Chicago, etc.).
6) Correct grammar, spelling, and punctuation. Tenses should be consistent
throughout the dissertation. The past tense is the most appropriate because once
your dissertation is submitted it becomes historical.
7) Ensure you keep inside the word count. Usually students are allowed 10% plus or
minus the word count; however, this is not consistent across colleges.
8) Writing should be coherent, with one paragraph following logically from another.
9) Avoid non-sequiturs, where one idea does not follow from another
10) Avoid subjective statements or judgements such as ‘Teachers must try harder to
ensure that students with special needs are included in…’
11) Avoid sweeping statements that are not substantiated by evidence.
12) Appropriate flow to each chapter, with a linking sentence at the end of each
chapter to the next chapter.
13) Check the introductions and conclusions to each chapter. Ensure that the
conclusions in each chapter are conclusions and not just summaries.
14) In academic writing, numbers one to one hundred are spelt out and numbers over one hundred are presented as numerals; except in the case of statistics.
15) Avoid plagiarism, which is is to use other people’s work or ideas and not
acknowledge them. There are severe penalties for plagiarism.
16) Try to finish your dissertation at least two weeks before the submission deadline
so that you have time to proof read, edit, and improve the writing.
17) There are some excellent academic writing websites and resources on the
internet that provide advice on how academic writing (see exercises below).
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Table 28. Key Words and Phrases (Thomas, 2013, p. 274)
Focus Typical words and phrases Remind the readers of the issues briefly
Recap, summarise, revisit, reiterate
Remind the reader of what you were trying to do
Explore, investigate, examine, illuminate, look at, research into
Questions and arguments:
your own and others’
Ask, posit, argue, aver, suggest, assume, put forward, note highlight, draw attention to, believe, assess
What have you found? Disclose, reveal, uncover, suggest that, point to Has it affirmed? Affirm, agree, verify, legitimate, validate, support, confirm,
establish, uphold, sustain, corroborate, endorse Has it contradicted? Contradict, disagree with, oppose, deny, challenge, conflict with How have your ideas developed or changed?
Develop, redevelop, formulate, deduce, speculate, construe, conclude, conjecture, guess, hypothesise
It is important to understand that academic writing is a messy process. It requires many
drafts to get your dissertation to an acceptable standard. It is wise to ask a critical friend
to read your dissertation before you submit it because it is hard to see our own mistakes.
Some students employ a professional proofreader to check it before submission.
However, this is an unnecessary expense and we hope that, by the time you reach
dissertation writing stage, you have developed your academic writing skills. By checking
the intended learning outcomes of the module, the student should be able to accurately
determine the grade they will receive.
Common Mistakes
By the time students have reached the dissertation writing stage, they should be
cognisant about how assignments are graded and there should be no surprises about
the grades they receive. Check out your college’s grading structure and the learning
outcomes for the research module and then check your dissertation against the learning
outcomes. Frequently, students are angry when they receive a lower grade than
expected. However, this is usually because they failed to reach the required module
learning outcomes. Below are the usual grade bands (QQI, 2013).
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• First Class Honours - 70%+ Very good/high level of analysis
• Second Class Honours (Grade 1) - 60% + Good
• Second Class Honours (Grade 2) 50% + Above average
• Pass - 40% + Attains all the minimum intended learning outcomes
• Fail - 35% + Assignment task only partially addressed; some learning outcomes addressed superficially
• Fail - 34% Failed to reach minimum learning outcomes
We have assessed many dissertations over the years and here are some of the common
mistakes we have encountered:
1. Inconsistent research question. Write out your research question and ensure you
use the same research question consistently throughout your dissertation.
2. Language: the following words have no place in a dissertation, unless they are a
quotation: fantastic, wonderful, amazing, ‘It is a fabulous lesson resource with
brilliant potential for education’.
3. Unsubstantiated statements and making claims that are outside the scope of the
data you have produced or the literature that you have reviewed.
4. Sweeping statements. Sometimes students make sweeping statements about
their research; for example, ‘this research will inform government policy…’
5. Including a new point in a conclusion that was not discussed in the preceding
chapter or dissertation.
6. Too many direct quotations. Learn to summarise or paraphrase the work of
others.
7. Poor academic writing.
Although students feel that the grade should reflect the work they put into the research,
the assessor can only assess the work based on the extent to which it reaches the
learning outcomes of the module and conforms to the dissertation guidelines, and has an
appropriate level of academic writing.
Conclusion
In conclusion, this chapter has explored the structure and content of your dissertation or
research report. We have emphasised the importance of academic writing which is
synonymous with third level education. In the next chapter, we will discuss how to get
your research published.
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Key Messages
• Check the module learning outcomes in your college, so that you are confident
your dissertation will meet the learning outcomes.
• Adhere to the structure and guidelines set out by your college.
• Be aware of the importance of academic writing, include headings, sub-headings,
page numbers, make sure to do a grammar and spell check before submission.
Follow your college’s guidelines about margins, font size and type, spacing etc.
• Treat your research project/dissertation as having a beginning, middle, and end.
The final chapter in your research project/ dissertation is your ‘end’ chapter and,
as such, your overall conclusions and recommendations are based on what you
originally set out to do. It addresses the extent to which you have answered your
research question, providing evidence in the data you gathered. It also includes
recommendations for further research and recommendations for your practice.
• Each chapter in your research dissertation (or report) usually has an introduction,
a main section, and conclusion. These conclusions are not intended to be a
summary of your chapter but rather what you have concluded from the chapter.
• Ensure coherence and flow between each chapter by writing a link sentence at
the end of each chapter. This sentence should simply tell the reader(s) what is to
follow in the next chapter.
• Ensure you are in compliance with the referencing system in your college. To
avoid being accused of plagiarism check that references are correct and
referenced properly. Quotations should have a page number.
• It is hard to see mistakes in our own work so, if possible, ask a critical friend to
read it for you. If you can afford it, it may be worthwhile getting a professional
proof reader to check it.
• Think about publishing your work. All aspects of publishing are examined in the
next chapter.
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Exercises
Please check out the following links for information about all aspects of academic
writing and dissertation writing.
