Social Change and Violence

Social Change and ViolenceThe Indian ExPerience

I

Social Change and ViolenceThe Indian ExPerience

P. R Rajgopal

Under the AusPices ofCentre for Policy Research

UPPALPUBLISHING HOUSENEW DELHI.11OOO2

m

I

UPPALPUBLISHING HOUSE3, Ansari Road, Daryaganj, New Delhi-l10fi)2

o Centre for potcf ResearchNew Delhi

First Publishe{, 1987

ISBN 8l-8s0p+27-8

PRINTED IT{ INDIAPublished by B"S. Uppal for Uppal PublishingHouse, New Delhi and Ph[totypeset by Ess BeePrinters, F17, Secton8, I.IOIDA and Printedat Efficient Offset Priniers. New Delhi-28.

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Foreword

The Centre for Policy Research has been engagedin thestudy ofviolence aod its roots over the last two years or so, Asthe societal transformation moves on in India the level ofviqlence seems to, escalate. Even so the problem is obviouslynot new either to the world or to India itsel,f Violence hasbeen endemic in many countries and in many civilizations

In India itself, Gautam the Budhdha and MahavirJaindevoted and puilt most of their religious. and spiritualthought around iron-violence: Both had profound influenceon Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian freedom movernent

Ye[ as the wheels of economiq social and politicaldevelopments have moved on, especially since indepen-dence, so has the level ofviolence Is it a cancer ofthe Indiansociety or is merely a symbol of the process of societal read-justments? Is violence going to eat up the vitals of the India{rsociety or will it merely act as a catalyst or an inevitable partof the change process?

This study is the second in the series on violence by ShriP R Rajgopal. As a distinguished police official, ShriRajgopal has seen the various faces ofviolence at first handIn the present study, he has examined the variety of socio-economic factors which lead to violence Policy makers aswell as lay citizens will find his practical insights useful inunderstanding the phenomenon-

Centre for policy ResearchNew Delhi

V A Pai PanandikerDirector.

PREFACEIt is dilncult to comparbnentalise neatly a subject sOch

as social change and violence ia India s'ithout an overlap ofthe dilferent elements that constitute this complex subjectEven sq an ittempt has been made to present this Study infive separate parts. In the first pa4-ad attempt has been

made to conceptualise violence that this study seeks to project This study has tried to go beyond mere manifest violencdinto areas of economic exploitation, violation of humanrights and affront to human digotty. In the process it hastouched on subjects which may be seen to be outside thescope of a study on violence" But as I viewit, violence latent inthese areas of human behaviour is far more malignant andsustained than manifest violence which iq in the very natureof it, self limiting The second part deals with the socioecononic disabilities suffered by very large sections of ourpopulation who have been at the ftceiving end ofa type oflatent violence that is referred to both ia the lirst and in thesecond parts A brief educational and, employment prolileofthe Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes has also been

attempted in statistical terms which should give an idea oftheefforts that the stat€ goverDments have made and the measure

ofsuccess that they have been able to achieve in this fietd Aneffort has'also been made to discuss briefly the inadequacy ofthe institutional infrastructure for resolving the conflicts that

have bcen the inevitable concomitants: of social change' The

third part deals with the gap between the promises made

by the Governmrcnt and their implcmentation in respect ofthe sweral aspects of agrarian reforms This has relevance to

laad reformg t€nurial rights and minirnum wages Arousing

hopes witlout fulfilling them creates a crisis of expectation

""i u" atmosphere iri which violence breeds easily' The

agrarian reforms have been dealt with in the context of the

SLrcs of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat and West Bengal The

fourth part illustrates with specific instances' the^ nature

""a "uti"ty "f viole4ce that have charact€rised the States of

Bihar, UttarPradesllThe fifth anrd the last partclusions that llow from the sn

The nature of the study r

Iiocus on the dark areas of

thesis is that geographically aexploding population, havingit hag through democratic p1

example tro many Countries

results Even iq those parts ofdisfigured by violence it shredeem the situation if onlv ladministrative and institutional

rtr4 Karnataka and Guiaratdelineates the broad con-

of yiolence in the variou$:dly, these conclusions are

"' studies drawn from only aatrd not from all the states.

state s in different contextsof a general nature based onfew of the states in theEven this limited study took Iifteen months.

that I identi$ and

resulted in violence in somefailures thAt

does not in any way deftactthe states Nevertheless thisseveral achievements which

the country can legitimately be ofand which have beenachieved not through force coerciod by the State butthrough some of the mostattempted anywhere in the

democratic processes

Certain parts ofthis study make distressing readi'.gThese have been deliberately ted in the belief that wecan do better in these the necessary political andadministrative will, which have been temporarilyweakened by the influence of interests My simple

country like India with itsthe social change thatprocess should be anundiluted stat€ dic-

tatorship have failed to pro comparable developmentalcountry which have been

d have been possible tohad made the necessarv

demands arising out of socialmake such an attempt

ons to cope wrth theIt is still not too late to

needed institutionalpoints to concerns the

t infirrnities and inadematter of a separate

studywhich I have undertaken the third part ofthe overall

Research Study on Vi'olence s19n1ored by the Centre for

ililcy I[;;L New Delhi The first part was published

""I.i ,1. o,r.'bommurial Violence in India'; this is the

r""r"al"* tdthe third part will be published under the

iiii.. 'viot".,.. and Response', A critique of the Indian

Criminal Justice SYstern

I am deeply grateful to Dr. V'A' Pai Panandiket the

ni..ctotoftti ieitre for Policy Research for his everwilling

"Jg.i"-* ftap in all mattirs connected with this study'

Seveial friends hive contributed their time and labotrr !o

."t tftit tttAy what it has come to be in the present form' IA""l iU"- ali A special word of thants to Mr' LP' Si"*:n"to tttip"A -" qith some v€ry valua-ble^suggestion$ aad

ia.u. "'fr'i"ft

figure in this study, and also for painstakingly

reading through the draft of this t€xt

I am extreme$ grateful to S.P. Mathur for helping me in

*.rn J *uy, in comliting and processing.the material con-

taineO in itris stuay. I alone am responsible for the yiews

expressed in the studY'

PR RAJGOPAL

ContentsForewordPreface

PART-I

I Concept of Violence

PART-II2 Social Inheritance at Independence

3 Socioeconomic change among Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes - Education and

EmploYment Profile4 Infrastructural infirmities

PART.III .'

5 Gap between promise and performance :

Land Reforms - General6 Land Reforms in Bihar? Land Reforms in Uttar Pradesh

8 Land Reforms in Gujarat9 Land Reforms in West Bengal

PART.IVCaste conflicts and agrananviolence in Bihar

Violence against the tribals in BiharViolence in Uttar Pra$esh

Fake encounters with dacoitsCaste conflicts in Uttar Pradesh

Bonded LabourCaste conflicts in Maharashtra

vvii

1I

10

t7

l0nt2

13

t415

16

t7

32

lm

51gIJ76

8099

107

tl4120t25

- Rise of the Mahars'The Marathwada fuitation 130

i{u*at"t a - p"litics as an instrument of change 134

l8

l9

Gujarat - The threeand 1985.

Reservation as an issue

PART-VConclusion and policyAnnexures

20

2l

tions of 1974. lg9l 140

r49

157

r83

PART I

CHAPTERT

CONCEPT OF VIOLENCE IN THEINDIAN CONTEXT

Indian history abounds in illustrious men who hadrenounced violence and had been great votaries 6f non-

violence Buddha lived and preached non'violence In theprecepts of the e,ight-fold path propagated by him' non-violence was the cardinal tenet Buddha's message was

adopted as the state policy by Emperor Ashoka in thethird centur' B.C. Emperor Ashoka himself turned to non-violence after the Kalinga war in which tbousands were

killed. Mahavir, a contemporary of Gautam Buddha andpropagator of Jainisr4 was the exponent of non-violancewhich embraced'all living creature$ The poet saints of theBhakti Cult, down to -Mahatma Gandhi were all prac-

titioners of non-violence

The greatest apostle of non-violence in the twentiethcentury was Mahatmd Gandhi who has gone down in thehistory of our country as the Father of the NationGandhiji himself did oot disapprove the use of violence ircertain extreme conditions He wrotq "I would rather have

India resort to afms in order to defend her honour thanthat she should in a cawardly manner become or remain ahelpless victim of her own dlshonour". While Gandhijibelieved that noa-vioience is i{finitely superior to violen-cg he would have preferred violeace to cowardice if thatwas the choice before him. *I ihaU risk violence a thou-sand times rather than risk the dmasculation of a wholerace."

I

It is also relevant thator non-violetrce was farphysical violence; itothers in any form Thisphysical violence is ofGn theunderprivileged, and their

Thoug! Gandhijinot only in action butrealispd and often regrettagitations launched by himviolent lines for long Evenm€nt would.have resulted infor the restraining inlluencethe Malatma exercised overGandhiji that rheblood and not in peacg andat the hands of an assassin

Wg as a peoplg are asother, in spitd of the age longcultural and spiritualge4erally have not acceptedin practical lifg nor haverecourse to vi,olence even agwrong Events precedingdemonstrated how little thein non-violenca as ahad by the cnid of the lgtherates, M€re talk of passivenot.safisfy them. Filled withttrlerg they came to theshould be ove rthrown byavailable to them The '.Calcutta, representing thister the Police assault on the30 crores of peoplecrore hands to stop thisbe stopped by forcs".l

SOCIAL CHANGE AND VTOLENCE

s concept of Ahimsathan mere abstention from

avoidance of injury towill show that the cause of

to the poor and the

was wedded to non-violencein thoueht and word, hethat demonstratioirs andd not be kept along non-the Independenc€ move

greater blood shed butthe moral authority that

€outrtry. It was tro fault ofof India was born in

he himself died a martvr

prone to violence as anyof non-violence in our

In faet, Indian peoplevislence as a lirm guideaccepted the view that

last resort to get justice isIndependence of Indiale of the coutnry believed

concept The Indian youthlost faith in the mod-

.noo-violent resistance didburning hatred of foreign

that colonial ruleevery type of physical force

, a daily published fromwrote in April 1906: "AF

tsarisal conference, theIndia must raise their 60of oppression Force must

JConcept ol l(iolence in the Indian ConQxt

In 1904, V.D. Sawarkar had organised Abhinav

Bharat as a secret society of revolutionaries' After 1905'

several newspapers openly' and a few leaders secretly'

L"oun to adtocate revolutionary terrorism' The era ofreiolutionary terrorism had then begun Their activitics

mainly took two forms: the assassination of oppressive

oflicers, informers and traitors from their own rank and

dacoity to raise funds for purchase of arms' The latter

cum" io be popularly knowr as 'swadeshi dacoities'' As a

historian pot lt 'fn"y (the revolutionaries) gave us back

the pride of our manhood'.2

About 700 incidents of terrorism were officially listed allover the country during the years 1917 to 1936.

It was not satyagraha alone'that brought freedom to

India" While individual and collective non-violentsatyagraha helped to create and arouse the nation's awareness

- to the problem, the examples of several

revolutionaries and among thern' the examples of Bhagat

Singh and Chandra Shekhar Aza4 fired the imaginationofthe youth and made them pledge their lives to the cause ofthe count4y's freedorn

The exploits of Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose and the

Indian National Army created such an impact on the

minds of the people of the country that even JawaharlalNehru donned the black gown once agairl long after he

had given up practice at the Bar, to stand up for the

defenie of the ,rnen and women of the Indian NationalArmy at their trial in Red Forr The contribution to the

Independence movement by the naval mutiny was also

significant

Thus there was considerable physical violence accom-

panying our Independence movemenl When a movement

is on a national plane and with reference to a cause whichaffects the entire population, the normal reaction is to con-

done the accompanying violence in view of the importance

SOCIAI, CHANGE AND VTOLENCE

and the dinensions of the itself This is turn impliesthat violence generated istance of the cause in soViolence both in its quality

against the impon

related to the intensity of the of the people tothe cause" It is not entirely lc and correc( ,therefore, toview violence oaly in the of the largeness or small-ness of the causg but more the light of the degree of

the causg whatever thatinvolvement of the peoplehappens to be at the givenobjective importance of thenumber of people committedthe furtherance of the causeinvolved

e It is not so much thethat mattem; it is the

it and the extend to whichthe lives of the people

The simple defrnitiondesigned to inflict injury on aty. This definition conceals

as it affects the society.quantum is in fact directly

violence is behaviouror damage to proper-than it rweals and

explains..In any human society, aphysical strike or hurt isundentood and accepted as th$ most obvious expressionof violence but this is only one df its several forms or facesI have already referred to ijls concept of violencaAccording to Martin Luther depriving a Negro childof decent food and clothing is a severe form of violence.Nearer home in our own ; treating a section of ourpopulation as untouchablescome anywhere near hundred

nirt allowing them toof the secalled upper

caste, a practice in certain of the country until a fewyears back and which hasfears back and which has sinc$ disappeared, was one ofthe cruelest forms of violencg mluch more humiliating and

' destructive of lru:nan dignity even physical assault Topeople who hive been io h

chological relief and release, when all theirsilent sufferings and fi had only given thenfresh doses of humiliation an individual or agroup to patent acts of is another aspect of

social or ecqnomic, isviolence. Exploitation in anyyet another angle to violence, Trpating people in a mannerwhich is contrary to the norms of human dignity

Concept of Violencein the Indian Context 5

too is a form of violencq That the latter categories of'

;.dr;t;;; subjected to ottc"t physical in-jury.or wen

"iil-*"l n"n dgeinot exclude such cases from the con-

cept of viotence ut r$ comprehensive sweep' Broadly any

ac! whether overt or covert'that coerces or causes physical

hurt, material loss or mental anguish or which degrades

ffi;;;G or which miutat* against hriinan riehts

;t-"il "oa

L""""y should'be viewed as an act of violer

;-Th'J"ll """ *ilipn have any&ingto-do, among-others'

;;;,h child labour, UonaeO- !boyr'. practice of

""rl""i"Uifiry and sinilar acts of discriminatior either

with regard to groups or communitie$ fall within the scope

;i;;;; of iiotence ln the process' I h.a.ve lccenSd this

to"i "L"""p,

of violence, insGnd of liniting it-oolv to its

;;;iltlci manifestations It is violence in this linited

aonceDt which bas generally received the attenrion of

;;;?h.di" ,1.-n.ra of social sciences' even thougb

O"-t*"-.f physical violence lie in the organisaiion and

Itogdqning of a societY'

My own concept of violence is based oo my

"r.p"iJo.. oi n"o'Oiog violence in the frel4 as a pofice

offrcer for thirty trro years My emphasis therefore will tte

-"t" o" the socio'economic, -

political lad administrddve

factors which contribute o and create condrtons cor;;;;; ;;hysical violence' In this contex! an elfort will

IJ-;il io'identi$ some of the inportant areas and

causes of violence in a few of the states

Before proceeding further, it is necessary to make it

"f"". ilut tn. expressi'on 'violence' has been used through-

ooi tit study in the context of social violence and not'of

f"iitla""r violence Proneness to violence in individuals

can be inherited or acquired by ewironn- ental. factors But

LiJ"iot.""" is largely the product- of a sociocconomrc

u"Oot " political system which is characterised by gross

,oJJ iojntri." and Lxploitation' In such a systerl violence

""" U"

"i n"t Oue to tht depriYed and depressed secdons try-

i"g a utt"n ,nemselves ani acquire their legitimate role and

.o1,1"-"o,t uod/or it can also be due ro vested interests try-

ing to hold on to what controlviolence for years and refusing

While we foutinelvnote of the contributionsunconsciously making towardsour own vested interests.general principle, we do nothelps us to realise our sellishnot hesitate t0 use violence inmay not always be in its phyrpursuit of our goalg and we seecess. At the same time, we woulperson or group use violence adichotomy in our perception of .

and "them" persistg violenceultimate sanction for decidine ciunequal segmonts in a Iar

ticularly in a society wheretion are the vlctims of irinequalities and unequal oviolence or even the mereenough, can well be an agentmay be inevltablg except inviolence may be the spui tothe creation of a just society.

Whether this violence iswill be determitred by the conuse4 by whom used" for whatand from whoss point of view itis necessary to start withviolence per se is an undesirablehuman dealings, its inevitabilitybe viewed in the variouscontexts in which it isviolence rnay be unavoidable

To quote from JohnSociety': "Violence hasimportant to our evolution Its

SOCIAL CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

have over the victims ofpart with this control

violence, we fail to takeeach one .of us is

in our efforts to promotewe do shun violence as ato take recourse to it if it

or goals Most of us door more of its formgmanifestation in the

wong in the pro-not like to see the other

us As long as thisas applied to "us"

will continue to be theinterests between

exploitative society.and is desirable or not,in which it has been

purpose it is usedis perceived Therefore it

assumption that whileavoidable element infunction 'have also to

and politicalto. Seen in this light,

in human affairg par-segments of the popula-

arising out of grossties. Thus considered.of it, if it is credible

social change. Violenceutopian society. Ofterq

the political will for

s 'Violence in llumanand social functionceliminatiorL therefore.

Concept ol Violence in the Indian Context I

will leave a hiatus; Unless that can be filled by an equally

r"*itfti*"t"tionary forcg it is possible that man will be

lorse, not better off' Perhaps all we need to do is to ensure

th"t, *hil" violence may cofltinue, destructiveness does not

n.i-oti of hand so that we can avoid the ultimate

EuL"f"tO"3 This calls for the iostruments of the state

*fti.n -n"fn.

to deal with violence to be maintained in a

"i.o* J"" of functional competencs This

-has .specialil;;t; to the Criminal Justice Svstem of which the

o.fj". ""a the judiciary are the two major of the three

pomponents. the thitd being the jails

The failure of the Indian state and its instruments to

cope with the problems arising in .the process of socio'

e"ooo*i. change in a society with adult suffrage and

.q""fity of opp-ortunity and status, among other similar

o6i""tiu"t ptouiA.d in our Constitutioq has led to rising

exoectations on the one han4 and growing consciousness

oiine exploitatlon and indignity in social relations' on the

other. Such a combination has inevitably led to strong

r€sentment expressing itself in physical violenca

Policies are proclaimed and promises made which

remain unfulfilled" Laws are enacted which are not fairly

aJ effectively implemented because of strong vested

i"i.t"ttt combined with the weak political will and inade

quacies of the adminstration

Unless these infirmities are removed and progress

made towards the creation of a truly just and non'

exploitative social order, violence is not only likely to con-

tinue but may get aggravated" With tremendous growth ofpopulation, problems have become more acute'

Sean Mac Bride, a Member of the Irish Republican

e.-V in the 1920s and 1930s and winner of the Nobel

Prizi observed in the course of his Nobel Prize acceptance

speech: "If those vested with authority and power practice

iniustice resort to torhrre and killing is it not inevitable

*nli thot. who are victims will resort to similar methods?

This does not condone thebut does providp a part of theing violence" Thus viewed. aviolence has to ensure aOtportunity, equity and justiceplay the role of an impartialconflicting groups and coithe state can be faulted tosmal], itis the state itself that isits actions or failure to act

This is the basicalready exist are capable ofescalating into manifestsocial changes can be expected

individuals or groups, regionsinjustice done to them.

the rising tide of changemechanisrns and there are noto take effective charge of thethe society will have to faceWhether this violence will bewhether it will cascade in itslevel which would imperil theh-ave given ourselveq willeflicient political managementexisting administrative inew ones designed to bringdemands If the state s responsechange is in the form ofcient political m4nagement as thof solving the pr.oblern, it willand therefore exacerbate it

An unjust social orderwhich fosters and nourishesthe state fails to redress suchthe state fails to rpdress such an r

extent it forteits its legitimacy iwho are its vic ,rhs Thc processinaugurated in Itrdia promises be long and arduous

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

or inhuman conductfor the increas-

which seeks to abjurebased on equality ofthe state itself should

neutral umpire betweenregions and states If

' degreg whether'big orblamg i[ as a result of

there is violence fromstates fior any wrong or

If the institutions whichthis conflict from

violencg to that extentbe peaceful I[ however

down the controlonbs replacing the old

from the changeqcons€quent violence.the threshold level or

and frequency to aic structure that we

entirely on effective andf the changes throughor if necessary throughin tune with the new

violence accompanyingas a substitute for effi-

agent of change, insteaddrive it underground

an envlronmentforms of violence. If

just social order, to thatthe eyes of the peopleI change that has been

Concept of Violencc in the Indian Contcxt 9

The extent to which we are able to anticipate and provide

the institutional iofrastructural needs in the context of the

velocity of changg as also the contents of chaigg willdecide whether we would be able to control viglence con-

s€quent on the socioeconomic change or whether vjolence

will control us This is the central theme of this stud!.

Refcrcncos

l. Thc Telcgraph-A national daily publishcd from Calcutta DL l2thJuly, 1985.

2. IBID3. Johtr GWan: rYiolcncc in Human Socictyr (f93).

SOCIALIND

struggle atrd to confineof resolution"l

Article 15 of theto Equality as a Fundam€ntal

"Article l5(2): No citizenreligrorl race, caste, sex, place

Bob Jessop makes the Ipatible with social changeorder may well depend oninstitutions and also on instorder is possible only throrlghbetween individuals and cr

subject to any disability,with regaid to-

(a) access to shops,places of public entertainment

(b) the use of well, tanks,places of public resortState funds or dedicated to the

After Independence weeconomic r€forms. One ofwhich will eventually have

'ANCE ATENCE

"that social order is com-the stability of social

of establishedinnovations Social

regulation of interactionto prevent unlimited

to institutionalised modes

of Indla mentions Right

on grounds only ofbirth or any of them, berestriction or condition

restauants, hotels and

bathing ghats, roads andwholly or parfly out of

of the general public"

introduced sweral socio-most important of thesegreatest impact on the

l0

Social Inheritance at IndePendmce 1l

structure of the Indian society is the law which. seeks to

il;;;il;n*litv uv makin-s the practice of it a penal

;"ffi;;-iiil6 *ri erect oithis measure has been

;;;a ioosen and unsettle a structural arrangement

ilii"fr n"a-L.." legitimised bv custom and centuries of

;.;d;';;'.:'1":::l:*iiilj!1fi,|}o:T*'J,',:iarrangement on the basls i

""i""?i.a tp"n by all sections of the poqulation without

;;;;;;; dernur. in spite of the several iniquities

-i-'fitt i"g against human respect and dignity- inherent in

irt"-wrttL'Trtis system had entrenched itself so.deeply

iiioirr. -i"4. of the people that every chil4 from.the time"";il;;uut" to trtittt t"as influenced and-oriented to

;il;"tyd which became integral to his or her^mental

*"#ft ""a developmenl A syi-tem so deeply rooted and

!.i.ia.J r" ,ne psyche of thl people at all.levels' which

r""i"J"J irt. oeprivea as much as the privileged' advan-

;;d;;;t is the disadvantaged' was being sought to

ff;:;fi;;;dh, fv Ggislative-nrocesses in the.wake of

;;Ji;;;..o"? of india' Now the measures introduced

to change the system are gradually. beginning,to yield

;;Ji;; f" "*p..i ho*eutr, tf,at this change would be sud-

i."-"i th", it would be in the form of a clear cut break

*iiii.-p"t, or that the transition would be smooth and

;lrJ tire bi*h pangs. of a new society struggling to be

;;it to undereitimif'e human reactions and resistance

to change.

The perniciousness of the caste system as it came to

be practisecl in its most degrading form is the largest single

;";-;;;ilnjrr.tic" for-which our counrry with all its

;;;;;-;htl.sophical and spiritual herit.as:' had been

i"uii*tfv l"aicted at the bar of world opinion Whether

i"i"tJJ'uv ,rte original founders of the sys'tem or ndt the

;;;;;itiJ,,_eh ;f the'caste sYstem in its most blatant form

denied almost the entlre range of human rights to the castes

;il; ffi;; of the hierichv' These u:f9ftunate ones

""t -i"J..a

born with a human face but werg as i[;;;Jil.ld; of "tl

thtit human emotions It would

appear tlat even theirrecognised Except for their

. terms of huhan attributes

sumer durabl€s and

entitled to in dheir dealingswere borq in which thev stually made tfeir exit Societvfaceless and iarnslesr 64ng;

no relevance to themselves, mTheir relevance was only insociety had determined forto_ fulfil from the beginningwhatever of their ovm or inThey were as ftuch as ovmednant castes in society andthey could call their own Ehad in some cases to wait onnant caste members whoonly mison d'etre for theirconditions were decidedHeschel wrote: "There is amore painful and scathingeconomic privAtion It is public

pensation qhich packed intoviolence. In such a situation,was so convincingly credibleto test This violence ofand violence of denial of h

and remained aoncealedimpact in the society does not

part of the concept of violenceable as physical violence whictral theme in most studiescategories of violence were pra

viciousness or the damge it did"No matter what psychic armcimmune to thi rnessage weown worth And the primary lower class people


to feeling had not beetthere was very little inrights that they were

the society in which theyand from which even-

to the role that thewhich fiey were expectedthe end with no choice

enpersonal relationshipsthe members of the domi-: Ieft with nothing whichtheir wives and daughters

dealt with them as so manyusing them almost as con-e in the extreme They hadch less to the lives they led.

pleasurbs.of the domi-them and provided the

ued survival, in whateverthern Abraham Joshua

of oppression which isthan physical injury orhumiliation'2

Next to slavery in its most fornn, here was a dis,system so much of latentmere threat of violence

t it had seldom to be put; violence of expleitation

rights, is an importantis as much condemd-

however, forms the cin-of violence. That thcse

as a matter of courseany tangible or dramatic

;ate its heinousness andthe human personality,we we4r, none of us isfrom others about our

Social Inherinnce at Indqmdmce 13 '

rcceive about themselves is that thcy have no worth-thatthey are irrelwant or expendable' if indeed they exist at

a['3

BR Ambcdkarr moving the frnal reading of the Con'

stitution in the Constituent Assembly of India on Novem-

ier 29, 1949, observed "On the secial plane we have inIndia a society based on the principles of graded iaequatity which means elevation of some and degradation

for otiiers On the oconomic plang we have some who

have immense wealth as against many who live in abject

poverty. On 26th January 1950 we are going to enter into a

iife of contradiction- In politics, we will have equality and

in social and economic life we will have inequality' We

must remove this contradiction at the earliest possible

mordcnt or elsg those who suffer from inequality will blow

up Se structure of political democracy which this

Assendbly has ss laboriously built up."

We are still in the priocess of dismantling what we had

inherited and are seeking to replace the system with one

based on equality and adult suffrage We have set ouF

selves the taik of ushering in a society in which violence ofinjustice, violence to human digm,f, and violence to

human rights will all become a part of history that-we have

left behind" For too long we have had a society which can

aptly be described in the words of Rabindranath Tagore as

one-in which'the few are more than the many', though

Tagore himself had used these words in the context of the

unequal world.

Even now, more than three decades after making

untouchability a penal offencg there are several States inthe country where this sinister pnctice has survive4though in a diluted and concealed form. There is considerable

-gap eYen now befieen the intention of the Con'

stituti6nal abolition of untouchability wiht a law to punish

it; and what actually obtains on the ground.

I discussed with lt N. Shrtniwas, the noted Indian

l4

upper castes. This in effecrof untouchabiltty by both

ment which automaticallvsociety to whioh the lower

at the lower level in the

basis of social disabilities

The result was that theextent the backwardwithout any means tohigher level of social andalso did not have the

above a certain leyelge4erations before them by

sought to be changed bythat rcre takon in the

Scheduled Castes and the castes He refers to this

Sociologis( ttt subject ofKarnataka According to him,arrived at an unspoken

"as a separate but unequalneeds ofthe Scheduled Casr

plaints are seldom followed tothe courts of laiv in accordance

which were part of the systenlselFfulfilling since there was


as practised insociety in Karnataka has

between the

While all the

arrangement remained

are met they do not comeinto open codflict with fte susceptibilities of the

a continued observance

to be so. Thougb there areScheduled Ca$tes against

lvithout making it appearcomplaints by the

upper casteq these com-their logical conclusion in

the statute.

The Indian caste system an arTatrgethe upper castes a place in

could never aspirg letalone arrive at In a sense this tbat those who were

of castes remained con-.demned to their social and existence on thc

the economic deprivation

any organized effortto disturb the system over tlewere peculiar to and charactel

for reasons whichof the successive rulersCastes, and to a lesser

ies not only remainedthemselves forward to a

existenc€" but thev

they took it for granted thatto do so in as much aswas no place for themhad been determined

and history. There was nopoint for them in aspiring for upward social mobility.

It was thio mental of acceptance of thefor the first time beinginherited state of affairs which

social rcformatory st€psimmediatel' followiag

Social Inheritance at Independence 15

lndependence' Thus when the Harijans a,nd- lhe Adivasis

urpit't fo. a higher position in life which had been denied

,iI- ou.t ..itr.iir, the upper castes feel their social

status, economic opportunities and political power

threaiened from below The strains in tbe rural as well as

the urban set up and the violence that spills over

occasionally u.e uil th. birth pangs of the transformation

that is being witnessed in different communitigs constittrt-

ine the natlon "All modern societies have to resolve the

rteisions between the ideal and the realitieq but the tradi-

tion is most glaring and extreme in Indian society""""' It isonly when things are changing that worst brutalities take

place especially where any attempt is made to improve the

conditions of Scheduled Castes'4. Even sq what is being

attempted now is merely the equal treatment of unequals'

We aie yet far from the constitutionally stipulated goal ofequality in its various forms.

It would be simplistic to pretend that the concept ofequality, merely by being enshrined in olrr Constitutionwould frovide the ultimate solution to the problems ofeconomic and social inequality. We are living in a society

where the hiatus between the rights enjoyed by the poor

and those by the privileged is far too wide for an

increasingly conscious peoplg politically aware of their

rights to iontinue to tolerate the present systen They do

n6w articulate thoir demands as they have never done

beforg and what is more can disrupt the delicate structure

of democracy by organising themselves into so many pre,ru.e g.o.tps. They are so very vital to the integrity of the

systeni thai they cannot be ignored" Poverty in its most dis'

tiessing sense is not mere want It is want without the hope

of a foreseably better future

L2.

References

Bob Jessop: !'social Order, Reform and Revolution" (192)'Abraham Joshua Heschel quoted by Charles E Silbernan in*Criminal Violence aad Criminal Juetice" (198).

l6

3. Charles E Silbcrman:(le?8)'

4. Andre Beteille's intervieq The


Violence and Criminal Juetice.

a national daily Dr 6rhAprit

CHAPTER3

SOCIGECONOMIC CIIANGEAMONG SCHEDULED CASTES

AND SCHEDULED TRIBES. THEIREDUCATION AND EMPI'YMENT

PROFILE

Two fabtors which have considerably contributed toviolence in the country in the past years have been com-munalism and socieeconomic change'arising from theupward mobility of the Scheduled Castes, ScheduledTribes and the other weaker sections through several pro.grammes initiated by the Government I have dealt withcommunalism in a separate booL There are certainimportant aspects of Scheduled Castes and Scheduledkibes, which should first be rnentioned in broad termsThese are: the Scheduled Castes suffer not only fromeconomic exploitatioh but frsm social discrimiaationTheir poverty is appalling and'they have very little by wayof assets The bulk of them depend on agricultural wages

for their livelihood (Annexure A and B). 48.2i6 atd32.7%of the agricultural workers in India are drawn fromScheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Aonexure Q.28,2% of the Scheduled Castes are cultivators, nostly smalland marginal farmers, sharecroppers and tenants Annex-ure Cl gives information on the percentage of ScheduledCastes and Scheduled Tribes to the total agriculturallabour in different states along with the percentage of landallotted to them" Annexure at C2 gives the total area ofland allotted to Schedul6d Castep and Scheduled Tribes,statewise. Considering the volump of violence to whichthe Scheduled Castes who.work.as sharocroppers are sub'jecte4 the report of the Workiig Greup of.the Dwelogment of Schbduled Castes had recommeaded in l9E0 the

t7

IE

conferment of legal rigns ofownership on easy termg as.'stcps in the economictes Even the land allotted toectual control in some of tlethe Government leveleconomic depdvation and theScheduled Castes and thecommitted on them by thea recent natbnal survey, thethe estimated number ofScheduled Tribes constitute an

The statedent atnotorious cases of atrocitiespolice ts expected under theCivil RJghts Act to prosecuteagainst the Scheduled Castes,has been nominal In theseveral constraints. most ofovercome. One of the majorplainants thernrselves as wellto pursue thesd cases in courtsstill have to live in the samecriminate agairist them" The str

an idea about the percentagethe Protection of Civil Righsthe cases registered by theare prosecuted in courts. Outas many as 89% ended inamply of the utter ineffectivencribed for curing society ofStatements al El and E2 grvecases under the Protection of t

Interestingly, the socialmuch in evidence in Westcompared to other statesmeasuring this evil is the numthe Protection of Civil Rights At best this is a crude

SOCIAL CIIANGE AND VIOLENCE

pangr and purchase oFof the most importani: qf the Scheduled Cae

lag not been in theirThere is awareness at

the nexus. between thediscrimination of thethat continue to becastes According to

C6stes form 66% oflabourers while the

l8%.

D gives an idea of someon Harijans Though the

of the Protection ofthose who discriminate

actual impact of this Actof prosecutio4 they face

they are not able tois that tle com-

the witnesses do not wantfear of reprisals, as they

with those who dis-at Annexure E gives

acquittals of cases underin the courts. Out of all

only between 55 and 60%the cases thus prosecuted

in 1982. This speaksof the prosecutions pres-is grave social malady.Statewise picture of the

dl Rights Acg 1956.of untouchability is not as

and the eastem statesthe only yardstick for

of cases registered under

$ocioEconomic Change Among Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tibes l!

tool of measurement since for various reasons, many of thecases reported at the Police Stations are not registered bythe Police.

Statements at E3 and E4 give statewise number ofcases of atrocities committed on the Scheduled Castes andScheduled Tribes 'Atrocity' is not a legal terminology.However, crimes committed against Scheduled Castes andScheduled Tribes by others are generally referred to asatrocities

The figures of atrocities on Scheduled Castes andScheduled Tribes are available upto 1982. The data showsan upward trend in certain states from 1980 onwards Thehighest number of atrocities was registered in MadhyaPradesh during 1982, followed by Uttar Pradesh, Biharand Rajasthan An analysis of the motives behind thecases of atrocity- against the Scheduled Castes andScheduled Tribes was made by the Commission forScheduled CasteS and Scheduled Tribes The Commissioncame to the conclusion that in 32% of the casec themotives Could not be ascertained" Of the remaining 68% ofthe cases, the largest single cause was land dispute whichaccounted for 16% of the cases In many cases allotment ofsurplus land to the landless poor was the cause of troubleThe Commission recommended that actual hancling overof the physical possession of surplus land to the allotteemust be ensured even if it would entail an amendment ofthe existing law. Next to land dispute, denial of minimumwages accounted for 12% of the cases Demand forminimum wages, as fxed by the Government and refusalby the land owners to pay according to the prescribed rateshave been responsible for creating many situations evenresulting in murders

Increasing number of crimes by the other caste groupsagaint the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes is in nosmall measure due to the delay in the investigation of.cases and the poor rate of conviction of the accused pensons The Commission in its second report for the period

l0

:nding March, 1980

and acquittals ratio

SOCIALCHANGE AND VIOLENCE

"A review of convictionsof atrocities against the

f the offenders would con-

ofcSchScheduled Castes and tribes in Gujarat from

reveals that the percen-ided cases for Scheduledof Scheduled Tribes it is

perce ntage........ ...... 95.45%te in the case of murders

Scheduled tribes respec-

tively." The same pattern with ery slight variations is seen

in most of the other states wh the Scheduled Castes.and

the Scheduled Tribes are of atrocities Unless thistrend is reversed through i nal innovations in the

ter[ the relief to victims

10.67o. This is an exceedinglYand 9l.4lVo is the acquittalagainst the Scheduled Castes

prevailing Criminal Justice S

through criminal prosecutiontinue to be insignilicant

In Uttar Pradesh and Bilup Harijan Police Stations.

there is a system of settingPolice Stations are

all cases of atrocitiesintended exclPsively to regiagaiost Harij4ns, regardless f iurisdictional constraintsand geographilcal location ofOne wonders whether this isblem so very widespread incomplaints at Police Stations

e homes of complainants.correct approach to a proese States. By re$stering

ocated outside the jurisdic-tion of the corhplainanfs Poli Statio4 the investigationsof the cases art rendered m difficult than necessary. Asmost of the complaints have potential of developinginto serious Iaw and order blems, it is inadvisable tokeep the concerned policeinitially as it dlilutes their res

tions out of the picturensibility for prevention and

detection of sr:lch outrages.

