ARTICLE Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Board of Malaysia and housing satisfaction Mohammad Abdul Mohit • Nurul Nazyddah Received: 20 November 2009 / Accepted: 23 March 2011 / Published online: 19 April 2011 Ó The Author(s) 2011. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com Abstract Social housing in Malaysia is provided through the public and private sectors. Recently, the Selangor Zakat Board (SZB) has started to provide social housing in the state of Selangor, Malaysia. Up to 2007, a total of 906 units have been delivered under its different programmes. This paper evaluates these programmes by adopting the housing satisfaction model which is currently used as a customer satisfaction tool for public/private housing in many local governments in the UK and USA. The main purpose of this paper is to identify the types of housing programmes adopted by SZB and examine beneficiaries’ housing satisfaction in each programme on a comparative plane. In order to examine housing satisfaction, five objective components of satisfaction—housing unit features, housing unit support services, the social environment, public facilities and neighbourhood facilities—were analysed through beneficiaries’ levels of satisfaction which were measured by applying a Likert scale. The findings of the paper indicate that SZB has been successful in providing a moderate level of satisfaction with the housing unit. However, the existence of variable levels of satisfaction with other components implies that there is still scope to enhance residents’ satisfaction with those components. Keywords Social housing Housing satisfaction Housing unit features Housing unit support services Public and neighbourhood facilities Social environment 1 Introduction In Malaysia, social housing 1 is usually provided through the public and private sectors. Public-sector provisions are mostly concentrated in large urban centres such as Kuala Lumpur and George Town, but also in the rural areas, while the private sector operates in urban and suburban areas. Recently, the Selangor Zakat Board (SZB), as a third sector, has M. A. Mohit (&) N. Nazyddah Kulliyyah (Faculty) of Architecture and Environmental Design (KAED), International Islamic University Malaysia (IIUM), Gombak, 53100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia e-mail: [email protected]1 Social housing is low-cost housing which has an amount of subsidy involved in its construction. 123 J Hous and the Built Environ (2011) 26:143–164 DOI 10.1007/s10901-011-9216-y
22
Embed
Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Board of ... · Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Board of Malaysia and housing satisfaction ... housing in Johor Bahru were satisfied
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
ARTICLE
Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Boardof Malaysia and housing satisfaction
Mohammad Abdul Mohit • Nurul Nazyddah
Received: 20 November 2009 / Accepted: 23 March 2011 / Published online: 19 April 2011� The Author(s) 2011. This article is published with open access at Springerlink.com
Abstract Social housing in Malaysia is provided through the public and private sectors.
Recently, the Selangor Zakat Board (SZB) has started to provide social housing in the state
of Selangor, Malaysia. Up to 2007, a total of 906 units have been delivered under its
different programmes. This paper evaluates these programmes by adopting the housing
satisfaction model which is currently used as a customer satisfaction tool for public/private
housing in many local governments in the UK and USA. The main purpose of this paper is
to identify the types of housing programmes adopted by SZB and examine beneficiaries’
housing satisfaction in each programme on a comparative plane. In order to examine
housing satisfaction, five objective components of satisfaction—housing unit features,
housing unit support services, the social environment, public facilities and neighbourhood
facilities—were analysed through beneficiaries’ levels of satisfaction which were measured
by applying a Likert scale. The findings of the paper indicate that SZB has been successful
in providing a moderate level of satisfaction with the housing unit. However, the existence
of variable levels of satisfaction with other components implies that there is still scope to
enhance residents’ satisfaction with those components.
Keywords Social housing � Housing satisfaction � Housing unit features � Housing unit
support services � Public and neighbourhood facilities � Social environment
1 Introduction
In Malaysia, social housing1 is usually provided through the public and private sectors.
Public-sector provisions are mostly concentrated in large urban centres such as Kuala
Lumpur and George Town, but also in the rural areas, while the private sector operates in
urban and suburban areas. Recently, the Selangor Zakat Board (SZB), as a third sector, has
M. A. Mohit (&) � N. NazyddahKulliyyah (Faculty) of Architecture and Environmental Design (KAED), International IslamicUniversity Malaysia (IIUM), Gombak, 53100 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysiae-mail: [email protected]
1 Social housing is low-cost housing which has an amount of subsidy involved in its construction.
123
J Hous and the Built Environ (2011) 26:143–164DOI 10.1007/s10901-011-9216-y
started to participate in the provision of social housing in the state of Selangor, Malaysia.
Till 2007, 906 units, which accounts for a little over 1% of total low-cost housing in the
state, have been delivered under its different programmes.
Selangor Zakat Board (SZB) is a wholly owned subsidiary of Selangor Islamic Reli-
gious Council (SIRC) with a paid-up capital of RM (Ringgit Malaysia) 0.50 (US$0.16)
million.2 It was established in 1994 in order to manage the zakat system3 in Selangor, but it
started its operation in October 1995. The main function of SZB is to organise the col-
lection of zakat payments in Selangor on behalf of SIRC and also distribute zakat funds, in
accordance with religious principles, to designated beneficiary categories. Its purpose is to
improve the quality of life of all the beneficiaries in the state. The collection of zakat rose
from RM15.8 (US$4.90) million in 1995 to RM159.8 (US$50.0) million in 2006, a tenfold
increase over a 12-year period. SZB takes a Community Development Approach to allo-
cate the zakat funds through its social, economic, society, and human development pro-
grammes. Housing and shelter activities fall under the Social Development Programme.