• Walden University Writing Centre http://writingcenter.waldenu.edu/50.htm
• University of Toronto https://advice.writing.utoronto.ca
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Chapter 13. Publishing Your Research
Introduction
Publishing is the lifeblood of academia. You have heard the maxim ‘publish or perish’; in
some countries, staff in universities are required to publish in order to retain their
academic positions. More importantly, the ‘dissemination of academic knowledge is the
raison d’être of academic publishing’ (Allahar and Sookram, 2020, p. 127). There is
much focus on faculty and staff publishing but little or no emphasis on students’
publishing. This is hardly surprising; when the student has completed their research
project/ dissertation/thesis, typically it is placed on the shelf to gather dust, which is a
great pity because others would benefit from their work. Unfortunately, in many
educational institutions there is limited access to other students’ work for reference
purposes. That said, some colleges do publish a selection of papers arising from student
research.
There are many excellent books on the market which discuss publishing and academic
writing. In this chapter, we will take the reader through some aspects of publishing. We
will look at different avenues and audiences for writing, such as: an essay, a letter to a
newspaper, book review, conference poster or paper, a peer reviewed journal article,
chapter of a book, an academic book, reports, social media, and self-publishing. The
chapter concludes with a vignette of Marjorie’s experience of publishing.
Learning Outcomes
On completion of this chapter, the successful student will be able to:
• Embark on academic publishing either individually or through collaboration with
colleagues
• Select an avenue for their writing (newspaper, book review, journal article, book
chapter, book)
• Publish an academic manuscript such as a journal article, chapter for a book,
academic book
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Getting Started
You have completed your dissertation or project, submitted all your essays, and now it is
time to contemplate publishing. It is important to do so while the information is still fresh
in your head and while you feel sufficiently motivated. The motto to adopt here is: Strike
while the iron is hot! Many good ideas die on the fires of procrastination. Like other
creative endeavours, a publication consists of ninety-nine per cent perspiration and one
per cent inspiration. Publishing is not for the faint hearted! You have to be thick skinned,
dogged, and determined to succeed. Hammersley and Atkinson (1995) point out that
there is no more damaging myth that the idea that writing is a mysterious ‘gift’, or that
writing is a matter of ‘inspiration’. They suggest that the pervasive romantic idea that the
writer is a solitary figure struggling with a recalcitrant muse is dangerous and misleading
(Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995). They argue that such views ‘inhibit systematic
reflection on writing (and reading) as necessary aspects of the disciplinary or craft skills
of social scientists’ (1995, p. 238).
To get writing flowing, it is a good idea to write non-stop for fifteen minutes about one
aspect of your research in order to get your ideas on to paper (Murray and Moore, 2006;
Murray, 2013). The purpose is simply to get started and then build on that over time. The
next step is to write a list of headings and possibly sub-headings. Remember that you do
not have to start at the beginning and write an introduction. This comes much later; it is
easier to write the main body of the text first. The structure can be developed as time
goes on. Introductions and conclusions should be written at the same time and should
be aligned. Setting goals for writing is important such as: ‘I will write 500 words or 1,000
words at this sitting’.
Writing for Publication
Although students get used to submitting assignments to lecturers or supervisors and
getting feedback from them, they can feel anxious when writing for publication. Students
can be caught in a vicious cycle of anxiety, procrastination, desperation, and calamity
(Baker, 2000). Consequently, the paper simply does not get written. Perhaps we think
we are not good enough to have our work published. To tackle this vicious cycle, we
need to create a virtuous cycle, which includes: 1) building confidence to get started, 2)
planning the paper, (breaking it down into small manageable chunks; this is far less
daunting that writing the entire paper at one sitting), 3) reflecting on what you have
written, 4) revising the paper, and 5) successfully getting it published (Baker, 2000). As
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you have already demonstrated your ability to write at undergraduate or postgraduate
level, you therefore have the abilities and capacity to write a paper for publication.
Outlets for Writing
There are many avenues and audiences for your research. The first thing to consider is
where you will publish your work. Possible suggestions are:
• Essays
• Letter to a newspaper
• Book review
• Conference poster
• Conference paper
• A peer-reviewed journal article
• Academic book
• A chapter in an edited book or an edited book
• Open access journals
• Social media
• A Report
• Self-publishing
Essays
It is such a pity that more students do not collaborate and publish their essays. During
college years, there is so much reading, thinking, researching, and writing. Unfortunately,
this work is all discarded and forgotten about but that need not be the case. A group of
senior sophisters came together in Trinity College and published their essays in a journal
entitled Student Social and Political Review, in which Teresa Whitaker had an essay
(Whitaker, 1991). This was an exciting venture for the students and required much work
and dedication getting the journal to publishing standards. Similarly, master’s students
studying intercultural education in Hibernia College, a module which focused on enacting
intercultural policy in the classroom (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment,
2005), published their essays and recommendations for teaching practice in Essays on
Intercultural Education, from Policy to Practice (Whitaker, 2013a). This publication has
been downloaded from Research Gate over 1,000 times.
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Letter to a Newspaper
If you want your idea to be consumed by the general public, then a letter to the editor of
a local, national, or international paper is in order. Check out the letters to the editor
section of a local or national newspaper, find out the requirements, and consider sending
a letter. Alternatively, you could try writing a short article from your work and submitting it
to the editor. Journalism is a different genre of writing than academic writing but it
requires you to state the sources of your information.
Book Review
Another way of getting published is to write a book review. Publishers are always looking
for reviewers and it is a good exercise to read an academic book and then review it
(Whitaker, 2006). Usually the editors of the journal will provide a framework for the
review. According to The Writing Center (University of North Carolina), a book review
provides a critical evaluation and, most importantly, an argument. They suggest you
write a thesis statement, supporting paragraphs and a conclusion. Usually they are short,
perhaps less than 1,000 words. They suggest the writer should provide a brief summary
of the book and a critical assessment of the content. Finally, the book review suggests
whether an audience will appreciate it. An important aspect of a book review is what it
contributes to our understanding of an issue.
Conference Poster
Academic conference organisers encourage students and academics to present their
research using posters (Sethares, 2020) and also provide guidelines. They may suggest
times for you to stand beside your poster so that attendees can ask you questions. It is
recommended that you prepare a short summary of your research so that you are able to
answer questions (Sethares, 2020). A poster presentation entails distilling your
dissertation into 750 words. This is not an easy task, but it is doable. Usually the format
is: introduction, background and methods, results, conclusions and references. We
provide two examples of poster presentations (Carey, 2015; O’Sullivan, 2015) in
Appendix 2.