In a letter addressed on March 12. 1980 to all theSmt Indira Gandhi obser'Chief Ministers aod Governo

ved : "There is a clear nexus tween economic plight ofatrocities and social dis-the Scheduled Castes and

abilities to which they are sub ected Many of these grimes

are intended to terrorise cow down the Scheduled

Socio-Economic Change Among Scletluled Castes and Scheduled Tribes 2l

Castes when they seek their wages for agricultural labour

"i i.y ," cultivat; the land legally allotted to.thern A per-

.u*"t solution to this situation must be based on the

;;;;;-;";;;*ic development or the scheduled castes.''

This shows awareness at official levels especially at Prime

Vtinltt.it level to the resistance that the vested interests^fru".

f.." offering to the upward economic mobility of the

Scheduled Castes.

The literacy rate of the Scheduled Castes and the

Scfreaut"O Tribes for the whole country for the years 1931'

isoi, rSzr and 1981 may be seen at Annexure Fl' It was

"ot-pottitf. to get information on this for 1951' It would

L-. ."ia.", that ihere has been a distinct improvement in

il levJ of education of these two weaker sections The

,tua.*it" Iigures of literacy among the. Scheduled. Castes

and Schediled Tribes in 1961, 1971 and 1981 may be seen

in Annexure F2, F and G.

According to the report of the Com-missioner for

SctreOuteO Cistes and Scheduled Tribes for the period

isig ," 1981, the educational programmes for the

3.ft.aui.O Castes and the Scheduled Tribes have not had

ir. a..l..O impacL According to 1981 Census' .literacy rate

u-ottg ttt" Scireduled Castes was 21'38%' This was com-

oot.a-ot 31.127o males and 10'98% females' The corres'

;;;l"c figures for the general population .exclusive of

!"ft.J.T.O tastes and Scheduled tribes was 4l'30% which

*ut-.o-pot.a of 52.34o/o males and 29 '42% females' lnsihui Hityu"a Madhya Pradesh Orissa' Punjab' I-Ittar

F.ua"tn and West Bengal" the female illiteracy among the

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes was over 907o'

;";;;;iG to the Education Ministry's l98l resport' Kar'

,rututu ttu-a more than 50% of non-enrolled boys in the age

nro,.ro of 6 to I I ie. at the primary school level from the

3.tt.i"f.O castes and scheduled tribes' Similarly' figures

i.; Fi. from Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes in

this"age group in some of the sfates were Bihar 79%'

ii"t),"i" 7"3%, ^Karnataka

58% and Uttar Pradesh 74%'

22

Another indicator of this the high rate ofmissioner for Scheduled1979-1981, revealed that thesestage were 7 4o/o in Bihar, 77o/o

Pradesh and 807o in MadhyaThough the all India

Scheduled Castes and theand 16.35 accordins to the ICastes have done educatiMaharashtra and Kerala. Aof the Scheduled Castes andstates may be seen in Annimprovement registered byGujaral Maharashtra andScheduled Castes of Bihar1971 and 1981 should exolaiawareness and self-assertioScheduled Castes in thoseScheduled castes in Biharimprovement registered byfield of education in Gujaratbeen to the same extent asalthough the literacy ratesGujarat and Maharashtra arein Bihar.

The number of post-mathe Scheduled Castes and Schan extremely steep rise in 198In terms of public expenhigher still as shown at Anne

In the case of scholarshipstes and Scheduled Tribes adown According to this.guardians' income from a{l750/- per month will get fullparents'/ guardians' income750/- per month but does not

SOCIAL CHANCE AND VIOLENCE

educational backwardnessThe report of the Com-

and Scheduled Tribesrates at the primary schoolin Karnataka; 74o/o in Uttar

sh.

ntage of literacy among theduled Tribes stood ar 21.38I Census. the Scheduledmuch better in Guiaral

le giving the literacy ratese Scheduled Tribes in the

F and G. The distincrthe Scheduled Castes inKerala compared to the

Uttar Pradesh betweento some extent the greaterwhich characterise the

states compared !o' theand Uttar Pradesh. The: Scheduled Tribes- in theand Maharashtra has notby the Scheduled Castesng the Scheduled Tribes in

ctly higher than those

c scholarships awarded toed Tribes students show

-82compared to 1951-1952.involved, the inirease inH.

paid to the Scheduled Cas-test' has been laid

students whose parents/urces does not exceed Rs.

waiver. Students whosem all sources exceeds Rs.

Rs. 1,000/- per month

Socio-Economic Change Among Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes - 23

and who pursue professional studies such as Medical'

Engineering and B.Sc. Agriculture -get-

full maintenance

allo'wance and full fees waiver' Students who pursue

Jipfo-u courses in Medicine and Engineering get half

-uirrt.nun.. allowance and waiver of full fees' Students

who.e par"ttt.'/guardians' income from all sources exceeds

ir. t,OCn/'p"t rionth get no scholarship' One unique fea-

t".. lf the scheme is that all eligible Scheduled Caste/

Scheduled Tribes students are awarded scholarships and

their number is not predetermined nor limited by

allocated funds. Though the scheme is centrally spon'

sore4 it is operated through the State Governments

Unless the authorities ensure that these scholarship

holders use the money for the purpose for which it is

intended, the effort for the educational improvement of the

weaker sections may be substantially defeated' I was told

that in Bihar the Tribals who avail of the scholarships do

not pursue their studies diligently' Their link with the

educational institutions is limited to collecting the mon-

thly scholarships. Inspite of such aberrations, it is hearten-

inj to note that the Scheduled castes and the Scheduled

TJbes have registered a distinct improvement in terms ofeducational qualifications of all categories as will be evi-r

dent from thi numbers of educated job seekers on the

registers of employment exchanges in some of. the. selected

sta-tes. While one does feel encourgaged by the improve

ment that these categories are showing considered inabsolute terms, they stitl have considerable leeway to make

rp. ift. statements at Annexures I and J give the position of

Sctreduled Castes and scheduled Tribes enrolments in the

Universities at th€ Sraduate and post-graduate levels bet-

ween 1977 and 1979. The percentages quoted in these two

statements give the relative position of these two groups in

the total Jnrolments in the Universities' The growth

achieved by these communities during the period between

1977 and i979 though only marginal, is still significant

ihe tables at Annexures K Kl and K2 grve tfre progressive

total of the unemployed (both educated and uneducated)

24

in the live registers of the1978, 1984 and 1985. The

between 1970 and 1980.number of professional

SOCLA,L CHANCE AND VIOLENCE

ployment exchanges during

the increase in theunder both these

steeper and more rapidl98O in turn compared to

Scheduled Castg in the totalcomponent of thefrguring in the livefor the period end-register of the Employment

ing 1980 is shown in

The statemetrts at M and N give informa-the Scheduled Cates andregisters of the Employ-

tion on the increase registeredthe Scheduled Tribes in thement Fxchanges during 1980 to 1984 in all the facultiesincluding the professional1980 and 1984. one can see

Even between the periodincrease registered in cour-

ses such as Commercg Medical and Sciencgparticularly in the States of Pradesh, Maharashtra.Gujarag Karnataka and B This would give an idea ofthe trend that is discernible the Scheduled Castesand Scheduled Tribes in of demand for employmentoppornrnities The position regard to the ScheduledTribes is that their has been poor compared toScheduled Castes as may be from Annexure N.

Annexure O gives thethe Scheduled Castes and

in the percentage ofTribes employees

under the Central in the various categories

categories between 1980 and 984 in some of the states(Annexure M and N) it is to expected that the employ-ment figures in the variousservices will record a m

I, Class II and Class III

increase in 1990 compared1970.

According to the 34th Re1vice Commission (UPSC) for

of the Union Public Ser-period April 1, 1983 to

March 31, 1984. candidates to Scheduled Castesand Scheduled Tribes contin to be recommended foremployment by the n by relaxed criteri4 pro

SocioEconomic Change Among Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes )J

vided they wer€ considered ht for appointment to the par

tia"fu. pott* The Commission was able to recommend

"""JiO*. belonging to Scheduled Castes against all the

nu"un"i.s ,"r"*"d for them in the examination requiring

g"".Lf academic qualifications such as a degree of a

iecognisea University or equivalent as. in the case.of the

Ciuii S.-i""t Examination, 1982; Indian Economic Ser-

.rrices E*aminatio4 1983 and Assistants' Grade Examina-

tioru 1982. In other examinations iucluding those requiring

i".n"i."f or professional qualifications the performance of

l"ft"J"f.O Castes candidates had been satisfactory and the

Comrnission was able to meet fully the reserved quota for

S"tt"O"t"A Castes candidates in the case of the combined

Medical Serviee examinatiorl 1983 (Annexure Q)' In res'

pect of the engineering Services Examination' 1982' Indian

F"rlri s"*i& Exaiination 1983 and Stenographers

examination 1983 even though the Commission could not

-""1 tft" quota fully, the performance of the Scheduled

C"tt"t auodidates had shown an improvement over the

prerrious years [n the case of the Scheduled Tribe can-

iiOut"t aiso, the Commission recommended candidates

for all vacancies reserved for them in the examinations

req"i.ing technical or professional . qualification$ Can-

didates io the full extent of reservation could be recom-

-."0.0 in the case of the combined Medical Services

n*u-ittution only in 1982 and 1983' but not in earlier

years The performance of the Scheduled Tribes in the'Eneineering Services examination" i982 was on the whole

;#;;;t;""tlttugh the Commission could not recommend

the required o.t.b". of candidates to fill up all the vacan-

cies reserved for them'

The UPSC figures of selection for the period 1968 to

1972 may be seenit Annexure P. It was not possible to get

tft. frgu..t for the period earlier to this The only signifi-

cant iomparison between Annexure 'P' and 'Q' is the

ii"."u." .igistered in the number of Scheduled Castes and

ScfreaufeO't iUes candidates who had appeared in the

,*u-ittutioo. for recruitment to the Engrneering Services

26 SOCIAL CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

This shows a distinct increase the period 1979 to 1983 inwho appeared at thethe number of

examinations though the of candidates whoqualified themselves and recommended for employ-

h lower than the.quota forment continurbs to be very mScheduled Tribes In this the Scheduled Casteshave improved distinctly inmance in 1968-1972.

979-1983 over rheir perfor-

It will be seen fromservices there were moredidates than the decided

P aqd Q that in a fewCastes and Tribes can-

ing able to offer them

If they are unable to com-pete with the open market tes for selection in otherjobs, they may feel resentfulyoung mert" In the veryeducational capability ofScheduled Tribeg by not

swell rhe ranks of angryof increasine the

Scheduled Castes and

worthwhile jobg an additional contributing to socialtension and eventual would be created In thisclass of candidates who have left out there may bequite a number who may be first generation applicantsseeking the benelit of thehave been edgcd out by can

quota and w-ho maytes from the same category

but were economicallv stro and whose families mayhave availed of the reservati IOr One of even two generations. With the stronger am the weaker snatching thereservation advantages in generauons, rt ls poss-ible to visualise a stage when ose who have not had anybenelit of the reservation even though qualified, may agitate for modification of the tion concept to providefor'descheduling' those ed Castes and ScheduledTribes who have availed ofgeneration benefits

e first and even second

Statistics of growth in any of human activity doesnot reflect intangible and le factors such assense of justicq self- respecq ; equity and the likewhich should also result frombetterment The se components

tional and economicdifferent in the attitude

SocieEconomic Change Among Scheduled Costes and scheduled Tnbes 27

and character between otre persotr and atrother' The frus"

"",f"" ""a anger of ao educated utremployed youtb can

Ua f"t -ot" dJstructive than that of an uneducated one'

lVtr* *"U frustration builds up over a period of time' one

can sense and almost smell violence in the air' Unemploy-

ment will be the most ovenarching issue- in the coming

".ao p"tti"g in the shade the other problems' Thê, reser-

iil." pnfi"i*itl then have to be reviewed even if it may

;;-;;i;i. ensure that the benefit cif the resewation is so

ror""i "., as to benelit as many of the families of the

weaker sections as Possible

According to a report in the Illustrated Weekly of

I"d;-N;;;-ber 30, l9i6 bv Nikhil Lakshmtil' the state

.? "L-pf.V*ent in the country even in 1986 was quite

uiut-i"d iht B.ggut Home in Bangalore h1d two

eradua6 add two post-graduates as members "When the

ild"-e; conducteJ its competitive examination for

iOO "f"ti""f

jobs, 45,000 candidates applied' Tamil Nadu

it"ies,sl r piofessionals registered including.24l4 doctors.and tdaO

"rrginu".t in the-Employment Exchanges West

;;ieala Mi"oitt . of State for Labour told the state

Asr-.?Ufv that 2000 doctors and 1490 engineers were

"""-pi"v.a In Bihar, a group 9t- unemnf.9v1g 1t9-

erreiniets descended in the heart of Patna wrth beg$ng

ioif. ""0 carrying placards that read 'We are unem'

rr"".A Cit. "t uttit'i lt is only a short step from begging

i" i"ia""' unemployment figures are in Annexures KKl and K2.

The incidence of social conflicts in different parts of

rural India since the seventies has been more pronounced than

in nrt, *o decades after independence' To an exten! this

;;; ;" explained- In .the yiars immediately following

Independence, though there were legislative enactmens

and verbal assurances about the intended changes in. the

social and economic system of the country' lor vanous

t""t""t, implementation was extremely limited' The land

reforms tool their own time to become effective and even

were yet to grasp the value of newly conferred rightsand entitlements. This suited the upper castes and in theabsence of an asseilive for the enjoyment of the

and economic status, theacquired mobility in theirupper castes were pleased to l$t them wallow in the samestate in which they had been for centuries- But as yearspassed and the impact of the ldnd reforms, tlie Removal ofthe Untouchability Act and thq reservation policy was felt,larger segmenb of the became aware that aqualitatively better life them if only they wouldbestir themselves to reach out tp what were their legitimatedues It is this awakening of what had been deinieO tothem, and an understanding this condition Was notnecessarily inwitable that rted a supine acceptanceinto an active and exploitable Almost from thebeginning of the seveaties, with the awareness among theweaker sections increasing cqnflicts consequent on thesocial change became m6re s{rident Nobody parts withpower, wealth and privileges willingly. This results ininevitable conflict and this is dhat has been in evidencein the.rural sector in the s_ever{ties and eighties. The veryidea of having to respond to ! demand fiom the weakersections who rrrntil recently had accepted whatever wasthrown al and to them condespendingiy was taken as anindignity by certain sections of the upper castes who overthe centuries never had tf,e e{perience of responding toany demands posed by Sched{led Castes and ScheduledTrites The question of dema4ds from these groups justdid not arise.

M.N. Srinivas in his paper on .Living in aRevolution2 has pointed out frow the tradition-al castehierarchy in tho country has reCulted in a particular ethosof social relationship between the people pursuing diFferent trades and operations With ihe

-abolition of

SocieEcononic Change ArrprA Schduld Cq$a dnd Schduled fnbr,l 29

untouahtbfliry in law if not ooDpletety in facg and the

pronsions -aae ty the Government in service and ineducatiol, this cthos has undergone comiderable change

The Scheduled Castes who earlier were always at the

rcceiving end of patronage from the upper- casteg found

that the position has been partially rwersed by the democ-

ratic process by which they had oome to occupy-positions

from -where

they wcre in a position to dispense favours to

the upper castes Many members belonging to the upper

castes Lad now to approach ministers, legislators 6ad high

Government functionaries belonelng to the Scheduled

Castes and Scheduled Tribes for help and support This is

a reversal of roles which occured for the first time in the

history of our country. This is one of the most significant

social changes that has been achieved by the country

thrcugft democratic process alone We are witnesses to the

impact of this in the Indian society'

This change is certainly whetting the appetite of large

s€gnents among the weaker sections who have not yet had

thlir share ef rhings This in turn will naturally breed a

desr€e of frustration and even violence because open dis'

ola'v of defiance of the high caste dominance by the

lOucated youth among the Scheduled Castes and

Scheduled Tribes is becoming a cornmon phenomenoc

This trend is likely to become mone pronounced in the

yean to come as the numerical strength of the provileged

among the weaker sections increases as also their level ofeducation, and with it their sense of awareness

fiie changes that have been brought about demand a

new pattern ol intet-penooal human relationship which

rcq"i* a mqrsure of adaptability of the participants which

hai not been forthcoming to the extent rcquried in some

regions and in some states This too has given rise to con-

niits ana consequent violence which appear to be the corigomitant of the ongoing social change So long as a society

remains relatively stable and unchanging the problems

generated in the society are of a routine and predictable

CIIANGE AND VIOLENCE

nature. As society changes!preparation and without a

in the absence of adequateperiod for absorption

of the effects of change by groups and communities

belt The intensity and the of violence in thestates of Bihar and Uttar should be atkibuted tothe social changes thaf have about during the lasttwo decadbs The social in the Southern states hasbeen spread gver a longer frame with much lessmanifest violencg thoughtness for adjustment on thebeen the same.

concerned, the fall-out fromviolence. This has happened

The process of improvingCastes and backward castes habefore India attainedknown as Mysore Statg a r

Committee had gone intoother aspects of life of theearly twenties. Thismendations for mitigating thetheir conditions The

have had a much earliereconomic reforms for the

reluctance and unwilling.of the vested interests has

changes often inciudesthe states in the Hindi.

status of the Scheduled.started in the South much

In what was thenknown as the Miller

conditions of living andcodmunities in the

had come up with recom-

figured prominently in the Madras Presidency whichin the states of Andhracomprised much of the area

Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and KeriGovernment of Madras presi

As far back as 1926 thehad issued a com-

munal G.O. ( Government extending facilities forjobs and education to theNarayana Guru had launched

backward communities

the Travancbre State of thereformist movement itrday Kerala even in the

latter half of the lgth century.

rrdships and amelioratingclass movement had also

Thus the Southern StatesI in implementing socio-

of the backward com-munities Even though spread over several decades thechange that has come about only blunted to someextent the sharpness of theof it stiil exists though in a

divide in the Sourlr Muchsubdued form The con-

version of hundreds of Hari Eknilies to Islam in

Socio-Economic Change Among Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tibes- 3l -

Meenakshipuram in Tamil Nadu a few ybars back is a

;;i;t to'the continued pres€nce of ostracism lhat the'S"n"aof.a Castes still have to suffer at the hands of other

castes In the Meenakshipuram case the conversion was a

Drotest by the Harijans against the atrocities of the inter---.aiu,.

castes who themielves until a few decades back

wer€ at the receiving end of the indignities meled out to

them by the upper castes They conveniently forgrt that

what they are Ooing today to the Harijans was what was

done to them by thJupper castes uotil the other day' Their

socio-economic upward mobility has given thern a status

"oJ po*.t and with it an aggressiveness which is. difhcult

to a*ptuio There is something common berween the North

and the South in this context In the States of Uttar

Pradesh and Bihar some of the atrocities on the Harijans

today are committed as much by the intermediate castes

who'hat'e stood tb gain more than aoyone else because ofthe land reforms and other ameliorative measures since

Independence

The point however, that needs to b€ made is that the

number of incidents of atrocities-' against Harijans

culminating in violence is much lower in the Southern

states than in the North though it is still present The num-

ber of olhcial posts occupied by persons from rhe back-

*a16 ss--uniies in the South is particularly high and in

the States of Karnataka and Tamil Nadu it is as high as

about 7095. All these factors have certainly blurred the

caste divide even if it has not completely eliminated it

References

l. NIKHIL LAXSHMAN : 'Dcspair, Fnrstration and Angpr" Illurtrated wechly of India' 30th November' 1986

z Itr|,N srinivas-A paper: 'LiYing h a Rcvolutiol' (lgti)

,Yoe.' Thoughout this snrdy'Harijans' aad'schedrlcd Cascs' have been

us€d ; iilschanSlble tc'ms This has been tk pracrie now fcdccldes

-r

INFRASTRU INFIRMITIES

While accepting the fact change, and. even to someextent the fall-out ofviolencea concomitant of changg wetrol and limit it if only we hainfrastructure designed for tbishave grown decrepit, obsoleteincapable of coping with thevirulence The Situation hasabsence of insdtutions fornwer encountered beforg

will have to be treated asild be in a position to con-the necessary institutional

Our old institutionssuch an extent that they areety of problems in their new

compounded by thethe first time problems

of the problems leading tonew challenges Someare: non-payment of

minimum wag€s, land uncertainty, unfavourableterms for share croppers, ofbonded and child

them, exploitation oflabour even after legislationtribalg consequences of vast programmes,intercaste t€nsiong elections to bodies and legislatureson the basis ofadult franchise d the trail ofbitterness thatfollows the elections in states. Though sweralinstitutions havp come up in the in the context of thedevelopmental plang the peculiaritieg special

of the problems thrownimpgrative that special

characteristics and the seriup by various hew issues. itinstitutional safeguards are available close to the areasof their origiil to contain them i aggravating into avoid-able violence. Instea4 what been attempted is a merepatchwork of the inherited Many of the issueswhich eventually erupted into encg and often violence ofa very serious nature in Bihar Uttar Pradesh initially

agencies only throughwere casually treated by

came to the notice ofroutin€ reports o,f complaints, whthe police as coming under provisions oflaw. Complaints arising out of between different

Inlrastructural Inlimities 33

castes, or conflicts between tribals and no&tribals'or col'ii"i"l"i"t"a t" agrarian problems such as tenuli{ fshts' or

tft p"i..", of m-inimum wages' would- noJin tleir incipient

.tui".io*e ,tod"r the category ofcognizable offences under

,h"-fu",. fi rn"t" was a provision under the law, or somethhg

;i;;t*. of an administrativ€ arrang€ment capable oft"ti"g

"ft"tg" of these types of problems at their..inrcipient

rt ".J""a

.-.tion was taken to resolve them before they led to

l.i!-rt1"*.d um.rness and hostility, many of theissues which

.t -"i""Uv erupted into multiple murders could well have

b"eo avetted. iven the institutions that exist at-present are

il;"d purposefully and promptly, because of extraneous

considerations

Laws, regulations and powers of agcncies of enforce

-""l"t "o"J"ived under trri sritisn regime, were designed

;;; requirements different from those of post-Inde

"""J."t In^dia Under imperial rule, there had to be

'"""..*.ffv a docile acceptance of authority' The Indian

society was strongly structured and social and economrc

t"futiJ"t *.t. tarieiy stable and static' With some cosmetic

"L""*"t, n"" ar" Jill-"otttinuing with the same institutional

ii"-J*.tt of legal and administrative saGguardq though

*nditio". havelhanged radically' The ethog psycholory

and values of a free people are substantially different from

ttt*e of a subjugated population In terms of peace and

ora"t, it ftut t "en-a

costli omission not to make fundamental

;i;il.t in laws' attd to reformulate the powers and

functtns of governmental agencie$ in order to control and

oi"n."t "iof.Ioce

which is incidental to social change' It has'aiso to be recognized that the higher lwels of administrators

ffi;il-Bff;n rute couu tunction with greater indepenl

a""". ""4 impartiality, circumscribed 9n!1 !f lar8er

mp";uf i"t ."rt* Th"y n""tt oot subject to the kind of politi'

""f "o.-,tttul castg and other extraneous pressures that

have been plaguing the administration in rec€ot year&

For"igt rote naa toprove itself by maintaining peace and

;;;;;:;;J by apparentlv fair dealings; foreign. rule would

ft"u. t.." *n iitt toleiable if the administration under it

34

were not effectivg andanother or one individual andappear fair in order to continuepeared at least partly with the

In terms of attitude,deployment the police need tothe demands made on it bywhich are the by-products ofprogrammes of theperiod The Indian policg asout of tune with the requiforgetting that the policethe hands of the government foryiolence. Failure to update theture it on attainment ofone of the seriorls mistakesin meeting the problems ofsystem devised rbore than apossible to do better ifonly theretained their dlscipline,obligationq integrity of theUnfortunately, there has beenvalues arising from the debilitaand the politicians This dealtmoded police system crying for

This has been furtherwhich was originallypolicg to suit socie econorpicdifferent from tlle post-intion of the judiciary from theindependen! which is a veryquate provision was not madepensation of speedy justice tocants who convorge on thequick and fair disposal of theirpressure of litigation was aeconomic changes that swept

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

be tween one group andThis compulsion to

rule seems to have disapof self-rule

composition and eventotally redesigned to meetnumber of new problems

of the social reforrns andin the post-Independenceinstitution is left woefullvof the changed scenario,

the vital instrument inand preventing

system and to restruc-should be recorded as

le for the inadequaciesEven with the police

agq it should have beenforces in the states had

to their professionaland line of command

erosion ofeach of thesenexus between the police

further below to the out-

by thejudicial systemand establishe4 like the

ns and political ethoseia While the separa-

made the judiciaryle judicial concept ade

ultaneously to ensure dis-of thousands of suppli-

in the hope of receivingts. The increased

outcome of the sociocountryside.

Inlrasrructurol lnJinnines 35

The techniques devised for meeting the problems of a

country at a poini of time in its history which had-been found'

ru.""tif"f may not work under changed conditions' The

io.att ".pi.i had evolved an almost perfect lega[ military

and e"onomi" techniques for maintaining law and^ order'

Jefending itself againsi external enemieq and managing the

nroductio-n and elchange of goods' But in the third century

lft.r. ".w institutions *hi"h *ett considered neanperfect

oroved inadequate to prevent civil warg invasion by the Bar-

Larians and depreciation of the currenry because new events

had rendered the existing institutions ineffectiva

The deficiencies or the inadequacy or even the inaporopriateness of the institutions which are expected to look'uite'. ttt. ptout.ms caused by the socio'economic changes in

the couniry have unfortunately given rise to distorted percep

iion of ttte .eatities on the ground to the political executiva

frit it tu* has set in motion a series of administrative and

executive actions which are not compatible with democratic

pro".tt." This is noticeable in the political reactions to the

iemands of the weaker sections, which militate against ves-

ted inter€sts. Proper enforcement of the Minimum Wages

,t t or ttr. tenuriil rights is an important obligation which

the weaker sections expect the Government agencies to fulfilii, tto*.u.., this is noidone either due to indifference of the

enforcing agencies or their collusion with vested interests'

there is a=very real danger of disenchantment of the affected

population with the Government who may even suspect the

rnotiu", of the Government By the use of force in such a

siiuation by the Government agencies against the weaker

sections, accusing them of being Naxalites or belonging to

other ideologically motivated groupq the Government

exposes itselfio the charge of colluding with vested interests

ani going against the weaker sections' This is the dilemma

that -righi-thinking individuals face when they suwey the

rural icenes involving violence in the States of Uttar

Pradesh, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh among others

The dehciencies of the institutional arrangement with

regad to the implementation of the several well'conceived

-T

36

programmes to improve theweaker sections will beextracted frorn an

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

condition of thefrom the following which isstudy of the Employment

Guarantee Scheme indopadhyay, Secretary

trq quoted by D. Ban-Development Ministry

Government of India. in the ion Papers compiledfollowing the National of Indian Society for

ber 1984-January 1985.Training and Development in"The Maharashtra Emp Guarantee Scheme evalua-tion study brought out certain in the implementa-tion of the programme. of the non-target goup inemployment was signifi cantly than that of the targetgroup (agricultural workers marginal farmers). The

more to the cultivators ofrequiremnts of landless

study concluded'EGS hadhigher holding groups thanagricultural labour or smaller torhousehold. Sharingof benefits of the assets crea through EGS was moreskewed than the sharing of lo1.me nt According to thejoint evaluatio4 as many as 9lto the category of cultivators.

of user household belonged

being agricultr.lral labourers foe next important categoryed about 6%. It was further

observed that the benefits of S assets had gone to a largeextent tomarginalholds"......

the medium and farmers. The small andfarrners constitute 21o/o of user house

Commenting generally, D Bandopadhyay has obser-ved, "Because of lack of and confrdence on thepart of the benehciaries and use of absence of institu-tional suppor[ a whole host ofhave sprung up who cheat theillegal gains with theaceptance of household oricalls for urgent remedy."

Defeudalising a traditionalcan be completed instantly.manifestations of feudalism

ment of middle menficiaries in the name ofto facilitate sanction orschemes. The situation

up is not a process whichif external and tangible

dismantled, it is not equallyeasy to remove the mental bs, reform and refrne the

InJrastuctural tnfrmities 37

mental attitude of the people who have stood to lose in the

oew dispensation Even if they part with all that has been

legislatei out of them, they are not likely to adjustthemselves

a?" o"* relationship between persons and between dif-

ferent groups which the socioecooomic changes have

broughiabout The hangover offeudalism will take a long

timeL disappear. In the meantime it lingers on with, effects

which can taie diverse forms and patterns distorting human

relationships and giving rise Jo violence

"No society is strong which does not acknowledge the

protesting man And no man is human who does not draw

ittengn irom the natural animaf'.IIn this context it would

bewJrthwhile to bearin mindthe historyofourcountry dur'

ine the British period- We as a poople have in a sense already

ro-ne through a situation during the prelndependenc dayg

iomparabli to the one that the weaker sections are presently

going tntoogft For instance there was the Rowlatt Act which

fiua -u Ud.f-t"t ignoble life span From the point of view of

the framers of that Act, any form of protest against misrule

and high-handedness was seen to be conspiratorial and

seditiois In a different contex! we would do well to guard

ourselves against -labelling of even normll and- legitimate

reactions against iome of the prwailing injlstice as con'

spiracies hitched or acts inspired tf N11att{9s Once the

iiCian police as it is presently constituted, realises what the

Government expects and wants in terms of law and order' itwill stop short of nothing to please the Government In con'

tineencies of this type when heads have to roll to achieve

t ritts, l"uat do start rollingwith increasingvelocity' In this

"o"t it the observations of Pandit Motilal Nehru on the

Rowlatt Ac! made duriag his presidential address at the

Amritsar Corigress in l9l9 would be of relevance: "No one

can but deploie violence and political crima But let us not

forget thatihis is the outcome of continued repression' It isduJ to the perversity of the Executive which blinds itself to

the cause oi the distontent and like a mad bull goes about

attacking all who dare stand up against it"

--:w

CHANGEANDVIOLENCE

In a democratic society it essential to en$ure that tleindulged in by ideologically

into a form ofcountensuch as the police,

cult of violence that it

In the rural scene inabout during the last three

vast changes have comeNo single measure has

released such complex and reaching forces as theintroduction of adult franchisrlocal bodies, S{ate Legislaturesadministrative functionaries

for elections to Panchayatq

Village Acount or the kkhahierarchy who have been to administer welfare

institutions, primaryand administrative units educhealth centurgs, rural dwelopanti-poverty pnogrammes hav

organis ations and thecreatcd an impact on the

socieeconomilc set up of the 'agricultural irtputs and extentheir own effept on agriculturaling and evasive manner in r

Tlie improvement in

38

implemented have created cersweral infrasttuctures such as

tensions, The creation offacilities for setting

up cottage indrrrstries have brotthe countrysidb, The poor sectiwho did not hhve enough caslthe land. had oither to borrowselves tenurial security and .

backdoor tenants" This hadharassments and uncertainties.ing several centres of powerween the several competing

the Parliament The newthe Gram Sevak, the

and others in the rural

services have producedallied activities. The halt-

the land reforms were

about a visible change inof the cultivating tenants

for acquiring ownership ofor had to deny them-

to become non-owningcreated its own hazards.

the changes while creat-created focii of tension bet-conllicting groups.

in an equitable society andinitiated What is more tlerese are becoming aware of

they had tived through"promises of the State as

reaction of the state to violemotivat€d groups does not dterror. The state through itsshould not itself practice theaccuses offenders of practisin

and resigned themselves to the pernicious socio'economicsystem as something ordained by God and hence inwitablaiquality of political rights and socio'economic exploitationcattnot go togeiher. The same millions have now become

aware ofthe fact that they do not necessarily have to traverse

through the travails which their forefathers had gone

through over the centuries The evils that have been removed

from the system to the extent possible during the post'

Indpendence'decades have only heightened the conscious'ness among the affected of the evils that continue to persist Itis true that the evils have diminished but the sensitivity has

become more acute and to that extent the clamour for reliefmore strident aod at times even violent

References

l. J. Bronowski : "The Face of Violence : An Esay with Play."

GAP

That a study on thecontain a relbrence at som€Reforms needs somein which there has been

Reforms were conceived andthe spirit inwhich the stateof implementation Here waswhere political power was inpower in utter disregard ofpolitical platforns bynational polioy, when itdeclared policies and statutes.political powor thwartedreforrns, throu gh subterfugesa party. Even sq theeven to the extent to whichhave brought about atransform ation of the socialexamine some of the gapsfulfilment whlch has conviolence in the rural areas"

Agrarian Reform is acomposed of severaldistri iution of laud amongcrcation of individualable ;r'd easily available credit

4

PROMISE ANDPERFORMANCE - LAITID REFORM$

of violence in India shouldto the status of Laad

Land Reforms is one areadouble talk at respon*

ible lwels, if not double think The spirit in which the Landwas enacted was notgot down to the job

area in some of the statescollusion with economic

was announced from theleaders in pursuance of the

to gving effect to thesevested interests wieldingimplemenation of the

which bur-eaucrats were alsoof the agrarian reformqhave been implemented,

in society, though not aAn effortwill be made to

the promises and theirto social tensions and

Enensive concept and isSome of these are; re

landless, security of tenurgsecurity of rentals, favoun

easy availability of

Gsp Beflveen Promise and Perlormdnce 4l

the several agricultural inputs required for modernmrcthods

oifarming aid cooperative marketing facilities While each

oi tn.t. .6onpoo*tt it important ln its owrr way' ownersliip

ofthe 1an4 ind in its absence, the security of tenrrre are the

two elements which set the pace of the rest of the reforms'

Though these aspects had been taken care of in the land

reforis legislation in different states, there is still consider'

able weakiesg ambiguity and even deliberate negligence inpractice in some of the states, particularly Bihar and Uttar

itradesh. As long as the security of tenure and certainty ofrent are not aJsured unambiguously, the potential forviolence in the rural areas of the coutrtry will cootinue to

exist By keeping alive the uncertainties with regard to the

tenure and tire reng the State opens itself to the charge ofencouraging a society based on iniquity and exploitation instead oflosiering the formation of a society based on social

justice and equity. A categorical assertion in these matters is

possible only through the political will of the Governmentihis in turn dependi on the source fron which it derives its

political strength and sustenanco As it happened in the

iecades immediately following the declaration of Indepen-

dencg the ruling party had derived its legislative and politi-

cal support from the .,ery segments of society which had had

a vestid interest io t"laiaing the economic power arising out

of the ownership of large land holdinge Land reforms

legislation and its implementation which alfect this landed

cliss which constitutes one of the most important centres ofpower have therefore been successfully thwarted by it The-Gonettt-"ot

of Bihar. and to ao extent Uttat Pradesh have

not Fken the objective of the land legislation to'its logicalconclusion as thii would have inevitably alienatod the major

source from which the Governments have beeo derivingpolitical support

Mrs. Gandhi addressing the Chief Ministers Con'ference in November, 1969 observed :

*The warning of the

time is that unless the Green Revolution is accompanied by a

revolution based on social justice, I am afraid the Green

Revolu.tion may not remaio green." Mrs Indira Galdhi

waahd Chief Ministers to"actaad hope.... No singlemany millione of our pcople arto the land grabs thatwas t8*itinS 1969, Mr* Indira Gaadhimay organizg even exploitcr€at€ it Tbc'time hqs onercform measutes imolemmrclcgitimate erpectations whichmilli6l of culdvators duringsho4 we have yet to create iwould enable shall farmers,to ghare in the agricrrltural

The status of land reformsSixth Five Yeal Plan in 1980ten the necessalrytively uadertake actionimplementatior of ceilingand in not vigorously pursuingharing them vestedwith tenanc,under the Act '2 This was againthe Conference of the Reveuueoa 18th May, 1985. Theshow that therc are even trowand even tenants holding theirsharecroppers fiho are not on

In theaourge ofhis spoechMinisters in 198p, the Union A"Considerable gaps exist beturcplus and area adtuatly declaredsurplus and th4 area tikeu ipossessioh ofand the are aprotection has lto be providedGovernment T\e EnwnteIocal reveauc stnff and thefactor. Nearly 6.55 lathtion in spite of thevariouc Ceiling [-aws."3

CHANGEANDVIOLENCE

when there is still '.ne

so intinately slfcde 80reforms." ln &r allusion

place in scveral states dur

discortent but they do notface the facts.... the latd

have feilid to match thefirst forstercd among

nati0nal movement.,. Inconditions which

and landlcss labourersdeaL"t

it existed on the eve ofthedescrib€d ag followl: "Of-has beeo lacking to effce

in the matter ofconsolidation of holdings

conccaled tenancies andoccupacy rights ar cojoined

to on theoccasion ofhcldinNewDelhi

of this Confer€nce cleadvunsecured tenants

on oral agrreements and

the Confcrence of Revenue

the area'estimated as sunsurplus, the area declared

of thc arca tatcndistribut€d....... Adequate

the beneliciary by thethat exists between tbe

rieh is a 'najor inhibitiagof landis locked in litigt-

protection given to tlo

Gap Bewen Prcmise and Pa/ormance 43

Itec ir proof, if p'roof was svcr necde4 ofthe collusion

io thc ru."f'areas b;tweeo the Govemment fuictio-naricg

iliLn t"tt"O l"t"*t t' a factwhich has beeaecknowledged

il tU. C""t f lwel at a vcry respoosible and Gormal

forum.