Related schemes under this programme are (a) construction/improvement of individual
houses; (b) construction of cluster housing; (c) rental housing for transit dwellers; and
(d) an old folks’ home. Individual houses are those dwellings (in dilapidated conditions)
that are privately owned and whose owners are too poor to improve them. SZB provides a
maximum of RM17,000 (US$5,300) for their improvement. For cluster housing, SZB
procures land from the state government and constructs single-storey cluster units for
delivery to the poor. Transit houses are mainly high-rise flats rented by SZB to accom-
modate poor families in urban areas. Old folks’ homes are rented by SZB to house the
Table 1 Distribution of Zakat funds by beneficiary categories, 2006 and housing expenditures during July–Sept’07 by SZB
Beneficiary category Distribution (RM) Percentage (%) Amount spent on housing(July–Sept’07) RM’000’
The Indigenta 2,589,451.00 1.94 124.6 (2.5%)
The Needya 38,556,208.00 28.9 2048.2 (14.0%)
The Collectors 19,739,056.00 14.8 –
The Reconcileda 7,649,712.00 5.73 313.8 (8.5a)
Ransoming of Slaves 683,428.00 0.51 –
The Debtors 9,999,254.00 7.49 –
For the sake of God 53,707,577.00 40.4 –
The Wayfarer 445,736.00 0.03 –
Total 133,654,172.31 100.00 2,486.6 (11.2)
Source: SZB (2008)a Category which contains housing beneficiaries
2 Exchange rate US$1.00 = RM3.20.3 Zakat (tithe or poor-due) is an annual obligatory religious levy or transfer payments by well-off Muslimsto the destitute and the needy in a Muslim society. In religious terminology, it (zakat) is the part of wealthwhich the rich have been ordained to spend on deserving recipients at prescribed rates as per rules laid downin the Islamic sources. It is an instrument of redistribution of income and wealth in Islam, intended toeradicate poverty altogether by spending for the welfare of the poor and the destitute (Al-Qardawi andAllama 2006, p. 67).
144 M. A. Mohit, N. Nazyddah
123
elderly and aged poor. SZB applies a set of criteria based on income, family size and local
leaders’ recommendation to decide who should benefit from all their housing schemes.
The beneficiary category ‘for the sake of God’ accounts for the largest allocation,
followed by the ‘needy’ and ‘collectors’. The housing expenditure of SZB is mainly
confined to three categories: the ‘indigent’, the ‘needy’ and the ‘reconciled’, together
accounting for RM2.5 million every 3 months or about RM10.0 million per year (Table 1).
SZB spends the largest share of its housing expenditure on the needy.
The provision of social housing by the public and private sectors has been widely
studied in Malaysia (Razali 1993; Tan 1980; Salleh 2008). So far, however, no study
has been done on the effectiveness of the zakat-funded housing programmes. This
paper, therefore, intends to evaluate the important SZB housing programmes. It does so
by adopting the housing satisfaction model which is currently used as a customer
satisfaction tool for public/private housing by many local governments in the UK and
USA.
2 Perspectives on housing satisfaction literature
Housing satisfaction is defined as the degree of contentment experienced by an individual
or a family member with regard to the current housing situation. It is basically a non-
economic and normative quality evaluation approach which is used to assess the quality of
housing units and services. The assessment is based on a ‘minimum standard or inter-
vention points’ beyond which something needs to be done to avert further deterioration of
the housing condition (Ogu 2002). The idea of housing satisfaction has been used as a
guide by many planners, designers, developers and policy-makers who attempt to provide
housing to a variety of people (Ukoha and Beamish 1997). It has been used as (a) a key
predictor of an individual’s perceptions of general quality of life; (b) an indicator of
incipient residential mobility, and has thereby altered housing demands and affected
neighbourhood change; (c) an ad hoc evaluative measure for judging the success of
developments constructed by private and public sectors; and (d) a tool to assess residents’
perceptions of inadequacies in their current housing environment in order to improve the
status quo (Djebarni and Al-Abed 2000). Recently, the neighbourhood component of
housing satisfaction has been used to evaluate the physical form of two US cities (Yang
2008).
Theoretical perspectives on housing satisfaction usually consider the difference between
households’ actual and their desired/aspired housing and neighbourhood situations (Galster
1987). Individuals usually make judgements about housing conditions in light of their
needs and aspirations, so any incongruence between the two may lead to dissatisfaction.
Rossi (1955) argues that housing needs and aspirations change as households progress
through their life cycle, leading to residential dissatisfaction at some stage. They respond to
this dissatisfaction through migration. Hence, migration is regarded as an adjustment
process to enhance residential satisfaction. Morris and Winter (1975, 1978) introduced the
idea of ‘‘housing deficit’’ and conceptualised housing satisfaction as a dynamic process. In
their housing adjustment model of residential mobility, they argue that households judge
their housing conditions according to two types of norms, personal or cultural, which may
not coincide. An incongruity between the actual housing satisfaction and housing norms
results in a housing deficit. That, in turn, gives rise to housing dissatisfaction, leading to
some form of housing adjustment. It may be in situ, such as revising one’s housing needs
and aspirations in order to reconcile the incongruity, or improving one’s housing
Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Board of Malaysia 145
123
conditions through remodeling. Alternatively, the adjustment may be made by moving
away to bring the housing into conformity with one’s aspirations or needs.
Housing satisfaction is a complex construct, affected by a variety of environmental and
socio-demographic variables (Lu 1999). Studies on housing satisfaction have therefore
used a number of variables representing housing and neighbourhood characteristics,
individuals’ socio-demographic attributes as well as their perceptions of the housing and
neighbourhood conditions that affect housing satisfaction. Jaafar et al. (undated) observed
that project type, house price and length of residency significantly influenced housing
satisfaction among the residents of Penang Development Corporation’s projects. Ukoha
and Beamish (1997) reported that while the residents of public housing in Abuja, Nigeria,
were satisfied with neighbourhood facilities, they were dissatisfied with structure types,
building features, housing conditions and management.
Husna and Nurizan (1987) found that while the residents of public low-cost housing in
Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, were satisfied with the services rendered by the city-hall workers
and with the neighbourhood factors, a large proportion of them felt dissatisfied with
housing unit features. Nurizan (1993) reported that whereas the residents of low-cost
housing in Johor Bahru were satisfied with public transport and the distance of housing
from the city, they were not satisfied with the size, rent and crowding in their houses.