From her master’s dissertation, Avril Carey’s research focused on how children with
acquired brain injury are supported on their re-entry to school (Carey, 2015). Traumatic
brain injury (TBI) is the leading cause of death and disability in children and young adults
around the world and is the cause of nearly half of all trauma deaths (WHO, 2009). Each
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child who has experienced TBI presents his/her own unique learning and behavioural
effects. When appropriate educational supports are in place and strategies are
implemented by trained professionals, the academic and behavioural challenges
associated with TBI can be alleviated (Glang et al., 2010). International best practice
encourages planning, assessment, and tracking of students with TBI, particularly around
school re-entry (Deidrick and Farmer, 2005; Yiviasker, 1998). While there have been
advances internationally in TBI education policy, teacher training, and TBI school re-
entry protocols, there is a paucity of research in the Irish educational context.
This study provided a ‘snapshot’ of current practice, policy, and professional
development in this area by examining:
• Current school re-entry processes experienced by a cohort of students identified
with TBI, from parent and teacher perspectives.
• Levels of teacher knowledge of the educational ramifications of TBI.
• Levels of teacher confidence in delivering appropriate support to students with
TBI.
• Potential areas for TBI education and professional development.
Following ethical approval, data was collected using mixed methods via online survey
instruments, consisting of a teacher survey (n=125), teachers reporting prior experience
of TBI (n=24) provided qualitative and quantitative data on confidence and knowledge
levels in the area and seven parents of children with TBI were surveyed.
Julie O’Sullivan presented a poster presentation of her research entitled, An exploration
of perceptions of receptive language disorders as a barrier to learning for the primary
school child (O’Sullivan, 2015).
Posters are a simple and effective method of conveying information. They can be printed
on a hard board supplied by a high street printing shop.
Conference Paper
Conferences are synonymous with academia and, typically, have a keynote speaker and
other presentations. As undergraduate and graduate students, we were encouraged to
attend and present papers at conferences. There is something very exciting about
seeing your academic hero or heroine presenting a paper. Conferences provide
opportunities for the discussion and exchange of ideas and to ask questions from the
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speakers. The National Forum (2016) suggest conferences present an opportunity for
lecturers and students to showcase their work (National Forum for the Enhancement of
Teaching and Learning, 2016). More importantly, they provide an opportunity to develop
a learning community with peers or a community of practice. International conferences
can provide opportunities to engage in dialogue with international peers who are
researching the same topic which may lead to collaborations and publishing (Whitaker,
2019).
Some conferences are free of charge, such as those run by government agencies like
the ESRI or the DES. Other conferences charge a fee but usually there is a reduced fee
for students or those who are retired. If the conference is run over a week, there is often
a fee for a day or two’s attendance. Sometimes the presented papers are published in a
booklet which can be accessed from Conference Proceedings Citation Index (Lawless
and Foster, 2020) and sometimes the abstracts are published. An article for a peer
reviewed Journal can build on a conference presentation.
Peer-reviewed Journal Article
Publishing your research in an international double-blind peer-reviewed journal is
considered the gold standard (Grant, 2016) of quality assurance of content (Thomson,
2016). If you wish to share your knowledge with the academic community, then consider
writing an article from your dissertation for a specific journal. The purpose of writing is to
‘communicate precise information, ideas, concepts in a standard format’ (Khattri, 2010,
p.187). Writers should choose journals that represent a good fit with their article in terms
of topic, writing style, length etc. The finished article should contain at least one
reference from the journal you are submitting to (Thompson, 2016). Given that research
generates so much data, Silverman (2005, p. 361) provides some pointers on how to
write a short succinct paper:
• ‘Stick rigidly to the point (e.g. one topic, one case, one theory, one model, one
method).
• If you are working within an existing approach or model, don’t waste time
defending it (reinventing the wheel).
• Consider whether you need all your footnotes; if they are not worthy of being in
your main text, do you need them at all? At this level, you should not need
extensive footnotes to demonstrate your academic respectability’.
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By shortening your paper through the above techniques, Silverman (2005, p. 361)
suggests that you can create space to enlarge on what matters. Sugrue (2016, p. 35)
offers pointers for a good manuscript:
Time and again, the pattern is clear in what is needed for a good manuscript: signposts, structure – sub-headings, coherence, evidence to support the argument being advanced, connecting to extant literature, adding insight and understanding and being clear when speculation rather than reliance on the evidentiary warrants of data are being advanced (Sugrue, 2016)
Usually the components of a Journal article are:
• Title (the title should be short and should reflect the contents of the article)
• Abstract (brief summary including aim and objectives, methods, results and
discussion (anything from 150-250 words)
• Keywords: Choose 5 keywords or terms, which a researcher would use in an
online search (Khattri, 2010)
• Introduction: Provide the background, clear aim, and research question.
• Literature Review: This may have different headings and sub-headings
depending on study. Khattri (2010, p. 191) suggests that ‘the paragraphs should
flow smoothly from one to the next, e.g. the first sentence in each new paragraph
serves as an effective link to the preceding paragraph’. It should be long enough
to formulate an argument citing key writers.
• Research Design or Method(s): Be very explicit about your methods, citing why
the research design was appropriate for the research question, population and
sample, data analysis and how to deal with ethical issues. Ensure you are
compliant with codes of ethics (Thompson, 2016).
• Findings/Results/ Data Analysis: It will be impossible to present all your results so
choose selectively what you intend to report.
• Conclusions: The conclusion should bring together all the important points and
add what new perspective this article brings to the topic.
• References: Check the referencing system used by the journal.
The word count for an article is much smaller than for a dissertation, which means
distilling your work and only including important points or aspects of the research. Check
the style guide (font type, size spacing). Publishing an article could be discussed with
your supervisor or a senior academic who, in turn, could act as a co-author for the
article. Your supervisor may already have publications and, most likely, would be happy
to ensure that your article gets published. On average, journal articles are only read by a
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small number of people, so you will have to decide whether it is worth the effort. You will
need to check whether the journal of your choice leans towards quantitative or qualitative
research. There is no point in sending an article with a small sample to a journal that
usually specialises in large scale funded studies. As Silverman (2005, p. 5) points out:
So find the right journal. Seek guidance from established academics and look at recent editions of journals they mention. Look out for statements of policy printed in most journals and note changes of editor and editorial policy (Silverman, 2005)
Silverman (2017, p. 531) advises students to understand ‘what journals want’. The
challenge of writing journal articles is to stay focused yet provide the context of your
research within a possible word limit of 6,000 words. Silverman (2017) suggests that
there are four things to keep in mind:
1. Select a topic which will be the most intriguing to readers of this journal
2. Ensure that this topic can be handled with a limited amount of data extracts
3. Provide the appropriate context for your work – for instance, your audience will
not need to be reminded about the basic assumptions of research in your area.