Occasionally there is an unholy otliance b€tween ree

"""JUti-Cott-n ot functiouaries and vestld ioterests at

",u" Jiiii"g te" wn* it go"t further aad leads to.lvrecking

;;;;A"frtt those wio are protesting agsinst the denial

"iif;iit f"dt ate dues, the deprived sections sometimes get

dubbed as Naxalites

According to ths Agricultural Census of 198G'1981'

lofaings Uefoi2 hectareJformT4'S% of the total numberof

o*tffo"d Uoldings but account for26'3% of the area only'

ii.1oi"*t "u""t

l0 f,ectarcs, though constitutingonly2'4% of

td;t"t number of holdings envet T2'8% area Thug con'

c""ttutio" of fand in big land holdins is still very much in

;d*;1" effect it haJcreated in the countryside pockets

oii""a o"""t* witi stroflg economic base which in turn has

promoted theit social and political inlluence

After 1972 National Guidelines, the State Governments

rtti-utua O"t about 23'54 lakh hectares would be surplus

il p.titi"" i" 1985 January was : the. area declaret surplus

;;;Jv 17.46 lakh hectare* Arca taken possession of was

i'iiif"il n*tarcs and the area distributed was 9'02 lakh

L""t"t * The area taken possession of is 72'6%.of the area

a""i"t O *tpt"s and the area distriburcd is 5 l'7% of the area

iJi"*a tttirt"s atd74'3% of the area taken possession of,

S"nJJ"a Cluttes and &heduled Tribe benefrciaries together

;;;;;;4'i% of the allottes and account for 50'5% of the

"-J"-"U.t a; Statewise figures may be seen atAnnexure Cl

"rJCZ. fnit refers to the position as it stood in 1983'

The acrarian reforns in their multi'dimensional

*pcctlifighi the Scheduled Castes and thrc-Scheduled

ifiU"t t* inio tle economic mainstream' This is indicated

CHANGEAND.YIOLENCE

by the percentago ofSchcduled landSchoduledTribe*,by thc Census of196l.dcpendcnt on rgriculture as

l97l and l98l (Anncxures A B 9. Tholgtr l6snumberof Schedulcd€aciteg and Tribes dependent onagricultural activities marginalg in l98l whcn

fact remains that theirto be heaw.

The Annerure at Cl and Q, $ve the percentagc ofScheduled Cast€s and Tribes to the totsl agri-cultural labour in the differenf tes along with the perccn-

Since the bulk of thesetage of land allotted toScheduled Castes and Tribes ar€ dependent onagricultural labour, it isminimgn ygggs rules are

that the prescribed

riately designedstrictly through appfop

depriving thcm of theirmachinery. Any elfort at

further tensionr between themwages will only fuel

work Thc discontentpolitical parties to

plans ofaction This isand'Llttar Pradesh"

Theprcblens stemming agrarian reforms are in aIndependent India. Thesense the first-rime problems

failure of the Gwernment to a prcperforumwhichcould'or should have resolved difficulties arising from

reforms promptly hasthe implementation of theresulted in heavy litigation teris of thousands of

with the end nowherecases which have dragged on forthe contenders who

happier and more settledtomorrow have only got cntangled in harassingand interminable court cases

Law and order receive over the enforcement ofland reform laws as far as tle governments are con-

strfong the vested

comparcd with lgl Ccnsuedependence on agriculture co

tification for the ideologies ofexploit the conditions to pursuealready in evidoncc in parts of

i' rigtt In the procesg the poorhad longingly hoped for a bette

cerned [n states where they areintercsts ensur€ that etrforcene

and those for whom thcyprovide content and jus.

of the laws is impeded or

45GaD Between Promise and Pedo'mance

evaded io onc way or another' Wberever ideological support-

" i*:"ro"J to the affectcdpoorclasses bythc iotcnrention of

;tttt";i;;td.s committed to the welfare of the rural pooq

ffi;it;;l on the wrong side of the Government either

;;ih.i;;t;f;eal for the cause which often out-ruas their

dil.*ii"" iuviandingthemselves in situations which have

;;;ffitly;;ntrived-for them bv the vested interests' The

ilr.tt.. of "'"

organized and stroogpre$sure group on behalf

oiGr r""O.t. aid the weaker sections has in fact resulted in

iuifutt toot tt the implementation of the relwan(laws tothe

i;A ;;dhtion dunnar Mvrdal has rightlv observed ia

lEGt ratian Drama' : "Fundamental reforms that will

UlrJ rl'p"ti.n in rural India must be sustained by pre

ssure from below."

The Connmission for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled

Tribcs in its 5th report (Marcb 1983f had concluded that in

many States the necessary political will to implement the

fu"a't ru.-t was singularly lssking Even in.cases wherc

i"ia *"t "Utt"d

to tf,e Scireduled Scheduled Castes and

llit.aJ"J itibes, the beneficiaries were not in actual

oos*ession and enjoyment of the same as the erstwhile

iwners had adopted unfair methotls including recource to

iuAicial process to deprive the deemed beneficiaries the

i;;;fil 6ituoo on"o.tship. Even inclusion ofvarious land

i"-io* f"*t in the 9th Schidule of the Constitution had not

treiped in carrying forward measures and judicial p-rocesses

;;.:ttttt ueing wiaery used by the land owning classes to

defeat these measures.

The Commission has gone on to observe that the land

aectarea surplus and taken possession .of . by the State

Cot --."t' are understandably marginal lends with

"-*il.--ay poor productivity' Some outlay for the develop

-"irofift. hnds and certain inpus in the shape of fen

[fi".* t.iat, pesticides etc' f,rill be needed to make their

.Jtit"ri"" via'tlo rnough there is a scheme for central

i*"""i"f "*ittance

in tiis regar4 oo prolter use is beiog

maae of tlis facility. tn certain itates, the a[otment of land is

:

to prevent arbitrary

6 ',ffi"

The Raj Krlshnated in 1978 had pbserved in oneexistence of article 3t-A 3l.Bremains that a large number o

prolonged and prohibitively crhas become necessary to take

taken Denying a penlotr orlegitimate entitlements is a kind

land reform laws and their

9th Schedule the factpetitlons pertaining to

are awaiting disposalinHigh Courts Someof them been pending for longerperiods The result.is that ownefs Qontinue to be inpossession of land held to beTenants have also been denir for long periods righb to

le to the landless

which they were entitled undereconomic weakness of tenants.

laws In spite of thehave been involved in

litigations Therefore, itmeasures urgently to

speed up the final disposal ofall land reform casesat all levels Otherwise the of improving the statusoftenants and the redistribution nds among the landless

" If for this purpose arry, it should be unden

may continue to remainconstitutional amendment is D

of individuals theirdisguised violence which

can have as per{icious an as manifest violence"

The very practical and recommendations of theRaj Krishna Committee do nor to have made any diFforence to the mode and merelating to land reforms Ns

of handling the problemsefforts have been made

by the State Governmentsrepart

to the Committee's

The steps which if properly and correctly,are capable of reducing rural ate:

l) Certainty regarding tenurialdispossessignq

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

Department whereas tlethe jurisdicrion of tle

was no coordination

onLandReformS appoin-f its reports : "In spite of the

Gap Betteen Promise and Perfqrlnance 47

2l Reasonable rent levels;

ii Conferment of homestead rights to the landless;

1; nii"t "."", "f the Ceiling Laws and distribution of the

available surplus among the landless

To quoto the Minutes of the Revenue Ministers Con'

f...rrc" if tpgs: "sizeable areas in Andhra Pradesh'

iu*"" Punjab,.Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and West Beogal

l*! ""* "",6f thi total quantum of surplus land as a rpsult

oi.oitt a""itions Even land already distributed had to be

denotified in many cases causing considerablghardship to

the assigneeswho had invested their resources"/ Such a statc

of "ffuii

need not have come about if the land reforms had

b..t u""o-punied by a strong institutional back up'

There seems tobe a distinctlackofthe requisite political

will and administrative commitment and impartiality

teq"it"a to implement the reforms Heightened political

coisciousness and the success of agitational methods in

r""tti"g reforms elsewhere will continue to strengtften

political movements on agxarian issues

Due to inadbquacy, io€llectiYeness or even partisanship

of the enforcement machinery agricultural labour which

remains unorganised in most of the states continues to

receive wages below the prescribed rninimum' Due to nofr

ur"if"tiuti of regular employment during most part of the

vear the asricultural workers have no choice but to accept

l,*."io*"i tnan minimum- The Commission for Scheduled

Cuittt u"a Scheduled Tribes has observed: "It is most

unfortunate that even prescription of minimum-wages' leave

aside their actual payment, has been the cause of infliction ofthe most inhumin atrocities on the helpless agricultural

labour when they dare to demand the minimum wage pres'

ctiU.O Uy Government olhcials4 These ameliorative

-eusur"s'*nl"h are intrinsically good fail in their implementation for want of sincerity of purpose That- they are

more often projected with a view to derive political mileage

."tU"r tUao ucii""l"g social objectives is evidcot from tle

the population in the

48

observaiions made by the for Scheduled Cast€sand Scheduled Tribes in irs 5 report with rogard to thesmall size ofthe housesites to Sch€duled Castes andScheduled Tribes The has obseryed: "The lirning area in several cases wasHow a family consisting of

thought that we were being bpulsions According to hin, it is

seem to concern him very

ing to the unorganised sectorstatic in comparison with the

CHANGEANDUOLENCE

than l0 feet by l0 feetwifc and two or three

,;nrealistic target did not

remained more or lessof the problem and its

children is orp€cted to live in small place is beyond ourcomprehensioo lYhen wir. with a Chief Ministerthat the liying area providedto family should consist of atleast two roomq he pleaded of fioanc-lal resourcegWhen we suggested reduction ihe number of houses. he

to his political com-a game of num-

bers and no Chfuf Minister be prepared to reduce thenumber of houses and make rem larger and of better

unable to satisfr the largespecificationg slnce he wouldnumber of beneficiaries andsuicidal to him The fact that in

would be politically

being wasted merely to reachprocess, public money is

Il Pais wbo is the Dean of the National LabourInstitutg Delhi in his paper in December, 1986 on"Unorganised Labourt has : "Minimnm wagesfxed by the centre and state fall far below thepoverty line... Labour particularly that relat-

kages between an equitable wagesector and develOpment Jn fact,

growing needs... Our paper has early brought out the lin-cy for the unorganised

the absence of an equit-able wage polioy, integrated other developmentalinputg tle expectations in the Seventh Five Year Plan

line by a major chunk ofsector might prove to bra

regarding crossing of the

myth...... Conditions of labour cannot improveunless they are organised The of their organisationshould be the primary conoern the state but generallygovernments have failed to their responsibilities

Gap Bemem Promise and Perlormance 49

in this area mainly because of the social strucfirre-which

ilfri""J *a.oottolt tte government apparatu$"

Since the transferof more than avery sqrall part of lan&

f.tt f"U""i to non-agricultural sectors will not be easy or

""..ieasiUf" in the ihmediate futurg the demard f9l ade

orr"t" *"ca, "od

fullcr employment in the agricultural sector

il;;il; ;;;rv vitat issusrne fact which has to be faced

souaretv is tnat if the security of tenure for a relatively small

;ffib-ei;i;;uott n"t not made any impact wen after all

A;;;;;* Shte action to eoforce minimum wages for

"gti"itt.i UUour is likely to face much greater resistance

than is being faced now

On land reforms and is implementatioo' it is worth

ono,i* tft. oUservations of Shri P'S' Appq the ex-Chief Sec'

;;;;iBih"t, who having held important posts under the

d*iJ cot"-ment had chosen pr€mature retirement from

tn"-fl$ and who is an ackno*ledged authority on land

reforms : "[n no sphere of public activity in our coudtry srnce

iiJ.p""A""* tas the hiatus uetw€en prec€pts and practice

betwien policy pronouncements and actual execution been

"t *"ut uL in thi domain of land reforms With resolute and

;;ffi;;t p.litical wilt' all ttie other short-comings and

Oiff*ulfit *"ld have beenovercomei in the absence of such

"rilt;;;;i"or obstacles have become formidable roa&

;I".il i; tn" patu of Indian land reforms Considering the

ii;i""t"ti.ti"Lf the political power structure gbt3ining inii. *""t y, ft o'ut ooly natural that the required political

.will was not forth'coming"

L

,

3.

4.5.

References

The Sclectcd papcrs of Woff fadcjilgl : Agnrian Xcforns - an

""n;n"a u"iioos - Editcd bv Louic waliilkv 0977IMil.t* ;th; a;.fercocc ofthiRsvcnuc Ministcrc held itr N€w Dclhi

on 18th MaY, 1985.

IBID,IBID.tt of thc Comnission for Schedulcd Cases aad Schc&fed

mUcreprit 1982- March 1983 - Vth r€port

I

'

I

s,6.'. ?

g, :,

9.

sqclAl cHANGE AND VIOLENCE

The Raj Krishna Comminee Reqorr on Land Reforms 097E).Mrnuesot the Confercnoe ofthe

\evenue Ministers heldin NcwDelhion lSrh May, 1985.Rcpori of the Commission for Scheduled Castes and SchedutedTribes- furil 1982 - March t9g3 - Vrh RcDorrIBID.

CIIAPTER6

I-AND IN BIHAR

Feudalism with all that it tipifies in human relationgwhich continues to be a lingering aspect of the socio-

economic life of Bihar, can-be better uaderstood in the cortext of the conditions that prevailed in Bihar prior to tleintroduction of the land reforms This will be wident fromthe following which is based on the paper authored by Fran'cine R Frankel lgt4.t

"Under the permanent settlement full priprietory riShts

in over 90% of the cultivated land were conferred on a smallclass of Zamindars - perhaps 4% of the populatioo...- Thenew class of Zamindars and their agents were armed withlormidable power$..... While it proved easy to use Britishauthority to intimidate the ryo! the same power appeared

impotent to protect hin The Zamindars frequently iporedthe Government regulations to give the tenants written pat-

tas stipulating the rent and other conditions of the leasa...'

Political advantages to the State of the growing Government'Zamirdar alliaoce were purchased at a very high cost to themajority of the peasantry. By the 1870s the 'higb-handedabuses" of the Zamindars had reduced the cultivators oIBihar to a "state of extreme depression and mis€ry' whichmarked them as "the most wretched class" we find in thiscourtry.... Agricultural labourers whose wagps were paid inkind lived in some areas in a kinC of social thraldom' some

times selling themselves, their wives and children to life longservitude for paltry sums"

The Brahming the Bumihars, the Rajputs and thcIGyasthag who constitute what has come tobc referredto as

the uppcrcastes havefiaditionally ownedthe major sharc of5t

the land in the State ofmunities had heldpositions in thepolitics In the new

C}IANGEANDVIOLENCE

Members of these com-senior and responsiblein professions and in

limit of the ceiling wasal than the family as a

52

of independencg a smalldispensation in the wakeofthe Scheduled Castes

and Scheduled Tribes whothe adminis trative positions

been able to get a share in

moved up thewho with that strength have

have so far failed todislodge the upper castes the strategic positions thatthey hold in the politics and of the State. Itwill take quite some time beli they are able to do so assum-ing that in the mean.:me happens.which may give aset back to the upwardcommunities

of the backward

The Yadavg Koeris and by virtue of the landttrat they acquired as at the time of the abolitionof the Zamindari system have a new class of havespitted against the havenots, Zamindars used to get their

fthese comunities who overland cultivated by the membersa period of time had become agriculturists. Thesecultivators became owners ofreforms and were the classesanyone elsa Thug these caste

land as a result ofthe landstood to gain more than

improved their relativeeconomic and social positiorq their large numbers givetlem positive strength under adult suffrage.

Thousands of tenants were deprived oftheir holdings during the long gap between the enact-ment of land reform and its implementationAslate as in 1970, it was possible Iind ex. intermediaries inpossession of estates over 5,0(X) acres or mor€resorting to varlous devices toner in which the enactment

on to the land. The man-the land ceiling Act was

delayed, and thf number holes it carried with it whenof the power and inlluenceeventually passed, are a meC

that the large land holders at the administrative andpolitical levels in Bihar. Themore with reference to the

Land Rejorns in Bihar 53

unit Benami transfers proliferated Every conceivable ploywas devised by the owners to escape from the provisions ofthe Land Ceiling Act Provisions were made for orchardgpastures and even for animals which were treated as pets !

The law allowed each laod owner a period of six months toenable him to transfer the land to those entitled to it throughinheritance. Notice of enforcement of the 1962 Act was

issued as late as in 1965 giving adequate time to the landlordsto evade the provisions There was also a provision for thetenant to surrender the land voluntarily which could then besettled with another tenant This provision has been thecause of a large number of disputes giving rise to consider'able violence in the rural areas,2

In Bihar, the estimated surplus land under the CeilingAct should have beerq as per the Agricultural Census 1976'

1977, about 11.29 lakh acres. But the estimate given by the

State Government on l-l-1984 was only 2.99 lakh acres' Outofthe declared surplus of2.99 lakh acres, 1.9 lakh acres were

distributed" Total land involved in litigation was 77J00acres.

"In Begusarai district,2,108 acres of landwere allotted toHarijans out of9,000 acres ofland declared surplus follow"ing enforcement of ceilings. 26,129 possession slips wereissued to laodless persons including 9,490 Harijans But tillMay, 1979 only 950 persons were able to secure physicdlpossession of the land allotted to them. The reason fior thisdelay was stated to be the fact that the revenue records werenot up to date as land survey had not been undertaken formany years in most of the districts"3

The only visible consequence of Zamrndai abolitioncan be said to be the reduction in the number of largeholdings But even this could well be a matter of credit for themanner in which the provisions of the Act were successfullydefeated by the Zamindars by distribution among the several

members of the familieg according to the maximum admiss'ible limits

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

A Government working evaluating the implementation of the land reforms 1973 had observed: *By

their abysmal failure to impin Bihar have reduced the

the laws, the authoritiesle package of land reform

measurcs to a sour joke This the land owningclass to treat the entire agrarian with utter contemptElsewhere in the country, the evaders have a sneakingrespect for the law enforcing Their approach isfurtive. their method In Bihar, the land owners

According to the Census of Bihar done in1980-1981.75.5% ofthe (8320,600) ofless than onehectare each are marginal hol covering 26.7% of thearea" .{s against this 6% (68,11

more than ten hectares accolarge holdings coveringfor 10.5% of the totalof the total operationaloperational area of the State,

holdings of I,10,29,(fi0 the Castes' share comes to928.061 which works out to 4l% of the holdings The

holdings of the Scheduledoperational area covered by thCastes works out to 4,56% of total operated area in theState. The figures for the Tribes is 828.399holdings which is 7.2lVo ot the total holdings in the State

16.24%. Though seeminglycovering an opierational areawell of[, the figures indicating e Scheduled Tribes' shareapparently do not take into the fact that a good part

Scheduled Tribes hadof the land legally owned byactually got alienated to non-Tfuge and a legal fiction this

However. as a subter-

Government records as the of land is not permiss-

do not care a tuppence for theoperandi open and insolent'a

ible under the law and hence rsion for Scheduled Castes andin its 5th report that in Bihar 52,was alienated involving an arregistered and in 27,454 cases I

restoration of land to the32,636 acres. Gotting such aone side ofthe coin" but the

Their modus

is not reflected in the

recordable The Commis-eduled Tribes has statedcases oftribal land which

of 76.411 acres had beendeciiion was in favour ofThe area in question was

frorir the Government isrestoration of the land and

Land Reforms in Bihar ))

its enjoyment is another. As a matter of fac! only in 1,774cases had land been actually and physically reslored to thetribals out of 27,454. Even out of the total holdings of theScheduled Casteg 89.3% fall in the category of marginal66lfings belowone hectarg covering an area of5l.8% of thetotal area and6.3% fall within the category of one to two hec-tares, covering an area of 15,6% of the total area belonging tothe Scheduled Caste$ The figures for the Scheduled Tribesunder the same head comes to 51.3% covering an area of10.3% ofthe total area and 15.9% covering an area of 10.4% ofthe total area

The system of sharecropping which is prevalent inparts of Bihar has several sinister aspects. The land ownersdo not allow the sharecroppers to cultivate the.same land insuccessive years This is because of the fear among the latrdowners that if the sharecroppers are allowed to cultivate thesame land in consecutive years, they may stake their claimfor occupancy rights Though according to laq the landowner is entitled to only /+th of the producg in actual fact theland owners insist and take half the produca With nosecurity of tenure and no bargaining power, the sharecroppers are entirely at the mercy of the land owners Most ofthe sharecroppers belong to the Scheduled Castes and theScheduled Tribes or other backward castes In some of thedistricts of Bihar, the sharecropping system has given rise toconsiderable rural tensions culminating in bloodshed-

Anand Chakravartis writing in the Economic andPolitical WeeHy dated October 25, 1986 has observed thatthe belligerence of the land owners in general in contem:porary Bihar is so very blatant that wen the working com-mittee group on land reforins of the National Commissionon Agriculture had observed on the basis of experienco insome areas of Bihar that "land owners are organised andaggressive........ with an obliging administration on their side,they are definitely not going to give up an iota of their rightqprivileges and economic dominance without a stiff fight....no law, however, good it may be in conferring on pape!

56 CHANCE AND VIOLENCE

rights, title afld interest on e bataidars, will have the

slightest chance of success the bataidars have a strongand militant mass of their own, capable of not

given by the law - but alsoonly defending their owncapable of mounting counter-any direct attdck on them."

ion to prevent and forestall

Ladejinslty observes : is crucial is that in Biharthe leading politicians have n really accepted the idea ofchange as a rneans to improve the conditions of the tenure"

And yet only they are the aof reforms"

makers or unmakers

According to the agenda for the Conference ofthe Revenue Secretaries and ue Ministers dated24thand25th November. 1986, a to amend the BiharTenancY

on share crctppers has beenAct to confer ownershiPdrafted6. It rehains to be seen what extent this Bill whenenacted will be allowed to implemented by the vested

interests who wield politicalbased on land assets

arising from affluence

According to the report out by the Revenue andLand Reforms Department of Government of Bihar fortheyearl983-1984, the with regard to the disposal ofcases involving the is. total cases whichrelated to the share croppers March 9. 1984 were 58,860 ofwhich 16,622 cases were in favour of Bataidars(share-croppers), 33,283 were against Bataidars andthe cases pending were 8,955.

Land Relorms in Bihar 57

3,121 acres went against the Tribals The remaining cases

were pendin& Considering the very large number of cases

that have gone against the weaker sectionq one worderswhether the institutional arrangement provided for the set-

tling of sucb cases which can make all the difference betweendestitution and subsistence are really in tune with the spiritof the land legislations

In the absence ofperiodical land surveyg it is very dif'ficult to fix the land ownership and more so in the crimeridden vast'Diara' area ofthe State The boundaries even iffxed are washed away by flood and by sowing time the nextseason, there is practically no sign whatsoever left to prove

ownership. In such a situation might is right and violence isinherent What has changed the situation sharply in therecent years is the induction of muscle meo by the differentparties to the dispute.

The dispute ov€r land which is primarily of a civil natureis very often converted into a criminal case by some overtcriminal act on the part of one of the parties The calculatedmove to bring a criminal elemetrt into the transaction is togive the case a criminal dimension in the hope that it wouldget a comparatively speedy disposal I was told by a toppolice official in Patna that thousands of cases of landdisputes are pending over several years with no hope ofthe issues being resolved in the foreseable future Hence

their recourse to action coming witlin the criminal law in thehope that at least the original land dispute which may havebeen hanging frre over the years may get resolved one way orthe other. The result has been a colossal increase in the num-ber of criminal cases and mounting pressure on the alreadyover worked criminal courts

At the same time Bihar provides a very rerrcaling exam-ple of how and when the political will and administrativecompihbot converge with a $ense purpose evor seeminglydiflicult issues tlat have defied solution over sweral yeanand have generated needless and mindless violence, becomeresolvable issues within the capability of the functionaries in

'58the aalministration The threeoccupancy rights of sharcagricultural labourers havegonism between the peasantsgenerated considerableEmergency of 1975-1976 whention was totally set ondemonstrable results, 50,000acquired in Bihar in markedmere 9,700 acres under theprior to the Emergency. The2Q431 acres under thecalled upon the big landlordsand disclose their surplusacquired land were

Agricultural wage s wereWages Act in 1948 andhowever not implementedThey were again revised in IEmergency, 68,fi)0 agriculturalarrears of wagps totallingolnners, Indebledness of agripeasants totalllng Rupees 4.5redemption certificates were iring the Emergenry amplyare capable of doing wen theand under fear ofbeing calledfulfil targets It is a sadpolitical-administrativ€ systemregime should be necessary toto be attainable throughWhen will we do the right thingsdong and not because we havehaling done them?

There are three types ofeach ofwhich has beea thethe rural areas Tte

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

issues of debt redemptiogand higher wages for

sharpened the anta-and the land owners. andrce During the nationalevery asp€ct of administra

certain desirable andof surplus land wereto the acquisition of a

Laws over all the yearsGovemment also receivedsurrender scheme which

see the writing on the wallAbout 10,000 acres of

Iixed under the Minimumit 196G1967. They were

in a single village in Bihar.75. In the 19 months of the

were helped to getI crore from the land

labourers and poorwere s'rittetr off and

The achievements dur.tlat we as a nation

ftings only under duressto account for failure toon tbe working of the

a draconic Emergencyresults which ought

processeg and functioni.gbecause they have to be

render an account of our

relationships in Biharof considerable violence inclass of land owners most

Land Reiorms in Bihar 59

ofwhom belonging to the backward communities, eajoy cer-

tainty of tenancy or ownership. They cultivate the lan4 workhard and have emerged as a force in the rural as also theurban life of Bihar. Their land holdings are by and largewithin ceiling limits This class consists largely of Kurrnisand Yadavs This is one stablising factor in rural Biharthough this also has a destabilising aspect to the extent it hasled to increasing conflict with the landless who work in theirlands A good part of Naxalite activities are centered in thedistricts of Bhojpur, Rohtaq Aurangabad and Gaya Certainpockets in the districts of Patna and Nalanda are alsoaffected

The second category of land relationship refers to theIirst genera tion land owners who have come by their small ormarginal holdings by way of gift from Bhoodan movementor as a result of re.distribution ofa part ofthe land declaredsurplus when the Ceiling Act was given effect tq eventhough partially and with reservations. Mostly the Harijansfall in this category some of whom may have come by theirpossessions after considerable court proceedings. Theyexpect to hold on to th eir land against all efforts to dispossess

thenr" In the process, they find themselves more vulnerablethan they would have been if they had bee n without their lit-tle possessions of land

The bigger land owners constitute the third source ofland relationship. They have the bulk of the landcarried over from the days ofthe abolition of the Zamindarisystem and have retained their hold overtheirland in spite ofthe Ceiling Act When they deny the minimum wages to thelandless peasants, we hear of the peasants organising them-selves under the leadership ofthe Naxalites or picking up anopen fight with the land owners and making examples of theselected arnong them by attacking their farms and killingthern The land owners as also the peasarts who are pittedagainst them hold fire arms illegally and they conspiredgainst each other for revenge which leads to a chain ofviolence. It is the conflict between these two groups which isthe source of much violence.

60 CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

Ifthe State ofBiharis to be of the types and quantumof violence which today the horizon, it will

will coming togetherrequire the polilical andin all honesty in an effort to deal withtheproblem.

The Bihar land holder is sometimes the contractorin which capacity he has to public funds. The extraprofit that he makes over andused to make illegal payments

the legitimate slare iseither terrorising or brib-

ingthe officials" The land h are also a vote-bank which

dependent or beholden tothem in several ways are the voters of the parf or ofthe candidates supported by land ovttners.

function they fulfil through(leaders) of the villages Theweaker sections ofpeople who

Most political partiesany time do not have theirto the grass-root level in theciplined hierarchical fornr

influential segments such asThese agentg if they are to be

ted at all times There is a pricewhich requires the Governmenttheir questionable dealingsblatantly illegal This takesleaders who have to be kepton their nefarious activitiesmoney power. Contracts are

hold on the Mukhiasmake sure that the

happen to be in power atreach in the State

in a structured and dis.

landowners and other

be paid for such supporttum a blind eye towardsmay sometimes even beforms There are malia

by letting them carrywhich they generate

to malia leaders againstreported from Dhanbad

gap which is very seriouseven in normal times assumesdays immediately preceding

significance in theelections as also during

periods of uncerlain political which, as it happensin Bihar is a chronic and protrlern The void isgenerally sought to be frlled byutilising intermediate groups

political leadership by

and conkactorsat the time of elections.

and at other critical times have be kept happy andconten-

all norms of propriety. In one

6lLand Reforms in Bihar

district, when it was pointed out that the person to wnom a

;#;;;-.;;"*''*:."'ng;:'9,?:3; hT:;1"iil',iffi ibeing Paid was not a oesln

io-i.ii6nu.y of the time is reported to have said:."I lave to

*"*il"t" tiypolitical power"' Having purchased it by suchtdffi;;;i

sucn politicar po*eiiao onlv be used for

dubious ends

The iniquities that are associated with the rural life of

Situi ut id end results ofvested interests operating from

iltril;o.f.Jtt "Cth and free from the restraining-influence

iii"* ""J*rrtoity. Since they have taken care of the needs

;;il;;;;;;"t*s at state level thev conduct themselves

as though they are not answerable to anybody' The caste rid-

den society of Bihar ensures that the Governm:nl flnction'

aries in different departmetrts ext€nd the requisite hglp to the-

ffi;;il;];"giirg o the respective casres' lnmindful of

"t#;;;.purfr"it"t and di-sciplinary constraints Pos'

il;;ao#;*iJ om"iurt are often governed bv caste

considerations

In an arrangement where c€trtres of power proliferate

andeachsuchc€ntr€constitutEsapressur€group'lheyhave;;-ililt;tout using the police or the administrative

-"ririo.ty fot subserving sectional' sectarian' caste or group

;;t;;-ilG ironi"af"oougb' has led o an accretionin

the influence of the police ihi"h dott not legitimately

tltfili uut whicil it has acquired-o;er.a p-eriod bv

operating outside io rtguUy recofuised.limits -This has

;"i;;;i"; "tlture

of mitual sttpport ao<laependence bet-

il"e;il;"lice ;d the pressure grbuPs This nexus between

;;'ili.": rh; pohticians and thJir co;irorts is a daring fact in

Sii'ut A" ariangement that thrives by acquiring power

in.*gn q""ttion-able means and tlen using it through

coteriesandvestedinte'e't"inevitablyleadstowrongandiiJiiJo-n*6;;.of nunan activities and eventsThis in

ii* Jo"titot nilp the powers at responsible levels to unders'

i""a-."**Oy the signals that enanate from- th9 villages

d. ;;lt" ;;ry ofteiin the state machinery shooting down

the messenger in the beliefitself has been killed Manv oattributed to this sad

Another effect of such athat a large chunk ofeconomically backward areGovernment's programmesand education Until onlv athemselves to this fate.the worm has begun to furnhave woken up to their rightsthem. They are no longer recstyle of living These constituteprocesg they have also inand indiscriminate killingsta They have been frustratedhave seemed to them an intheir faith in the system'shave willy-nilly come tojustice would not come by ian unresponsive and unwilliment programmes hadwithout misusd of funds. andmes had reached thede4 the situation would notnow ifjustice could be donealong with the Governmentscope of violence that hasyears would be minimised

The left wing extremistsKisan Sabha in 1978 andlandless agricultural labouSand other backward comrrtration have boen limited roBhojpur, Nalanda and GayaVirodhi Jan Sangarsh Morchaatrocities on people), a front

lt in the process the messaget}te problems of Bihar can oe


ding

administrative set up iswho are socially and

the real beneficiaries of theas minimum wageg health

back they had resignedduring the last decade or soyouth among the Harijans

are prepared to fight forto their old fatalistic

Naxalite following Io thein unpardonable crueltyowners by way ofvendat-

their long and what mightinable wail They have lost

to deliver the goods andthat what they thought wasunless they wrested it fromsystern If only the developcarried out honestly and

the benefits of the program-for whom they were inten-gone the way it has Even

of the fe[ce sitt€rs would goto that extent the trature and

erupting over the last few

the Bihar Pradesha sizeable hold among thebelonged to the HarijanPockets of their concen-

districts of Patn6, Rohtas.Octoberd 1985 the Damanan orgauisation to opposeof Gn likeminded Kisan

Land Reforms in Bihar 63

orsanisations of prcextremist persuasion' staged a.massive

;itr iil,*i";i'ulu"uu"grt irGava district The demands

or ihe agitato* y:11 Htj.il:t1:;1"""i :l".H:;ThtWaees Act, exemptlon tro#;-";ui;;i-t",'klo,ce' deploved in the area purportedlv

to flush out the extremists'

Problems of Bihar which have remained unresolved

over the years have repeatedly resulted in grave tragedies'

il; il;;ur.u"r. Lf 44 Thuktttt bv the--Y:dvas in

err""g"U"O Oistrict in the last week of May' 1987 was pro-

t "iit ti, *o.rt in a chain of such killings This was a sample

ffi;.;;;;;;4."i*tt"tt ugtutian grievances get an infu-

iio" or""ut "onflict

yet nothing seems to be getting done to

a.iott" ,ft. institutions such as the police on whose proper'

;i;dy ft;fi;;tive functioning depends the peace of anv

ftu." uttA more so in a state like Bihar'

z.

4.

5.

References

Francine R Frankel: 'Caste, Land and Dominance ia Bihar: Break-

;;;;;;; ;;atminical Social ordef' (Quoted from Bihar

Gazett€er. MonghYr district)'

IBID. Francine R frankel'

i*ay ty-S*"". of Police Research and Development (1979)'.