Djebarni and Al-Abed (2000) observed that the residents of public low-income housing in
Sana’a attach great importance to the level of satisfaction with their neighbourhoods,
particularly with regard to privacy, which reflects the cultural background of Yemeni
society. Lane and Kinsey (1980) reported that housing characteristics were more crucial
determinants than demographic characteristics of housing occupants. Ogu (2002) studied
urban residential satisfaction of inhabitants living in core, intermediate, suburban and
planned areas of Benin City, Nigeria. The author found that while most housing component
variables generally contributed positively to residential satisfaction, environmental vari-
ables made negative contributions. Salleh (2008) investigated housing satisfaction in two
states, Pulau Pinang and Terengganu, and found that the neighbourhood factors were the
predominant ones affecting the levels of housing satisfaction in private low-cost housing in
Malaysia. Mohit et al. (2010) have found that the residents of the newly designed public
low-cost housing in Kuala Lumpur are moderately satisfied with housing support services,
followed by public and neighbourhood facilities and then by housing features and the
social environment, which have a higher percentage of respondents with a low level of
satisfaction. Alison et al. (2002), after analysing English housing data, concluded that
although socio-demographic factors were much less important than residential perceptions
in helping to predict dissatisfaction, the type of neighbourhood remained a significant
independent predictor of dissatisfaction even when residents’ views were taken into
account. Dwellers in private low-cost housing in and around Bangkok, Thailand, were
generally more satisfied with their housing units than with environmental facilities
(Savasdisara et al. 1989).
Some studies reveal that housing satisfaction is much higher among homeowners than
renters (Lu 1999; Loo 1986). Elsinga and Hoekstra (2005) reported that homeowners in
seven out of eight European countries are more satisfied with their housing situation than
tenants are, and that only in one country do homeowners and tenants display a similar level
of satisfaction. Even when the quality of the housing unit is similar, owner-occupiers are
likely to be more satisfied than renters. This might be because home ownership gives
people a sense of ‘self-gratification’, making them proud and thereby satisfied with their
dwelling units (Kaitilla 1993). Nevertheless, Russell (2008a, b) found that after middle
age, residential satisfaction among US tenants increases dramatically. Barcus (2004) found
146 M. A. Mohit, N. Nazyddah
123
that tenure shift from renting to owning is the only significant variable in predicting
residential satisfaction of American urban–rural migrants; individual migrant character-
istics and their motivations offered little explanation for the variation in residential sat-
isfaction. Lu (2002) found similar results when modelling the residential satisfaction of
intra- and inter-regional migrants. The most likely explanation is that renters have less
control over their housing environment and in general have a lower housing quality (Loo
1986).
Housing satisfaction also tends to vary for public versus private housing and subsidized
versus non-subsidized housing. According to Lu (1999), public renters were more likely to
be satisfied because of the availability of a basic level of amenity, service and maintenance
of their dwellings. However, public renters are more likely to have very low levels of
neighbourhood satisfaction because of the location and density of public housing. Russell
(2008a, b) found that subsidized renters in the US report higher satisfaction with their
housing than similarly situated non-subsidized renters. In multi-family housing in the US,
it was found that improvement and addition of dwelling elements had a clear impact on
satisfaction, even in rented houses (Russell 2007).
The foregoing review indicates that while various housing, neighbourhood and
household characteristics determine the level of housing satisfaction, the impacts of these
variables as predictors of housing satisfaction or dissatisfaction tend to vary by housing
type, tenure, country and culture. The implication is that research should be done to
determine housing satisfaction in case-specific situations to guide agency policies. In
Malaysia, studies on low-cost housing satisfaction have been focussed on the public and
private sectors; so far, no study has investigated housing satisfaction in dwellings provided
through the emerging third sector, SZB. Therefore, this paper fills a gap that currently
exists in the literature on social housing in Malaysia.
3 Objectives and research questions
The literature on low-cost housing reveals that housing satisfaction is a complex construct
and that it depends on a number of factors which require careful examination. This paper
intends to investigate those factors and examine their role in the overall satisfaction, with
the following objectives:
(a) To explore the types of social housing provided through Selangor Zakat Board (SZB);
(b) To examine and compare the levels of housing satisfaction perceived by the residents
in the provided housing schemes;
(c) To determine the factors influencing the overall housing satisfaction levels in each
category of housing;
(d) To provide recommendations that will help improve residents’ levels of housing
satisfaction.
Given the objectives of the study, a few research questions emerge as stated below:
(a) How do the residents in the three housing types rate their satisfaction with the forty-
five variables and five components?
(b) How do the residents’ perceived levels of satisfaction differ by the housing types?
(c) What are the predictor variables and factors that can enhance the housing satisfaction
levels of the residents in the three housing types?
Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Board of Malaysia 147
123
4 Methodology
Housing quality can be assessed by objective and subjective measurement. Objective
measurement evaluates the physical characteristics, facilities, services and environment.
Subjective measurement includes perception, satisfaction, aspiration and disappointment; it
is closely related to the psycho-social aspects of a person (Nurizan and Hashim 2001).
4.1 Selection of components and variables for measuring housing satisfaction
Most housing satisfaction studies integrate both objective and subjective attributes for the
assessment of housing satisfaction. Francescato et al. (1987) observe that housing satis-
faction depends on three elements: the design, which includes its spatial organisation,
layout and facilities provision; the management practices; and the surrounding social
environment. Tenant satisfaction encompasses four components of satisfaction: (1) satis-
faction with the dwelling unit; (2) with the services provided; (3) with the whole rent
package—dwelling and services; and (4) with the neighbourhood or area (Varady and
Carrozza 2000). Nurizan and Hashim (2001) reported that besides facilities in the house,
basic facilities such as shops, markets, schools, clinic, mailing system, community hall and
playground are important to support the daily life of the residents and enhance their quality
of life. Therefore, based upon a literature review of variables that affect residents’ housing
satisfaction, the present study adopts a ‘‘housing satisfaction bundle’’ with five components
and forty-five variables (Table 2).
4.2 Sampling design
In this study, stratified random sampling was performed to select respondents for survey.
The residents of the zakah-funded social housing estates were stratified into three cate-
gories—cluster, individual and transit. A total of 250 respondents were randomly selected
for the survey (Table 3).