4. Stick rigidly to the point throughout (Silverman, 2007, p. 490)
Journals that specialise in quantitative research will typically be looking for an initial
hypothesis and the use of some sort of random sampling technique. Some journals
publish a mix of articles based on qualitative and quantitative research and some
journals specialise in qualitative methodology. Some journals will only accept qualitative
research based on a minimum of ten in-depth interviews. Check the impact factor of the
journal. The prestige of a journal is reflected by its impact factor, which is calculated by
‘the average number of citations received by each article published in the journal in the
previous year’ (Thompson, 2016, p. 3). The impact factor in open access journals may
be higher simply because they are free of charge and available internationally.
Feedback from Peer-reviewers
Once you have submitted your article to a Journal, they, in turn, will send it to peer-
reviewers. After a few weeks or even months, you will receive feedback. If they reject your
article, this is not a reason to give up because they will also provide valuable feedback on
how to improve your article. Silverman (2005, p. 360) provides a list of the most common
types of negative feedback:
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• Overambitious – the paper tries to say too much
• Over generality – no attempt to ground the data
• Unanalytic – data analysis is very thin
• Methodological failings – deviant cases were not analysed
• Lack of originality – this topic has been beaten to death
• Lack of clarity – lack of clarity about the approach used
The single most important criteria in an article being accepted is the quality of the writing
(Thompson, 2016). If you intend to publish a journal article, you have to be prepared to
write many versions and revisions. Successful academic writer, Bruce Thompson, says
that he revises most of his manuscripts ten to twelve times. He suggests that following
revision, a manuscript should be set aside for several days before revisiting it. The writer
should seek clarity, develop their own voice, and provide the rationale behind each
methodological decision (Thompson, 2016).
When writing a journal article, you need not include every single aspect of your research
project but rather focus on one aspect. For example, from an NACD (2009) government
report, an article was published that focused on one concept: the stigma attached to illicit
drug use (Whitaker et al., 2011). This article was published in Qualitative Health
Research, which has an impact factor of 3.380.
Whose Name Goes First?
Students are often concerned about whose name should go first. The answer depends
on many factors. Here is an example of a Journal Article that was written from a master’s
dissertation in conjunction with a supervisor and another academic colleague:
van Hooff, J.C., Whitaker, TA., & Ford, R. M. (2009). Directed forgetting in direct and indirect tests of memory: Seeking evidence of retrieval inhibition using electrophysiological measures. Brain and Cognition, 71, 153-164.
In the above example, the student (T. A. Whitaker) had completed her Master’s thesis
and had left the university. With the consent of the student and using the student’s data,
the supervisor wrote the article, hence the supervisor’s name went first.
In other situations, authors may decide that the surnames are written in alphabetical
order. In funded research, the name of the fund holder may go first, even though
somebody else may have collected the data and undertaken the research. For example,
Teresa Whitaker was project officer on EU funded research which explored how children
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take up smoking. The fund holder who was Head of Department and other academic
colleagues wrote papers based on the analysis of the data (Hyde, Treacy, Whitaker, et
al., 2000; Hyde et al., 2001; Treacy et al., 2006; Hyde, Treacy, Boland, et al., 2000). In
other situations, the name of the person who has actually written the article goes first
and the names of other contributors follow. Contributors may not have made a
contribution to the writing of the article but may have assisted in other aspects of the
research (data gathering and analysis) or may be members of a collaborative project. De
Vaus (1996) argues that many funded research projects are the result of a great deal of
effort with many people involved. It is unfair if research assistants who carried out the
lion’s share of the data gathering and analysis are not included in the authorship. For
this reason, Thompson (2016) suggests that to avoid later misunderstandings authors
should decide initially the order of the names on the publication.
Academic Book
It is a shame that more dissertations are not turned into books, but we suspect that
researchers are so tired by the time they finish their dissertation that they simply do not
have the time or energy to convert the thesis into a book. Thompson (2016, p. 5)
suggests that authors should check out academic publishers who usually ask for a
proposal, book outline, sample chapter, possible audience, and competitors. He argues
that it is acceptable to send the same book proposal to many publishers. Do not be
deterred if you receive a rejection. Thompson (2016) writes that many famous writers
received rejections. Agatha Christie whose books have earned in excess of two billion
dollars received rejection letters for five years. J. K. Rowling received twelve rejections
for Harry Potter, which subsequently sold 450 million copies (Thompson, 2016). There
are many excellent textbooks on the market that provide advice about converting a
thesis to a book (Harman et al., 2003).
Edited Books
A group of students or academics could collaborate to create a book on a specific topic
for example, as Director of Research in Hibernia College, Teresa Whitaker mobilised
faculty members to work together to create a book on aspects of Irish education. The
process took a year. Monthly meetings were organised online. Wendy Belcher’s book
Writing your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks (2009) provided a framework for each
meeting (Belcher, 2009). Contributors peer reviewed each other’s chapters and provided
critical feedback. Prior to publishing the book, the submissions were checked by
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proofreaders in Hibernia College and the publisher assisted with the organisation of
chapters. The book was then launched at a Hibernia College conference (Whitaker et al.,
2018). This is an open access book about contemporary issues in education in Ireland
and is free to download. Usually the person whose name is first is the ‘keeper of the text’
and has the responsibility of ensuring that each chapter is coherent, of a high standard
and complies with referencing conventions and presentation styles.
A Report
Although writing a report is not unlike writing an academic dissertation, it usually differs
in terms of presentation, style, and layout. The report sets out objective facts and does
not contain an argument in the way a dissertation does. Typically, reports are written in
the third person and do not feature personal pronouns such as, ’I’ and ‘we’. They are
written in the active voice and aim for clarity rather than obfuscation. The opening pages
contain an executive summary which summarises the entire report. The report contains
clear heading and subheadings, which are usually numbered: 1.1., 1.2, 1.3, etc.
Typically, the final chapter will have conclusions and recommendations. Things to
consider are the title (should reflect the contents of the report), table of contents,
executive summary, chapters, appendices. If it is a technical report, it may contain a
glossary of terms. Reports are written for specific audiences. During our careers, we
have been involved in writing many reports from research, which were for different
audiences such as academic (Fitzpatrick, 2014) and general audiences (NACD, 2009).