I'i#ui's* copra: "Agrarian Movements in Bihai' from the book:

ao"J"t f"r"*i."nts i; India - Studies of lhe 20th Ceotury Bihar'

ffi;;A;t";; : "The unfinished struggle of santhal Blqd:T -;*#;-il;;6iiar) - lea2-les3" in thi Economic and Political

weeklv - Dt 25th Octob€r. 1986'

iJ""io'" "i""tt

"i"t -ii" C""rut** of Revenue Secretaries and

R;";;"'Mi"i"^ - DL 24th and 25th November' 1986'

{1-

LAND REFORMS UTTAR PRADESH

Prof Imtiaz Ahrned and N. C. Saxena had written apaperl on: "Caste LandPradesh" in 1984. In the

Political power in Utar

drawn on that paper as onparagraphs I have

officials of the Stateown discusions with theamong others.

Tl.:: -*"r a time lag

9f -t{r" years berween the pass-ing of the zamindari aUofitlor, -Act

in lt;, -;;;-;;,

implementarion which began in 1955. Th;;;lil *...close to the power elite knew about the i-p.rJing tu*much belore it was erracted- [Vany of tt. i*J-o*n...made the. necessary adjustmenlts and transfers before thelaw was implemented" Tampefing *itn funJ ...o.i. *u.widely reported. The villaeewruery rcpurreG rne vrllage level revenue functionariesplayed a very crucial rolJ in manipulating tfre

-..cora,

which enabled the land owners to transfer their lands as itsuited thern Benami transfers i1r the name of relatives andfriends were freely resorted. to. In the ,ra-e of p.omotingreligious institutionq charitabfe trusts and educationalinstitutions, large chunks of larld were set upu.f ,in.. tfr.Iand shown as belonging to such instituiions ara notattract the provisions of the cei[ing prescribed in the lawUnscrupulous land owners avaifledoi this provision to getexemption for the excess land that rhey still had withthem.

The maintenance of land [ecords in Uttar pradesh,though better than in Bihar, stifi left serious lacunae. Theimportant functionaries in the lovernment are uery Olspleased about this state of,affails which apart frorn beingresponsible for tortuous litiga{ions has also generaredviolence between contending iactions in ttre vilta-ges. Tnis

64

SOCIAL CHANGE AND VIOLL'NCE 65

problem has been further compounded by the institution

if rcnu Pal who has taken the place of the .Panrari*ftl"tt p"tt was a hereditary office with its built-in. social

,u*iioit* The Lekhapai who has succeeded to this vital

office is an appointee bf the Government He enjoys enor-

-o.r, po'o..i and can make or ruin the landowners by

*frut tt. chooses to interpolate into the records A dis-

tto".ri r-.trtu Pal in colluiion with a casts'conscious elec-

teJ Pradhan can sow the seeds of a great deal of.violence

i"lft" *t"f area; there has in fact been enough evidence of

it Further, failure to make timely entries of mutatioos

have created long term Problems'

According to a senior Police Officer' in Uttar Pradesh

ut r.uti +b"l oithe block Pramukhs elected have a doubtful

..*.0 of inrcgrity. These elections have generated con-

riJ.i"tf" violJnci and left behind a trail of bitterness

*tri.h fi"g.tt and erupts again into serious violence bet-

ween the -factions at every opportunity The mahas con-

tribute the money and muscle power'

The Revenue Department functionaries are also res'

oorrriUt. io, latt and order, and their preoccupation with

il-il order autiet stands in the way of accurate and

,irn"ty .ui",."ance of land records' which in turn leads to

;;;;.". There have been mass murders because of land

dispute. In the absence of pillars' the bou,ndaries, a-re vague

urri C"-uru"tions have to be done on the basis of maps'

it i, iut"t time and it requires the willing co-operation of

the Revenue officials at the local level Otlen these are

not forthcoming

In Uttar Pradesh the Brahmins constitute 9 '2o/o and

ttre i:ttat".t 7 '2o/o of the population Brahmins and

Thakurs who constitute 167o of the population corner more

than 50% of the political ofhces' Land Reforms measures

aiJU.".nt the intermediate castes which make 42o/o of th.e

popufutlorl. They have, however, not been able to

"fruU.ng. the supremacy of the centuries old proprietory

66

castes namely, theScheduled Ca$tes contstitute 2the population Only in themore than 5070 of the populaticaste constitutes more thanThus an important feature ofis their multi-caste character.2

Of the 12 lakh acres oftributed in the last ten yearsthe Scheduled Castes hsimilar benefits in the distribamendment of the Land RefCastes agricultural labourhighest priority in the dihouse sites. In terms of higherhowever, the lower half of thisavail of these benefits, largelythe benefits by an elite groupCastes themselves.

According to the studyAhme{ the Rajputs ownedrietory rights than under cualso for Banias, Kayasthasthig the Brahmins cultivatedrather than re$t merely onwas that the land reforms affiKaysthas and the Thakursmore land as a result ofRrahmins who stood to gain bof the Zamindari abolition.posed of the dhirs, Jats, Khuactually cultivated about halfextent benefited by the landsidered good cultivators compshied away from manual la

According to the 1952 dari Abolition AcL rhe

(.HANGE AND VIOLENCE

and the Thakurs. The% and the Muslims 15% of

the Thakurs constituteNowhere elsg any single

of a district's populatione districts of Uttar Pradesh

which have been dis-ce 1974,507o has gone to

olds. They have derivedon of housesites. By anAct 1973 the Scheduled

ouseholds are given thertion of surplus land and

ucation and employmentp have not been able to

se of the cornerins ofrom among the Scheduled

N. C. Saxena and Imtiazgreater area under proption rights. This was truethe Muslims. As against

land in many districtsietory rights. The result

the Muslims. Baniasas they stood to lose

e tenurial reforms thanway of ownership becauseintermediate castes com-

Lodhas, and Guiars.the total land and to that

brms. They were also con-to the upper castes who

I-and Rejorms in Uttar hadgsh 67

Zamindars rvere alowed to retain their sartlari and l(hu&kasht (self-cultivated) land. Over a period of timg becauscof the control exercised by the Zamindars on the bureauc*racy, a good deal ofland was added under this category tothe ownership of Zamindars" As mentioned eadier, thoughthe Act itself was passed in 1952 its implementatiotr began

only ifl 1955. The result was that Patwaris falsified landrecords extensively.

The progress of land reforms in Uttar Pradesh can begauged'from the fiollowing figures: 45.31 lakh householderswith land upto one acre owned a total of 9 '23 lakh acres in1953-1954. The same category of households owning uptoone acre increased ta 86.26 lakh households it 197l-1972

owning a total of 16.60 lakh acres. The number'ofhouseholds owning one to 2.5 acres was23.23 lakbin 1953'

1954, owning a total area of 39.39 lakh acres The corres'ponding figures for l97bln2 were 33.38 lakh householdsowning a total area of56 lakh acres. Households owning2.5 to l0 acres ofland was 37'28 lakh in 1953-1954 owninga total of 188.26 lkah acres. The corresponding figures forl97l-1972 were 44.15 lakh households owning 213.50 lakhacres The number of households owning land between 10

to 25 acres was 8.37 lakh in 1953-1954 owning a total area

of 151.90 lakh acres. The corresponding frgures for l97l-1972 werc 6.61 lakh households owning 95 lakh acres Thenumber of households owning more than 25 acres in 1971-

1972 was 72,000 who owned a total of 24.14 lakh acres

(These figures are from the National Sample Survey 8thand 26th round quoted by N.C. Saxena). "707o ofthe ruralhouseholds in Uttar Pradesh owned less than 2.5 and 5

acres Uttar Pradesh is a state of tiny holdings'z

As against their share of 2lo/o of the total populatiorlthe Scheduled Castes households operate on 9.5Vo of landPercentage of area of land holdings upto 5 acres owned byScheduled Castes is 68.9 of the total area held by them' Ofthose who operate on large area of 25 acres and above,

only 3% belong to Scheduled Castes


As estimarcd the Stateacres surplus land under the

should have had 5.62 lakhAct But the estimate

given by the State on l-l-1984 was only 2.94of the extent of evasionlakh acres This gives an

According to the figures by the State Govern-ment it had distributed all e available surplus land byMay, 1985. However, 5,327 involving l.zl45 lakh acreswere pending in various conearly 50% of the surplus Iunder the Ceiling Act wasestimated su{plus was onlyreally have bgen

Leasing out land isPradesh" Law is. however.silence was deliberate andadministrative instructionsthem to record the names ofin the land records.ple Survey, the total numberin Uttar Pradesh was aboutmillion owned less than 5mercy of land ownerg havenames are also not recorded

Ahme4 restrictions on I

In effect it means thatintended for distributionsubject of litigation The

half of what it should

banned in Uttar:on shareoroppers This

calculated But there arethe field officers forbiddinsb-tenants or share-croppersto the 26th National Sam-households leasing in land

.5 million out of which 3.4They are entirely at the

security of tenure and theirthe Revenue registers. The

National Sample Survey under this head are repor-ted to be erring on the lower and the actual number ofshare croppers and sub. ts is estimated at about 5

by N.C. Saxena and Imtiazout of land has broguht inthe back-door, driving the

million According to the s

share-croppinlg systemsub-tenancy underground rding to a survey conduc-ted in 1980-1981, the proporti n of absentee landlords washighest south of the Jamuna i the most fertile districts In

menon is found on a muchuna also happens to be the

the eastern districts" this psmaller scalg south of the Jarea which is most infested

The extent to whichth dacoits.

land reforms have beenallowed to be implemented inconceived in Uttar Pradesh

spirit in which they wereas been deterrnined by a

Land Reforms in lJttar Pradesh 69

combination of factors such as the class compositio4 ofthe MLAs and the Ministers, the orientation of the

bureaucracy and the extent of pressure from.below exer-

ted by the potential beneficiaries on the politicians.and the

administritors In the first three assembly elections'

according to one study by Mayer in 1969 (quoted by N'C'

Saxen4 ind Imtiaz Ahmed) 30% of the MLAs came from

the family of Zamindars and Taluqdars and 43\o from the

ranks of cultivators with proprietory right$ Only 24oh had

non- agriculturdl background"

The cultivated areas in Tarai of Nainital district was

in the posiession of the tribals till 1950' Under a scheme ofcolonisatio4 huge pieces of land extending from 100 to

5,000 acres were given on lease to refugees from the Pun'jab and retired military and civil officers The scheme

Lenefited mostly the Sikhs who came from Pakistan'

Gradually these big land owners started encroaching and

began to -occupy

the tribdl lands also. Sensing the danger

inf,erent in such a situatiprl the State Government passed

a law declaring further transfer of land from the Tribals to

non-Tribals Jnlawful The transfers effected till 1969

amounting to about l'50,000 acres were regularised' Inspite of tfie tgislatioa illegal transfer and occupancy ofland continued either through physical force or throughpayrnetrt of a paltry sum of about Rs 500 per acre of land

ihich would have cost several thousands In all such

cases, the Revenus records continue to show the ownership

of triUats over the land because of the restrictions

imposed by the Act of 1969. About 15000 acres are repor-

ted to have changed hands under this category after the

legislation In an effort to help the Tribals^ who were the

,riitims of the greed and high-handedness of the large land

own€rs, the Rivenue Secretary pryposed that the.land so

acouired by the land owners should be taken back by the'Assistant Collectors suo motq and he should be

a"tft";t"O to restore the lands to the original Tribal

owners using force where necessary. It was also provided

that wherever any person after being so evicted f,rom such

land by the assistant Collectoror part thereof without anypunished with itnprisonmentto three years, with ation ,a fine, Offenceswere to be cognizable andthis effect was issued in June'hation was not keen tothe medntime- representativestral Cabinet Ministers andminorities There was a spateand Farmers Association ofGovemment was accused ofcentral and Punjabsolve the Sikh problems'2reinforcements were placed atdistrict authorities keptnon-tdbals on various pretexts,ing on the district officers wereof the Gvoernment'2 In spiteRevenue Secretary on theordinance which was convertedacre of land had beenthree years precceding 1984.the transfer of the Revenue

In yet another instancecultivators were involved it wastake possession of the landlabourers from the Gaon Sabhaprosecuted Though theCabinet till 1983 only 158none of which iesulted rnculprits who would have had tohave to be relieved of themore influential sections of thelukewarrn implementation of the

The above ifistances deservetext of yet anothcr Government in which the targets

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

re.occupy the landauthority, he should bo

a term which may extendsix monthg and in addi-

under this amendmentAn ordinance to

"The Dishict adminis,this ordinance,.......... in

non-Tribals met the Cen-of harassment to

letters from the MinistersThe Uttar Pradesh

ing things diflicult for thewhich were trying to

though additional policedisposal the Nainital

physical wiction of thee informal forces work-

than formal ordersof the insistence of the

of theinto an Ac! not a single

to the Tribals in theonly outcome had been

in 1981.the interests of the poor

that those whoto the agricultural

should be criminallywas accepted by thetions had been liled,

Here again theprosecuted and wouldpossessions were the

landed class; hence theGovemment's decisions.

to be viewed in the con-

Innd Reforms in lJttar Pradesh 7l

were the poor Peopla According to a decision taken in1978, it wis proposed to oust agricultural labourers from

those of the baon Sabha lands where permanent cultiva-

tion was not possible or which were being used by the

entire village community as pasture or grazing- land"Within six months more than 60,000 cases were filed inthe revenue courts against the rural poor' The Government

got alarmed at the high number of conviction it would

f,ave led to and, therefore, stayed further action Finally in1981, the allotment was regularised and the conviction pro'

ceedings were abated'2

If implemented correctly and strictly the land reforms

in Uttar Pradesh are bound to disturb the existing political

and economic structures. Undestandably, thereforg those

who stand to lose their political leverage arising out oftheir economic a(Iluence are the ones who resist the strict

implementation of the land reforms. They have the money

power and with it goes the political -

power'-- In Uttar

bradesh and Bihar, they virtually dominate all political

parties except the leftist parties. S.P. Gupta who served inserreral capaiities in Uttar Pradesh before retiring from the

Indian Administrative Serviceg has observed: "The Uttar

Pradesh imposition of ceiling on land Holding Act' 1960

was amended eight times between 1961 and 1976"""' In our

politiceAdminiitrative culture the field revenue officials

iike other field officials, are completely demoralised (wen

if not comrpt) and are at the mercy of locally influentialpeople (mostly large land holders). The report of the Utlar'pruiesh Commisslon on District level Administration ofAugusg 1986 concludes that the cases under the Uttar

Fridesh imposition of Ceiling on Land continue to linger

on for years; the revenue staff at the lower level is hand inglove with large land holders In some instances the Ceil'

ing Act cas€s are pending for over a decade. In many cases

po-ssession of the allottees is on paper only',"" Unless the

ieprived sections of soiiety organise themselves and wage

a ielentless war agaisnt delays, comrptioq evasion and

social and ecooomlc injustice, the administration includ'

,-.t

"t2

:_rf^,::^:,":1i will conrinue !o be m-anoeuvred by thosewho wield money and muscle

Refere+ces

l. Prof Imtiaz,Ahmed and N.C. Saiena: .,Caste, Land and political

Power in Uttar pradesh" fl9g2. IBID. 4)'

3. S.P. Gupra: ..Uttar pradesh Lanp-Reforms., in Indian Expresq anational daily. Dr 5rh November. lg 19g6.

CHANCE AND VIOLENCE

'3

locrAL

!o bepower

CHAPTERS

I-AND REFORMS IN GUJARAT

According to Ganshyam Shahl : On the first day ofthe formation of Saurashtra State in April' l%8' th€ new

Government dominated by Vanias and Brahmins ganted

occupancy rights to the cultivators without compensatory

oavment Foithe first timg the cultivators got the right of-transferring

and inheriting land The result of the land

reforms in-saurashtra in the wake of independence led to

one of the most even distribution of land holdings of any

resion in India Though some of the Girasdars who were

thi pwners of land launched agitations aginst the reforms

and some of them resortQd to daboities, the stern handling

oi the problems by the State led to the collapse of the

revolt

Unlike the Girasdari Act of Saurashtra the tenancy

act was not rigorously implemented in Gujarat This is

o"rtlu b..uut" -ttt. puitidu.t, commonly known as Patels'

l"iiut u"o Brahmin landownerg who would have been

aJrne.sely affected by the Act dominated the- Congress

i"* ""a

the adminisiratioo At the same timg the Act did

lot iuif altogether either. Dr. Ganshyam Shah quotes M'B'

b"rui *tto f,ad carried out a sample survey in 65 villages

thus: "About half the area previously under tenancy

oassed into the ownership of the respective erstwhile

ienants. About l27o of the land held by 9% tenants con-

iinrrea u.taet recognised tenanc)" A little ove-r 27o of the

iu"Jtf i""u"ts sliiped from them in default of payment of

"o.p.t tutiott ambunt The rest were cases' in which the

i.""ittt either denied their tenancy, surrendered the land

to the land owners, or kept away from the hearings of the

tribunal an4 therefore, missed of their own volition to be

73


ted on lease." Thus a sizep under tenancy abolitionThe net result of the land ref has been that most of thetenants belonging to the castes or Scheduled Castesavail of the provisions of

owners of the land thevable tenancy escaped or

did not havg rg courage toacqurnng ownership as it worand claiming their rights frorttrey were not prepared They,

l. have meant standing uptne upper castes For this

Concealed tenancv inland ceiling law which was

largely on paper. Only 43.721qualrty was surrendered ..The

observe the implementation ofGovernment take any other st(rative machinery to implementpledg-e in public that iurplus

less under the land Ceiline Actthey led ro redistributioo -of

I",substantially changed the landcaste or class.

There are about 19 unionsrural Gujarat with memwhich is barely 4yo of the to

tenancy.

militancy and resort to

ually assaulting their women

The landed classes havewatchmen called ..Rakha'

to pa number of instances of vl

org surrendered their

forms continued Thein 1960 and which was

against land owners sex-

nbufton among the land_The land reformg thoughto some exten( have not

of work demandinsfor housesites or foi

relationships in terms of

agricultural labourers inof less than one lakhnumber of agriculturalnot organised for collec-

a degree of

later amended in 1974 ta the ceiling has remainedacreas of land of inferior

the simple suggestion of.overnment rejected wena watchdog committee toCeiling Act Nor did theto gear up the adminsit_Act The farmers took a

dered to the Government 'for d would not be surren-

workers. The majority of them Inve bargaining They display

higher wages or village commongiyi"C rheir cattle or proresting

system of employingInerr crops. There aree'by Rathas against

Land Relorms in Guiarat '1 5

labourers. Rakhas are usually people from outside the area

selected for their muscle Power'

Though the Minimum Wages Act tr{ U991 revised in

rSSZ raisifu w4ges from Rs' 5'50 to Rs lll- per day'

aericultural labourers rarely get their prescribed. wages'

;;6; i; Saurashtra The Labour Officers appointed to

;;f;" the liw hardly ever enforce it They never,visit the

;ii;;;.ii';t;"p."t irt. labourers to visit their orlices and

reooit abour lower wages' Under the Act the farmers are

;;p;;iJ1; Gep 'ecJrds

of the wages pai4 but such

reiords are hardly ever maintained' The amount of fine

*if.","0 by the 'Courts

from the land owners for their

ialure to pay minimum wages tlg -f^T^ 1le^,

non'

*ui"i""u".t oistipulated records in 1981' 1982' 1983 were

itli,;67:, nt- s2,ssrl- and Rs' 2'06 lakh respectivelv'

ffrui ttt" trend is towards non'conformity with the legal

stipulation is evident from this

In the light of the foregoing the conclusion that

...o., is thai Gujarat like Uitar Pradesh and Bihar has

*riiii-i".rr considerable volume of exploitative violence

induged in by the vested. interests'

References

l. Dr. Ganshyam Shah : "Caste Sentiments Class formation and

dominance in Gujaraf' (1984)'

2. IBID

I.AND REFORMS IN WEST BENGAL

Rural unrest connected with land reform started

lryil_1lS in West Bengal aroupd 1967.It started as a pro-l"tt.bf t* pea$ants against rhe non-implemeiiatioi or tfre

l1i_d_::4iryS_r The peasant! under in" ".*ryi-.rgrogNaxalite leadership started oc$upying tle fani

"ot O iothe State on- the ground that tfjianis did ;; Uetog to3_.-t?:Mo"rsyh9 9o1tinu9d to claim it;;; A;G iwas_ in excess of what they hqd been allowed

"O"rTn.geilfC 4"! nr"y demandid rliat such of tnela"a *ticnf_.,ry Ho_op"d

ro the peoplf be disnibJed-"-log tn"landless. The then Government of West S;g"f d."fuA to

:f:11t*g_P.?Ilef tatign.levelFommitreerioio""rr".iogthe distribution of vested lands The -;t"^htp ffiil;Committees. iyas composed of represe"t"ti".i of ,n"various. political parties as ailo tne C"r"*..nt fn"Committees were to decide on the allomenioi,urpf",land among the landless on thg spot after eiamining theclaims on their merits The Cogmitte.wo.[;;-f.ffi*;;by spgt orders by the MinisterJ .orr..*"Jit. 6v"-_ment issued instructions that i{ all the disputes bltweenthe.tenants and the land ownen[ tne pofice-woufJextena

1:i1,ryoog" to rhe tenants T{is system or ultttl"t orvested.land wgrked very well {f ff'of *l* itl"l.l*a userbacK_tollowing the introductibn of the presidenfs rulein the lfta_fhis gave an impefus to tle Naxafite-_orre-ment with all its violence and {he numerous *".alm i"::t9_!tT9, "tl

of which,have sipce become a purt of tfr"unforgettable and gory history of West n""gui i"i"g Aatperiod

The bulk of the rural poor West Bengal are sharecroppers and landless labourers

CHAPftRg

76

Tenancy in the past had

Land Reforms in West Bengal 77

been based largely on informal arrangement$ As 4 conse'

quencg laws designed to reduce the amount of the crop

tLat the sharecropper had to give to the land owner, and

laws to improve the security of tenure had been

operationally ineffective' To altet this situatiog the Csm-

munist Party (Marxist) regime had undertaken a concerted

effort to legaliy register the share croppers' names in the

hope that this would improve d(eir income and provide

them greater securitY.

One of the early acts of the CPM Government was to

introduce The Land Reform Amendment Bill in 1977' This

Bill introduced a few important safeguards which taken

together were designed io provide a definite sense ofseiurity to the tenants' The Bill placed the onus of proving

that a man is not a share cropper on the landowners' This

protected the tenant farmers from arbitrary wiction "Per- L

sonal cultivation" was defined to exclude cultivation by

servants or hired labourers Failure to issue receipts to

share croppers was made a cognizable offence' The

Amendmini also sought to remove absentee landlordism

and the related large scale holdings by non-agriculturists'These steps gave te-eth to the implementation of the land

reforms in West Benga! a characteristic all of its own and

which has contributed significantly to defusing tensions

and violence arising out of possible conflicts overland inthe countryside. This is in such sharp contrast to the situa-

tion obtaining in Bihar and Uttar Pradesh-

Mr. Atul Kohli has dealt with in his paperl the special

steps taken by the Communist Party (Marxist) in West

fengat witn regard to the land laws The Governmentundirtook a special drive called'Operation Barga whichfacilitated rapitl registration of share croppers'

*Teams ofbureaucrats lad/or parly members, activists and Kisan

Sabha members were sent out to the countryside toannounce the laws and to register the share croppers onthe spot The operation has had considerable sucgess

While'over the irevious threc decades' fewer than 600fl)

7E

shar€ croppers were in the areas where the CpMis now operating in its first years the CPM succeededin registeriag over 1.2 Compared to the past per-formances of Congress and regimes in the area. theCPMs success is According to the agendapapers of the Reveuue Conference held inNovembe4 1986 till the end 1985 a toral of 1.3 millionsharecroppers had beenof sharocropping families is

CHANGE AND YIOLENCE

The estimated number1.5 rnilliq[

The sharecroppers who stood to benelit from thesheet anchor of the CpM

The CPM has also con@n-

amended laws constitutedparty cadres in the ruraltrated on providing extrasetting up employmentsetting up employment genrseen to the effEctive enfotcei"As the political fortunes ofthe success of such.ssure throlgh party I

scheme g sustained pressure through party hascomrption and maladn ,the

tlpicat problems of

The CPM Government ofcal parties to compete for local

est Bengal allowed politi-

resrrlt was that 98% of thepositions The

the block level and 67% attheat the district levelT4% at

village level were caphrredby the CPM candidates in I The 1983 Panchayat elec-uoos were a oearrepeat .nce" "The CPM regime

goYemments thus rcpalong with newly create-dr$etrts tlvo interlinkedorganisational penetratibn'peripheqy' and a shift in the class basis ofinstitutional power.Z

The CPM has that the implementationof land reforms is a feasible given the politicalwill to ensure that vestedgress of the reforms The

.t in the rural areas bvschemes It has also

nt of the 6inimg6 araqgge CPM are closely tieJ to

of political change inthe 'centre' into the

do not impede the proof CPM generate tleirown brand of violence in the of their conllict with

ktnd Reforms in llesr Bengal 79

what they consider as their class enemie$ But lookingmerely at the limited problem of the economicallymarginalised peasantry the manner in which the CPMbrought about the redistribution of land among thepeasantry with little or no violence carries its own politicalmessage.

References

l. Atul Kohli : "From Etite Radicatism to D€mocratic Consolidation :

The rise of Reform commuaism in West Bengal" (1984).

2. IBID

ryrl0

CASTE CONFLI AND AGRARIANIN BIHARVIOLENCE

An effort will be made this part to illustrate withthe help of specilic cases.

and parts of Uttar pradesh. and Gujarat dur-ing the last decade. In the course of this study, theexperiences of Karnatakaalluded to with a view to

West Bengal have been

employed as an instrumenthow politics when

be effected without violence aschangg social change cana necesary concomitant

This is not intended to

violence that have

incidents Much less doesincidents involving violencsan attempt to analyse a few ofthat have contributed toible identi$ such of the

$peq and the intensitv ofd the rural areas of Bihar

where with proper planningthe context of the institutior

The mindloss killings in tto here have just become mere

labour the point that theboth udth regard to their

a catalogue of violentaccount give details of

the various states. This isseveral causative factorsand to the extent poss-

in the instances citedand variety are largely

to a 'therapeutic' eflorl Ias would lend themselvesfocussed on those areas

the many programmes incapability of the deliverv

system, it should have been to avert violencewhich was othelwise to be

several incidents referredeaningless statistics in the

climbing graph of devastated One does not have to

the outcome of the ic changes in the countryduring the last decade We wait for a change in

Caste Conflict and Agrarian Violence in Bihar 8l

human nature for achieving semblance of peace and harmony ln a society under change. This has to be brought

uUo"t UV the innovation and even radical changes in

institutions If there is one truth that has been consecrated

Uy ttittoty, it is that a country can achieve nothing if itsinstitutional infrastnrcture is cornrp! partisan, ineffective

and inefficient Those who prevent creatior of institutions

or subvert them, however insidiously, for personal, paay of

caste interests, cotrtribute to tle volume of violence in our

society, each in his own self'serving ways

Many of the issues which eventually ended in violence

halr begun as first'time problems- existing

itt*tit rtiottL were not designed to cope with nor have they

ilee" t"itaUfy innovated or the required number ofaooropriate new ones create4 and strategically locate4 to

-rlt tn" changes in the political and socioeconomic con-

ditions wbich characterise independent India"

One aspect of violence in Bihar which needs to be

emphasizedis that a large number of people have come to

o*"py positions of eminence in the economic and politi-

cat nfe of tne State whose upward mobilif from th. e lowest

rung was facilitated by violenca Violence in Bihar has

beei receiving a social acceptability as an inevitable con'

comitant of growth of political and economic power'

Otherwise it is=not possible to explain why individuals who

had used muscle power cam€ to occupy positions of power

in the socioeconomic and political life of the Stats These

centres of power became an invitation to others waiting intl. *l"gt *ittt th. same "qualifications" as the successful

*iuld"rt'of ".ottomic

and poUticat power' If anything they

are practitioners of a more sophisticated form of violence'

Violence by the economically strotrg against the

weaker sectioni has become endemic in Bihar' The

labourers in Karghar block of Rohtas district had

organized a strike in March, 1977 ra secure- minimum

waies This provoked the landholders to attack the Hari'

jans in their residentialwere shot and burnt alive inthe labourers who hadwages were attacked by theMany of them were injured19th Jung 1977 in Patahada i

Monghyr district in 1979. asome Rajputs in collusionGuards This incident which

SOCL{L CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

in which three labourershaystack In Gopalpur alsowork demanding minimumlandholders in June. 1977.

their women molested OnBhagalpur distric( 36 men

were conlined to arulted In Bharampur4 4landholders for demand-

27, 1977. In all thesethat the landholders

local police chief whoeir castes,

and women from amone theschool building and britallyshare.croppers were killed bvmg occupang/ rights onincidents it was openlyenjoyed the tacit backing ofallegedly belonged to onJof t.

involved Evidontly nothinglevel to sort out the dilferer

the police in the handline ofHarijans is proved by the-m:dled some of the cases in Bi

The shameful Belchi in<Harijans were burnt alive was

in 1978 in which t1upshot of a long stand-ing feud between Kurmi lar and the. Scheduled

Castes agricultural labourers over the payment of theminimum wages and of forced labour. Theand organised It was

entire crime wasalleged that there was J tacit between thelocal police and the It was not a sudden eruption Economic issues of a standing nature were

done at the administrative

ted this ghastly incidentwhich could have preven-

trative institutionalthe existing adminis-

inadequate to meet thearc either unsuited or

That a distinct is required on the part ofof atrocities against thein which they had han-In a case reported from

standing land dispute wasMagistrate. He came to the

rge cobbler was killed bvthe police and the Home

the outcome of a lone'ed into by the Districi

that the story asreported by the police Sub the area was false.

Caste Conflict and Agrarian Violence in Bihar 83

The Scheduled Caste individual was the aggdeYed party

and needed to be protecte4 which was not done whichresulted in his death

In another case reporled from village Samhanta inRohtas district of Bihar in Jung 1979, four Harijans were

killed by some Rajputs. The underlying cause was again

land dispute which had been going on for about ten years.

The Commissioner for Scheduled Castes had this inquiredinto by a senior Police Offrcer who came to the conclusionthat the Sub'Inspector in charge of this area was in collu-sion with the local Rajput landowners and they were resr

ponsible for the killing of the four Harijans The localFofce had tried to give the incident the colour of anencounter with dacoits resulting in the death of four per'

sons which was totally false. The concerned Police

officials were later ordered to be prosecuted'

The Harijan locality of Pipra village in Patna districtwas invaded by the Kurmi land owners on 26th February1980. The invaderq numbering about 200 were armed withguns They were alleged to have set fite to 27 houses ofHarijans and shot the peoplg looted their property andburnt alive their cattle. It has been reported tbat the

assailants indulged in unbelievable brutality like throwinga threeyear-old child into the fire. In all' 14 Harijans laydead which included 5 women, 3 adults and 6 childrenThough the incident stretched over 6 hourg the Police

from the nearest Police Statioq which was only 3 kilomet-res away from the scene of the tragedy, did not reach the

spot till after the whole tragedy was over' The Kurmis inthis case were avenging the murder of one Bola Slngh bythe Naxalities who were organising the Harijans of thisarea to resist the tyranny of tbe Kurmi landholders.

Considering the manner in which the Police behave

on all such occasions, it is difficult to disbelieve theallegations made by the weaker sections that the Police isquite often in collusion with the upper and intermediate

CIIANGE AND VIOLENCE

caste landowtrers. In Bihar, of the armed Police posted in the rural areas to the local Police andpatrol the aroas of Naxalite live in the. Estate(Katcheries) of the landhty, as therc is no provision fiin rural areas for police These extra Police

tnerealter to act against thejust not possible Here is an

of the landholders is

fall-out from theof policing in which thechanges that have beenreforrns and tle otherinto consideration But

the Police system continues toway as it was several decades

function in much the same

marginal changes if at allto Independence, with

detachments have to stavdgvelop links i"ith rhetliereafter to act asainst th,

taking place following thechanges should have been

many of whom are imponantThe illegal anns are so wideson

and avail of their hospitali-independent accomodation

long periods when thevrlders. To expect the;

In a State where caste cdnflict is endemic and thesociety stands hopelessly dividtd on caste fi""r, th"

"o_-posluon ot the police force wfrich has a cruicial role toplay in resolving the conflicts is a very i.po*uir'f""ro..The representation of the *elk", sections'in ttre poticeforce has to be visibly improv{d at the operational twelNot much attention was paid ifr the past io ,fri, u.o""t ofcaste composition of police force

Raliq Khan and Shiv Singht, two scholars ofthe Gandhian Institute of S Varanasi, did a casestudy of the atrocities on with special reference to

block of Rohtas districtthe Bhishramprtr village in Diin Bihar (1978). According to ; "So much insecurituhas come to dorrninate the villadministration that possessing

on accoult of inefficientadministration e illegal arrns to protectoneself from robbers is as a necessity.......Policemen are never tired of rating dacoits and mur-

"'d by this or that leader-derers who are regularly y this or that leader

in tle GvoernmentIt is widely beliwedby non-Harijan castes number of Harijan

Caste Conlict and Agrarian Violence in Bihar 85

bouseholds are fully equipped with guns and grenade$

il;ii;t""; on thi otheihand told us that ev€ry f.amilv

i".the fit-i caste has gung in some casps with licence

atrd in some without"

Parasbhiga village of Jehanabad subdivision of Gaya

dirtti";;; tf. scenJof one of the worst massacres result'

i;;6;;;il conflicts This happened in Februarv.' 1980'

Tiis village was invaded by the Bumihani and th€ iouses

oitft. ffuitj""s were set on fire" When th€ inmates tried to

..*pc ttt.y were ghot aud pushed back -in

the flame' In

;-lt -i2-i;;'*"re lost This was an act of rwenge by the

nimilars for the suspected involvement of a member of a

rn*i.tJ f"-ify of the village in the murder of one of the

Sumihar landowners in October, 1979'

Thcre have been allegations of collusion between the

Police and the upper caste Bumihars who were-responsible-foittti -utt""re at Parasbhiga "The role of the adminis-

;;dd t it reporte4 has been adversely commented upon

by the oneman commrssion under Mr' ld'K Prashad

{"u.ou, Member, appointed by the Gorernment to go

int -tftit

incident It iJ significant that this-report was not

;i;;J;t the table of thJBihar Assemblv' Some Members

;ii;;l",t; Assemblv told this author that it.contained

i""ltii".ti"g information regarding the behaviour of the

ua-i"itt utio" and the politicians'2

On April 3, l9E2 six persrons wery -tittgf

in the Police

f"i"Ji" s'"l"tta in Rajnagar block of Madhubani district

of B-ihar. Two more persons were reportedly b€aten to

a"uttu ttto"gft their names did not figure in the oflicial list

firit it-'ut a-sequel to the conflicts between Harijans and

backward caste peasants on the one side and upper caste

i;;.;;* on'the other' The peasants had demanded

*u"" io"t.ut. as stipulated under the law which was con-

;;A;;t;t not given effect to bv the landowners' The

L'iri"" .r."l"ted gr-adually over certain other incidents tilli

-t t"f*a in Police firing The Baluha outrage was 'in a

86

sense an instance of thepeasant labour movement bone more instance in whichwith the vested interests

The widening gapmes and their implemcontext of the potential forthe adminis trative agenciesinterests will regard what inacting in their exploitativetheir privileges.

An operation Black Pan1985 agaisnt kidnappings forplaguing West Champaran forindulged in this crime haddowners or influential leadersing this operation, one of thehouse of a close relative of adacoit was arrested from theing to one ver$ion, the formertook to crime following landstaded helping sugarcane cultand also made advancetraders at a considerablebetween the big cultivators,clemen Since the musclemthese traders and cultivatorsof kidnapping ,A.ccording tonapping cases were registeredto 16 in 1982,48 in 1983 andthere had been 25 cases.