A structured questionnaire was used to gather data from the respondents. The form
contained six sections: respondents’ socio-economic and house unit information (Sect. 1);
satisfaction with housing unit features (Sect. 2); satisfaction with housing unit support
services (Sect. 3); satisfaction with public facilities (Sect. 4); satisfaction with social
Table 2 Components and variables selected for measuring housing satisfaction
Housing unitfeatures(Component-1)
Housing unitsupport services(Component-2)
Public facilities(Component-3)
Socialenvironment(Component-4)
Neighbourhoodfacilities(Component-5)
Living, dining,bedroom,kitchen,bathroom, toiletand (clothes)drying areas(power) socketpoints, includingventilation ofthe house
Corridors,staircase,drainage,garbagecollection,lifts and firefightingsystem
Open space, playarea, parking,prayer and multi-purpose halls,perimeter roads,pedestrianwalkways, publicphone, local shops
environment (Sect. 5); and satisfaction with neighbourhood facilities (Sect. 6). The level of
housing satisfaction was measured on a five-point Likert scale: ‘‘1’’ for very dissatisfied,
‘‘2’’ for dissatisfied, ‘‘3’’ for slightly satisfied, ‘‘4’’ for satisfied and ‘‘5’’ for very satisfied.
4.3 Satisfaction index
The satisfaction index for a particular housing component was calculated with the fol-
lowing equation:
SIc ¼PN
i¼1 yiPN
i¼1 Yi� 100 ð1Þ
where SIc is the satisfaction index of a respondent with component c of the housing
environment of a particular category, N is the number of variables being scaled under c, yiis the actual score by a respondent on the ith variable, and Yi is the maximum possible
score that i could have on the scale used.
4.4 Housing satisfaction index
The housing satisfaction index is calculated as the sum total of the component satisfaction
indices (Eq. 2).
HSIr ¼PN1
i¼1 diþPN2
i¼1 siþPN3
i¼1 piþPN4
i¼1 seiþPN5
i¼1 niPN1
i¼1 DiþPN2
i¼1 SiþPN3
i¼1 PiþPN4
i¼1 SEiþPN5
i¼1 Ni� 100 ð2Þ
where HSIr is a respondent’s satisfaction with the housing environment; N1, N2, N3, N4and N5 are the number of variables selected for scaling under each component of housing
environment; while di, si, pi, sei and ni represent the actual score of a respondent on the ithvariable in the five components. Di, Si, Pi, SEi and Ni are the maximum possible scores for
the ith variable in the housing unit features, housing unit support services, public facilities,
social environment and neighbourhood facilities, respectively, calculated for each category
of housing.
4.5 Habitability index
HIx ¼PN
i¼1 ay0xPN
i¼1 Ay0x� 100 ð3Þ
HIx represents the index of habitability (Ogu 2002) of variable x and N is the number of
respondents, while ay’x is the actual score on the five-point scale for the yth respondent on
Table 3 Selection of sample size for questionnaire survey
House (Category) Entitled category Units delivered Sample Sample % of total
Cluster The Indigent & Needy 426 (47.0%) 100 23.4
Individual The Indigent & Needy 400 (44.2%) 100 25.0
Transit The Indigent, Needy & Reconciled 80 (8.8%) 50 62.5
Total 3 Categories 906 (100.0%) 250 27.6
Source: SZB (2008)
Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Board of Malaysia 149
123
the xth variable. ‘A’ represents the maximum possible score that respondent ‘y’ could give
to variable x on the five-point scale.
5 A conceptual model of housing satisfaction
The conceptual model used in this paper is based on the notion that housing satis-
faction is a composite construct of the indices of satisfaction which respondents per-
ceive with their housing unit features and support services, public facilities, social
environment and neighbourhood facilities. According to Amerigo and Aragones (1997),
once the objective attributes of the housing environment have been evaluated by the
individual, they become subjective, giving rise to a certain degree of satisfaction.
Subjective attributes are influenced by the subject’s socio-demographic and personal
characteristics as well as his/her housing quality pattern, a normative element whereby
the individual compares his/her real and ideal housing environment. The model (Fig. 1)
shows that the respondents’ evaluation of objective attributes of housing through their
socio-economic and demographic characteristics become subjective attributes. These
can be captured in the five components of housing satisfaction. Together, these five
components form the basis of housing satisfaction of the residents living in the three
types of housing.
6 Analysis and findings
6.1 Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of the respondents
As Table 4 shows, a little over 75% of the respondents are male heads of families and the
rest are females. Single parents constitute nearly 25% of the total number of families. The
majority of respondents (ranging from 64 to 84%) of all housing schemes are between 31
and 40 years of age. Whereas the percentage of elderly family heads in transit housing is
low, it is significant in both individual and cluster housing types. Although the average
bedroom occupancy is less than 2.0 in all housing schemes, a large percentage (58–66%)
have 6? family members. While only 14% of the respondents in transit housing have no
formal education, the percentage is significant (30% each) in cluster and individual
housing. Between 40 and 42% of the respondents in the three housing schemes have a low
level of education. Their lower level of education is also reflected in the low level of family
income,\RM1000 (\US$315.0), which applies to 84–90% of the respondents in the three
housing schemes. A relatively longer length of residency is observed among people in
individual housing compared to the cluster housing residents. For most of the transit
dwellers, the length of residency is short because this programme is newer than the others
(Table 4).
Although 40% of the transit housing respondents have no private transport, 28% and
18% of the cluster and individual housing residents, respectively, do not own any means of
transport either. While 56% of those in individual housing and 52% of the cluster housing
residents own motorised transport, only 36% of the transit residents do. Transit dwellers
have a higher percentage (82%) of working wives than cluster (64%) and individual (60%)
residents.
150 M. A. Mohit, N. Nazyddah
123
6.2 Analysis of housing satisfaction
Overall housing satisfaction rated by three resident groups indicates a mean value of a little
over slightly satisfied or a lower level of satisfaction than the moderate level which is
defined with a mean value of 3.5 (Table 5). For the housing unit component, all residents
have expressed moderate satisfaction, with transit and individual housing residents rating it
Objective attributes of housing environment
Subjective attributes of housing environment
Housing unit features – living area, dining space, bedroom spaces, toilet, bathroom, etc.
dissatisfaction with dwelling unit features (measured by HUFIndex)
Housing unit support services – corridor, staircase, lift, cleanliness of drains, street lighting, garbage collection, etc.
Respondents’ impression based on individual / family norms and values
dissatisfaction with dwelling unit support services (measured by HUSSIndex)
Public facilities - OS/play area, parking, prayer hall, perimeter roads, pedestrian walkways, etc.