Open Access Journals
Open access journals have burgeoned with the growth of the internet. The history of print
journals dates to 1665 when the Royal Society of London wished to broadcast
knowledge to research colleagues (Lariviére et al., 2015 cited in Allahar and Sookram,
2020, p. 129), whereas the naissance of Open Access Journals (OAJ) emerged with the
growth of the internet from the 1990s (Allahar and Sookram, 2020). Allahar and Sookram
(2020, p. 126) suggest that ‘open access journals have grown in respectability and
quality … and are a good option for knowledge dissemination’. Traditional journals
receive their income from library subscriptions, whereas authors pay an article
processing charge (APC) to have their article published in an OAJ (Bush, 2016).
Because authors have to pay to get their article published, it suggests that some OAJs
may be ‘less robust in their review processes because a “reject” means a loss of income’
(Bush, 2016, p. 91). Some OAJs are described as ‘predatory’ because they chase
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authors who may not be able to have their research published in a quality journal
(McGrath, 2016; Allahar and Sookram, 2020). This is particularly true for poorer
countries in the Global South, in which researchers may struggle to have their research
published. Traditionally, journals operate a peer review system by ‘blind peer reviewers’
(independent academics) to ensure articles are of a high standard whereas some OAJs
may publish articles which have not been peer reviewed. The purpose of predatory OAJs
is to make a profit rather than broadcast high quality peer-reviewed research (McGrath,
2016; Swanberg, Thielen and Bulgarelli, 2020).
Support for OAJs was strengthened by governments and the International Federation of
Library Associations and Institutions, and endorsed by the establishment of an
international coalition of research foundations called ‘cOALITION S’, which produced
Plan S. This proposed that, by 2021, all publicly funded research must be published in
OAJs or other open access platforms (Science Europe, 2018) (Allahar and Sookram,
2020).
OAJs are in a hierarchy, the diamond version is free to authors and readers because
they have been subsidised by societies and colleges, the gold version entails a fee, and
hybrid OAJs are subscription print journals which offer authors an open access option for
a fee’ (Allahar and Sookram, 2020, p. 30). The green version grants permission to an
author to have an article published after an embargo time. According to global research
conducted by Universities UK (2017), the distribution of journals is as follows: hybrid
journals (45%), subscription journals (37%), and free OAJs (18%) (Allahar and Sookram,
2020).
Allahar and Sookram (2020) conclude that OAJs are gaining in respectability and validity
but warn authors to exercise caution in their selection of an OAJ because it could
damage the reputation of the author (McGrath, 2016; Swanberg et al., 2020):
Authors must become intimately familiar with influential determinants of journal publishing which comprise: the costs of funding APC; the operation of the peer review system; the threat posed by predatory journals to author reputation; the implications of impact factors and journal indexing; and the option of disseminating knowledge through repositories and academic social networks (Allahar and Sookram, 2020, p. 139).
Swanberg et al. (2020) suggest that authors need to be critical in their selection of a
journal for publishing. They recommend the use a website (https://thinkchecksubmit.org),
that assists authors to identify robust journals and publishers. Publishing a journal article
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in a high-quality peer-reviewed journal is a tough process which requires a lot of effort
and many revisions to satisfy the editor (McGrath, 2016), but ultimately is worth the work.
Social Media
There is absolutely no doubt that social media has transformed the way in which
information is distributed and consumed. According to Thomson (2016, p. 101):
Social media is an umbrella term used to describe websites and web-based platforms and applications that allow users to make, curate and share content, and to communicate with each other. Social media ranges from blogs, Twitter, YouTube, Instagram, Wikipedia, and Snapchat to Storify, SlideShare, Pinterest, and Mendeley, all of which have considerable academic use.
To this list, we add Facebook, Instagram, LinkedIn etc. In fact, as Thomson (2016)
attests, social media changes so fast, Professor Andy Miah of Salford University keeps
an updated Excel sheet available for academics (Miah, 2016). If writing a poster for a
conference affords conciseness, Twitter demands even greater preciseness. Thomson
(2016) suggests that when we engage with social media we are doing identity work.
Although the academic establishment might look down on Twitter, Thomson (2020)
provides an example of how her engagement with Twitter amplified her publications by
drawing attention to her work. She provides advice for those doing research and
publications on Twitter via her hashtag @ThomsonPat. She befriended a colleague on
Twitter - Inger Mewburn (Thesis Whisperer www.thesiswhisperer.com) - who was writing
in the same field. They collaborated on research on blogging (n=100) and together wrote
a refereed journal article (Mewburn and Thomson, 2013). The publisher made their
article open access for a short period of time, during which Mewburn and Thomson
tweeted about it on Twitter. It became the most downloaded article for the journal and
they were asked to write for The Guardian. This exemplifies the power of Twitter.
Thomson (2020, p. 114) provides ‘top tips’ for engaging in social media
1) Find some scholars on Twitter whose work you already know and use, and follow
them.
2) Join in. Be brave. Writing 140 characters is not much. Contribute something to a
conversation – respond to a post; tweet about interesting things that you read or
have been to; retweet things that other people have posted; tweet from a
conference using the conference hashtag. People will see you if you are visible
and, hey, there are more connections.
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3) Tell people you are on social media. Put your Twitter name into your email
address and bio notes.
4) Write a guest blog post. Find your favourite blog and email the editor or solo
blogger and offer to write something. Chances are they will bite your hand off and
they will also help you to find your ‘blogging voice’ through the editing process.
5) Establish a web presence – this might be the place where you put your papers, a
website of you own, a blog or an about.me page. Use this as your primary
website and make sure that all roads lead to it, and that it leads to all your other
Web 2.0 activities. Make it informative and attractive and invite people to contact
you.
Blogs are also a useful way of disseminating information. The writing style is less formal
than academic writing and falls between journalism and ‘diary like reflections’ (Thomson,
2020, p. 106). Professor Dennis Smith (sociologist and historian), Loughborough
University (editor of Current Sociology 2002-2010), although retired, maintains a blog
about current affairs (https://lboro.academia.edu/DennisSmith).
The downside of Twitter and Blogs is that social bots and other malicious actors and
trolls may give vile and vicious feedback, but this should not deter the virtuous. These
malicious actors, some of which are generated automatically, can undermine research
and negatively influence public opinion (Jamison, Broniatowski and Crouse Quinn,
2019). Users need to be vigilant.