On22ndAugust l9Mthe Bhumihar communitvon Government land by 100Ambari of Monghyr districtbeaten up. Acoording to the

C}IANGE AND VIOLENCE

police response to theup in Bihar. This is

police had allegedly sided

the Government program-needs to be viewed in the

that it holds. Unlessimpartially, the vested

has accrued to them byas legitimate part of

was launched in MarclUransom, which had beensix years. The dacoits who

links with big lan-West Champaran Dur-

outlaws was killed in thetical leader, while another

of an M.Ld Accord-musclemen of landowners

These musclementors to sell their producet on behalf of the bigThus a nexus developed

h traders and the mus-knew how much money

they thought ofthe ideaoflicial figures, only5 kid-l98l but the number rosein 1984. Till June of 1985

150 people belonging toand burnt the huts built

families in villageof the Harijans wereMagistrate of Mon-

Caste Co4flict and Agpian Vtolence in Bihar 87

chw. the Bumihars who comhitt€d this atrocity on the

iffi; were motivated by a desire to appropriate the

land belonging to the Government Some o[ the important

i""t Lto"dtt -uut from a study of this case in its details

arei

First the Revenue Circle Officer who played the most

crucial role in getting the land allotted to the Bhumihar'

t"o*i"g well tiat about 100 Harijan fqniliel w-ere settled

on the ilot, was himelf a Harijan The District Magrstrate

ft"fJ ni- primarily responsible for the entire series ofevents along with the other higher functionaries' Apparen-

tly he and others had been bribed'

Secon4 the State offrcials far from playrng an objec-

tive rolg were working in collusion with the vested

interests and against the weaker sections'

The Diara lands which are usually very fertile and the

size and shape of which vary continuously because. of the

changing course of the river, has no fixed land-marks and

is co-nstintly under dispute. Establishing, one's right on

such land depends largely on muscle and money power'

There are reportedly about 50 to 60 gangs operatin-g in the

Diara area of Monghyr distric! who are notorious for their

acts of extreme violence' In one such incident on llthNovembet, 1985 about a thousand armed men belongngto the Yadav community swooped on the village

Lakshmipur and opened fire oo Binds with whom the

Yadavs had dispute over a piece of land' The Yadavs are

reported to have killed 12 persons; gangraped their women

and set fire to more than 200 houses Though the Binds

had been voicing their fear of impending attack on them

even l5 days before the inciden! no action was taken by the

authorities. Indifference on the part of the Police on the

pretext of certain legal niceties is a recurring source offrof"""" in the rural

-areas generally' This is an area where

aoorooriate institutiogal innovation has not been

fortnco-ing in spite of the loss'sf so many innocent lives'

to some land being cultivatedsought to be taten over by thethe District Mogistratefamilies This, tragedy couldaction by.the authorities had

laws enacted about a hundredwith the requirements of the

sleeping in a house in vflltgsof Patna district vrere shotkilled were standing trial onbail. According to thesuspected that this massacrefrom Scheduled Castes orthose killed were members ofwing of the Kurhi landownergthe Harijans in the area.

The Bhumi Sena ismis belonging to GayA PatnaBhumi Sena is accused ofbigha per year from theGovernment servant a sum ofbeen reported by theinfluence increased. it alsohas been accused of lerying awere not in need of itsthe levy are harassed in severaldeclare them as 'Naxalites'. Thethe Kurmis thomselves areactivities of this Sena. It is2.5 to R& 3 lakhs. It ha6 no

.!

alfiliations

Harijans were killed by a $oOctober, 1985 in village Saibali

In lGpri Police Statioa

the execuse for not taking actitdid not provide fe1 faking agtiql

SOCTAL CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

Jehanabad dishict twoof Bhumitars on lgth

This incident waa a sequelthe Harijans which was

casbs. Subsequently,the land to the Harijan

haw- been averted ifinitt{t€d earlier, thoughearlier was that the law

did not provide for taking actiorviolence ofa given degree This

unless there was manifestis another instance of the

ago bcing out of tune

On 5th December, 1984, l0 of 13 Kurmis who wereof Punpun area

Many of those who wereof murder and were on

by the policg it wasdone by some persons

sympathisers as some ofBhumi Sena an armed

ious for atrocities on

an organ isation of Kur-Nalanda districts. Thea tax of Rs. 2.50 per

and from everv2/- a year. It has also

agencies tlat as itscommitting crimes It

even from people whoThose who fail to pay

ways. One of thesi is toincluding some of

unhappy with theto have a fund of Rs

Cattz Co4flict and Agmrian golence in Bihar 89

The Lal Sena of the Red Army has some- ideological

contetrt behiod its origin and operations, unlike the other

Senas which arb the cr€ation of landed interests' as an

.ipJOi."t for subserving caste or group interests' T,he Lal

dna does not belong to any caste group unlike-th9 fuwarSena which tepresents Thakurs' the Brahma Rishi Sena

*ni"n t pt t"oG the Bhumiharq the tohrik Sena which rep

resents tie yaAavs and the Bhumi Sena which represents the

for-it. The Lal Sena has got a wider popular base because

it is not casteoriented. It had its origin initially in Bhojpur in

i-gi+ *n." it came into conflict with the police in which

sweral of them were killed The Lal Sena has sinrce spread to

put"'a C"Vu and Nalanda It has amongst its.members

Vo"tnt i" tit. age group of 18 to 30. Its leadership is often in

the haods of the uPPer castes

According to the police sourceq in the initial stage+

the Yadavs who used t<r joil the Lal Sena in large num-

bers used to commit several crimes which was not

"oo-t.a by the leaders of the Lal Sena They' therefore'

a'.iiA.a to purge the Lal Sena of such elements' The

.f.L."tt ,.-"oia from the Lal Sena in combination with

th; b;tt"t ones among the Yadavs, formed a Sena which

""-. to be knowa as tne fntit Sena One of the aims oftn. fontit Sena is to confront the memebrs of the Lal

Sena openlY.

A private army calling irelf the. Iohrik Sena raided

four vilalges in Nalanda district on l5th November' 1985

and killei three persons syPPosed to be memb.ers of the

Lal Sena the army of t6e extremists The killiag v3s

"U.g.Afy in retatadon for the murder of a Lohrik Se4a

-riUri Uy Lal Sena a day earlier' Two olher alleged Nax

alites werotilled about the same time in Gaya district The

yiolence in Nalanda and Gaya was a sequel to the disputes

oto .i"i-o- wages for harcsting crop* ln the. case in

which the Irhrik 5e4a members had gonc to a village in

90

Gaya dishict and killedthey had done earlier, it hasthe ofiicial reports that thethe police statiions ofseen in the codpany of theThe police oflicer tried toLohrik Sena on the groundchase the Naxafities Thounowledged in the presence ofhad seen thi members of the Iarms and. also knew that thevtide stiU he tobk no steps toIohrik Sena members. 'itemitted the murder of ahouses and reiieved somepreparation was within theand could have been averted

These private armies arevidgd with country made gunswhich are manufactured indicelThis district produces lirealmost on the liaes of a factory.

It has been alleged thatthemselves demanding minirwith ruthlessly by the police,This is in contrast to the indthe Senas other dhan Lal Senaenfcrcing authorities Aguns, spears and swords withtaken out to demonstrate thein 1983. This procession washibitory orders Slogans werewhich were derogatory of thewas: "Naxalyon Ki Kya Dawai?(What is the renredy for the Nsix inches). It implied chopping heads off

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

alleged Naxalites for wbatclearly brought out in

House Oltcer of oae ofdistrict and his stall were

of the Lohrik Senahis presence with the

t he was there trying tothe Police OIIiccr ack-

.siblc ollicials that heSene in possession of

I commit a crime anythe weapons from theSena members coeman and looted a.fen'

of their jewellery. Thcof the police offrcer

ll organised and well proof various types, mosi of

in Monghyr districton a commercial scalc

the labourers asscrtwages they are dealt

, them as Naxalitcs.that the members of

at the hands ofthe lawof landowners carrying

elephants wasof the Bhumi Sena

out in spite of proby the orocessionistr

Sena One of the slogansChe Inch deo Bhai"

ities? Shorten them bv

Caste Conflict and Agrarian Vtulence in Bihar 91

The distrubing aspect of the activities of the Senas is

that even the police finds it expedient to encourage some

oi tft.t" Senis as long as their activities are directed

against the Lal Sena which is the armed wing of the Nax-

riiti.* fnt short sighted policy has a dangerous potential

Often what the Senas indulge in are acts of vendetta divor-

ced from idelogical considerations' These actions are

explained away by the police on the assumption that the

viciim or the viciims were Naxalities. The fact that the

State administration for whatever reasor! was not taking

steps to contain the activities of these Senas can lead to

inferences which may not be complimentary to the State

administration How can any private individual or groups

be allowed to act on behalf of the State in an unauthorised

waf This rs abdication of authority by the State or an ack'

nowledgement. that the State s writ does rot run in certain

areas oi that it does not want to interfere in the activitiss ofcertain selected groups or individuals. However one looks

at it, it is a pathetic commentary both on the political and

the adminisirative authority of the Government In the lat-

ler half of 1986, the State Govemment is reported to have

taken steps to ban thesa private armies. The impact of this

decision remains to be seen

According to official frgures the number of murders inwhich Naxalities were involved in Bihar was 53 in 1982, 38

in 1983, 28 to 1984 and 28 till the end of September' 1985'

The Naxalities are reported to have snatched from the

public 4 rifles and 36 guns in 1983, 3 rifles and 7 guns ini984; 3 tifl"r and 9 guns till the end of August, 1985' In1984. the Naxalites snatched 20 rifles from the police and

in 1985 till the end of August they had snatched 5 riflesfrom the police.

The Director General of Police'Bihar in a statement

to the Press stated that on April 19' 1986 the police opened

fre in the area of Police Station Arwal of Jehanabad sub'

division of Gaya district against a crowd of people who

were alleged to be Naxalites Thev are alleged to have

92 SOCIAL CIiANGE AND VIOLENCE

attackedthe $uperintendent o[fonce ofJehanabad. In all53 rounds were fired, killing il "ff"g"O-f.i.*"iit"Jo" tfr"

:p91"i9 causing injury to 20. Latea i2 ofth.lrjrr.c ai.ain the Hospital brinsine the death ioff to Zi.-a"llJing tol!. I:1. Commission-er, thib incidenicouroîiul u"ro,aveled. had the police not b$en a silent ,p"*ur*l" ,fr"beginning allowing more thari 500 p;;;i. ;llrl_'ur, i"contravention of the prohibitbry orders wtricn Laa rcenrmposed earlier. The holocaus{ had its beginni"g ii u fu"a$t:Oy" between the Harijans {n the one i*iO. uo?-^ i.rri.,Engtneer on the other. The police version has been charac_terised as,slartted by some jlurnalist u"J-ut*-Li'ro-.Congress legislarors who had f"u.rtigatea ilJ'ii.id""t oothe spot

o^,,]l^"- ex-Chief Justice of the Delhi High Court, Shri

Yllo::li"har and Lt Gen ghri s.a iiih;iR;,j"t aio:, :1 th:. spor inquiry of the police n.i"g ul ,ir*uL ffr.lTl tr dispute

-which reportefly belonget i" n^.1 Uanot been entered in the record pi rigtrts Ttre .."-oial_"rr_tioned that the land had beJn dIsc.ihJ ".-ii.-","".uuucu ura. me lano had beqn described as the BiharSarkar Anabad The Home fo--irrio*, ioil-f.rrti..Sachar and Lt Gen Sinha (Repd") tnut tfr. Oirtilt magis.trate of Gay4 in the initial rfeport to tfr" Cou.*rorrrtabout the firing h,ad observed tfrat ttre nri"g

"t er*f fr"a

been _uncontrolled, excessive arld *itho.rt

"iy orAo, f-*the Magistrate.

About the Arwal police fusion that inquired into it cameonly had the poliee used force but that restraintcould' have averEd deaths In this, as in several other

inevitable conclusion that theplay greater political will and

the one-man Commis-to the conclusion that not

needs to dis.

nexus between the police andr.ecunr,lng incidents which point

similar cases, the inference is i rscapable that there was athe vested interests Theto such collusion between

the administration and the interests at various levelsagainst the interests of the sections point to the

if its credibility in

Coste Conlict dnd Agarian Violmce in Bihar 93 '

helping the weaker sections of society is not to suffer any-

iit-iri..] rntt. are the occasions when the accountability of

il" plii"" to the people needs to be demonstrated

There was a report of two armed encounters between

p.i"ut -"t-i"t

of landholders and the Lal Sena of the

ijaxalites whcih are reported to have left 15 people dead

.tili""v ini"red during the second week of Aprit 1986'

il;-;;lt;ters took place in Gava and Patna districts'

according to the Home Commissioner of Bihar'

According to Times of India dated 2nd May' 1986 the

Police chief oi Bihar is reported to have admitted in a note

or"ou."d bv hh that the police had been encouraging the

;ff;" ;;i"t of landowners in areas of Naxalite actiYity

i"-.."1t"isihar' He has been quoted as having recorded

;il"t th. i'Poli." in these areas had abdicated their normal

a,rti., u.ta the tendency among the police functionaries

*u, t" encourage the defence groups (1!e !9nas) to

itiu"i"itte-s"ti.s itt order to fighi out the Naxalites This

n""-t tfta very negation of police performance. which

u.touifv t"r"fi.a iritle rise ofdifferent Senas in Bihaf"r

The caste war in Bihar took yet another toll of ten'

human lives on 8th July 1986 which included two children

u"J ti* women in viliage Kansari under the Jehanabad

iotice Circte at Arwal 1t is astonishing that the police

ft."O Q"utt"tt at Patna and Gay4 which are fairly close

to the scene of the event became aware of it forty hours

un"i it ftuO occured" This massacre was by way of retalia-

tion by the upper castes aganist the killing of a landholder

bv a suspected activist of the Mazdoor Kisan Sangram

i'u-iri *ni"ft usually spearheads the cause of the landless

ior minimum agriiuftural wages and gen99lly. against

oppt"stiott and ixploitatiorl It was again alleged in this

"ur. u. in such cases in the past that the police had

colluded with the landholders in the caste war'

In Bhagalpur distric! three women - agricultural

labourers n"et ittot dead by the poliee on 5th Decembe!

1986. According to a reDort48th December; 19g6 the traraffluent landllolder who hadentitlement under the Ceitinging for the recognition of tiwages The police had gone torble harvesting of crops

The ruthless massacre ofbelonging to the Rajput comMay 29th, I987, in tlre villagesin Aurangabad district of Bchain of vendetta kiililgs 111

the communities had indulostarting from September 4, Ican be traced to the time whtwho had been tilling the landMath for years as share crpossessed by a Rajput to rdonated the land to escape theAct This forcibleY-adlvas who had been lookingthe land cultivated by them w<quent on the Ceiling Act Theyan acuvrst group which had betmunist Centre (MCC). The ywhen they killed on SeptemberRajput who had dispoisessed tlThey also killed anolher RajputThe Rajput aveqged these deby killing six of the MCC acta sequel to this, the MCC armia in Aurangabad district ondered mercilessly eleven Raior

1a ch-ilttlen The Rajput reslseven Yadavas in Cheechanialleged that while trris killiryabout twenty-frrve armed oolicraway and they did not intervenq

5. The series of tragediesalmost two dozen yadavs

the Indian Express datedLy was triggered off bv anland far in excess oi his

The women were agitat-y nghts and minimumvillage to stop the forc-

more than forty membersunity by the yadavas onf Dalalchak and Badhurawas the culmination of a

the members of bothin on different occasions

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

to the Salupdr4were forcibly di$

the Salupara Matht of the Land Ceilinghad infuriated the

em of their tilling righrs.on lOth September, 19g6.on September20th 1986in Village Parsadih. Asraided the Village Dar-

10, 1986 and mur.whcih included womento this was to gun down

in Apnl 1987. It wasgoing on there wer6barely one kilometer

forward to the time whenbecome theirs conso

en became members ofknown as Maoist Com-vas fired the first shot

1986, an employee of the

spite of, these series of

Caste ConJlict and Agraian Yiolence in Bihar 95

reprisal kiUings, no meaningful police effort was forthcom'

ii.g ; pt;i furthet violence is bome out by the

*i.ru.t. of Rajputs on May 29th 1987 in- the villages ofOutut"ttut uttd Budhntu- These series of cruel killings

illustrate most insistently the following points:

Land dispute has taken a heavy toll in terms ofhuman llives in Sihar. Next to adult franchise which has a

unique place in the evolution of the political institutions ofthe country, land reforms have been the most importantmeasure introduced in the post-independence period

which has had far reaching socioeconomic impact on the

Indian society-, This,, in spite of the fact that there is con-

siderablagap between the land reforms envisaged and the

reforms aciually implemented. Even this process ofimplementation has been more than painful and has been

the largest single source of violence' This could well have

been signifrcantly mitigated if the authorities had provided

adequaie instituiional safeguards for containin-g-the fallout irom the problems which are in the nature of first timeproblems. If appropriate institutional back up had been

provided to resolve the problems expeditiously, unequivocally and at or near the sources of their origiru this

far reaching reform could have been accomplished withmuch less hurderous violence even if not in completepeace. This could well have transformed the rural society

as nothing else would have.

These incidents also prove that the so called weaker

sections can no longer be taken for granted and oppressed

and emasculated socially and/or economically' They have

developed their own clout and will figbt back if necessary'

What iJ more they as a caste group and in their own rightare also capable of indulging in murderous violenceagainst the members of the so called upper castes

The police sysiem has proved itself incapable ofanticipating the course of events with a view to contain theproblims before they assume proportion$ Each of these

SOCTAL CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

violent incidents in such succession amply prove theinadequacy and/or thetem to absorb the fall outing over the Society.

rriateness of the police sys-tlte changes that are com-

crops belonging to thets during Marcfu 1987.

to prevent this trend andhave shown up the

If one were to analyse thepresent state of alfairs, onesome stage in the chain of

Some districts in Bihar have also witnessed severalforcible harvesting of starlegitimate land holders, byThe police has been 1these several acts ofcriminal justice 3ystem in a rather dim light Suchorganised instances of of law by people who arenot normally treated as pose a serious threat tothe concep't of the rule ofseveral facts leading up tocannot miss the point that atevents, even the vested in collusion with political

abide by the rule of lawof the times, it would be

power had themselves failedThereforg considering thean act of enlightened self on the part of those who

a vested interest inlose more in the long run

the authorities in Bihar

in the nature of political andthe system something

of handling the problems ofstrative will capableamong otler tlings

As of now this seemt to be in doubt

are economically stronger tothe rule of law, as they standin the absence of it It is highddmonstrated that they have

An important elemenr in, fhe worsening relationshipbetween Kurmis and tle Harijans is sex. l'hE fl".ii"n, ,rolonger allow their womenfofi to work in tne no'uses ofKurmis Asserts Dwarika RalhAas, a Harijaa "W. .uonever have good relations with them. They pay us lesgthey abuse us,. beat up our chil{ren, and urei,i. iiveg sis_ters and daughters It is a life nie can never tolerate.,5 Theyguth .a.mgne the Harijans w\o are educared

"na fruu.

JoDs wtth the Government ill urban areas would no longeraccept or tolerdte such exploit{tion of their women_fotThe Harijans are no longer u$uia to ,p""t or.rlu-rra ur"

Caste Conficf and Agmrian Violence in Bihar 97

prepared to stand up against high-handetlness' One ofihem told me: "If we raise our voice for implementation ofminimum wageq if we want education for our womerl we

are termed Naxalites."

While the Harijan continues to suffer a sense of deprivation he has also gained a new sense of self respect

The right to vote has brought to his doorstep, the high and

the mfthry in the social hierarchy' But this in tu-rn-has also

inducel " t"ttt. of frustration as socially he still feels left

out of the mainstream by the untouchability practised

agaisnt hinr, In a sense, his social status which remains

lihere it was centuries agq does not correspond to his

newly acquired Political status'

A consensus has begun to €merge among the

Scheduled Castes in Bihar on a political strategy to benelit

thern The leadership have come to realise the need for asocial and economic revolution for bringing about a social

revolution apart from benefits of reservation The

leadership is -beginning

to clamour for new directions ineconomi; policy which will provide employment,orienteddevelopment projects to benefit small farrners and the lan'dless agricultural labourers.

It would be hasty to conclude that the caste conflict inBihar or Uttar Pradesh is always in the nature of a direct

confrontation between what are traditionally known as

upper castes and lower castes Intracaste group conflict

amtng ttre backward castes is equally common There

have also been cases of individuals from the upper castes

leading the Naxalites whose rank and frle primarily con-

sist of the Scheduled Castes.

The continuing uncertainties with regard to land and

related matters affecting the weaker sections have provided

an ideological base to the left extremists who pass for Nax-

alites. There are several factions among the leftist groups

all of whom however are agreed on their belligerent hos-

98

tile and antagonistic attitudecontinue to displayrevenge agaitst landownergmuch cruelty as tle

Uttam Sengupta, whorural Bihar and written aThe Telegraph dated 26thaccording to oflicial sources(Communist Party of Indiaoccupied around 10,000important hciwever is theceeded in promotingPlots are collectivelvcollective fundq grain isWhat their (CPML) sourcesgestion that they have beenmobilising pcople from theupper caste landholders Onefforts have been to establandholders dnd persuadeor to surredder surpluslandholders tfy to resist orthe conflicts start'6

l. Rafiq Khan and ShiyswaratStudies, Varadasi : 'Atrccities onNageshwar Prbsad : "RuralThe Times of Indi4 a nationalThe Indian Elpresg a nationalNageshwar Prasad : "RuralUttam Sengupta in the TCalcutt4 Dt 25th October, 1986.

z.

3.

4.5.

6.

SOCIAL CIIANGE AND VIOLENCE

the land owners whotendencies In acts of

they have been guilty of asthemselves.

travelled through most ofin the Calcutta edition of

ber, 1986 has observed thatarmed units of the CPMLrxist Lenist) had actuallyof land "What is mores claim that it has suc-

farming in many villages.loans arg advanced fromin a collective 9ranery......,.not agree upon is the sqg-

caste conflicts bycaste against the

the contrary they say thgirlinks with upper casteto concede higher w4gesIt is only when the

Police help, they said, that

of the Gandhian Instihrre ofin Bishrampuf (1978).

in India" (1985).

Dt 2nd May, 1986.

, Dt 8th December, 1986.r in India" (1985).a national daily published from

CHAPTER 11

VIOLENCE AGAINST THE TRIBALSIN BIHAR

Singbhum district of Bihar forms part of the SouthernChotanagpur district and contains 15 hilly upland tracksThe area is extremely rich in forest and mineral resources'It is one of the largest sources of iron ore deposit in IndiaThe main tribes of Adivasis who inhabit are : Ho andMunda The forest is so important to the Advasis that theytreat the forest as an object of worship and trees like Saland Mahua to be sacred They offer prayers to SinghBonga (Sun God) and Baru Bonga (Mountain and ForestGod) in a sacred grove of Saal Trees which they call as

Sarna. The nationalisation of forests was a big blow to theAdivasis as they lost all their rights on the forest and itsproduce.

The tribal people of Kolhan area of Singbhum were

independent till the early l9th Century. The British rulecame to the area in 1821 and the Kolhans were subjugatedfor the first time. The British imposed a revenue system

and appointed non-tribals as tax collectors. Within tenyearq the Kolhans rose in rebellion agaisnt this exploita-tion The movement spread over a large area and theBritish army moved in. Hundreds of tribal inhabitants ofthe Kolhans were gunned down before the Kolhanrebellion was finally crushed Mr. P.C. Chowdhury recordsin the district gazetteer. "Kol revolt was indeed a nationalmovement of the aboriginal. It had more right to be regar-ded as the first freedom struggle fought in India by thehalf civilized jungle folks than the movement of 1857. Itwas a widespread revolt of different sections of aboriginal

99

100

people in Sl"ghbum,territories as a protest agaisntmal-administration by the

The gullibility, simplicityhave been exploited by thealmost on blank sheets ofpossession of their land forhave their cootractors andand send thim out to s€veral

A sociologist of theestimated that there areagricultural labourers inStates; the bulk of it, however,Bihar tribal communitiesl Inin Bihar, so many tribalsTwo.reasons nilitate againstthe tribals in industry

l. Adequate tpchnicalimparting necessary technical2. the medium of instructionwhich is not thpir motherthe Hindi language, there ischota Nagpur, although theand in some parts even 6096of the major industries has ais more than 5%.1

Because of the severeundergo consequent on theestablishment of large scaleof raw material closeby, thethese nafural resources mor€nature. Although compeacquired, the Xribals feeltimely assistance. Certainemployment to at least one

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

Nagpur aad adjoininginelliciency and

and illiteracy of the tribalswho got them to signand had taken over

mining T'hese outsidersto .recruit tribal labour

as mine labourers

agricultural University hasone million migrant

coming from the otherupto 66% hail from

te of the industrialisationto other areas for jobs

employment prospects of

facilities do not eiist forto the tribals

primary schools is HindiSince they cannot follow

high rate of drop out Incornprise almost 4{M

the total populatiorl noneforce of tribals which

ps that the tribals had toof their land for

owing to availabllityhave come to regard

a curse than a bounff ofis paid for the land

owing to denial ofhave been providingfrom each of the dis-

Violence Against the Tribals in Bihar t0l

placed families but this does not go far enough- Since mpst

ii:in. ttiuAt are illiterate and lack technical skill aod

adaptability they end up as inanual labourers

The Jharkhand movement which seeks a separate

stat€ for the tribal districts has conferred a degree 9f-p{e:tiee to the tribal idendity. Though only seven out ofthe 3lJiriri.tr of Bihar are iniluded in the Jharkhand concept itincludes some other districts outside the State of Bihar

Thu ,"lr"o districts of Bihar constitute a half of the

geographical area.of tlle State.25% of the total population

if ftrtu. reside in the area Nearly a half of the total

Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribe population of the

Siate reside in this rtgion Chota Nagpur and Sdnthal

Pargana together acc'oun! for only a 40th part of the

geoiraphical area of the coutnry but more than %th of the

iota'i mining activities' of the country take place in this

small region Nearly a fifth of India's total public sector

investmeints in the industrial activities is located in this

resiod. Among the urban populatio4 the Jharkhandis are

slim dwellers In industrial employmen! the unskilled

workers are Jharkhandiq the well'paid workers are out-

siders The contractors are outsiders' Thi labourers are

recruited locally. Government policies have given rise to

tribal resistance which has assumed the form ofJharkhand Mukti Morcha

There have been reports of Police high-handedness

against the tribals involving the death of. some of thern,

oii"h th" police have npt explained satisfactorily' One

such case ls the death of Ganga Ram Kalundia ofSingbhum district who was killed on 4th April, 1982'

allegedlY bY the Police.

On 8th Septr;mber, 1980 the Bihar Military Police

opened fire at Gua in Singhbhum 9tt 1".1t!tmPly of the

Tritats organized by the Jharkhand Mukti Morcha' killinglI and wounding 14 persons. Some of the injured Adivasis

' were taken to the hospital half a kilometre away' "But as


boon as the llrst batch of Adiyasis were brought to the hos-pital, they were surrounded and assulted and then shotdead" According to the oflici{l version,9 rounds wqe firedkilling 9 Adivasis within the Hospital compond'a

On lst Jun,l983 one gaze{ted police officer is alleged tohave tied four Advasis to a jeep and driven the vehiclethrough the market place ih Gua After the drive, theAdivasis were taken out and ibeaten in which one of themdied Nothing was done to {he Police Officer though hewas brielly suspended frofu service A six memberParliamentary Committee w$rking for the welfare of theScheduled Castes and Schdduled ftibes confrrrned theallegation of Police high-handedness One of the triballeaders allegOd in the Bihar Assembly on 20th Jung 1983

that the Police action in the qibal areas made nonsense ofthe Government's claim that [t is committed to the welfareof the weaker sections4

In the Sahibganj area ofl Bihar, the Adivasis were try-ing to assert their right to fish in a tank which was beingdenied to them by a money-ftnder, who had considerableinfluence locally with the officials concemed" FifteenAdivasis were killed in Poli4e firing which included oneex-MP who was at the time pf the firing negotiating $iithone of the rosponsible oflicipls. The circumstances of hisdeath was one of the several rfysteries that shroud this sor-did affair. The Inquiry that followed justified the Policefrring in its rcport

It is alleged by the hibals that rn the Kolhan area inSingbhum district there havq been as many as 17 firingsbetween Augus! 1982 and August, 1983, none of which wasever inquired into.

In incidents in which pprsons from the weaker sec'tions are killed while tryind to secure their rights' howmuch is too much and how fong is too long? Apparently,endless waiting seems to be one of the primaryoccupations of these poor people.

Yiolence Against the Tribals in Bihar 103

To the non-tribals, however, the tribal land is averitable

eldoroOo. Land is available for grabbing labour is for the

ur-ti"g u"A the simple tribal women can. be seduced or

-o-tesi"A When certiin villages were raided in the Santhal

Pargana by the police in 1979, it was alleged that the men

*"ii u""t"it op aod th" ,uo-ttt raped- As a sequel to this' the

n"opa" are reported to have formed an organization called

"*lx|]'(Women Against Rape). The raid against them was

,"plrt"dly otgunizel because of the resistance offered by the

ttiU"tt to the land grab by some of the upper caste

landholders

Though t?rp Bonded labour system was formally

abolished in 1975, the labour released from the bondage

have been recruited by contractors to work in brick kilns

in Muzaffarpur, Samastipur and other places outside' on

terms more dehumanising than those under the Bonded

Labour system. The tribal girls who are recruited as labour

eet paid hardly Rs 15/' a weelc They are rnade to work for

iZ io V hours a day and are sometimes exploited sexually'

None of these suspected outrages can be fully authen'

ticated in the absence of attendance register, employment

cards (which are never maintained) and Labour Inspectors

with commitment to enforce the Labour Laws

The Koel-Karo Project.in Ranchi in Bihar has affec*

ted nearly 5J39 tribal landowners and several thousand

landless The affected people had filed a writ in the Supreme Court to get rehabilitation and relief before they were

dispossessed and evicted from the land The Supreme

Court appointed an Advocate to submit a report after an

on the spot study of the problern The Advocate, Jose

Verghese reported to the Supreme Court in April 1986'

According to the repor! the Government was acquiring

land from other tribals who had meagre possessions ofland to rehabilitate the dispossessed ones! The Advocate's

finding was supported by documents to show that in the

.ame i."a in which the tribal land was being acquired to

rehabilitate the displaced tribals, there were also six non-

IM

tribal landownen owning athese landowhers have eachacres of land Two othersAll these were leftonly how the land Ceilinglater how these were leftholdings of poor tribals werethe land from non-tribals, butfor rehabilitating theopened themselves !o theing against the tribals. TheKaro Proiect had been

The Tribal Welfareto the Government in 1982aggrieved on account of thesation paid to them for theconnection with various

Thb National Labourstudy in, February 1984 ofditions of the mine workersreport has pointed out large,where the tribals are theThey are denied adequateare never paid to the workers.records regarding ttre numberetc" The study hasinfringements of the differentLaws and ruthless exploitatrilliterate Adviasis bv the

At the instance of theVerghese visited SinghbhumFeburary 1984 to ascertain theagainst tribals in the dishictpending for years for filing ofunder the Forest Acl Exci$eothers In all these cases the tribals were either in

I

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

of 7,740.33 acres. Two of2439.69 acres and 2q9.93

1337.8 and 1240.1 acressThis gives an idea of nothas been flouted birt even

when marginalBy not acquiring

from the poorer tribalstribals, the authorities

that they are discriminat-affected by the Koel-

agitated

ner submitted a reportthat the tribals felt

monetary compen-acquired from them in

had undertaken awages and working con-

Singbhum district Theillegal mining in areas

owners of the land.on Minimum wages

mines do not keepworkerg wage paymen!

out several seriousprovisions of the Labour

of the ignorant and

e Courl Advocate. Joseof Bihar earlier in

of the cases pendingHundreds of cases were

sheets by the policeIndian Penal Code and

nobnce Ag(iinst the Tibals in Bihar 105

iail or on bail Mr. Verghese in the course of his report6 to

ii" itt*." Court had obFerved *It was shocking tro note

tnaii" uUsofute denial of justice to the poor.Adrvas$ ln

#;fi;;;J i" e'" uiolotio'' ôf t:-

t:ill'*"trights there w€re more. than 3'?90 cases against the

Alivasis which were pending for several years-without any

;;;;h.*i; the various Lurts In some of these cases'

UTi.-"t*J*.re also in jail for more than three to four

;;* A" examination oi the list of 1623 Forest cases

i;;tilil"fi;;tn. eait"tit during the period from le78

tolSSl tlo:*t that there are matry instances where on the

same day a person who was accused in one partrcular case

"* "ff#ai" have been aceused' in as many as 8 different

cases in different locations"

The Supreme Cour! disposine .9f th9 writ petition

frteO in tSS3 Uy Mathew Areeparampil andôthers against

it"-iu"g"r "".i indiscriminati detention of Advivasis by

[" St"6 of Bihar obsprved in its order dated 20th Septem-

;;-it84, *The facts as gleaned from the reports and

io"o.t",t reveal a 4ost Jhocking state of affairs in the

;;;;i" question It seems that a very large number-of

o-e?iG ffi becn languishing in jails without trial for

itil oft"n..*" When iepeated instances ofsuch callouv

l"ti ." tn" part of thi authorities towards the tribals

i"""ill" ,"Uals and their leaders understandably feel

;;i;J"cctteved that thev are not being given a fair

aEat These e*petien."t in no small measure contribute to

tt"it "U*"tion

from the mainstream of national life'

N.E Horq one of the important tribal leaders had

oncs observed: "In t'ackling the tribal question' the

6o*rn-u* of India is ultimately concerned with the

urri-itutioo and iritegration of the -tribals. in the

;;il;- of Indian societv the 1ljo-ritv dominant

ili"Ot t."i"ty......' If assimilation in Hindu society is a;;L p;;;;t; how is that the Harijans are struggling

;;;;ti social subjugation?""" for the Indian tribals the

q"r.til"" it *nethei t6 be in bondage or to be freg whether

f


to te submerged or to retaiil their iderrtity. Tribals arernoan and they wiu remaiq Indian They should findtheir place of honour as Indian tribals'

The demand for a separalie Jharkhand State or Unionr emtory status for areas comprising Chota Nagpurplateau and the Santhal pardana distri-cts was raised bythe Jharkhand Mukti Morchf on the JharkhurrJ tf4uktiDiwas celebrated by 70,00 tribal -.o, .r";-.r, urrachildren in Dumka and Dhadbad in February, tSS6. thezeal alr;d fervour of the tribals on the occasioo'*u, ."por_tedly unprecedented. As Sur4j Mandal who is u t iUutJ\4LA p-tlt__it "€very young tnan here is now ready tobT".: Sidho and Kanq the legendary Santhal brothers,who raised the banner of re.volt against the British and theMahjans 130 years ago." Th{ tribals would be able toprove on tle basis of facts on the ground that they havenot had a very fair deal unde]r the existing dispensationThis can be one of tbe sourcAs of continuin! vioience as ithas beFn in the past ifthings dre allowed to Arift

References :

Scenario of the 7% Volume 2 by : Cinemart Founddtiorl C-6l9 Saf-darjung Development Area New DelhiNirmal Sengupta in the Economlic and political Weekly, Dt 5thApnl 1980.