Satisfaction / dissatisfaction with public facilities (measured by PFSIndex)
Housing satisfaction in each category of housing (measured by OCHSI, OIHSI & OTHSI)
Social environment – noise, accident, safety, security control, community relations.
/noitcafsitaSdissatisfaction with social environment (measured by SESIndex)
Household characteristics - age, education, family size, income, length of stay, etc.
Neighbourhood facilities – distances to town centre, workplace, school, hospital, shopping centre, lrt/bus stations, etc.
Satisfaction /
Satisfaction /
Satisfaction / dissatisfaction with neighbourhood facilities (measured by NFSIndex)
Fig. 1 Relationship between objective and subjective attributes of housing environment to determinehousing satisfaction. Notes: HUFSIndex, Housing unit features satisfaction index; HUSSSIndex, Housingunit support service satisfaction index; PFSIndex, Public facilities satisfaction index; SESIndex, Socialenvironment satisfaction index; NFSIndex, Neighbourhood facilities satisfaction index; OCHSI, OverallCluster Housing Satisfaction Index; OIHSI, Overall Individual Housing Satisfaction; OTHSI, OverallTransit Housing Satisfaction Index
Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Board of Malaysia 151
123
Table 4 Respondents’ demographic and socio-economic characteristics
Bold figures indicate housing component valuesa Significant at 0.001 levelb Significant at 0.05 level
Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Board of Malaysia 155
123
a lower level of satisfaction with the public facilities component in the individual and
cluster housing schemes. On the contrary, high satisfaction levels with the social envi-
ronment component were recorded among cluster and individual housing residents, fol-
lowed by a higher satisfaction with public facilities among the transit housing dwellers.
Also significantly high levels of satisfaction have been expressed about the public facilities
component by individual and cluster housing inhabitants, followed by satisfaction with
housing unit features expressed by cluster housing residents and with housing support
services expressed by individual housing dwellers. A significant percentage of cluster and
individual housing residents revealed high satisfaction with housing unit features and
support services compared to the transit housing residents, in which case the percentage of
respondents is relatively low.
6.3 Analysis of habitability indices and housing environment
Habitability indices (HI) are calculated to assess the contribution of specific variables to
the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction of the respondents (Ogu 2002). In order to
facilitate the interpretation of the contribution of housing and other environmental vari-
ables to the degree of satisfaction or dissatisfaction expressed by the respondents living in
three types of housing schemes, habitability indices are categorised into three broad
regions—highly positive (??) with index values between 70 and 100; moderately positive
(?) with index values between 60 and 69.9; and negative (-) with index values between
20 and 59.9. Table 6 shows that the individual housing dwellers are dissatisfied with 23%
of all items, followed by the transit housing dwellers, who are dissatisfied with 21% of all
items. On the other hand, the cluster housing residents reported the lowest level of dis-
satisfaction, being dissatisfied with 9% of all items. Component-wise distribution shows
that the transit housing respondents expressed dissatisfaction about the bathroom, (clothes)
Fig. 2 Percentage distribution of respondents by housing types and regime of satisfaction. Notes: Regimeof satisfaction: Very low = 20–39.9; Low = 40–59.9; Moderate = 60–79.9; High, 80–100. SHUF,satisfaction with housing unit features; SHUSS, satisfaction with housing unit support services; SPF,satisfaction with public facilities; SSE, satisfaction with social environment; SNF, satisfaction withneighbourhood facilities
156 M. A. Mohit, N. Nazyddah
123
Table 6 Distribution of habitability indices by housing types and regions of habitability
Components Variables Habitability Indices and Regions
Cluster Regions Individual Regions Transit Regions
Housing unit features(HUFs)
Living area 68.0 ? 69.6 ? 79.6 ??
Dinning space 66.4 ? 64.4 ? 63.2 ?
Kitchen space 68.0 ? 68.4 ? 68.0 ?
Bedroom-1 78.0 ?? 74.8 ?? 86.0 ??
Bedroom-2 78.0 ?? 74.4 ?? 86.0 ??
Bedroom-3 74.4 ?? 61.2 ? 80.8 ??
Toilet 72.4 ?? 70.0 ?? 74.8 ??
Bathroom 66.0 ? 62.0 ? 56.0 2
(Clothes) Dryingarea
69.6 ? 72.4 ?? 50.4 –
(Power) Socketpoints
65.6 ? 70.0 ?? 72.4 ??
Ventilation 71.6 ?? 78.0 ?? 72.8 ??
Housing unit supportservices (HUSSs)
Corridor n/a n/a n/a n/a 61.6 ?
Staircase n/a n/a n/a n/a 62.4 ?
Lift lobby n/a n/a n/a n/a 42.4 2
Lift n/a n/a n/a n/a 43.6 2
Fire fighting n/a n/a n/a n/a 48.4 2
Cleanliness of drains 66.4 ? 61.2 ? 59.6 2
Street lighting 63.6 ? 70.0 ?? 76.4 ??
Garbage collection 64.0 ? 67.6 ? 74.0 ??
Cleanliness of garbhouse
62.0 ? 59.6 - 70.0 ??
Public facilities (PFs) Open space/play area 66.8 ? 60.0 ? 74.8 ??
Car/M’cycle parking 69.6 ? 66.8 ? 79.6 ??
Prayer hall 82.0 ?? 86.0 ?? 88.0 ??
Multi-purpose hall 76.0 ?? 74.8 ?? 82.0 ??
Perimeter road 70.8 ?? 74.8 ?? 73.6 ??
Pedestrian walkways 68.4 ? 69.2 ? 72.0 ??
Public phone 67.6 ? 58.8 - 75.6 ??
Local shops 76.5 ?? n/a n/a 76.8 ??
Social environment Noise level 67.6 ? 73.2 ?? 55.6 2
Accident situation 66.4 ? 73.6 ?? 65.6 ?
Crime situation 67.6 ? 72.4 ?? 54.8 2
Community relations 76.0 ?? 84.4 ?? 74.0 ??
Neighbourhood facilities(NFs)
Distance to towncentre
60.8 ? 52.0 - 68.0 ?
Distance to workplace
65.2 ? 57.2 - 62.8 ?
Distance to school 70.8 ?? 68.8 ? 72.4 ??