We confess to not being digital natives (Prensky, 2011) nor members of the net
generation (Tapscott, 2009; Whitaker, 2017b), but we do have some social media
presence for example, Marjorie Fitzpatrick is a member of the Norbert Elias Foundation
(http://norbert-elias.com/en/) and Teresa Whitaker has a website and teaching portfolio
on http://teresawhitakerblog.com. We urge the younger generation of academics to
embrace social media.
Self-Publishing
Publishing your own work online has never been easier. The traditional way of publishing
is to find an agent and publisher, draft a book proposal, write a sample chapter, (perhaps
be rejected), revise, send to a different publisher and wait (Goodheart and Goodheart,
2019); the whole process could take two years. In this digital age, it is possible to self-
publish either through Amazon or solely. Goodheart and Goodheart (2019) provide
examples of how they self-published two medical books using Amazon. The advantages
361
were that they maintained control over the publishing process. They can update the
books quickly as medical evidence changes and they published the books within a year.
Because all books are printed on demand, Amazon does not charge for uploading digital
or print books (Goodheart and Goodheart, 2019). Their books were self-published on a
commercial basis.
The Higher Education Colleges Association (HECA), which represents sixteen
independent colleges, commissioned Teresa Whitaker to write A Handbook and Tool Kit
for Teaching, Learning and Assessment in Independent Higher Education Institutions in
Ireland. The purpose of the handbook was to provide a free educational resource for
HECA Colleges to use in the education and training of those who teach in their colleges
and who are new to teaching, those who have limited experience, or, alternatively, who
are new to an aspect of teaching. It builds on the National Professional Development
Framework for all Staff who Teach in Higher Education, which proposed that all staff in
higher education should engage in continuing professional development (CPD), and
should develop a teaching portfolio. The handbook, was peer reviewed by members of
the Teaching and Learning Committee in HECA, was self-published, and is free as a
digital downloadable resource. It contains an International Standard Book Number
(ISBN) purchased from the International ISBN Agency (Whitaker, 2017).
This chapter concludes with a vignette of Marjorie Fitzpatrick’s experience of publishing
and how she converted her doctoral dissertation into a book.
362
Marjorie’s Experience of the Process of Publishing
In my career as an academic, I have had the good fortune of having my research published as
journal articles, book chapters, reports, and, finally, as a whole book. During my student days,
I joined academic associations including the Sociological Association of Ireland (SAI), the
British Sociological Association (BSA), and the Sociology of Religion Society (SISR). I
presented papers on my research at conferences run by these associations. This gave me
confidence and formed the basis for future writing. Before explaining the steps that I took to
have an article published in a journal, it is important to note that:
a) it is necessary to research and select the most appropriate journal for your article,
b) your intended journal article may be rejected several times but you should not get
disheartened, c) different journals require different referencing styles (check the style guides of each
journal),
d) your article must be based on research which has complied with ethical guidelines and
adhered to General Data Protection Legislation (GDPR),
e) European and American Journals differ in terms of spelling and grammar,
f) as a student take advice from your supervisor/tutor/ interested academics who has
published already.
To publish a paper in an academic journal, I advise the following steps:
1. Select a sample of articles, beginning with the latest year. Read the abstracts of each
of the articles. Decide to keep or reject the journal based on whether they are
appropriate for your research.
2. Ensure that your references are up to date by checking various online electronic
databases. 3. Write your article in a similar way to other published articles in the selected journal
noting the referencing style, font, paragraph headings, etc. Use spell and grammar
checker.
4. Submit the article through the portal of the journal. Alternatively, you may be asked to
send an abstract of the article to the editor stating that you would like to publish in the
journal.
5. Usually there is an editorial board for each journal, whose function is to review the
suitability of your article. Depending on the result of this editorial board, you will be contacted with a positive outcome or rejection with an explanation and possibly
recommendations for improvement. Some journals will send your article to several peer
363
reviewers for their views as to whether or not your article has reached the high
standard expected for publication.
My research was entitled Music and Power in 18th century court society Händel’s Messiah and
the Protestant Ascendancy. Although multidisciplinary, it was primarily focused on the
sociology of music. I selected REA (Religion Education and the Arts), which was the journal of
Mater Dei College Dublin. I read previous articles published in this peer-reviewed journal to
become acquainted with the style and ethos of the journal. I emailed the editor to get details for possible publication. I complied with the required word count, selecting appropriate aspects of
my research. On receipt of the form of details for consideration of publication, I sent my article
back to the editor. Over the next few weeks, the editor emailed me with suggested edits and a
few rewrites until the article, The Hidden Agenda of Messiah, was published in REA Journal
(Fitzpatrick, 2011)
Subsequently, I wrote a chapter on mentoring (Fitzpatrick, 2018) for a book entitled
Transformative Education in Contemporary Ireland (Grenham, 2018). The publishing process
was similar to writing the journal article and, in turn, helped me with the publication of a book
called Music and Power in eighteenth century society Händel’s Messiah and Protestant
Ascendancy (2016). This proved to be more difficult and time consuming, but as long as I kept
my eye on how wonderful the final published product was going to be, and is, it made all the efforts and disappointments along the way worthwhile (Fitzpatrick, 2016). Writing a book goes
through many more stages than writing a journal article. For example, the initial proposal for
your book may be rejected by several editors before your work is accepted for consideration. It
obviously has to be much lengthier than a journal article. The time scale between acceptance
by an editor of academic publications, peer reviews, multiple editing, copyright laws, and finally
publishing can take two years or more depending on the various editorial committees involved.
However, I would like to reassure you all that it is really worthwhile in the end. The icing on the cake was when my book was awarded the D. Simon Evans Prize in 2017.
Conclusion
In this chapter, we have explored the myriad ways in which you can publish your
research: an essay, a letter to a newspaper, poster, journal article, book review, edited
book, book, social media, or through self-publishing. We exhort students to consider
publishing in order to share their knowledge to benefit a wider community.
364
Key Messages
• Writing is a discipline that requires time, patience, and perseverance.
• Decide on who your audience is and what avenue you wish to pursue for
publishing your research. Suggestions for publication include: an essay, a
conference poster or paper, a peer reviewed journal article, chapter of a book, a
book, and social media.
• Think about collaborating with colleagues.