,dK Roy, MP., in the Economic ahd polirical Weekly. Dr 2lst February 1981.The Times of Indi4 a national dallv. Dt 2lst June igRSThe Times of Indi4 a national daily, Dt 2lst June, i983.Repon of Advocate Jose Verghese Dt ADriL 19g5.

l"ryI 9f Advocate Jose Verghesq Dt February 1984 on tneunmrnal cases pending against the Tribals

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

CHAPTER 12

VIOIfNCE IN UTTAR PRADESH

Fake encounters with dacoits:

In village Dehuli of Mainpuri - district.. in,^ Uttar

p*aîrn lid".utt, rssr. "ioltnce

by the dacoits reached

one of its highest ptuo 'o

*hut hai come to be referred

i. "r-rn.lo,ituli

iarnage' in which more i1t1".20 -p€rsoos;;; lild bv dacoits The then Chief Minister of Uttar

;ffiffi;na"a 'o tttit

"atoage with a declaration that

;:;;iiiltth ttre dacoii ttouit io a month's.time' This

i,at ; il;;il;' tr" poti"" to step uP their a'ctivities' The

result was a series ot L"ounitts" Prof' Juyal of the

Gandhian Institute tf S;;;;t observes-in.his studyl:

'"rf,T--rt--tate Government has been dishing out con-

ni.tirrif,g"t.t about the encounter deaths' acc.ording to

one set of figures, there were 2860 encounters until Novem-

;.;. itt6 i""*nitn 1,162 persons were killed rhe r-rgures

iJr'f."t;""* unrif tne eni of l98l stood at 7'879(?) killed

'inencounters.22Spersonswerekilledjust.insideone;;;il;; not"tbt' ia'rt to December 24tlr' 1e8l' The

;;;il;*;r" u"ittg'tarsetted from above'"

There were public protests against the stag€-managed

encounters. Political p"'ti"t *tulta demo-nstradons and

aeitations against the so called encounters 'Detailed1L"t""4""*ittt-tutt' of victims {leeed! killed in

;;;;;- were submitted to the State Government

demanding inquiry i";;h; incidents Even some dingparry legislators expressed their doubts about the encoun'

ters.TheGovernmenr,tto*"n"t'refusedtogiveinontheI"""Jirt",,rt. inquires-would only demoralise the police

Sil.;;'e";;;;ntielt'wasdoingtheirjob'Professorr0'7

l0g FOCIAL CHANGE.AND VIoLENCE

Juyal has quoted the frndingf of the Uttar pradesh andMldhy_a pradesh Sarvodaya iiandals,n. i"a iirrir",.aa fact-frnding team of imooriaht office U"are., to-#Cy tfrefacts .and. circumstances of pof lce eocor*rrl"jfr""r, Oir-trict Their conclusions ru.* -Aft", "*r""ri""'i."riir-"gr,Jha_nsi district where the police claims ," i""" f.iffia n*bad characters u. u ,.ruir of four ;;;rrfri-#o"urrr..,

recgntll the team found that apfe ot'th.re *r"."rr"ouot..s,and all the live person$ werg picked .p-"ij-tiiia uythe police in a^planned manndr and latei shown u, Uff"Oin 'encounters2.

Professor B.N. Juyal had to the conclusion thatmany of the 'encounlers, weremurders and as many as g0%the Scheduled Castes. Atbeen petty criminals if at alltemerity to stand g,p on beagainst the oppression of theolficial or non-official In manin so far as they reflect anytimg were woefully unconvit

notling but col{-bloodedrf the victims..belonged tomany of them may havethey might have had the

By themselves some ofhigh-handedness. But what is

of the weaker sectionsinfluential persons,

caseg the police recordsinal activities of the vic_

cases showed policeappalling and a matter

of these cases the policelevel had acted at the

lords owing to pettySuch incidents are

of serious concern is that in sonOf{icers at the police Stationinstance of vested interests or fipersonal or caste consideraindicators not only of the con

police ln spire of the police ,etion of hundreds of io-called

numbers of encounter killingqincidence of dacoities. This was

caste and class conflicts whichof the exploitative

the rural scenein some districs of Uttar but subversion of the

dacoities in some of these

' and the liquida-the incidence of

fact the very police stationshad not decreased. Inwere reporting higher

: also having higheribly because the realdacoits were not killed in encounters' but some

Violence in lluar Pradesh 109

innocents, and there was a backlash arising from theresentment of the innocents,

Dacoity in these areas has come to be used as a smoke

screen for caste and occasionally class repressioq and has

ceased to be a criminal act by anti-social elements It isbecoming one of the substreams of the socio-political pro-cess. Its relevance and utility in the political context insome of the states is demonstrated repeatedly at the time ofelections. The presence of some of the extremely active

and ruthless dacoit gangs in some of the states has anadditional dimension which normally does not come tonotice with the same sharpness as the manifest activities ofthe gangs themselves These outlaws have the benefrt ofback up in terms of safe haveng suppliers of weapons andsharers of booty which are all done by persons some ofwhom are politiciang who also provide indemnity todacoits from being caught- In return the dacoits providepoliticians their muscle and money power at the time ofelections These dacoits command a vote bank in villagesbecause of the terror they have struck in the minds of thepeople of the area This fear is exploited during electionsto swing the votes to suit their needs' It is impossible tobeat this system because no witness is willing to stake hislife and property by coming forward to tender oralevidence against such inlluential persons

That some of the dacoits in Uttar Pradesh enjoypoliti'cal protection is a very well known fact In the recentpast there was the case of the dacoit Gaya Kurmi who hadcommitted several docoities and other crimes in Bandadistrict When he finally surrendered and was lodged injail pending trial, the local MLA approached the Govern-ment with an application recommending that the under-trial dacoit be accorded a level of treatment, higher thanthe one he was entitled to. This was agreed to by theGovernment Subsequeutly, it was reversed because of thestrong intervention by the district authorities at the &ci-sion making level.

ll0

-t

siocnr cnerce AND vIoLENcE

One of the compelliag feasons which drives wenordinary law abidin; citizens to take las ir-to their ownhands is the loss of faith in thp ability of the'criminal jus"

tice system to deliver speedy afdcertainjustice There arehundreds of examples which reinforce the belief that a

man who feels intensely aggrieyed can seffIe scores only bytaking law into his own handb instead of'waiting for thejudicial proc$s to grind slowly with doubtful result at theend of it This aspect of the wdrking of tle criminal justice

sysrcm is one of the import[nt factors contributing toviolence in its cruelest form in the countryside. Amidst theclamour about the atrocities oh the weaker sections in the

tend to take notice only the problems erupt intoinconvenient and le forms of physical violen-ce We, howeveB are trot to go deeper into the cause

of violence in an effort to sor! matters out on the basis ofsocial justice and fairplay. As as the dispossesse4 dis-advantaged and the are willing to suffer insilence without raising a of protesq we feel compla-cent tlat these areas need to be disturbed lest weshould raise the hornet's nest l\s long as this attitude peF

systemq we will

nrial areas, one. tends to losewflich create and contribute

me ates the political andnever be able to plug thethe very iniquity of theperspicacity andfo? ever animated by a socialsocial justice

of the basic conditionsthese ahocities We

of violence which lurk inThis calls for political

no'rms which should bedirected towards

The Yamuna-Chambalsouth of Agra-Allahabad axis

basin districts lyrngUttar Pradesh have been

the scene of unmitigated by dacoir against thedefenceless villagers during last sweral years and more

type of violence is not newso during the early eighiesto the area At no stage can be said to have been com-pletely free from the of the dacoits and theviolence that had gone with Efforts made from time totime to deal with the had only resulted in

1

mobnce in Uttar Prudesh- lll

ceremonial "surrenders" of some of the leading dacoitswho were thereafer subjected to favourable dispensationand prosecuted The wisdom of tackling the dacoit pro'blem by such populist procedures which have invariablybeen conceived and executed at the highest level of theState Government have alwdys been doubted by the people but only once publicly called into question- This waswhen Shri KF. Rustamji was the Inspector General ofPolice 6f Madhya Pradesb. He disapproved of themeasures taken by a person of the stature of Vinoba Bhavain the late fifties to get some of the dacoits operating in theChambal ravines to surrender to the authorities' In retros.pect one marvels at the foresight and comprehension ofShri KF. Rustamji who could anticipate near$ thirtyyears agq the futility of such surrenders and the gross mis.carriage of justice that accompanies the trials of some ofthe surrendered dacoits. The problem of dacoits continuesto be with us in spite of these pompous and higblypublicised "surrenders". The extra dimension that this pro-blem has acquired over the yearsjs the political clout thatthe surrendering dacoits have come to enjoy and which isderived fiom the patronage that they receive from thepoliticiang who in turn use the dacoits for terrorising th€voters and intimidating their political opponents at thetime of elections

The Madhya Pradesh Police conducted a study oftheir experience in dealing with the surrendered dacoitsSome of their conclusions are: The ceremonial surrendersthat have become a feature of the menace of dacoities insome of States were usually preceded by verbal assuranc€s

to the surrendering dacoits that by and large a lenient viewwould be taken about the sentences to be awarded to tlemand that they would be kept in special jails and givenfacilities for meeting their relatives 'They were promised

'

that their dependents would be provided with employ- ,

ment The witnesses were reluctant to give evidence

because of the special consideration extended to the sur-

rendered dacoits by the administration and the police. The

t12

ber of cases to be

ing at a later $tage and

contrast to the vexatious

to enjoy stateorganised

years to the Uttar Pradesh

with some petty Arms Actjustice are held so veryatrd concurrencE of the

cases of some of the dacoits prove that mass

CHANCE AND VIOLENCE

surrendred dacoits were comforts such al fans andjail Since the prosecutioncooking arrartgements in

had to be launched within a time and the num-was largg the police

invariably had a difficult The advantages from thisnaturally accrued to the : The situation was madeworse by the attitude of th surrendered dacoits whq

ds terrorised the witnesses.through their relations andThe study came to theceremonial surrender of

that the system ofwas responsible for the

grofih of new gangs Public was that personsdacoities could

by conveniently surrender-of the various rehabilita-

tion schemes extended bysurrendered dacoits Thus thein this arrangement

tbe Government to thehad nothing to lose

In dealing with the dacoits, criminal justice system has been applied a grossly selective manner.They had killed in cold defenceless people in

achiwed by them wasdozens and the degree ofmeasured in terms of the amo of reward announced bvthe Government to get thetreafine[t aqco{ded to them

dead or alive Yel thethe manner in which their

prosecution was handled were such sharp and invidiousr in which an ordinaryprocesses of law. A case

an dacoi! who continuestial treatment in Gwalior

JaiL She had not been haaded over everr after about fourwhere she is required in

74 cases of gruesome murder dacoities The MadhyaPradesh Police was concerned th her only in connection

When the scales of; with the full knowledge

one cannot expect anordinary citizel to have respect for justice and equity. Tbe

who could amass wealth bvalso get away with their crime

petty criminal is put throughin point is of Phoolan, the v

l3Violmce in Ilnar Prodesh

murders and ruliless dacoities committed in cold-blood

and oo multiple occasions cease to be crimeg as we

iia.^LJ',rtim norma[y' what gets the raw end.of jus'

,f"" it p",ty crime indulged in by the indigelt and the dep

rived" Wiin sucd an upp.ouc-h to the dispensation of

iustice" how can ot. .tpi"t violenc€ to disappear from'*"-i-.tJil i".tt invidious.tieatment is, a standing invitation

to more and gteater vlolence'

Referencesl

l. Professor Juyal of the Gandhian Insrirute of Studies' Varanasi : "En-^'

*tit- UUiitgs of dacoir the phase of repression in a peasant socie'

ty" (1985).

2. IBID

CASTE CONFLICTS

R13

UTTAR PRADESH

A pe rusal of some of the papers published fr,om anyof the crime prone districts in ttar Pradesh gives a verygoodinsight into the chronic ca that generate violence in someofthese districts. Itgives ani ofthe fate ofthe land refornsand the manner in which it is warted by moneyed interestsin collusion with village oflici Some of these reports givean idea of the caste conflicts at persist in society even afterfour decades of Independen Most of the violence is aproduct of the social c that is being sought to be

change would not evolve byimposed from abovg sinceitselffast enough from below, ially in the absence ofanyserious effort bv voluntarv tions specially commit-

On 6th December, 1985,4 Harijans were shot down andSix others including three wolnen were injured, 5 of themseriously in disrict Ballia. Thg multiple murder was due todispute over land The immedi]ate provocation was providedby the Harijans plucking le{ves from a bamboo clusterlocated in the disputed area.

Ironically enough the welflare measures intended for theuplift and betterment ofweakef sections have been the directcauses of much manifest violerice against these sections. Thesocial and economic change that is being sought to bE

tt4

Caste Conficts in l\uar Ptadesh ll5

brought about in their economic position and living con-

ditions has been accompanied by horrendou^s birth pangs

iiti'rlJi""t rtave occaslonallv, under some of their intrepid

k""d;, ;1;;J "p

and fought 'ihtv t* have produced their

;;"it;;; il examplJthe ex-sirviceman rryho cam-e to be

;;;;;;;F;t, who ied his own gangof dacoits in Banda

;t#;;;;;ction against'the iontinued repression to

,rhirh ttt. Harijans had been subjected

The depredations ofdacois in Uttar Pradesh are largely

b"J ;;;;Ii;"otttia"tutio"t' A gangwhich wasoperating in

i"iJ. atti"! 1985 and earlv 1986 wi-s.a gangled by arturmi

caste leader. ihis gang specialises in kidnapping lor ransonr'

ffr"it ul"tlrn. "'"rJ

almost exclusively from the Brahmin cas-

*.'iiit t"ut intended as a reprisal against the past domina-

["" "ia .ppt ssion of the kurmis by the Brahmins' As a

.J*fiii. .ir'i." village inhabite d by Kumis extend help to the

Kurmi gang in many ways and this inevitably rendered the

iob of the police to run to ground the gang extremely difhcult

ff;eriil;; i"ntioi continued and with it a general

sense of insecurity in the €ntire area'

In Jalaon district of Uttar Pradesh there has been so

tu"hniol.rr..traditionallythatitiscustomarytocorrelateti. q"""tiry

"fgrains produced at the end ofthe-harvest by

iit" ltt.u.t oimutders that are committed The women

;;i"GG t a certain community are so revengeful that if,ttiit-fi*6"tat are killed they wguld notconsi'lgr themselves

"r *ii.*t ,iff the death of their'husbands is avenged either

il;;;h ilt tons or theirbrothers' What is important is that

i"atfing in violence and settling scores with rivals even

iirou-et, --.r.oers do not result in stigma and-the society

at"#il;;ff""ders. rn racg it is the hall-markof heroism for

;;;;;;;; avenge the death of his father or brother' In

;#ff;;; rurrtri tr,. expectations that people have of

;i;:ilil;.iological aspeit is another importa.nt factor

"orri*U,rtit g to violence. li is not unusual for children to be

""..J "f,.i,fte dacoits nor is it uncommon for a man to sell

his wife in order to purchase a gun for avenging the murderof

l16

one ofhis relations. Thehide.out of the violentlaw.

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

full of ravines facilitates thewho become fugitives from

on Phoolarl the

to violence even at thee notorious dacoits who had

indulged in mass murders be to this region It was

There is a community of Thakur spread over about84 villages ofKanpur and Jalao districts. They are noted forthe facility with which thev Islightest provocation Some-of

actually to avenge the rapewoman dacoit by some of

and are fugitives from law get thtnerr own casJe people as also sor

lhe two groups, the immediate pfor the post of Gram pradhan ir

Thakurs that Phoolan is. alleged to have committed the urder of2l Thakurs in asingle incident in village Bah of Kanpur district Many' cases of Kidnapping for ransomas the people in this area are flur

e place in Jalaon district,

over land are endemic, The diwith liquid caslr- Disputes

violence. The deposition bywitnculminate inevitably inin courts in favour oforinvites its ori'n retribu-against those indulging in

tion. In Unnao district a witn who had signed a seizurewas murdered Many of the

memo at the instance of thecriminals who indulge in vio on one ground orthe other

support and protection ofe ofthe local politicians, a

feature which is not peculiar to area anyway.

In the incident of22nd July, 985 in Singhpurin Kanpurdistrict, 6 persons were shot by five persons whosenames were known One of the who was an accusedin this case was a police Constab in the district of Lucknowand he had used his licenced arm for committing theoffence. Though there was a lo standing rivalry between

ion was the election

Ram Kisha4 who was one ofwhich a Harijan by namee deceased had contested

against a Thakur who was the riv $oup leader. It is yet oneby the upper caste powermore incident of violent retali

lobbies against the feeblea say in local political afairs.

of Harijang aspiring for

Cgste Conflicts in Uttar Pmdesh ll7

The following incident is so very shocking that it deser'ves mention even though it took place in a distrigt situated inMadhya Pradesh bordering Jhansi district of Uttar Pradesh.In village Naugaon near Bina in the Sagar district of MadhyaPradeslr, an Upasarpanch who was a Harijan had to pay withhis life for having had the Semerity to illuminate his housewith electric lights on the occasion of the marriage of hisdaughter. The display of electric lamps at the marriage Pan'dal outraged a section of the people of the village. The matterfigured in thq proceedings of the Madhya Pradesh State

Assembly on March 18, 1986. The Ministerof State for Homgmaking a statement in the Assembly observed that a person

"apparently enraged that a Harijan had used electric tubelightg entered the Pandal and smashed some tubelightsLater the body of the Upsarpanch was found in a nearbyheld."1

The riots that took place in Agra on 3rd May, 1978 bet'ween the Harijans (Jatavs) and the upper castes over the pro-

ble ms arising out of the Ambedkar Jayanti celebrations ofl4th April, 1978 was of a very serious nature. In the fight that'

ensued between the police and the Jatavs, there was police Iir-ing and large scale arson Buses in different parts ofthe citywere burnt telephone wires were cut, fish plates were removed from railway trackg arrd attempts to set fire to a petrolpump in Agra were reported, all allegedly done by the Jatav

mobs.

The Army was called in aid of the civil power. The num-ber of Jatavs dead was reportedly nine including two womerlwhile many more persons including those of the police force

were seriously injured. This incident had one special feature

which needs to be taken note of Jatav and other Harijanleaders from faroffplaces including the South are reported tohave converged on Agra with food, money and medical help.

Owen IW Lynch writing in Economic and Political Weeklyobsen'ed2 : "Over and over again the Jatav themselves said tome that violence had united them despite theirvarying politi'cal persuasion. All even the conservative Jatav leaderg said


that Ambedkat's diagnosis of d remedy for the caste situa-tion had been righ{ the only was to take the offensivg to

and meet violence with

In certain districts in Uttar such as Unnao andAzamgarh, Dhobis who are uled Caste have gone tothe Middle East and are well remit this monev totheir families in the villaees The new found amuence amonqthe Dhobis has aroused the jealbusy ofthe upper castes and

fight and fight baclc Whilewith then1 Jatavs expressed

people belonging to theirbased on the feeling that

the scenes of the riotsin their ability to fight back

there have been con{licts on that acc6unt The IndianEmbassies abroad have reporte|fly been writing to the Dis-trict Magistrates to give proteqtion to the-relations of themigrants staying behind in the luillages.

In the context of the social bhange in the rural are4 theGovernment of Uttar Pradesh h$ve in their anxiety to protectthe weaker sections, taken special steps to ensure that com-plaints emanating from the Scheduled Castes should be car-efully attended There are cases bfthe upper castes er.ploitingthis particular directive to settle dispute between themselvesby using a Scheduled Caste individual or group as a tool intheir fight They use a Schedul$d Caste individual to com-plain against the rival group exlploiting thereby the specialmachinery set up to attend to the Scheduled Caste com-plaints. The rival party gets harassed even though in the pro-cess what is sought to be settldd is a non-existent disputebetween the rival party and the Harijans

Even the administration a to have veered round tothe beliefthat by and large onlythe same caste can be trusted to

castes This in turn isare incapable of

transcending caste in administrative matterswhich concern people to other castes. Once a per-nicious belief of this type to be accepted and actedupor! we are not far from the i ofthe Statebeingtaken

Caste Conlicts in Unar pradesh Il9over by the caste leaders with all the conflict andviolence thatit will generate. Whether the road to this situation was paveOwith a series offailures ar the various levels ofdispensation ofjustice-to those who supplicated for it orwhettr.. rt *u, _otr_vated by the anxiety of the Government to provide doubleinsurancq it is a sad reflecrion on the credibility

"fih;;ffr"i;;machinery and its unreliability and partisanship. It is in thiscontext that the creation of special cells at th; disrrict andpolice station levels to watch ihe interest of the weak". sec_tions have to be viewed Such arrangemerrts only *n counte,to the climate that the Govemmeni seeks to criate; In fact itundermines the integrity and self-confidence of ihe aOministration

l.2.

References

The Hindu a national daily. Dt 20th Marclr- 19g6.Owen J\4. Lynch : "Rioting as rational action: An inrerpretadon oftheApril l98l riors in Agra" in the Economic and politicat iVeetty OiZSttrNovember. 1981.

I

CHAPTER 14

BONDED LABOUR

When there is an act on the btatute bgok the provisionsofwhich are not enforced it can have two effects : It can be

misused by several functionari]es of the Government inextracting illegal gratification fdr the violation of the rele-

vant provisions by the offending parties concerned; and overa period of timg non-compliance with the law if allowed togo unchatlenged breeds in the people a disrespect for lawwhich in turn can lead to rtiolence in one form onanother.

This aspect of the conseque{rces of non-enforcement ofexisting social legislation is nodhere better illustrated thanin relation to the problems of Bonded Labour. The practiceis evidently an infringement of human dignity and a viola-tion of human rights. It packs inlto the system very much ofpotent and manifest violence and it continues to be practisedin all its degrading aspects evelr now as in the pasl Thenumber of such cases may have liecome marginally smaller.

"There is no use having socidl welfare laws on the statutebook if they are not going to be ifnplemented One must notbe content with the law in boold.s but we must have law inaction." These are the observations of the Supreme Court ina judgement delivered on Decem,ber 16, 1983 in a case relatedto the Bonded Labour workfng in stone quarries inFaridabad district of Haryana-

In another case reported in flate 1985, the District Judgeof Tehri Garhwal himself visited a place following the direc-tion by the Supreme Court on a lvrit petition filed by a localAdvocate on behalf of the Bodded Labourers. The Judgefound to his utter shock that 100 bonded labourers werebeing kept in a cage made of tin along with cooking fuel rice

Bonded I'abour rzt.

and wheat The cage was of50' by 60' in dimension and part

ofit was covered by gunny bag$ Seven labourers were lying

ill without any medical attention The labourers told the Dis-

trict Judge that they were paid Rs. 2/- or Rs 3/- per wek and

some of-them were paid a wage of lifty paise for vegetables

three times a weelc The minimum wages prescribed is Rs

16.65 per day. These laourers who had been recruited from

Bihaiand Orissa had been paid a loan of Rs 600/' initially'Much of what they could receive was adjusted against the

original debt which never gets liquidated in full' The Sup-

rerie Court took cognizance of the report and directed the

State to take action against the parties who were violating the

labour laws and rules. The District Judge observed: "I have

no hesitation in saying that the Labour Inspector was guilty

of having stated before me the wrong informatior! conceal-

ing the truth and not taking any interest in the welfare ofthelaiourers probably to help and promote the management for

reasons best known to him."

The Bonded Labour Abolition Act envisaged setting up

ofvigilance committees as the main instrument for enforcing

the Acr Dr. RK Tiwari of the Indian Institute of PublicAdministration who conducted a study of the implementa-

tion of the Act in six districts in the country ha$ observedl :

"ln Tehri. Garhwal district of Uttar Pradesh, the Tehri sub-

division vigilance committee did not function at all' It was

defective in composition to such an extent that at least one ofthe members had 18 bonded labourers serving under hirnThese Committees mainly concentrated on devising ways

and means of getting allowances' while matters related to

Bonded Labourers were hardly discussed" Dr. Tiwari had

observed that in all the six districts surveyed by hinr, more

than 907o ofthe bonded labour were from the Scheduled Cas-

tes and Scheduled Tribes living with their employers Inmany cases the head of the family or the entire familyservedas bonded labourers.

Mr. Yogendra Makwao4 who was the Union Ministerof State for Agriculture in 1984 is reported to have admitted :

r22

"Efforts for the liberationremained incomplete in allapproach adopted by thern"lack of involvement in thepolitical and administrativegave some star,tling instancestated bonded labourers were

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

bonded labourers havedue to the half hearted

ting the bureaucracy'ses to the absence of

in the Statq Makwana alsoere supposedly rehabili-under bondage serving

their masterg while others duehad taken to begging2

to inadequate subsistance

The numberofbcnded in the country as estimatedby the Gandhi Peace FoundaAccording to H. Pais, Dean of th

stood at 2.62 million

this estimate is the most aMinistry of Labour, which

National Labour Institute,ic of all According to the

a scheme for rehabilita-tion of bonded labout the total number of bonded labouridentified so far is 0.21 million t of this,0.16 million havebeen rehabilitated. Thus, the number ofbonded labouridentified by the Ministry of Lanumber estirnated by Gandhi

is less than l07o of theFoundation FL Pais

has obsered in his paper on " Labour" : "Whatis surprising is that the process o identihcation by the stateshas fallen into disuse and the n ber being identified everyyear is becoming smaller andimpression that we are reachine

giving rise to theend of the problenr-.....

Apparently gover.nments havedespite repeated expression oflabour".

interest in this vital area,for the unorganised

|..9dt^lq to a reporr prepared by the planning Com-mission in 1986 on the subject of rlehabilitation of the labourreleased from the bondage : "prac[ically in all States no stepshad been taken by the concerneil authorities to assess thebackground and choice ofthe behe{iciaries in the matter ofallotment of rehabilitation scher{es This exposed most ofthe labour to the danger of reverfing back to bondage.'s

The Supreme Court had exdressed pain and anguishover the delay on the part of {he Commrssroner .siorrth

' t23Bondd Labour

Chotanagpur divisioru Ranchi, Bihar in furnishing informa-tion regarding the fate of about 617 bonded children The

children all below 14 years, working as bonded labour were

earlier rescued under the Courfs orders from the clutches ofthe carpet weaving factory owners in Mirzapur district ofUttar Pradeslr" The Supreme Court observed: "We do not

know though several months have passed as to the fate oftheidentified children and whether any steps have been taken

for their rehabilitation. It is diffrcult to understand why the

Commissioner has not made any report The authorities

should be sensitive to the problem ofchildren forced to work

in the carpet indu$try even though they are oftender age and

their employment in such industry is prohibited under the

Employment of Children Act'a

The foregoing instances of cruelly exploitative practiceg

be it in Bihar or in Uttar Pradeslr, should leave us in no doubt

about the fact that parts of the States of Bihar and Uttar

Pradesh are plagued by near endemic violence open or dis-

guised Why is it then that we have not yet made progress iniscertaining the root causes of the evil and to take effective

action to eradicate it ? An inquiry of this nature will enable

us to identify the problems and come up with solutions

which will have relevance to the sociGeconomic conditions

or the absence of institutional arrangements or the adminis-

trative inadequacies or may be traceable to political mis-

management lnstead, we seem to be tre ating each individualcase ai an isolated incident to be handled and disposed ofbythe police and the Court each in its ad ioc and time'

consuming ways That the intervening periods between the

trials are punctuated by more and more violence and oppres-

sion doei not make any appreciable difference to our entire

approach to ihe Problem.

References

l. Dr. RL Tiwari of the Indian Institute of Public Administration "Im-

dlementation of the Bonded Labour Act in six districts 'f the

country''(1985).

124 socrAL CHANGE AND VTOLENCE

2. Teesta Seralwad in rhe Indian Express Dr 25rh AususL lgg5.3. The Staresman a narional daily. dr llrh Novembci. l9gO.4. The Hindu a narional daily, Dt 2prh Ocrober. 1986.

CHAPTER 15

CASTE CONFLICTS IN MAHARASHTRAThe Rise oJ the Mahars:

According to Jayant Lelel, the Maratha Kumbi cluster

o".rrpy u ,r.ry-aominant position in Maratha politics This

"o.-t i6ut"a io the hegemony that they exercised over the

r".i..""""-fc set up-of rurai Maharashtra' They co:rstitute

Ii"-i"rt.r the landed gentry in the rural areas Though

it"-t".a.r.iv "iter the t"lg" of the Peshwas' the Brahmins

had a predominant position with regard to the land^tr.ioi"gi1rt.it grip gradually weakened because- of several

?l'"r".t?"i itttJrvin-ed. The share of the Maratha Kumbi

class cluster with regard to the land holdings increased over

,iil*.t. itt"v took"over the land owned by Brahmins as the

;;;'h;i;t "";terged

to the urban centres on account of the

;oir;.ai.fr ului"ti ttt"- following Gandhiji' s assassination

Un u giutt.io Even earlier the Brahmins had become

iti.*^l"clv absentee landholders because of their pre

i"-"^"p"ii"?*rrtt the services and professional callings such

as law and medicine

The Marathas have a distinct culture of their own- In the

social set up in the rural areas' the Marathas occupy a pre-

"-f"""i -p.itf,ion

and the Scheduled Castes' largely com-

r"r"J tf iftt Mahars, the Mangs and the Bhangis used to be

5;ilit;;;;;a.J from the iillage location Ever so life

,wotoei around a pattern of inter-dependence' There was

however, no doubt that the Scheduled Castes were a com-

-""i,y i"p*Aent on the Marathas' They were.called upon

;;;;'.;ih" -enial tasks. The Mahars, as distinct from the

itrl"gt ""a the Bhangis also peformed ilnno{11t 9o9iat

i'ir"",j."t "t village ofdcial, und ou"t a period of time they

""*. a

".q"it" a-status derived from their official functions

r25

126

and responsibilities which

CHANCE AND VIOLENCE

distinct from and muchother Scheduled Castes.sense of selFimportanceitself as rebelliousness

background gave to thea very useful role in the

begun to take place inJotirao Phule (1827-1890).

higher than that occupied byThis had bred in them a stnwhich in later years manifiagainst the system. This oMahars a status which hassocial change that is affectine

Socral reformation hadMaharashtra from the time o

backward classes with a view toon the principles of the welfai

Phule was a critic of the Maratha hegemonythough he himself belonged the Maratha community.Phule also tried to organize the against money len-ders and the landholders. Or important characteristic of

Maharashtra is that it didthe antiBrahmin movementnot come about either as a to or a consequence of theoppression by the Brahmins the other caste groups. In asense, it was incidental to thethe socioeconomic dominance

dancy and assertion ofthe Marathas in the socio.

political scenario. Phule had a pted to mobilise all theblishing a society based

of all The anti- Brahminmovement was primarily li to the elite among theMarathas. The lower classes am ng the lower castes were notactive. participants in the I

The history of the emancifiation of the Mahar com-munity among the Scheduled Qastes.in Maharashtra fromthe oppression ofthe dominant lastes dates back to the rwen_ties of the century. Jayshreie B. fiokhale has dealt with thisvery Iucidly in her paper.2 Accoif,ing to her, in Maharashtra6% are Brahmins; the Maratha Kumbi class cluster accountfor 40o/o; and the Scheduled Cabtes, Scheduled Tribes andBhuddhists constitute about l9*o. Dr. B.R Ambedkar whoprovided the leadership to the Mahar movement was asmuch a legend when he was alilre as he is when he is dead.The history of the Mahars voici{rg their resenrment againstthe upper caste domination datfs back to their first maiorsatyagraha which was launched

in M arctt" 1972 at Mahadin

i

Caste Conllict in Mahamshttt ln

Colaba district of the Konkan This movement was designed

to enforce equal accesss to the community water supply to

the'socalled untouchables. Another movement in the 1930s

demanded the right of temple entry for Harijans' These

movement were lirgely spearheaded by the Mahar com-

munity. The Mahad agitation of Marcb 1927 encouraged

Ambedkar to launch another agitation at the same venue in

Decembe! 1927. The December conference was marked by

the burning of the Manusmriti which sent shock waves

through Hindu socrety, incensing the orthodoxamong thenThis ias considered an open challenge to the Hindu society'

The symbolic gesture was intended to demonstrate to the

Scheduled Castes, that the laws which kept them in bondage

had no divine sanctio4 that they were entirely man-madg

and as such could be destroyed by man The same act was

repeated by the Dalit Panthers fifty years later later in 1977 inMarathawada regioq and which produced the same rage

bnd resentment among the upper uaste Hindus' T'hese

movements helped in heightening the Mahar consciousness

resulting in concrete action- The Mahar Regiment of the

Indian -Army which gave a good account of itself in the

iecondWorid War, understandably gave the Mahars a pride

of place and honour in the Indian nation'

The next important milestone in mobilising the Mahars

under the leadeiship of Dr. Ambedkar was the conversion

ceremony to Buddhism at Nagpur in 1956' According to an

estimate, 55% ofthe Mahars had got converted to Buddhism'

It was also generally concluded that it was only the Mahars'

*tto t""u--" guddhiss' leaving out the other constituents ofthe Scheduled Caste spectturn The rejection of Hindu

deities and the increased assertiveness of the Mahar

S"ddttittt for their tights' such as access to the village well

had led to angry retalttion by some sections of the villagers

urrA -o." t""-"tttty, it had led to a chain reaction of riots inMarathwada in 1978' The Mahar Buddhists acquired a new

sense of identity and selF aflirmation by repudiating the

Hindu-religion

I


This newly acquired serise of superiority, while anta-gonizing the Hindus, had alsb to an extent antagonized theother elements among the $cheduled Castes such as theMaogs and the Chamars DeFpite the claim of the Maharsth-at they were leading the moJ,ement for the entire spectrumof the Scheduled Casteg in actual practice it turned out to bea movement exclusively of thle Maharq and the purport ofthis exclusjveness has not be0n lost on the Mairgs and theChamars. Vithal Ambedkar, a leading Mang intellectualpointed out that if Dr. Ambedkar was really interested in theDalits, he should have encorhraged inter-marriage amongthe untouchables themselves, which Ambedkar did not propa[ate. Hencg the ideology of ihe Dalit movement ha,s failedto arouse and enthuse all the elements among the ScheduledCastes. On the contrary, it h{s accentuated the differencebetfueen them-3

In Maharashtra the elite among the Scheduled Castepopulation are trot drawn from a cross section of the diFferent groups that constitute tle Scneduled Castes. Amongstthem. one group which has be4etitted the most is the Mahirsand even among the Mahars, the group which has had thebest deal is the Mahar Buddhists.

According to Jayashree Gokhale there are 57 groupsamong the Scheduled Castes ifir Maharashtra Of thesg theMaharg the Mangs and Chamars constitute 907o of the totalScheduled Caste population Itr the field of education, thesethree groups secured 96.67o of ihe post-matric scholarships.Even among this group of threp, the Mahars who constitute35.ll7o ofthe Scheduled Castds had cornered g2g% ofthescholarships in 1967-1968. Thq Mang community which is33Yo of the Scheduled Caste po[ulation received j.g

Vo of thescholarships in 1967-1968. Thb Chamars with 22o/o of theScheduled Caste population obtained 9.9%. This comDara_tive data is not available for the fateryears. This disparity hasgenerated a degree of jealousy and animosity aeainst theMahars from the other schedqled caste groups

Casre Conflicts in Maharashrra 129

References

l. Jayant Lele ofthe Queens University. Kingston" Canada : "Caste' Class

and HegemonY dominance" (1984).

). Jayashrie B. Gokhale: "Evolution of Counter ldeology' Dalit con-

,"iourrr"r, in Maharashtra" (1984). (Univeniry of Delawars

Newark U.S.A)], IDIB.

CHAPIER 16

MARATHWADA AGITATION

In July 1977, tha Dalit fanthers (a group of militantScheduled Castes youth whfo seem io

-travi taken the

American Black Panthers as theirsemantic model) took adecision to secure for the Neoi.Buddhists all the concessionsas are enjoyed by the Sche(uled Caste peoplg includingthose in the Central Governmpnt services. they aiso d"man_ded renaming the Marath,wada University after Dr. BabaSaheb Ambedkar. Though a resolution was passed by theUniversity Executive Coun{il recommending that theUniversity be named after D4. Ambedkar, the S-enate at itsmeeting on 30th October, l97l did not consider the resolu_tion as the mover was absenL the isrue arsu-ed imponanceagain from May, 1978. The ndn-Dalit students body startedagitatin_gâgainsr the proposed change by the Dalits.bn2TthJury, IylE a resolution renamirlg the Marathwada Universityafter Dr. Baba Saheb Ambedldir was adopted unanimouslyboth in the Legislative Assemfly and Council The;ews ofthis decision was broadcast oter All India Radio the sameevening It has, however, nod yet been given effect to sofar.