Distance to policestation
65.2 ? 74.8 ?? 67.2 ?
Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Board of Malaysia 157
123
drying area, lift and lift lobby, fire fighting, cleanliness of drains, noise level, crime
situation and distance to the public library and LRT station. The component-wise distri-
bution also shows dissatisfaction among individual housing dwellers regarding the
cleanliness of the garbage house, public phone and the distance to the town centre,
workplaces, fire station and public transport facilities. On the other hand, cluster housing
residents conveyed their dissatisfaction with most of the public transport services,
including the location of the fire station.
6.4 Multivariate analysis of housing satisfaction
The Pearson correlation matrix (Table 7) shows that the OCHSI (Overall Cluster Housing
Satisfaction Index) is more highly positively correlated to public facilities, housing unit
support services and neighbourhood facilities than to social environment and housing unit
features, where the r values are significantly positive but low. The OIHSI (Overall
Individual Housing Satisfaction Index) is highly positively correlated to housing unit
features, support services, public facilities and social environment, though it has a low
correlation with neighbourhood facilities. The OTHSI (Overall Transit Housing Satis-
faction Index) has high positive correlations with all the components. Inter-component
correlation analysis (Table 7) indicates that satisfaction with housing unit features has
positive correlations with housing support services, public facilities and social environ-
ment for all housing groups except the social environment component of the cluster
housing group. However, satisfaction with neighbourhood facilities has no correlation
with satisfaction about housing unit features. Satisfaction with housing unit support
services is positively correlated to satisfaction with public facilities, social environment
Table 6 continued
Components Variables Habitability Indices and Regions
Cluster Regions Individual Regions Transit Regions
Dist’ce to hospital/clinic
65.2 ? n/a n/a 61.6 ?
Dist’ce to shoppingcentre
64.8 ? n/a n/a 68.4 ?
Distance to market 66.8 ? n/a n/a 67.2 ?
Distance to publiclibrary
65.2 ? 71.6 ?? 54.4 -
Distance to masjid 76.4 ?? 77.2 ?? 73.2 ??
Distance to LRTstation
32.8 - 20.4 - 35.2 -
Distance to busstation
64.8 ? 46.8 - 64.4 ?
Distance to taxi stand 51.2 - 29.6 - 60.4 ?
Distance to firestation
59.2 - 30.4 - 60.4 ?
Source: Field Survey, 2009
Regions of habitability: negative (-) = \60; moderately positive (?) = 60–69.9; highly positive(??) = 70–100; n/a = not applicable
158 M. A. Mohit, N. Nazyddah
123
and neighbourhood facilities for all the housing categories. The only exception appears to
be the satisfaction with neighbourhood facilities among the cluster housing group. Sat-
isfaction with public facilities is positively correlated to satisfaction with the social
environment and neighbourhood facilities for all housing groups. The only exception
concerns the individual housing group, having no correlation with satisfaction about
neighbourhood facilities. Satisfaction about the social environment has no correlation
with satisfaction about neighbourhood facilities among any housing category. The
respondents’ socio-economic characteristics offered no meaningful correlations with the
five housing satisfaction components.
Three Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) models were estimated to determine the best
linear combination of independent variables for predicting the overall housing satisfaction
of each housing group. For the overall cluster housing satisfaction (MLR-1; Table 8), the
model identified nine predictor variables with beta weights. Of these nine, two belong to
housing unit features, two to housing unit support services, three to public facilities and
two to neighbourhood facilities. The model suggests that cluster housing residents’ overall
satisfaction can be enhanced by improving satisfaction about the distance to market, public
Table 7 Correlation matrix between overall housing satisfaction and satisfaction components
OHSI overall housing satisfaction index, SIHUF satisfaction index with housing unit features, SIHUSSsatisfaction index with housing unit support services, SIPF satisfaction index with public facilities, SISEsatisfaction index with social environment, SINF satisfaction index with neighbourhood facilitiesa Significant at 0.01 levelb Significant at 0.05 levelc Significant at 0.10 level
Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Board of Malaysia 159
123
telephone, pedestrian walkways, (power) socket points, garbage collection, distance to
police station, kitchen space, cleanliness of drains and parking facilities.
For overall individual housing satisfaction (MLR-2; Table 9), the model identified eight
predictor variables with beta weights. Of these eight, two belong to housing unit features,
three to housing support services and one each to public and neighbourhood facilities. The
model suggests that individual housing residents’ total housing satisfaction can be
enhanced by improving satisfaction with the kitchen space, distance to school, street
lighting, parking, cleanliness of the garbage house, cleanliness of drains, pedestrian
walkways and the (clothes) drying area.
For the overall transit housing satisfaction (MLR-3; Table 10), the model identified nine
predictor variables with beta weights. Of the nine variables, only one belongs to the
housing unit features, three belong to housing support services, two are public facilities,
one is part of the social environment and two are neighbourhood facilities. It appears from
the model that transit housing residents’ total housing satisfaction can be enhanced by
improving their satisfaction about the distance to the workplace, about pedestrian walk-
ways, the living area, the distance to the police station, the lift lobby, the multi-purpose
hall, the noise level, street lighting and garbage collection.
7 Conclusions and recommendations
The paper reveals that the residents of the three types of social housing provided by the
SZB have a differential rating of satisfaction with five components and forty-five variables.