• If you wish to write an article for a journal, select the one that best fits your
research. Comply with the guidelines set out by the editor. Appreciate the
feedback you receive from peer reviewers. Remember it may take multiple drafts
until it reaches the required standard.
• Develop a presence on social media and use it to further your research agenda.
365
Exercises
Explore some of the following options:
Writing for Publication [Accessed 29 June 2020]
Bruce Thompson
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=emL_SsxiPBg
Watch the following videos on publishing
Professor George Whitesides (Harvard University) is featured in a number of ‘You Tube’
videos discussing various aspects of publishing. Here is a sample of some of these
videos. Although he is discussing publications arising out of scientific data his
observations may be applied to all publications. [All websites accessed June 2020.]
Practical Guidelines for Authors and Reviewers from ACS Publications
Publishing Your Research 101 - Episode 1: How to Write a Paper to Communicate
Your Research
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q3mrRH2aS98
Publishing Your Research 101 How to choose the focus of your research
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q3mrRH2aS98
Publishing Your Research 101 Writing so people notice
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VNuGMBowKcI
Writing a peer review article, advice from Taylor and Francis in a short video.
Remember the four As: 1) Aims, 2) Audience, 3) Awareness of existing ideas and 4)
Articulating your ideas clearly. (Accessed: 29th June 2020).
https://authorservices.taylorandfrancis.com/writing-a-journal-
article/?utm_medium=email&utm_source=EmailStudio&utm_campaign=JPF15391_3717
591
366
Writing a Book Review
The Writing Center University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
https://writingcenter.unc.edu/tips-and-tools/book-reviews/
Explore a peer reviewed journal
Search for any peer-reviewed journal of interest and explore the publishers section.
Usually they provide very comprehensive details of what they expect from authors.
Report Writing
We refer our readers to the website of the University of Leicester which has a section on
report writing (https://www2.le.ac.uk/offices/ld/all-resources/writing/writing-
resources/reports).
Explore Academia.edu.
This is an American website which facilitates networking and the publication of research.
Initially it was free of charge but now has an annual subscription. Currently it has 64
million users.
https://www.academia.edu
Check out Research Gate, it has access to 130 million publications and connects with 17
million researchers.
https://www.researchgate.net
Directory of open Access journals
https://doaj.org
Elsevier
https://www.elsevier.com/about/open-science/open-access/open-access-journals
Think, Check, Submit
https://thinkchecksubmit.org
367
Intellectual Property Rights in Ireland
The official Irish Government body responsible for intellectual property rights is called the
intellectual Property Office of Ireland. It covers copyright, patents, designs and
trademarks.
https://www.ipoi.gov.ie/en/
Social Media
Professor Andy Miah – A to Z of Social Media for Academia
https://andymiah.net/a-to-z-of-social-media
Example of student research – Hibernia Papers
https://hiberniacollege.com/primary-education-papers/
368
Further Reading
Publishing your Academic Research Paper The Research and Writing Handbook, (Byron
2020) is available as a Kindle book, consisting of nine chapters; the final chapter is about
the reasons for rejection.
If your research is based on ethnography, it is worthwhile reading Ethnography
Principles in Practice (Hammersley and Atkinson, 2019). They suggest that much has
changed over the past thirty-five years in relation to the method, writing, and publishing
of ethnographic research.
Rowena Murray has published many books about writing and publishing. She provides
tips to ease the pain of academic writing:
Murray, R. (2013) Writing for Academic Journals. Maidenhead, England: Open University
Press.
Murray, R. and Moore, S. (2006) Handbook of Academic Writing: A Fresh Approach.
Buckingham: Open University Press.
Wendy Belcher provides a good road map for writing a journal article in twelve weeks.
Belcher, W. L. (2009) (2nd Ed.) Writing your Journal Article in Twelve Weeks A Guide to Academic Success. London: Sage Publications.
369
Concluding Remarks
Dear Researchers,
Our intention in writing this book is to support you in your research journey, which has
inward and onward dimensions. It is easy to get lost when you are new to research, so
our aim is to help you move onward by giving you the knowledge, skills, and
competencies to produce a piece of research of which you can be justifiably proud, thus
enabling you to reach your destination as a transformed person.
We hope also that our book will prove to be an enjoyable inward journey. Research will
change your thinking, your attitudes, and your ‘self’. The vital ingredients in these
changes include motivation, curiosity, determination, a positive growth mindset, energy,
and, more importantly, developing your imagination.
Know that you are unique and bring your own perspectives to your research. Remember
your research can make a difference. It will not change the world, but it will change you.
Teresa and Marjorie
370
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Appendix 1. Research Ethics Form
RESEARCH ETHICS COMMITTEE FORM AND GUIDELINES FOR
COMPLETING FORM 1
Name: Course:
1. What is the aim of your research project? What are the objectives? Please state
simply and in plain English what the purpose of your research is.
2. What are the main research questions? Please explain your investigation, in a way
that is understandable for a general reader.
3. What proposed procedures will be employed? Explain the procedure briefly,
including the research design, and the analysis. Use separate pages if needed.
4. Who are the proposed participants? Identify who will be taking part. Give the
number of participants, and say why you are using these participants.
5. Will you provide the participants with a research information leaflet? Please provide
a research information leaflet: including the title and the aim of the study, a clear
statement that participation is voluntary, and that the participant may withdraw at
any time, and assurances of confidentiality, and what they will have to do. Yes/No
6. If participants will not be fully informed, how is this justified? If deception or non-
disclosure is used, it must be justified. In general, it is unethical to mislead
participants.
7. How do you propose to recruit, locate, or invite participants to participate? The letter
of invitation and information or advertisement should be attached to Form 2.
8. If participants are under responsibility of another, how do you intend to obtain
permission for the participants to take part in the study? For participants under 18
401
years old, consent must be obtained from parent or guardian. The young person
should also give assent and be fully informed in a manner appropriate to age.
9. How do you propose to obtain the consent of participants? Will consent be obtained
orally or in writing? Normally, consent is in writing and a copy of the form provided.
The Consent Form should have the College stamp or logo. (Template supplied.)
When signed, organisational Consent Forms should be filed with the Ethics
Proposal. All personal Consent Forms, when returned, should be retained by the
researcher until the data is destroyed.
10. Is there a reason to believe that participants might have negative experiences
during your study? Risk may be physical, psychological, or social. Loss of privacy,
upset, stress, feeling of being demeaned, and provision of sensitive information are
possible negative experiences. The effect on participants needs careful thought.