As soon as the news about the change was announce4those sections of the student dommuniry-who were againstthe. change took the agitation tp the streits and attacked theresidences of the leaders ofthe Dalit panthers. A larse num-ber of Dalits were affected" Although the Dalit stuf;ents inurban areas took the initiative, !n the rural areas the asitationwas spearheaded by non-Dali]t communities. SomJ of theimportant features of the agit4tion were :

l) The state Administration was caught in a sudden andwidespread agitatioq whlch madJ it difficult to copewith it in the initial stagQs;

Malathwada Agitation 131

2\ Some Government functionaries in villages joined

hands in commining atrocities on Scheduled Castes

and Neo-Buddhists;3) Social workers and voluntary agencies'were con-

spicuous by their absence in bringing aboxt normality

and restoring confidence among the victims

One of the major faqtors responsible for heightening the

tension between the caste Hindus and Dalits was that a large

,r,r-b.. of "atte

Hindus in the rural areas whose economic

conditions were comparable to those of many of the

Scheduled Castes, were resentful of the co4cessions by way

of grant of lan4 job reservations and admission to prci*r-On"r institutioirs which were extended io the Scheduled

Castes.

Government property, particularly the State Transport

and the Railways were the main targets of attack-during the

aeitatioo During the agitation a total of 227 villages were

uifected of whic[ the Scheduled Castes in 169 villages were

atiacrcA The police had to resort to large-scale lathi-chargg

.rr. of t.u.gut and liring The situation was brought under

complete control bY August 7,1978'

The fate of the criminal cases arising out of the agitation

registered by the police makes a very depressing reading

eE"otAl"g io information received from a very authentic

ro"t"., o;t oft53 cases ofatrocities againstthe Harijans a4d

tfre f.,i"oSuadhists registered during the Marathwada

University agitation in six districts in 1978, 86 cases were sent

"p f"i t.,iL df these 85 were still pending lrial in March 1986

".ta ott. was withdrawn 58 cases were still under investiga-

ii.* witft such tardy follow up on cases of atrocities' one

*o"a"tt t"U"ttter thshalf-hearted criminal prosecution that

ir U.i"g t"**.d to by the police has- any retevanc.e to higher

.."i"i3U:..rites This situation carries its own indictment of

,i.i"uiJq"".ies and ineffectiveness of the Criminal Justice

SvstefiL *'hi.h i, in urgent need of repair' rejuvenation and

"J"" it"f transformaf,on to attune it to the wide and fast

changing socio'economic parameters in the country'

132 $ocrAl- cHANcE AND vroLENcE

The Marathwada agitatiQn of l97g recorded a benchmark in the history of inter-cabte conflicts in MaharashtraThat the caste Hindus were eitremely jealous about whatthey thought was the social ec0nomic arrd cultural progressmade by the Harijans and particularly the Mahars and theNeoBuddhists was evident froln the followino stnoanc rhprr

and colleges ?

Neo-t uddhists was evident fro[n the following slogans theyshouted while attacking the Mdhars and rhe Neoli-uddhistsand setting fire to their housesi ..Why

do you want to wearclothes better than ours ? Why do you want houses built ofbricks ? Why do you want ydur children sent to schools

M.B. Chitnis, a moderatt Dalit intellectual wrote :

"When one listens to the slogans of the perpetrators ofatrocities as narrated by the victims, one is transposed to thedays of the manusmriti....... all in tune with thi duties thatmanusmriti prescribed for the untouchables. This was theultimate social implication and result of the agitation spon,,sored by the urban intellect[.rals of Mara-thwadal'i. Afortnight of violence left deep soars also in the minds of theDalits in the other parts of the country. After the riots, whenthe Dalits took out protest marches. the slogans they shoutedwere : "Take back our citizenshlp; we have no mother land;casteists, keep your Hindustan fo yourself; this social orderhas to be changed, we rvant to bring social revolution.'2

The Dalit Panthers who weie in favour of the chanee ofname of the University decided Sn a programme to conv-ergeon Aurangabad on 6th Decertrber, 1929, the date of theAnniversary of the death of Df. Ambedkar. They were tocome from all over the country to change the nami board ofthe University forcibly. They callled this agitation the .longmarch'. The march was banned by the authorities. The procession was intercepted by the fiofice at several places. Inspite of these steps, more than 20.000 people assimbled atAurangabad on 5th Decembet 1979 in addition tb the localswho were in favour of a change in the name of the University.National leaders like Shri S.M. Joshi the wife and son ofthelate Dr. Ambedkar also participdted in the.long march' andcourted arrest

Mamthwada Agitation 133

The Mahars in'Marathwada are a newly emerging

group in a class spectrum ranging from the landless to mid-

ib .iutt professionals In each village, there are four to five

Mahar graduateg mostly unemployed

The caste tensions in rural Maharashtra continue in

varying degree of intensity' One among the several reasons

forihiJ is the refusal by the Scheduled Castes to continue to

perform unpleasant tasks including removal,of carcasses

and scavenging In one such incident' reported from Akola

district in January 1985, the members of the Matang com-

munity refused to do scavenging jobs The caste. Hindus

imposed a social boycott which resulted in depriving t\oMatang community of essential commodities' When thisboycotlfailed to bring the Matang community totheir kn€eq

th; Caste Hindus polluted the well which was the source ofthe drinking water for the Matangs.

The continuance of tension between the communities is

in spite of some steps taken by the State Government to keep

the differences from erupting into violence' Every district has

a Committee called'Dalshata' which meets every month to

look into cases of differences between the caste Hindus and

the Scheduled Castes A special cell in the office of the Direc-

tor General of Police deals with the complaints of Scheduled,

Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The general complaints ofthdpolice in resolving this matter is the delay in the disposal ofcases at the level of the Courts' Unless the Criminal Justice

System functions speedily, these complaints will not receive

sieedy disposal, which alone can make a significant dent insolving the Problern

References

1. S.P. Punalekat's paper: "Refl€ction on Violence in Maharashtra

R€gion'. He has quoted lvlB. Chitnis.

2. IBID.

CHAPTER 17

KARNATAKA-POLITICS AS ANINSTRUMENT OF CHANGE

James Manor has observbdl that the important pointabout caste dominance in Karhataka villages is that it tendsto be less severe and oppressiv$ in character than what existsin the villages of most of the other states of India...... Theharshness of dominance is furiher mitigated by the fact thateconomic disparities between the rich and the poor havebeen less wide.

Devraj Urs who came power iri 1972 as the Chief

until then considered as thedegree of influence. It is

not possible to say that any o socro-economlc group ls nowdominant in State politics in taka" "Some might wishto call this 'shared dominance' in my view, when power,isshared among so many none can be said to be

Minister of KarnatakaVokaligas and Lingayatsthe same time, alienatingand made the groupswhich r

disadvantaged ones, enjoy a

dominanl'2 Flowing fromimportant conclusions :

the dominance of thethe State politics withou! atcompletely. He went further

James Manor draws three

remained unaffected des-considered disadvataged

l)

2)

The coalition that D6vrai assembled is not only dif-ficult but can easily beThe dominance of theVokaligas) at the villagepite the groups which

groups (Lingayats and

exertlsrng power ln politics fsv sight years;3) TheVokaligas and cannot expect to get back

to their original level dominance io State politicsThis is because a large of disadvantaged per-sons have also gained to the bureaucracy a[ dif-

Kamataka-Politics as an Instrume of Change 135

ferent levels and they can be expected to look after the

interests of their groups within the Governmenl

Thus Karnataka can be said to have arrived at a level

where conflicts between the different castes or different class

within the same castes are not sharp' One perception df this

is that they have arrived at a stag€ of greater equilibrium inthe State and the types ofviolence by one caste gloup against

another, which continue to be a common phenomenon par'

ticularly in the States of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, are

therefore seldom in evidence in Karnataka. This is a classic

example of how astute political management affects the

socio-economic factors in ii manner which can reduce thelevel ofviolence as a concomitant of socio-economic changeIn a sense, it also proves that at a particular stage of socio-

economic chalgg caste factors can influsnce the complex-ion and direction of politics in a State. This pattern ofdevelopment further holds out the promise that the weaker

sections in some ofthe states can also hope to arrive at a level

of socieeconomic development comparable with the levels

of similar groups in Karnataka- ln sho4 Karnataka'sexperience proves the primacy of politics as an agent ofpeaceful change. Devraj Urs, during his office, with the co-

operation of the disadvantaged groups implemented hispolicy of change gradually and in the process was able to

introduce substantial reforms. The social disabilities that theScheduled Castes have had to face in Karnataka have been

much less than in other states.

Some of the factors that contributed to socioeccnomictransition stated by James Maoor are : "Devraj Urs initiatedschemes to provide houses for the poor, pensions for theaged, assistance in lean months to persons heavily depen'

dent on labour, child development programmes for poorgroups extending from the antenatal stage to school going

agg pressure to ensure that a large proportion ofschool-agedchildren from disadvantaged groups received some educa-

tiolL pressure on police to deal more evenly with vulnerablegoups, pressure on employers to comply with the minimum


wage law, initiatives to reduce indebtedness among thepoor and to provide sources ofcredit and the ban-ning of performance ofScheduled Castes people.

degrading tasks by the

sizeable portion of political towards the power groups.This was less widely and less easily discerniblethan his new reformist But as Urs himselfstated- it mav have had as an impact as all of them puttogether. In contrast to this, conditions in Bihar have

cian Frankel : "Most Con-been put very succinctly bygress worker$ showed little

backward groups, did notVokaligas or Lingayats. Heward classes eligible for

also re-directed the flow of

of commitment to State

alienate or antagonise thethe Vokaligas among back-ial concessions from the

development or to the welf of Biharis that transcendedkin-ship groups from whichlloyalities to castq comm

they were drawn The party for success at the polls oncaste leaders, who had large in their own groupand could also e xploit t ties."

Devraj Urs, in spite of th$ favour that he showed to the

Government Devraj Urs p ed the game of patronagepolitics with consummate ety. He distributed patronageby creating opportunities for his rivals to enrich themselvesas member$ of various Government Boards qndCommittees.

Devraj Urs was the arc{itect of the Karnataka LandReform Laws ofl974. The authenticity of his social concernwas evident from the numbeh of Land Tribunals he con-stituted, which at one stage stood at fwo hundre4 at the rate ofone for each taluk and even mere than one in one taluh if ihependency of applications see$ing conferment of ownershiprights to tenants warranted it pevraj Urs sought to give prac-tical shape to the concept of"n and to the Tillei' through theinstitution of tr and Tribunals. lThe Tribunals were instructedto exercise their discretion in favour of the tenants as a mat-ter of policy. Of the eight lak$ applications filed before theTritunalq more than threefofrrths have been disposed of

Kamataka-Politics as on Instrument of Change 137

How signifrcant and purposeful c.hanges can bebrought about in the socioeconomic scene through themeans of Institutional infrastructure devised for the purposewas more than amply demonstrated in Karnataka in theimplementation of Land Reforms This also proved thatpolitical leadership, when it is sincere and well-meaningcanachieve results which would benefit the deprived and thedepressed sections of society without provoking any serioussocial teqsions and violence" Some of the safeguards provided in the implementation of the Land Reforms in Karnataka are : The tenants could pay up the occupancy price inb lump sum or in twenty years in annuities Once the LandTribunal granted occupancy rightg the civil court sjurisdic-tion did not extend to the decisions and orders of theTribunals. The appearance of lawyers at any stage of theTribunafs proceedings was barred. The only interventionpermitted was an approach to the High Court through a writpetition under Article 226 or 227 of the Constitution on theground of the order of the Tribunal being violative of naturaljustice. There was no appeal against the decision of theTribunals which were quasi-judicial bodies

Since the non-official members of the Tribunals were

drawn from the same taluks, it gave scope for the vested

interests to influence events But the Government coul4 onits own initiate remedial action by removing the suspect

member and reconstitute the Tribunal Even sq that a few ofthe membbrs of the Tribunals had misused their powers isevident from the fact that the Fligh Court had passed severe

strictures against them in their capacity as Tribunal mem-bers and who later happened to occupy important positionsin public life. With all its failings and imperfectiong themanner in which Land Reforms in Karnataka wasimplemented under Devraj Urs proves that with adequatesafeguards and appropriate institutional infrastructure provisions at the administrative level capable of responding toproblems, social change can be brought about withminimum pain That a responsive and an enlightenedGovemment should keep such institutions in constant and


continuous state of repair, and even innovation isbrougbt out by the decision of the present Govemment(1986) in Karnataka to set up Appellate Tribunals totake charge of the problems from the decisions oftheLand Tribunals at the levels This addition to theinfrastructural arrangement a direct sequel to the stric-tures that the Karnataka Hieh passed against some ofthe decisions of the Land including the one inwhich one of the Ministershimself involved TheCourt judgenent

programme for release and rein Karnataka was looked into

the State Gove rnment wasiesigned following the High

in the State, It has also itscomrption, which in turn

ofbonded labourthe Public Accounts Com-

In spite of the foregoing picture of the state of thesociety in Karnatak4 it be wrong to conclude thatthere are no flaws in thisshare of maladministrationgenerate the kind of in the form of injus-tice and affront to human . According to a report the

mittee of the State It had noticed severalirregularities which point to very disturbing trends.According to the report to the State Assembly inJuly, 1985, rehabilitation had been sanctioned onlyto half of the 62,000 workers as in bondage andreleased thereafter while the ngmber actually provided withgainful employment worked oqt to hardly 30%. In monetaryterms, utilization was less thand5% of the sanctioned amountIt has been alleged that there is I nexus between bureaucraticminions and the middlemen uiho were responsible for mis-appropriation of funds. That they could set up bogusbeneficiaries and hire milch cattle for a day to enact arehabilitation drama was a reflection on the integrity of theadministration The P.AC. had observed that the StateGovernment had to initiate mehsures to make the watch dogpanels function well

Urtouchability is very mu{h alive in Karnataka thoughthe disputes afising between thle Harijans and caste Hindus

Kamataka-Polirics as an Instrument ol Change 139

is handled promptly by the Police which prevents these

incidents from assuming more serious dimensions' Further,

according to the staement of the Home Minister of the State,

the Superintendent of Police of the District is held respons-

ible personally for the safety of the Harijans. The Superin-

tendents of Police usually visit the spots of trouble and

ensure appropriate action against the offenders' This has

certainly helped in keeping the violence down to the

minimum.

lf the incidents of violence on account of caste lensions

is less in Karnataka it has much to do with better political

management of the State by Devraj Urs during the 1970s and

the tr;ditional arrangement that were inherited from the

princely State of Mysore. Even so, untouchability is a fact of'

iife though it continues without much overt violence' But

even the extent to which it is practised should be treated as

violence to the feelings of the victims- This is an area where

new institutional safeguards need to be devised as the exist-

ing ones have failed to eradicate the evil. This observation is

valid for most States in the country.

t.

2.

References

James Manor: "Caste. Clasr dominance ard Politics in a cohesive

society' (1984).

IBID.

-I

CHAPJER 18

GUJARATTHE THREE AGITATIONS OF

1974,1981AND 1985

- _ _ The caste composition of the population of Gujarat is asfollowings :

brahminsVaniasRajputsPatidars (Patels)Kolis (Kshatriyas)Scheduled CastesScheduled TribesMuslims

4.06%2.96%4.850/o

12.l6yo2422%

7.17Yo

t7.6Yo

8.53%

Kolis forrn the largest class cluster in Gujaral They callthemselver Kshatriyas The Kolis (Kshatriyas) are differentfrom the Rajputs.

The improvement registere[ by the Scheduled Castes ofGujarat in the freld ofeducation has been apDreciable. TheScheduled Castes and the Schgduled Tribej Lave certainlvavailed of the facilities extencied by the Government foreducation as could be seen fror{r Annexures F_1, F_2,.F andF-3. The Scheduled Castes have I literacy rate of30.7% whichis second only to Kerala whifh has S5.g% literacy. TheScheduled Caste urban popul{tion in Gujarat is also thehtClt...:t among all the Stateg being 27.i%. The greatermobility of the Scheduled Cast{s has certainly affecred theavailable opportunities of emplQyment which are becomingincreasingly scarce

The Scheduled Castes of eujarat traditionally sufferfrom several disabilities. Untolrchability continues to be

t&

Guiamt - The Three Agitations of 1974' I98I and 1985 t4l

Dractised in several villages. Access to temples' houses and

Iftoot it not permitted- There are separate sources of water

,uooln. En.tt-to, the Scheduled Castes have begun to assefl

;;;;.G" ln tire village Golana in Khera district the Hari-

i""t "ti.*""ited

the loial Rajputs by forming cooperatives

irrrrt.it "it r" the resultant ciis[ 4 Harijans were shot dead

arrJseuerat i"iured on 25th January 1986' -From

far.and near

in irt. St"t* Fiarijans converged on the village to-show their

..fii"tlry. Wft.ttitt. Ctti.f Uinister visited the village on the

Reoublii Day, he was presented with a mernorandum which

t"Ja, "et wi citizensof this country ? If we are' we want to

i. "li"*.a

to five with dignity' We want nobody's pity' We

just want our rights."

In the frrst two decades following independencg mem-

bers of the dominant caste such as the Vanias' the Patels and

itte *urt.i"r, derived maximum benefits from the various

Jevelopmental programmes' It is only since then that the

S.tt.i.if.O Cu.tes, tf,e Scheduled Tribes and the other Back-

ward Castes have come to avail themselves of the benefits'

;;;;,h.ffi;tai" quit. far from enjoving their full share of

tft. Wti-"t. entitiements arising out of the reservations

policy.' itr. size of the urban middle class in Gujarat employed

in industries, in public and private sectors' urban centreE

o.tW-Urrrin"rr; and small-scaie industries has increabed in

L..'"iv.utt. Exact statistical data are not available' Accord'

il;;';; estimate workers employed in organized and

uriotluniteA tectors have increased from 8'9 lakhs in 1966 to

i+ fuiftt in 1982. A large part of them consist of Vanias'

brJ-l"t and Patidari' ih"t" "tt also a number of

dei.a"r.a Castes, Scheduled Tribes and Other Backward

Casiet IOSC$, though their proportion. is small' Between '

197S and 198a ihe numbe. of uttemployed persons registered

i" .rnpfoyrn.nt exchanges in Cujarat had almost doubled :

ilsip,fu;ii9?s to 6Jl,d'00 in 1984. Among the unemploved

oaoo"t as many as 59yo were educated The middle class of

ift. "pplt ""a

the middle castes were adversely affected"by

the riie in the number of educated unemployed This was

142

attributed to the policy ofGovernmenL The "roste r systemaccelerated the chances of rrCastes and the Scheduled Trithe middle castes who had to bis ndt unusual for Scheduledemployees trained by the upperrise above these senior officerstime thereby giving rise to jealothose who are left behind Thethe agitations of l98t and 1985launched by the Navnirmanmiddle class drawn from allagitations of 1980-81 and 1985drawn from the upper and the

Gujarat haq seen three1974 and 1985. The circumstacrisis of 1974 were steep price risewas alleged in the Vidhan Sabhawas responsible for the highGujaral P.N. shethl has referredthe middle class students in theto maladministration and cowere followed by Gujarat Bandh43 towns and cities, spread overunder curfew for 37 hours. Therethe police and the people. Sixthat took place. The RepublicGujarat in 1974. Students, teacin the agitations The agitationChiefMinister, followed by the

This was the f,rrst agitation ofany political party initiating orcourse" This ig however, not toderived no mileage.from the agialso unique in the sense that it trbarriers The middle ciasses of castes, and communities

CHANEE AND VIOLENCE

3rvation followed by thein government jobs furthermobility to the Scheduledas against the upper and

their time for promotiorl Itand Scheduled Tritres

caste senior employees tonselves within a shortand heartburn among

pact of this was evident inWhile the 1974 agitation

iti was spearheaded by thethe anti- reservationby the middle class

rmediate castes.

rtant agitations betweenwhich precipitated the

and scarcity conditions Itoutside that comrptionprice of edible Oil irr

the rise in the mess biil ofs which was attributed

tion A series of Bandhs26thJanuary,l974 whenthirds of the Statg came

open clashes betweenle were killed in the firingy was not celebrated inand lawyerq participatedto the resignation of the

ion of the Assembly.

kind organised withoutiding and controlling itsthat the political partieson This agitation was

caste and class

Gujamt - The Three ,4gitations of 1974, l98l and 1985 t43

participated in the agitation' Yet another unique feature was

itt"i otii"g to the ciriumstances under which the then Chief

Mittitt.t Jf Guiarat, Chimanbhai Patel' had come to power'-tt.

tt"a antagonised party authorities at the Centre which

;;; ;Ji.dly fueilea ihe agitation which eventuallv

ir""grtt irtt Ivtinistry down' The Centre had pressurised the

culuiu, Government by a steady reduction in the supply of

;;;;;"; ;.. to Gujaiat and aiso bv refusing prmission to

the State Government to purchase foodgrains from Punjab

"iJiirty""" As againit this, the Central allocation of

ioodsrain was stepped up month by month after the resigna-

,i"" li irr. uinisiry. This provides a new. dimension to

uili."." as a by-proiuct of thi faction rrght within the dingpu.ty. fnit phinbmenoq though not very frequent deserves

io bi watched in the country in future'" "A;;d;ion of 1980-19b1 was the direct outcome of the

reservatioi issue. The middle classes belonging to the upper

.uti.t, ttu*.ty, Brahminq Patidars, Vanias and others were

t rpo".iif. for launching the agitation.in.December' 1980

asainsr the policy of reservation of seats in the post'graduate

rirAl.t in Medicine. The agitation continued for three mon-

ti"-dfurft.t t..ke out betwien the students and others ofthe

6.l.aui.J C"ttes and Scheduled Tribes on the one side and

tior. U.fo"gi"g to the upper castes on the other' Though

;;;;;i";"Jttot uuotiitttd the Government gave.certain

"on..rriot , to the agitating medical student$ who had

i;i;;ti";".hed thJagitation against the iese.rvation of

r."t* i" this agitation the middle class got split between

tftot. U.fo"gi"g-to the upper castes and the backward castes

This is in shirpcontrast to the !974 agitation whenthe entire

middle class spectrum cutting across ca'ste lines had com-

;il-d1" urinj ao*tt the GoiernmenL In the agitition of

tiSo-ts8f ; thJuts of the Scheduled Castes were set orr Iire

and they were beaten up in the rural areas of iAhmedabad

unO iuL"Otu"agar disiricts Moie than a dozen Harijans

lost their lives Benveen mid-April and mid-May' l' 981' about

i6 -;;it,

families in Ahmedabad qmbraced Buddhisn

Accordine to Babal Bhai Mehta and his band of Sarvodaya

*oii.tt tift" tured 29 villages of Central Gujarat in'April

t44 CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

l98l the Harijans in the were harassed and dis,t by upper caste farmers.bad split into Dalit Hit-

crintinated against forEven the mill workers ofraksha Samiti and Sawarna ha Samiti. This wasindeed a body blow to the Mahajan Trade Union

which had more than 3started by Gandhiji 60 years agolakh mill workens as its membe

On the basis of the Baxi ittee reporg the StateGovernment had provided for I reservation to the'otherBackward Castes. This was t to be raised by another

Commission's report in18% on the basis of theJanuary 1985. Though the Ranecaste as a measurement of backr

Commission had rejectedrdness, the Government

rejected the major recommen tion of rhe Commissionwhich dealt with income as the ick of backwardness.while accepting the recomm tion of the reservationquota That this announcement otion quota was more a gimmickin the Assembly elections tharthe actual use that had beenvation. The table below.is self- lanatory:

UTILIZA ONPercentage availed

an increase in the reserva-o derive political mileageimminent is evident.[romofeven the existing reser-

Scheduled CastesScheduled CasresScheduled TribesScheduled TribesOther Backward Castrs l0Other Backward Castes

.k.

7

l4

1984 .

19856.5

6.4

5.81A

5.0

6.6

6.5

3.46

4.5

4.05

6.163,5

fhe_immediare-provocarion fpr rhe l9g5 agirarioqr wasthe statement made by Gujaratquota ofreservation forthebagt*upa ca.teri.omiO roZS p..cent Withorrt nii.ri-i";.- 'i^ ^f-.-.:r---.,lf-lt Ii,hgy,.minimisi'ng tie cbntributir"

"iir,.-pi*rgservatronists in promoting and c{ntinuing the agitation of1e85, it needs to be poiritej bu;,lj;il6îli;;.i'i""r ,r,"

Gujarat - The Three Agitations ol 1974' 1981 and 1985 145

course that it did bacause of several extraneous factors' An

i*oo"unt factor was the dissidence within the ruling party'

il:;il;;ho had wielded power earlier-and.who fopnd

themrel,res suddenly but of the Ministry had their own axes

;;;;t"d t" gMng the agitation an extra edge of vandalism

and what was worse, a communal turn The dissident

,tl.ntt in the ruling party apparently want€d to.settle their

lJti-,i"ut r.or.t wittr'tni Ctrief Ministerwho had the temerity'".ii" i".i"a. them in his Cabitret Though the events that

rio.t *t-.Aabad for more than live months from Feb'

*uty fSgS onwards may have 'had their origin in certain

,""giti. and identifiabli reasons, soon these look courses

*tri"ctr couta not be controlled- This was largely because of

ili it"p""t "fteveral

imponderable factors arising out ofthe

"rfiti"l"f ambition and greed of individuals and groups who

i-pi"ir.a the situation to derive personal and group

benefits

The threemember fact-finding team of the Ed-itor's

AoitArtttlcttuisitedAhmedabad during the agitation of 1985

"1*foa.a that the agitation had been the creation of

ioiiii.iu".. According to the report of the tearnP : "The Chief

t{f"lt"..-.. frimsetf ltayed politics when just- bêfore the

itui. ntt..ufv poll hi announced an additional 18 per cent

,.r"*utlo" foi the backward castes' This was only a ploy to

uii*", "o,.t because the Chief Minister took no steps to

imolement his announcement"" The misuse of the police

i"G.tt .i p"litical ends has implied an erosion of dis'

"iorit" itt the potice force of Gujarat" The team also found

;;;;;t;;";e in the allegation that the communal riots

fruJ t"." engineered at some level of the Government to

aiu"., ,fr. uit.rrtio.t from caste conflicts and the anti-

reservation agitation

ln both the 1981 and 1985 agitations the middle classes

of the upper castes had an edge ove the middle classes ofthe

i.tt.i"i"'Jc"ttes and the Scheduled Tribes in terms of their

rfto ,tt.L*"lty and their resources' As against this' the mid-

at. .turr.. of the backward castes, Scheduled Castes and

l6 CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

Scheduled T.nbes were from their caste fellowswho were poor and were not of getling any advan-tage out ofthe teservation po in their life time. Therefore.the bottom strata ofthe casteg the Scheduled Cas-tes and the Scheduled Tribes indifferent to the agita-tion This is a very important significant feature. Thoughcaste has its attraction in a distinct and separateidentity of the people of that apparently it is not caF

disparties between vary.within the same group,

able of transcehding theing degrees of economic afflsave in exceptional

The politics of Gujarat brought into being a newalignment of castes and comm ties which if repeated inother States is likely to affect th course and complexion of

To counter the move of thethe pattern of life in thesePatelg who swung from the to the Janta Party in1975, one of the political of Gujarat conceived the

Harijang Adivasis and thestrategy of combining KshaMuslims into what came to be as the KHAM

ln the 1985 assembly poll t of the lz19 Congress MLAsin Gujarat 100 belonged to and OBCs (Other Back-

found themselves inward Castes). The upperdanger of losing politicaltheir hands and into thewhile they continued to domistate. For oncg the politicalthe have nots of today and vice versa in Gujarat

The caste war in Gujaratin a violent form with the

e once again to the sufrace

culturists on a wide scale inlen assertion of the agri-b" 1987 . This disrupted life

completely in rnany districtspolice firing in Ahmedabad"

a few people were killed in

the intermediate caste led byeconomic as political In a way

cause of this assertion bypatidars was as much

e farmers' agitation of 1987was the rural vefsion of the anti- agitation stagedin 1985 in the ulban centres of

which had slippect out ofof backward castes, eventhe ecortomic scene in theof yesterday have become

Whatever hopes tfte

Gujarat - The Thre Agintions of 1974, l9E| and 1985 147

Patidar led intermediate castes had of regaining the earlier

dominance were belied by the congress victories of the

KHAM in the district and taluk panchayat poll held in

January 1987. In the 1985 Assembly elections the congress

oartv had sarnered 55.54% of votes. Its share at the distdct

i.n.i in the-Panchayat poll came down to 50'77% and at the

taluka level to a stiil lowet 47.75Yo' This was an indication

that. the intermediate caste cannot be written off at the

lo6al level3

Whether or not the two groups, one of which has the

oolitical power while the other continued to command the

iconomic resources are able to arrive at a peaceful and har-

monious relationship, is the point at issue' On the answer to

this will depend whether the public life of Gujarat will be

marked by peace or by endemic violence'

Even though the antireservation agitators had won a

point which wJuld certainly have a serious impact on the

Lackward castes, it cannot be said that the last has been

heard or said on tbe subjet To the extent that the accord bet-

ween the agitators and the Government had no relevance to

the intrinsii merits of the casg the accord could also be upset

by yet another agitation if mounted with the same sustained

vigourby those who are affected adversely by the accord' The

ariti-reservation agitation found its reaction among the

backward castes and the tribals when they demonstrated

their strength by taking out an impressive procession

estimated ai 1.5 Kilometer long in August, 1985' They warned

the Government against the termination of the roster systen

The Press also played the role of a catalyst in fuelling the

agitation of 1985 and came under very severe attack both

from the police and the pro-reservationists'

The Gujarat agitation ofl985 lasted for 150 days' duringwhich morethan 215 lives were sacrificed The loss to busi-

ness and industry was estimated at more than Rs 2,200/-

crores. The loss and the inconvenience suffered by the

students was an additional cost

l4g socrA[ cHANcE AND I.rOLENCE

Refereirces

l. P.N. Sherh: "Political Change in India" (1977).2. Report of the Edirors' Guitd on tde riots in ahmedabad ( l9g5).3. Times of India Lucknow dared March 24. 1997.

CHAPTER 19

RESERVATION AS AN ISSUE

As of now the country has had only the first dose ofviolence in Gujarat on the issue of reservation The Mandal

Commission report on the subject of reservation is still to be

c-orrsidered by ihe State Govemment's Whether or not it is

i-pf.-t"t.A its recommendations have the potential for

violence. In the meantime public opinion is being built up in

favour of its implementatioo in Uttar Pradesh' A massive

oroces.ion was taken out by the people of all the Backward

Lmmunities, including Scheduled Castes' in Lucknow inDecember, 1986 demanding its early implementation How

and when this peaceful demand will degenerate into

violence and intercaste conflict remains to be seen But the

ffends are ominous.

That the Uttar Pradesh Government has views on reseF

vation which are different from those of some other State

Governments which have been referred to here is evident

from its communication to the Centre in 1983' An extract

from the communication is reproduced below:

*To use backward class and backward castes as

mutually exchangeable is neither rational nor fair"'"' It isti-. to i*"-itte Jarefully the appropriateness and the ade

ouacv of measures adopted so far by the various states to

ilprir* the conditionJ of the socially and educationally

Uaik*utO "tatses.

The nation s responsibility towards them

does not end with reservation in jobs' Such measures may

not produce any signifrcant difference in- thelives of the vast

*"l6art of the-soJialy oppressed and deprived sections ofthJ commuftity. Bolder and more radical measures are

;;"dJ a. .r""i. uo equitable andjust social systern"l

t49

In Karnatak4 the Second Classes Commis-sion chaired by Shi T. V y had been appointed inApril 1983 by the JanataHedge to review the existing

ef Minister, Ramakrishnapolicy in that State.

The Commission recomm a reduction in the numberof benefi ciary communities caste groups and iri the per-centage of reservation as a e. The total reservations

Scheduled Castes andrecommended excluding thScheduled Tribes dropped liom existing 507o to27o/o. The

t within the benefit ofVokkaligas who had been breservation by Devraj Urs wereled.to an agitation The Hegdeagitation was to reject the V

iso

rivalries. In spite of some ofCommission's report was the

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

in the new list Thisent s reaction to the

on of the traditional castefaults, the Venkataswamy

taswamy Commission'sreport completely and issue a Government order whichwould remain valid for three During this period ofthree years. yet another Co on would give its reportsetting out more precise guideli es for reservation. The netresult of the Heede t's policy on reservation is

the Lingayats have beenthat both the Vokkalieasbrought within the ambit ofbenefit of it will be confinedwithin different income limitsAccording to one estimatg 89%now eligible for reservation in

reservation though thethe categories who come

upon their caste.the State's population are

tional institutions and92o/o for govemment jobg subj to an income limit of Rs.10,000/- per arnum.

It is diflicult to resist the coVenkataswamy Commission s

usion that by rejecting thert totally the Karnataka

Government was plumbing m re for short term politicalgains than for long term resol

serious attempt made inindependent India to take acco nt of the mobility of castes

s on the basis ofand classes and determine bac

Resenation as an Issue 151

Government's controversial scheme of reservation for the

Backrrard classes, superseding the report of the Venkatas-

wamy Commission "The document argues that the new

policy maintained the total percentage-of resrevation at the

."*e leto"l as before (68%)' It maintained that castes and

communities had been categorised under five different

groups to ensure that the advanced groups among the back-

ivardclasses did not comer all the benefits. With the income

ceiling taken into account, 55o/o to 60o/o of the population

woulJbe entitled to benefits under Article 15 (4) and 16 (4) ofthe Constitution'.2

The fact that the two dominant communities such as the

Vokkaligas and Lingayats wanted to be included within the

privilegJd groups inspite of the progress that they h-ave made

ln the iduJational and social fields is indicative ofthe trend

that reservation as a policy is going to be with us for a very

long time to come with unpredictable consequences, all ofwhich may not be conductive to peace in the country'

It would be worthwhile to read the latest order of the

Karnataka Government on the subject of reservation in the

context of the judgement of the Supreme Court delivered inthe case of R Balaji Vs. State of Mysore (Gajendragadkar J)

AIR 1963 Supreme Court 649 (V 50 C 101) 28th September,

1962.The Bench consisted of B.P. Sinha' C.J', P'B' Gajen-

dragadkar, KN. Wanchoq KC Das Gupta and J.C' Shalf

J.J. the judgement established certain very important prin-

ciples wlich continue to be valid even to'day. The principles

oi the policy guidelines enunciated by the Karnataka

Government in its recent order cannot be said to be consis-

tent with the judgement as the extracts reproduced belowwillshow.3

"The backward classes for whose improvement special

provision is contemplated by Article 15 (4) 19 i11tte matter

oftheir backwardness comparable to Scheduled Castes and

Scheduled Tribes.... The backwardness is not either social oreducational but it is both social and educational""" Special

t52 CHANGE AND YIOLENCE

provision is contemplated for of citizens and not forindividual citizens as such and sq though phe caste of thcgroup of citizens may be its importance should notbe exaggerated If the of backward classes ofcitizens was based solely on the caste of the citizens it maynot always be logical and may contain the vice ofperpetuating the cates

2) "Ifth€ caste ofthegroup citizens was made the solebackwardness of the saidbreakdown in relation to

basis for determining thegroup, that test would imany sections of Indian society do lrot recognise castein the conventional sense to Hindu society. How isone going to decide whether M Christians or Jains oreven Lingayats are socially or not?..... Thoughcaste in relation to Hindus maysider in determining the socialclasses of citizens" it cannot benant testultimateextent

a relevant factor to con-of groups or

the sole or the domi-in that behalf backwardness is in the

analysis the result poverqy b a very large

3) "Classofcitizenswhose ofstudent populationwas the same orjust below stateeducationally backward..... It is

cannot be treated ascommunities which are

well below the state average that properly be regardqdas educationally backward of citizens

4) "It would be extremely unrfasonable to assume that inenacting Article 15 (4), the Constitution intended to providethat where the ailvancement of the backward classes or theScheduled Casteis and Tribes waC coneerned the fundamen-tal rights of the citizens which constitute the rest of thesociety were to be completely and] absolutely ignored-..... Theinterest of the weaker sections of pociety...... have tobe adjus.ted with the interest of the comdunity as a whole.