All the residents have expressed moderate satisfaction with the housing unit component but
low satisfaction with the house support services component. Moreover, while both transit
Table 8 Multiple linear regression (MLR-1) model of overall housing satisfaction index (Cluster Type)with housing satisfaction variables
R = .98; R2 = .96; adjusted R2 = .95; Std error of estimate = 1.90801; significance = .020
Dependent variable = overall housing satisfaction index for cluster housing scheme (OHSIC)
Ped_Walkways, Satisfaction with Pedestrian Walkways; Dist_Market, Satisfaction with Distance to Market;Garb_Collection, Satisfaction with garbage collection; Dist_PoliceStn, Satisfaction with Distance to policestation; Socket_Points, Satisfaction with socket points in the house; Pub_Telephone, Satisfaction with publictelephone; Kit_Space, Satisfaction with kitchen space (area); Clean_Drains, Satisfaction with cleanliness ofdrains; C/Mcycle_Parking, Satisfaction with car/motorcycle parking
160 M. A. Mohit, N. Nazyddah
123
Table 9 Multiple linear regression (MLR-2) model of overall housing satisfaction index (Individual Type)with housing satisfaction variables
Unstandardized Coefficients Standardized Coefficients t value Significance
B Std. Error Beta
Constant 21.729 2.208 9.841 0.000
GarH_clean 0.065 0.078 0.173 2.391 0.021
Kit_space 0.131 0.024 0.282 5.360 0.000
Dist_School 0.092 0.020 0.218 4.559 0.000
Ped_Walkways 0.057 0.026 0.139 2.243 0.030
Clean_Drains 0.069 0.026 0.163 2.762 0.009
Street_lighting 0.104 0.029 0.209 3.590 0.001
C/Mcycle_Parking 0.067 0.025 0.184 2.727 0.009
Dry_area 0.061 0.026 0.134 2.343 0.024
R = .96; R2 = .92; adjusted R2 = .90; Std error of estimate = 2.7587; significance = .010
Dependent variable = overall housing satisfaction index for individual housing scheme (OHSII)
GarH_clean, Satisfaction with cleanliness of Garbage house; Kit_space, Satisfaction with kitchen space(area); Dist_school, Satisfaction with distance to school; Ped_walkways, Satisfaction with pedestrianwalkways; Clean_Drain, Satisfaction with cleanliness of drains; Street_lighting, Satisfaction with streetlighting; C/Mcycle_parking, Satisfaction with car/motorcycle parking; Dry_Area, Satisfaction with (clothes)drying area
Table 10 Multiple linear regression (MLR-3) model of overall housing satisfaction index (Transit Type)with housing satisfaction variables
Unstandardized coefficients Standardized coefficients t value Significance
B Std. Error Beta
Constant 6.863 2.244 3.058 0.004
Dist_Workplace 0.097 0.019 0.238 5.075 0.000
Ped_Walkways 0.115 0.020 0.238 5.797 0.000
Garb_Collection 0.069 0.023 0.113 3.032 0.004
Liv_area 0.154 0.021 0.237 7.404 0.000
Noise 0.067 0.015 0.158 4.491 0.000
Multi_hall 0.115 0.021 0.170 4.811 0.000
Dist_PoliceStn 0.087 0.020 0.194 4.443 0.000
Lift_lobby 0.080 0.016 0.191 4.982 0.000
Street_lighting 0.081 0.027 0.122 3.050 0.004
R = .98; R2 = .96; adjusted R2 = .95; Std error of estimate = 2.01732; significance = .004
Dependent variable = overall housing satisfaction index for transit housing scheme (OHSIT)
Dist_Workplace, Satisfaction with Distance to Workplace; Ped_Walkways, Satisfaction with PedestrianWalkways; Garb_collection, Satisfaction with Garbage collection; Liv_area, Satisfaction with living area;Noise, Satisfaction with noise; Multi_hall, Satisfaction with multi-purpose hall; Dist_PoliceStn, Satisfactionwith Distance to police station; Lift_lobby, Satisfaction with lift lobby; Street_lighting, Satisfaction withstreet lighting
Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Board of Malaysia 161
123
and cluster housing residents were moderately satisfied about the public facilities, the
individual housing group reported a lower level of satisfaction with that component. Again,
while both individual and cluster housing residents were moderately satisfied with the
social environment, transit housing residents showed low satisfaction with that component.
Further, while individual housing residents expressed dissatisfaction with neighbourhood
facilities, both transit and cluster resident groups conveyed very low satisfaction with that
component. The distribution of the regime of satisfaction shows that a moderate level of
housing satisfaction predominates for most of the components, except for the rating of
neighbourhood facilities by the individual housing group and of housing support services
by the cluster housing group. The component-wise distribution of habitability indices
shows that the transit housing respondents have expressed dissatisfaction with the bath-
room, (clothes) drying area, lift and lift lobby, fire fighting, cleanliness of drains, noise
level, crime situation and the distance to the public library and LRT station. Individual
housing dwellers conveyed their dissatisfaction with the cleanliness of the garbage house,
the public phone and with the distance to the town centre, workplaces, fire station and
public transport facilities. On the other hand, cluster housing residents conveyed their
dissatisfaction about most of the public transport services, including the location of the fire
station. The three Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) models that were estimated show that
the cluster housing residents’ overall housing satisfaction can be enhanced by improving
satisfaction with the distance to the market, public telephone, pedestrian walkways, socket
points, garbage collection, distance to the police station, kitchen space, cleanliness of
drains and the parking facility. These MLR models also show that individual housing
residents’ total housing satisfaction can be enhanced through improving satisfaction with
the kitchen space, distance to school, street lighting, parking, cleanliness of the garbage
house, cleanliness of drains, pedestrian walkways and the (clothes) drying area. The
models further show that transit housing residents’ total housing satisfaction can be
enhanced by improving their satisfaction with the distance to the workplace, pedestrian
walkways, living area, distance to police station, lift lobby, multi-purpose hall, noise level,
street lighting and garbage collection.
It appears that Selangor Zakat Board’s endeavour to provide housing to the poor has
been successful, though only in terms of the provision of the housing unit. One indicator
of this success is that 78% of transit and 84% of cluster and individual residents have
expressed their desire not to move away from their current residences. The majority of
the transit group expressed concern about the size of their houses, which they consider
small. In fact, our analysis (Table 4) shows that the average family in all three housing
types consists of more than five persons. Actually, more than half (58–66%) of the
respondents have 6? family members. The policy implication of this is that SZB should
adopt the criterion of family size in determining the size of the house, particularly the
number of bedrooms. Transit housing appears to be successful, with residents who are
satisfied about the housing unit features and public facilities, because of their location in
urban areas. With respect to satisfaction about housing support services, the social
environment and neighbourhood facilities, there is a need for improvement. Individual
housing seems to be successful, with satisfaction about the social environment, housing
unit features, public facilities and housing support services. But due to the location in
rural areas, dissatisfaction prevails about neighbourhood facilities that require improve-
ment. Cluster housing tends to be successful with regard to housing unit features, public
facilities and the social environment, but housing support services and neighbourhood
facilities require improvement in order to enhance residents’ satisfaction. The above
162 M. A. Mohit, N. Nazyddah
123
analysis leads to three policy implications for SZB in the provision of social housing for
the poor:
(a) A significant percentage of the units in each housing scheme should be built for large
(6?) families;
(b) SZB should adopt a ‘bundle approach’ to provide housing along with other facilities;
(c) SZB should select the location for housing units based on where non-sheltered
facilities exist.