Yes/No If Yes What?
11. How will it be made clear to participants that they may withdraw participation at any
time? ‘Made clear’ means more than simply ‘Informed’. If there is a superior-
subordinate relationship involved, participants need reassuring of their freedom in
this matter. State what will happen to data already collected.
12. How will you make allowances for anxieties / additional problems the group of
participants may have? Explain your plans for providing support, counselling, and
other arrangements to take care of participants who may be at risk of negative
experiences.
13. Do you propose to provide closure for participants? Closure means to finish the
research encounter. Closure is normally afforded to participants at the end of the
study if only a check that the participant is happy with the procedure. A student
should not provide a private phone number but may be contacted through the
College. Yes/No If Yes How?
402
14. If asked, will you provide participants with a summary of the findings of your
research after the study is completed? A summary of findings may be appropriate,
but data is always confidential to the researcher. Yes/No If Yes How?
15. Have you taken measures to ensure no harm arises as a result of your work? Care
must be taken with the possible consequences of research, both in the relationship
between the researcher and the participants, and in the publication of the study.
This issue deserves special consideration and specific measures. Yes/No If Yes
How?
16. How will information obtained from or about the participants be stored and
protected, in order to prevent them from harm by preserving anonymity?
‘Data protection is a fundamental right set out in Article 8 of the EU Charter of
Fundamental Rights, which states;
1. Everyone has the right to the protection of personal data concerning him or her.
2. Such data must be processed fairly for specified purposes and on the basis of the
consent of the person concerned, or some other legitimate basis laid down by
law. Everyone has the right of access to data which has been collected
concerning him or her, and the right to have it rectified.
3. Compliance with these rules shall be subject to control by an independent
authority.’
This means that every individual is entitled to have their personal information
protected, used in a fair and legal way, and made available to them when they
ask for a copy. If an individual feels that their personal information is wrong, they
are entitled to ask for that information to be corrected’ (Available at:
https://www.dataprotection.ie/en/individuals/rights-individuals-under-general-data-
protection-regulation, Accessed 26 April 2021)
17. When the research is taking place overseas, there are additional requirements, for
the authorisation and the ethical administration of the study. Have you/Do You
Propose to
403
(a) Obtained/obtain a research visa and any other necessary permission to do
research, from the government of that country? Yes/No Give details if
necessary.
(b) Obtained/obtain proper permission from any organisation that you will be working
with, (e.g. NGO’s)? Yes/No Give details if necessary.
(c) ensured/ensure that you can fulfil the other requirements on this form in
appropriate languages (e.g. that you can explain your research to the participants in
their mother tongue)? Yes/No Give details if necessary.
18. Outline any other information relevant to this submission, using a separate sheet if
necessary.
404
Appendix 2. Descriptive Question Matrix (Spradley, 1980, pp. 82-83)
SPACE
SPACE
OBJECT
ACT
ACTIVITY
EVENT
TIME
ACTOR
GOAL
FEELINGS
SPACE
SPACE
Can you
describe in
detail all the spaces?
OBJECT
What are all the
ways space is
organized by objects?
ACT
What are all
the ways
space is organised by
acts?
ACTIVITY
What are all
the ways
space is organized by
activities?
EVENT
What are all
the ways
space is organized by
events?
TIME
What
spatial
changes occur over
time?
ACTOR
What are
all the ways
space is used by
actors?
GOAL
What are all
the ways
space is related to
goals?
FEELINGS
What places are
associated with
feelings?
OBJECT Where are objects located?
Can you describe in
detail all the
objects?
What are all the ways
objects are
used in acts?
What are all the ways
objects are
used in activities?
What are all the ways that
objects are
used in events?
How are objects
used at
different times?
What are all the ways
objects are
used by actors?
How are objects used
in seeking
goals?
What are all the ways objects
evoke feelings?
ACT Where do acts
occur?
How do acts
incorporate the
use of objects?
Can you
describe in
detail all the acts?
How are acts
a part of
activities?
How are acts
a part of
events?
How do
acts vary
over time?
What are
the ways
acts are performed
by actors?
What are all
the ways acts
are related to goals?
What are all the
ways acts are
linked to feelings?
405
ACTIVITY What are all the
places activities occur?
What are all the
ways activities incorporate
objects?
What are all
the ways activities
incorporate
acts?
Can you
describe in detail all the
activities?
What are all
the ways activities are
part of
events?
How do
activities vary at
different
times?
What are
all the ways activities
involve
actors?
What are all
the ways activities
involve goals?
How do events
involve feelings?
EVENT What are all the places events
occur?
What are all the ways events
incorporate
objects?
What are all the ways
events
incorporate acts?
What are all the ways
events
incorporate activities?
Can you describe in
detail all the
events?
How do events
occur over
time? Is there any
sequencing
?
How do events
involve the
various actors?
How are events related
to goals?
How do events involve feelings?
TIME Where do time
periods occur?
What are all the
ways time
affects objects?
How do acts
fall into time
periods?
How do
activities fall
into time periods?
How do
events fall
into time periods?
Can you
describe in
detail all the time
periods?
When are
all the
times actors are
“on stage”?
How are
goals related
to time periods?
When are
feelings
evoked?
ACTOR Where do actors
place themselves
What are all the
ways time affects objects?
What are all
the ways actors use
acts?
How are
actors involved in
activities?
How are
actors involved in
events?
How do
actors change
over time
or at different
times?
Can you
describe in detail all
the actors?
Which actors
are linked to which goals?
What are the
feelings experienced by
the actors?
406
GOAL Where are goals
sought and achieved?
What are all the
ways goals involve use of
objects?
What are all
the ways goals involve
acts?
What
activities are goal seeking
or linked to
goals?
What are all
the ways events are
linked to
goals?
Which
goals are scheduled
for which
times?
How do the
various goals affect
the various
actors?
Can you
describe in detail all the
goals?
What are the
ways goals evoke feelings?
FEELINGS Where do the various feeling
states occur?
What feelings lead to the use
of what objects?
What are all the ways
feelings affect
acts?
What are all the ways
feelings affect
activities?
What are all the ways
feelings affect
events?
How are feelings
related to
various time
periods?
What are the ways
feelings
involve actors?
What are the ways feelings
influence
goals?
Can you describe in
detail all the
feelings?
407
Appendix 3. Poster Presentations
408
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