Whereas the first two policies have financial implications, the third policy would require
SZB to select locations of housing in areas where proper public and other facilities are
available. Some techniques to assess suitability pertaining to the location of housing units
can be used to determine areas of high potential from the perspective of the availability of
public, neighbourhood and social facilities.
Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Noncom-mercial License which permits any noncommercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,provided the original author(s) and source are credited.
References
Alison, P., Kearns, A., & Atkinson, R. (2002). What makes people dissatisfied with their neighbourhoods?Urban Studies, 39(13), 2413–2438.
Al-Qardawi, & Yusuf, A. (2006). Economic security in Islam, (Translation by Muhammad Iqbal Siddiqi).New Delhi, India: Islamic Book Service.
Amerigo, M., & Aragones, J. M. (1997). A theoretical and methodological approach to the study ofresidential satisfaction. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 17, 47–57.
Barcus, H. R. (2004). Urban-rural Migration in the USA: An analysis of residential satisfaction. RegionalStudies, 38(6), 643–657.
Djebarni, R., & Al-Abed, A. (2000). Satisfaction level with neighbourhood in low-income public housing inYemen. Property Management, 18(4), 230–242.
Elsinga, M., & Hoekstra, J. (2005). Homeownership and housing satisfaction. Journal of Housing and theBuilt Environment, 20, 401–424.
Francescato, G., Weidemann, S., & Anderson, J. R. (1987). Residential satisfaction: Its uses and limitationsin housing research. In W. V. Vliet, H. Choldin, W. Michelson, & P. Popene (Eds.), Housing andneighbourhood: Theoretical and empirical contributions (pp. 43–57). Connecticut: Greenwood Press.
Galster, G. C. (1987). Identifying the correlates of dwelling satisfaction: An empirical critique. Environmentand Behavior, 19(5), 539–568.
Husna, S., & Nurizan, Y. (1987). Housing provision and satisfaction of low-income households in KualaLumpur. Habitat International, 11(4), 27–38.
Kaitilla, S. (1993). Satisfaction with public housing in Papua New Guinea. Environment and Behavior,25(4), 514–545.
Lane, S., & Kinsey, J. (1980). Housing tenure and housing satisfaction. Journal of Consumer Affairs, 14,341–365.
Loo, C. (1986). Neighborhood satisfaction and safety: A study of low-income ethnic area. Environment andBehavior, 18(1), 109–131.
Lu, M. (1999). Determinants of residential satisfaction: Ordered logit vs regression models. Growth andChange, 30, 264–287.
Lu, M. (2002). Are pastures greener? Residential consequences of migration. International Journal ofPopulation Geography, 8, 201–216.
Mohit, M. A., Ibrahim, M., & Razita, Y. (2010). Assessment of residential satisfaction of newly designedpublic low-cost housing in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Habitat International, 34(1), 18–27.
Morris, E. W., & Winter, M. (1975). A theory of family housing adjustment. Journal of Marriage and theFamily, 37, 79–88.
Morris, E. W., & Winter, M. (1978). Housing, family and society. New York: Wiley.
Social housing programme of Selangor Zakat Board of Malaysia 163
123
Nurizan, Y. (1993). Space deficit in low-cost household of Peninsular Malaysia. Kajian Malaysia, 11(1),56–75.
Nurizan, Y., & Hashim, A. H. (2001). Perumahan dan Kediaman. Malaysia: Universiti Putra Malaysia.Ogu, V. I. (2002). Urban residential satisfaction and the planning implications in a developing world
context: The example of Benin City, Nigeria. International Planning Studies, 7(1), 37–53.Razali, A. (1993). Transit house: Privatization of low-cost housing in Peninsular Malaysia. In International
seminar and exhibition on low-cost housing. Penang: Universiti Sains Malaysia.Rossi, P. H. (1955). Why families move? Glencoe. Illinois: The Free Press.Russell, N. J. (2007). Multifamily housing characteristics and tenant satisfaction. Journal of Performance of
Constructed Facilities, 21(6), 472–480.Russell, N. J. (2008a). Residential satisfaction of elderly tenants in apartment housing. Social Indicator
Research, 89, 421–437.Russell, N. J. (2008b). Impact of subsidized rental housing characteristics of metropolitan residential sat-
isfaction. Journal of Urban Planning and Development, 134(4), 166–172.Salleh, A. G. (2008). Neighbourhood factors in private low-cost housing in Malaysia. Habitat International,
32(4), 485–494.Savasdisara, T., Tips, W. E. J., & Suwannodom, S. (1989). Residential satisfaction in private estates in
Bangkok: A comparison of low-cost housing estates and determinant factors. Habitat International,13(1), 65–73.
SZB. (2008). Asnaf magazine, SZB. Malaysia: Shah Alam.Tan, S. H. (1980). Factors influencing the location, layout and scale of low-cost housing in Malaysia. In S.
H. Tan & H. Sendur (Eds.), Public and private housing in Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur: HeinemannEducational Books (Asia) Ltd.
Ukoha, O. M., & Beamish, J. O. (1997). Assessment of resident’s satisfaction with public housing in Abuja,Nigeria. Habitat International, 21(4), 445–460.
Varady, D. P., & Carrozza, M. A. (2000). Towards a better way to measure customer satisfaction levels inpublic housing: A report from Cincinnati. Housing Studies, 15(6), 797–825.
Jaafar, M., Hasan, N. L., Mohamad, O., Ramayah, T. (undated). The determinants of housing satisfactionlevel: A study of residential development project by Penang Development Corporation. Malaysia:Universiti Sains Malaysia.
Yang, Y. (2008). A tale of two cities—Physical form and neighborhood satisfaction in MetropolitanPortland and Charlotte. Journal of the American Planning Association, 74(3), 307–324.