5) "Speaking generally and iri a broad way a special pro-vision should be less than 50%, how much less than 50%

Wrwtbn as an Istue 153

would depend upoo the releYant prevailing circumstances in

each case.

6) "On 3lst July, 1962 the State passed the impugned

order which supersedes all previous orders Under this order,

the backrrard ilasses are divided into two categories:

l) Backward Classes and2) More Backward Classeq

The effect of this order is that?S% is rcserved for back-

ward classes secalled arld 22% for more backward classes

The reservation of 15% and 3% for the Scheduled Ca3tes and

Scheduled Tribes respectively continues to be the same' The

result of this order is that 68% of the seats for technical

colleges is reserved.'.. It is necessary to addthat th9 *fclassification made by the order, between backward classes

and moie backward classes does not appear to be justiliod

unde r Article 15 (4).'.. in introducing two categories of back-

ward classes what the impugrred ordel in substancg pur-

ports to do is to devise measures for the benefit of all the

classes of citizens who are less advanced compared to the

most advanced classes in the State and that, in our opinion'

is not the scope of Article 15 (4)'.. Classification o,f the two

categories therefore is oot.warranted by Article 15 (4)'

7) "It would cause grave prejudice to natiorral-interest ifconsiderations of merit are completely excluded by whole

sale reservation of seats in all technical institutions

Therefore, consideration of national interest and the interest

of the community or society as a whole cannot be ignored indetermining the question as to whether the special provision

contemptatid byArticle 15 (4) can exclude the rest of the

society altogether.

8) "The impugned order in the present case has cate

gorised the baclwird classes on the sole basis ofcaste which

in our opinion is not permitted by Article 15 (4); and we have

also held that the reservation of 68% made by the impugned

order is plainly inconsistent with the concept of the special

provision authorised by Article 15 (4)' Thcreforg it follows

154

that the impugned order is apower conferred on the State

The Andhra Pradeshan order increasing thetion in jobs and college seatsapparently wa$ a shrewdDesam Government togress party to exploit theposes. The Government's orderagitation by the anti-when the High Court set asidedelivered on September 5, 1986Pradesh High Court held thatenhancing the backward castesand college seats was uncojudgement among the backwarddable. But their agitation todid not take off

Both in Gujarat and inreservationists were able to havefor by the fact that while intainly gave in to the pressure frocommunitieg in Andhrarescue of the anti-resewatijudgement came as a relief tocase may have eventuallythose who enjoyed both

The concept of reservationpositive discrimination by thejudgements on this conceptrelevant in the overall conceptthey are referred to here.

In a case of positiveSupreme Court of the UnitedDouglas, in his dissenting j t had observed : "There

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

ud on the ConstitirtionalArticle 15 (4)."

issued in July 1986Classes' quota of reserva-

25Yo to 44%. This ordermove by the Telugu

a likely move by the Con-on issue for political pur-

followed by a Statewidewhich lasted six weeks

the order. In a judgementfull bench of the AndhraState Governmenf s order

of resewation in jobsional The reaction to this

youth was understan-against the judgement

Pradesh the anti-eir way. This is accounted

the Government cer-the economically affluentthe judiciary came to the

In a sense, the High CourtGovernme nt who in anvbed to the pressures of

c and political power.

referred to as the poliry ofnerican judiciary. Theirt a point of view which is

justice and equity. Hence

n reported from theof Americ4 Justice

Raenation as an Issue 155

is no superior person by constitutional standards' Defunis

who is White is entitled to no advantage by reason of that

fact Nor is he subject to any disability' no matter what his

race or colour. Whatever his race i$ he has a constitutionalright to have his application considered on its individualmirit in a rational and neutral manner. A segregated admis-

sion process creates suggestions of stigma and caste no less

than a segregated class room and in the end it may produce

that result despite its contrary intentions One other assump

tion must be clearly disapproved that Blacks or Browns can-

not make it on their individual merit This is a stamp ofinferiority that a State is not permitted to place on any

Lawyel'. Defunis was a White applicant for a Law School

and despite the fact that he had higher markg a Black appli'cant was preferred to Defunis, apparently in an effort to give

an impression of fair representation to the Blacks in the

School admissions.

In another important case of positive discriminationreported from the United States of America Allan Bakkg aWhite candidate was denied admission to a Medical School

even though he had higher marks than the Black who had

secured admission Four Judges ruled the speciai pro'gramme as violative of equality, while four oihers upheld itSo the decisive opinion was of the 9th Judge' Mr. Justice

Powell Justice Powell while generally approving of the

legitimacy of the preferential process ruled that "there is a

measure of iniquity in forcing innocent persons in respoir'

dent's (Allan Bakke) position to bear the burden of redress-

ing grievances not of their making"

Thus, on the subJect of reservation what so far has

triumphed in the three States of Gujara! Andhra Pradesh

and Karnataka as a result of the agitations mounted by thepro and anti-reservationists, is not the principle of reserva'

tion in its basic desirability and rationality as a means.to

usher in a society based on social justicg but in effect the

volume and violence of pressure mounted by the morearticulate and influential among the communities whose


perception of the concept of ation is vastly tlifferentof the Government and

communities. Theof it is extremely sensi.

more so by using it as a toolof political expediency. As e ts have turned oul we are' tending to vest the concept ofcharacter which it should not l

ion with a politicalve. The only sound reason

for resorting to it is socio.econ c considerations. By givingit a political dimensiorl we are not only undermining thestrength and stability of the itical process of an infant

ing violence in the soil

from the national policy imperthe basic requirements of theissue ofreservation in the very nrtive without our having tb make i

democracy but are also impJwhich will plague us for years

l.

2.

References

The extract of the State Governmeiu letter addressed to rhe Centrequoted by N.C Saxena and Imtia{ A}med in their paper: ..CasrgLand and Polirical Power in Unar lradesh ( l9g4).The Hindq a nadonal daily. Dt Ttfr December, 19g6.Judgement ofthe Supreme Court in the case of R Balaii Vs State ofMysore (Gajendragadkar J) ALR t]96: Supreme Court e,+e 1V SO Cl0l) (1986).

PARTV

CHAPTER20

CONCLUSION AI\D POLICYIMPLTCATIONS

In the course of this study, I have not uncovered any

startling truths I have not propounded any profound

thoories. I have offered no simple solution to thc several

difficult problems. I have merely attempted 1o catalogue a

few specfic instances from the field on tbe basis of whichcertain ormple conclusions have been drawn They are

wortb taking note of, aod being acted upon if we are to

develop as a secular, egalitarian and sound democracy'

Some of the broad conclusions that emerge fmm thisstudy are:

A democratic Government rules not so much by the

continuous use of power as by the social sanction behindits authority but this authority will not be effective at the

level of the people if the Goveroment exercising it fallsshort of the basic moral character which is what ultimatelyvests a government with legitimacy. The manner in whichthe Gujarat Government used the reservation issue, more

as a ploy to derive political advantage rather- than as a

matter oi genuine concern for the welfare of the back-

ward castes and groups raised certain very valid and

serious doubts regarding the intentions behlnd the

Government's decisions To that extent, the moralauthority of the Government sulfered a demonstrable

damage- This in no small measure cotrtributed to the

equivocation and prevarication which characteriscd the

157

isg !o.^r.ror*ou AND vroLENcE

handling of the agitation by tfre Governmen[ and that inturn contributed to the dur[tion and the intensity ofviolence.

Both in 19f4 and in 1985the Government's stand on

demonstrated that ifissues is not based on

reason and justice a political party having a majority inbe of litrle avail in sustain-the Legislature by itself

ing a particular council of in power. In a democ-ratic dispensatiorU it is the practicg and the right

agitations to ventilate popof political parties toular demands The agitations 1974, l98l and 1985 werehowever launched and seennot by political parties butmany of whom did not have

successfully

is, however, not to suggest thatdifferent pursuasigns did not on the bandwagon asand when they found the good These agitations

tutionalised politics canamply demonstrated that non-be successfully played ii ainolved have the support of

way when the issuessections of the people.

In a democracv the cannot be taken for gran-ted and decisions that affect thf interests oflarge segmentsof the population cannot taken lightheartedly ongrounds of political . This is particularly sowhen the Government has to deal with piople who areeducate4 enlightened and looking and have thecapacity to organize at short notice The peopleof Gujarat have proved that pay even though inthe process the people have to pay a very heavy price.

individuals and groupspolitical affiliation Thispolitical party leaders of

The successive agitations if Gujarat in l974,l9gl andagain in 1985 pose a serious {ilemma which all seriousstudents of public affairs havd to face' and on the issueinvolved arrive at some workafle conclusions. Judged bythe eventual outcome of each [ne of these agitatiolns, dowe condemn or condone the agitational methodsemployed in spite of the violen{e that was integral to each

159Conclusion and Policy Implicatiotts

one of these agitations? Unless the dilemma is resolved

iationally in thJ context of securing justice as people see itit would seem that violence will continue to have relevance

in the scheme of things Contexts such as these seem togive relevance and rinewal to the use of violence inf,o-uo affairs and reinforce the belief of the people that

,riolence per se should not be rejected out of hand Only

the future will reveal whether the results achieved through

such agitations will be reckoned as milestones of progress

or signposts of disintegration

The situation in which Gujarat finds itself today is the

inevitable product of the political games that the

politicians irave often played in their anxiety to retain

individuals or groups in political power' Castes and com-

munities have merely been pawns in this game of exploita-

tion by politicians. Considered in this coniext one cannot

help 'feeling that politics played by unscrupulous

politicians can sharpen cleavages and aggravate caste ten-

sions It is only whin politics is used as a tool to bring

about socioeconomic changes smoothly instead of being

used to further divide a society which already stands

severely fragmented that we are likely to prevent the p€r'

niciousness of caste conflicts

When the ruling party is riven with internal factions'

and is organisationilly not strong enough to enforce dis-

cipline, oie or the other faction exploits a glvel situation

to discredit the faction in power. In doing so' it is not con-

cerned with the contribution that it is making to aggravate a

,ituation which is already marked by violence' This iswhat happetted in Gujarat in 1974 and again in 1985'

Though tottt ttr"t. agitations started on certain identifi-

able iisues and causes, they were aggravated by the induc-

tion of factors which were totally extraneous to the initial

"u"t"* f" L97 4 the circumstances under which the Chief

Minister had manoeuvred himself into power did not have

the blessings of the Central authority of the party' Hance

ihe Centreivas as much interested in the downfall of the

ld)

Ministry as those who had the agiation on theSimilarly the 1985issucs of price rise and

agitation staded by the anti- got entangledwith the dissidence within themunal turn that the agitation

pafty. Even the com-took was reported to have

been given by a dissident the ruling party who didThis form of violence innot lind a place in the

public life arising out of thebodes ill for dernocratic norms

within the partyand values Instead of put-

ting politics to work as anplayed by whichever partyexercise in faction fights

agent of changg if it isto be in power as an

groups within the samesettling scores betweenit can create conditions

which can eventually bave a destabilising effect onthe country as a whole. A cannot alford to setsuch precedents if the den institutions are at all tosurvlve,

Divergence of politicaldominance is becoming a factsources of economic powercooperative sectot amongdominated by the Patels, V Rajputs and BrahminsThough the kshatriyas, Castes' ScheduledTribes and the Other Castes have increasingly

their political power, theycome to have a greater sharehave not been able to improverespondingly. The conflicts

economic power coFthe wielders of

economic and political powercommunities resulting in

power from economicof life in Gujarar All theas trade, industry, and the

others, continue to be

led to clashes betweenparticularly in

Saurashtra The areas over the Kshatriyas and theweaker sections have a say are to Government jobsand welfare programmes andto tle dispensing of economic

of now have not extendedtronage But if the growth

of political power continues to the trends thatare now visiblg one exp€cts over a period of time it isbound to affect the economictes also. That wlll not fail to

of the upper cas-a degree of violence

though it is dificult toof it at this stage

on the oature and extent

Conclusion and Policy Implications 161

The agitations in Gujarat have raised yet anbther

important lrru. oo the aniwer to which will depend the

,.i!t utt". of violence in a democratic set up' The issue is:

O".t p"tfi" opinion always reflect -faithfully public

interesi and ari the two coterminous? If they are not'

*tt"t" ao.t one begin and the other end? Unlike the out-

.o.. of the lgl4liavnirman agitatioq in the light of the

i"r"lit "f the 1985 agitation in Gujara! it can be stated

tftut ift" public opinion as asserted by one section of the

oooulation was not co-terminous with the wider public'iot'.r.rr that i$ the interest of the State of Gujarat as a

whole.

Certain features have characterised the silent resent-

menfor the open agitation triggered off by the reservation

oolicv of the bujarat and Andhra Pradesh Government

5.-J "f these aie: the agitations were led by the youth

*t o ,.fot" to be discriminated against for what their forefathers did or did not do to the weaker sections of the com-

munlty in the centuries gone by. The basic llt":.i:: Should

Dast ;ctimisation automatically result in disability to the

iu.".rrorc of those who had been responsible for the vie

timisatioq regardless of their present socioeconomic con'

aiiio"r a"t"iing that positive discrimination is a step in

the right direction to help the emancipation of the weaker

sectio-ns, should this not be applied in a manner which

will orovide benefil to the maximum number of the

*."ti. sections? Will this be achieved by the application

of the policy that is being followed at presenf

Reservation as a panacea for ameliorating the back-

wardness. of the weakei sections, an$ as an atonement forthe sign of centuries-old discrimination cannot be taken

i"yo.ia a point'without serious damage to the social fabric

This will th.o* op its own contradictions and complexities

as it has already begun to. The advantage of reservation is

that the weakei s""iiotrs compete among themselves and

not with those belonging to the castes who are referred to

as the dominant ones and hencg suppose.dly stronger' Ifthe assumption that competition between the economically

162

stronger and the weakervali4 we have already arrition even between thebecome one between those oeconomically stronger andeconomically deprived andthe children of AII Indiaweaker section are on theparents who have not yettion even marginally ? Ifeconomically unequalhow can we rnake it a fairerthe weaker seotions who havevation for one or fi[oan economic stafus above aeffect de-scheduled, leavingsections to avail of the benecess of elimiaating one setguard against ushering in

Positive discriminationought to be so employed as tofull protection to theamenable to any rype ofamong the weaker sections.tem as it is operating in Sommaking serious inroads intoholds the potential for seriousthe Services. This systemas to ensure that those whoinitial entry into Services areladder far too prematurely butber of years at each of the

The policy of positiverough weather in several Stathat the reservation provided fithe Scheduled Tribes is not is resented by those who

S@IAL CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

is an unequal exercise isat a stage when the competi-lr sections themselves hasthe weaker section who areose who continue to be

Can it be said thatOfficers belonging to the

footing as the children ofby the benefits of reserva-brg competition between

is an unequal competitionunless those of

the benefits of the reser-and who have attained

stipulated level are not inweakest among the weakerof reservation ? In the pro

inequalities we have toset of inequalities.

a lneans to an endensure that while if affords

it does not becomeuse by the privileged fewthis context the roster sys-of the States. apart fromadministrative efficieucy,

indiscipline and unrest into be suitably regulated soentitled to reservation fornot enabled to go up the

after a minimum num-

has run into.It needs to be made cloarthe Scheduled Castes and '

Conclusion and Policy Implimtions 163

are outside the benefit of reservations. They resent the'

increasing reservations that are being made for what havE

come to 1e referred to as the backward castes' This isbecause the policy of reservation for the backward castes

cannot be given eifect to without correspondingly reducing

the opportunities available for the forward castes "It is at

this point that the tension between equality as a policy and

as a right is most clearly reveale4 for it is difficult to create

and'maintain on a large scale special opportunities forsome without eating into the equal opportuniteis of alll"'The people generally concede that the State should do

more-foi those who are disadvantaged But the criteria ofdeciding who are he disadvantaged should be based noton casti but on economic consideration It is the scale ofreservation extending up and down the line among the

backward castes that is being resented- The programme ofreservation has created a vested interest in backwardness

as should be evident from the Karnataka experience in the

context of the Venkataswamy commission reporL Since the

backward communities are getting increasingly organizedon political lines, the policy of reservation has become

funitionally a means of political consolidation A politicalprocess based and conditioned on caste identities carries

with it the seeds of insidious political fragmentation whichcan be a source of serious threat to democratic stability. Ina scheme of things where caste quotas of reservation forjobs and for seats in educational institutions keep increas-

ing personal merit and ability is grossly at a discount Asituation in which everyone who has been denied access toa position of responsibility even though he ,is betterqualifred on merit compared to the one who has been

aicommodated simply by virtue of his being a member ofa particular community is not going to be conducive topeace. Conflict and violence are ioherent in such a situa-

tion. It is indeed an irony that the policy of reservationinstead of weakening the caste hierarchy which has been

the largest single bane of this country is tending to reinforce and perpetuate lhis evil.

t@

The 1990 election will beratic experiment of ourissues which wiill have tomanifesto of the differentbe whether or not theCastes and Scheduled TAssemblies should continueto that or even independentshould continue. While Articlevides a time limit of fortyof the Constitution forand State Assernblies, there isreservation for jobs is concernprejudice to Article 330 of thefor reservation of seats in theblies for the Scheduled TArunachal Pradesh and in Mifor reservation for these four1971 census which will conti2000 AD. according to thintroduced h 1976 and the Cact of 1985.

Extension of thelikely to provoke a far moreseeds have alreadv been sowntrends are evident Whileupper castes for terminating itdescheduling those whoeconomic level, the scheduledask for its continuance and ithem would trot have hadbenefits of the decades ofto percolate down to largewho are economically well offrdfuse to be descheduled, thiscomplications,

In th€ State

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

water-shed in the democ-. This is because one of theprominently in the election

parties would have ton of seats for Scheduledin Parliament and State

1990, and as a sequelit reservation in Services

34 of the Constitution prefrom the commencement

of seats in Parliamento such limitation as far as

This is however withoution which provides

iament and the Assem-in Nagaland, Meghalay4

The relevant figurestates will be based on the

till the first Census aflerProviso to Article 330

5l st amendment

in jobs beyond 1990 isserious confrontation. The

Gujarat and the resultingmay be demands from the

even for modifying it bygone above a certain

and tribes are sure tobly too as the bulk of

en the first generationaltion because of its failure

among them. If thoseamong the weaker sectionswill inevitably give rise to

in some parts of Uttar

Conclusion and Policy Implications

Pradesh such violence as have disligured the State sceneshave largely been the outcome of the resistance offered bythe vested interests to the process of socio-economicchanges initiated by the State through Agrarian Reformqdevelopmental prcgrammes and anti-poverty projects.This is however not to suggest that the Scheduled Casteshave. always been at the receiving end of violence. Theyhave also responded with violence in varying degrees inthe process of trying to overcome the resistance from thevested interests to the realization of their legitimate rights.The intermediate castes who belong to the backward grouphappened to be the traditional cultivators and on thataccount became the immediate beneficiaries of the aboli-tion of Zamirdai. The new found accretion to theireconomic power has also conferred on them additionalpolitical power. Yet their attitude to the weaker sectionshas not been any more helpful and sympathetic comparedto the attitude of the traditionally dominant castes towardsthese sections at the bottom of the socioeconomic ladder.If anything they also have been as inuch resistant tochange as the earlier vested interests In fac! they havebecome a new class of vested in0erests In effect the Statesof Bihar and Uttar Pradesh are as of now going throughthe stage where even if the political and economic powersdo not exactly converge on the same set of caste groups,still there is mutual cooperation an-d support betweenthem and they are as yet strong enough to resist change tothe extent possible. If and when they have given in, moreoften than not it has been in response to the pressuresmounted from below which occasionally have also beenaccompanied by violence.

Gujarat appears to be at a higher stage of evolutionarypolitics than the one in which the States of Bihar andIJttar Pradesh happen to be. The qualitative difference inthe prevailing situation in Gujarat is that since 1980onwards there has been a distinct polarisation of the casteswho wield economic, and those who wield pottical power.The emergence of the group popularly known as KHAM

165

L6 SOCIAL CHANGE AND VTOLENCE

consisting of the Kshatriyag Farijang Adivasis and theMuslims as a strong political force has for once put thedoininant castes composed of the Patels, Vaniaq Rajputsin certain areas. and the largely out of the actualcontrol of political power. Th$ latter group however con-tinues to have dominaRce inantireservation agitations

,mic power. Actually thel98l and 1985 are

those of the backwardpolitically cannot be said toweaker sections in that group. There is the danger of this

affairs except for the fact that the new incumbents them-

One important point tha{ needs to be noted'is thate of the backward castis who are making goodically cannot be said to felong to the ecotromically<er sections in that erouo. There is the danser of thisweaKer secuons rn that group. I here rs the danger ol thts

new class devoloping in due cciursg a vested interest whichmay set in mqtion a pattertr similar to the earlier state ofaffairs exceDt for the fact that the new incumbents them-selves happen to be those dralvn from what is referred toas OBCs, Schcduled Castes aid Scheduled Tribes In theprocess they may also try and exploit the weaker sectionsamong them as is happening r[ some of the States. In themeanhme, one expects that the vast mass of the weaker sec-[oas would acquire a higbef degree of education andawareness and would be agrtaiing to have their legitimate

an important battle It canno! however be said that theyhave won the war. The issfre continues to be openWhether or not this polarisatipn will settle down to theirrespective areas of influence in the Stat€ as a wholeremains to be seerl But this lrocess of polarisation is animportant stage in the evolutipn of politics and politicalpower in the oountry.

Concluion and Policy Implications 167

share in political power. This should lead to a further dil:fusion of political and economic power over larger

segments of poPulation

Karnataka provides yet another stage which may even

be cited as a level higher than that at which Gujarat stands

today. In Karnatak4 both the political and economicpower have got diffused over the different groups which

include the so'called upper as much as the lower castes

The Vokkaligas who had all along wielded considerableeconomic power and also political Power were classified as

a Backward Caste by Devraj Urs, in a shrewed move to

enlist their support in the political game that he so

skilfully and successfully played. Devraj Urs will be longremembered by th-e people of Karnataka as one who putpolitics to the best and proper use of being an agent ofsocio-ecooomic change. Though some of the infirmitiesand iniquities of the caste system still persist in Kamatak4it is at a stage where it cannot be said to produce the type

of violence and harassment that is suffered by the weaker

sections in Bihar. Into this refreshingly appealing state ofaffairs has been introduced an incongruous political note

in the wake of the Venkataswamy Commission report The

Karnataka Government has sought to molliff the agitated

lower and the upper caste groups, who stood to lose the

benefit of reservationE if the Venkataswamy Commissionreport was implemented, by totally rejecting its report This

only reinforces the conclusion that the concept of reserva-

tion which was intended as a restricted and self-limitingmeans to achieve the very desirable end of dissolving the

centuries old caste system is tending to acquire unforseenpotential for perpetuating the division of Indian society

into so many different caste groups. What is worsg going

by the anxiety of the several caste groups, not to part withreservation even though they are doing well socially and

educationally, backwardness whether real or imaginedhaq during the last about four decades or sq been liftedfrom a stigma to the prestige of a desirable status

168 scCrAL CHANGE AND vroLENcE

Thus Bihar and Uttar Pfadesh on the one side,Gujarat on the other and Karn[taka as the third strearnconstitute three different stageg in the evolution of thesocio.economic changes that come about in thecountry since Irtdependence. conclusion that emereesfrom thc foregoing is that rhe interests do not Dafiwith power even if resistance violence. It is only asand when the vested interests that state powerand the use of it become i ts for providing com-munity well-being and a heal y system of governance.Only in a system that pro for the political andeconomic participation of the lreatest number, is therelikely to be the least violence.

There is yet another aspect ito violence This dependson who employs it and ip wha[ contexl Words such asviolence, force, protest, and le$itimacy as distinct fromlegality are all relative terms, {epending for their exactrelevance on the context in whlch thdy

-have been.used.

There is a large component of sulbjectivity in all their uses.The only manner in which this s[rbiectiviry can be conver-ted into objective terms is to apply the test of means andends. If we are honest enough tp examine the context inwhich violence has been used by whom and forwhat purposg we will be able tb avoid the fallacies andunderstand the phenomenon ff violence in its properperspective. Thus considered, viofence may have a positiverole, if in the existing scheme of things there are built-indistortions, disabilities and ations. If the systemitself does not provde for the automatic removal of these.violence for removing the di brium becomes theinescapable last resort Thus while violenceper se may be undesirable, it had also to be viewed in thecontext in which this has been

The gap between the p made at the Govern-ment level and the actual oerfi at the low level ofthe implementalion have to brought down to theirreducible minimurn if for er valid and practical

Conclusion and Policv Implications

reasoq the gap cannot be eliminated completely' Hopes

inspired in the minds of the socially and economically dis-

advantaged and deprived sections of the popularionthrough legislations will have to be fullilled to the farthest

extent possible.

In a plural society law's legitimate function is to helppreserve harmony between different groups without givingthe impressicn to any of the groups that it is enlbrced in apartial or partisan manner. The weaker and the deprivedgroups should not be driven to resort to violence out of asense of frustration with the efficacy of law as an agent ofchange. Those in authority who will not enlorce the rule oflaw uniformly but only selectively are jeopardising thefreedom of every citizen- When law assumes different con-

notations to different individuals depending upon thelrsocio-economic and political position the rule of lawceases to exist Such distortions cannot go on withoutnature exacting a very high price somewhere along theway.

A very disturbing trend emerges out of this study. Thishas to do with the repeated instances of reluctance to imle'ment, if not the actual repudiation of the decisions validlyarrived at responsible levels of Governmenl The cir-cumstances in which the resolution passed by theMaharashtra State Council approving change of the nameof the Marathwada University in to Ambedkar Universityis a case in point The decision of the Gujarat Governdrentnot to implement the increased quota of reservation is yetanother, though its relevance is merely theoretical as ofnow. Failure to implement categorically the decisions onthe minimum wages by the several State Governments isyet another. The lukerwarmness with which the lawabolishing the Bonded Labour system is implementedadds further to the lisr The supreme example is theimplementation of the Land Ceiling Laws and ceI tainother aspects .of Land Reforms which could be justihablyconsidered as blatant acts of evaSion In all these cases, the

t69

r70 soglAl CHANCE AND VIOLENCE

reasotrs that have prevailed wilh the Government havebeen the pressures of the vested interest silently applied, orviolently registered with the co-operation of the oflicials incharge of implementation Quite often those in charge ofexecutive power have identifred themselves with the vestedinterests. Such instances add up to one inescapableinferencg and that is that vfolence in the ultimateanalysis is an instrument of the qtronger of the contendingparties, groups or individuals. If the stronger of the partiesrepresents the vested interests, they triumph with the helpof actual or pot€ntial violence. I[, however, the strongerpafiy in terms of the volume of violence at its command isthe mass of the people from belqw, they triumph over rherest This drives us inexorably to the sad conclusion:violence when employed in adeq]uate volume and intensi-ty, often emerges as the arbiter of human destinies. This iswhere the State power has to pome in assertively anddecisively through the hone$t intervention of .itsinstitutions and asencies.

This study irresistably point$ to the conculsion that ifthe social change that is being qought to be attempted atdifferent levels and in different l[elds is not accompainedby appropriate and matching insfiruional "midwifery". thechances are that violence will takle the place of institutionsas it is already tending to do in some States. Violence atany rate in Bihar is tending to gpt raised to the level of aform of communicatioq a kind of language. One gets theimpression that those whomunication have arrived at

to this form of com-stage probably because

they have not been able to make heard throuehthe normally accepted medium land instituions of com-municatio[ That the has soent vast sums onthe administrative structure is nqt the same thing as prcducing the capability for the fall-out from theseveral problems which are concdmitants of social change.Social change has certainly made violence possible but notinevitable. It becomes inevitablb only to the extent ofinadequacy and ineffectivencess gf the institutional ftrfras-

Conclusion and Policy Implicatons' 171

trirpture in general and in particular of the Criminal Jus-

tice Systern Ineffectiveness ofa system can be due either to :

it) i.rhrroi,i.t inherent in the institutions bocause of their

inuppiop.iut."ess for handling the types of.situati<'ns

g..t'"'i","'.f by social change or (2) the subverti:l,,of tn'institutions by their operators through panisanshlp' cor-

iltion o, .o"r, indifference' Our institutions can be

faulted on both these counts' Our democracy is just about

iour O."ua.t old If during these early but vital years' there

it;;t; failure to build into the institutions a degree of

viiality and purity, even the most robust and efficient of

ir"ttit"tio"t aie bound to be corroded and their effectiveness

blunted" Violence easily and inevitably moves into such a

;i;ti." with results which will be painful for all' we

ftun. to face the fact that comrption in its different con-

notations has taken a very heavy toll of the vitality and

"ff."tiu".t.tt of our administrative and other institutions

u"A tftit hag in no small measure contributed to the pre

nuiii"g niof"*e in some of the States Capability of an

i"riitu"tio" by itself is not self-executing It requires a

J"gi"" .r commitment on the part of. its- functionaries'

*fl"f, i, what in the ultimate analysis determines the

"ili" ""0 quality of the performance of institutions' That

institutional arrangement is the best which bridges the gap

il"*I" ""p"Uiliti and commifitrert' This is turn n"ill

automatical-ly take care of the gap between what is possible

and what is desirable.

If the conflicting forces are to be preveFted from

establishing their respective interests through violence' the

ii"t" i" a -democratic set up has to step in as a credible

"g."t ""p"Uf" of resolvrng. ihe conflicting. interests of the

cintending g-ups accotding to accepted' and predeter

mineO ,roini The state has io exercise its power in favour

;i;; Att , contending factions, if it -is

ro fullil its fun'

damen6l role as an agent of change' lt is the capability

;;;;;t-""ce of thi Govemment, and not merelv the

,aLO i"t"otions that impress Mere promise-s . are not

""""gH fl. political functionaries have. to fullil their

t72

obligation as elected represavailability of an actively functiforum and/or voluntary orgaUnions as a permanent and intefacilitating the process of chan

CHANCE AND VIOLENCE

tatives. It means thehealthy politicallike the Trade

andtionspart of the institutionsIn the absence of an

appropriate forum capable of c annelling the grievancesof the people into a programm plan of action the dis-content among the people tes into anger and frus-trations. This in turn creates itions for social despairand aggressive assertion of ri ts, as in the case ofmlnlmum wages or tenurial rights. The unresolved

to widespread and indis-economic disabilities snowball icriminate violence. This a of a suitable forum is acommon denominator that ch the set-up inmost of the States To seek change without provid-

to understand the fun-ing fior the fall out from it isdamentals of .social engineering

_^,,.1f - poli,i"ians and political parties do not employporrtlcs as an agent of change acoording to certain accepte! 1nd basic ground rules gove]rning ihe actions of thepolitical

.functionaries up urrd dfwn*a wenjenneA anavrsrbre llerarchical line violencq will rake the place ofpolitical adhocisrn which will lhrn rnurqu"*j"' o. ulegitima^te-political process This ls what i, 't,"ff."iog

insome of the States. A sensitive dnd disciplineO' pnfiti"ufparty with an ideological base ip no.rnuily expected tochannel causes capable of contriblting to viotence at ttreirincipient srage. The absence oll suih politicai partiesfunctioning on a day-today basis with' compreh'ensivecontacts with the different and cofflicring elemints whichshould be an inregral part of public life-ar all i.u.lr i, uphenomenon common to a numper of States, and par_ticularly to some of those ruled b1l the Congress O".rr. ,rrStates like Bihar, and to an extenr luttar praEesh, iut ur rt

"pafi. in power largely depends dn are the local heavyweigh.ts, who may be landowners, contractors or familiesjllo],]::".',r enjoylng tocat toyaltips" who are *opt.o uyrne, party rn power for mobilising p[liticat support in tim"s

Conclusion qnd Policv Implications

of political instability, and particularly during elections"

Such an adhoc arrangement is hardly sensitive to publicgrievances and is certainly not intended to project to the

political powers that be the " problems at the grass root

levels with a view to get them sorted out administratively.The Congress party as it is functioning in some of the

State$ gives the impression of a tenuous coalition of con-

flicting interests incapable of pursuing its own legislationsto their logical end for fear of antagonising the dominantvested interests among the coalition partners' This is insharp contrast to the situation obtaining in West Bengal

since. 1977. Caste and class domination has been

weakened in West Bengal, and this has had its benelicialimpact on the nature and the quantum of violence in thatState. The violence in that State as of now is largely a pro-

duct of inter-political conflicts. Atul Kohli's paper charac-

terises the CPM leadership as a shared but cohesive group'"The CPM leadership views political survival as an ongoing struggle with 'reactionary forces'. Party disciplineand the perception of continuing struggle have thus

facilitated cohesive rule and coherent policies in contem'porary West Bengal...... The CPM seeks to preserve democratic institutions while using State power to facilitatedevelopment with redistribution 2. The key linkage groups

have been the students with rural roots who come to the

city for education, get politicised and go back to ruralareas to teach and to serve as party organlzers and pro-

pagaters. As these students often come from the middleincome families. the social base of the CPM in both the

cities and the countryside rests on the middle class strata'

The party also gets its support from the widespread lowerincome groups. Several interested groups contribute to

this. They are the movements of the students, teachers.

trade unions, the peasants and the landless labour. These

different groups constitute the link between the party andthe sociery at large. Electoral and political support is

mobilised through these different organisations' The dif-ference in the functioning of a party like the CPM in West

Bengal in their dealings with the day-to'day problems of

173

174 SOCI,AL CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

the people is in such sharp qontrast to the functioning ofthe Congress in some other $tates The absence of strongcaste identities in Bengal compared to Bihar and UttarPradesh explains why the upper caste Hindus have beenable to forge political links gith the lower caste peasartsand workers Diluted caste identities in West Bengalshould also enable us to understand "the failure ofBengal's non-communist p{rties in mobilising alongdominant caste lines or in utflising high caste influentialsas vote bank$

One point that needs highlighting with regard to theconversion of the Harijans of [4eenakshipuram to Islam isthat these Harijans were far rhore advanced educationallyand materially than the general run of the Harijans in cer-tain other parts of the countr9/. Among the 1250 Harijansthere were two MBBS doctots and agricultural scientistsand five graduates. A numb(r of them held governmentjobs and two of the four teacters of local primary schoolswere Harijans Out of 180 families,, 80 families owned landand the largest land holder rfrs a Harijan with about l0acres of land" Those who did not have land or those whohad marginal holdings werd cultivators of the Templeestate. What eventually drove the Harijans to convertthmselves to Islam was not so much their economic condi.tiorL as the continuedabilities that thev were

discrimination and dis-to by the Thevarg an

intermediate caste group. phenomenon is extremelyrelevant in the context of the rlpward social mobility of theHarijans. While even the c deprivation which isbad in itself rnay continue to be put up with upto a point,people will no longer

traditional social hierarchical up.

Unless there is an attit$dinal change of the castegrcups towards those whq urltil Independence, had. beenassigned to the bottom of the social ladder, the country isin for violent social upheaval and convulsion, the nature

discrimination that hasmuch less accept the sociala feature of this country's

Conclusion and Policy Implicanons 175

and extent of which it is difficult to forecast The reaction

;iiri. ii,r..""r.hip,'rrutn Harijans and the-realignment of

;;iilJ;;.;;. i.i c.'iu'ut thiough what has come, to be

il;er; iHAM are-straws in the wind which will have

;;';;"ht[ social and political impact These aspects

ill* ""iit emphatic terms that thJcaste factor-in the

i"iii" ll,iia- pJriti.ur scene, if continued sociallv and

iiri"ila i,"irticallv, wilr lead to a realignment of the

iiiiun ,oii.tv in terms and patterns as never known

before'

The Indian society in its present state of-transitiorl is

fike a chrysalis in metamorphosis' The chrysalis may

.".ft ""0 U*ome a butte rfly or die' but,it clea-rly^cannot

..r." to ttt. caterpillar stage' Is the lndian soclety pre-

;.*.i ;; *..d;'";9 adiuit itself to the fact that what it

is called upon to .o""o"i is not just surface disturbancg

il"i'" "*tJt"or*.1t *nittt cailJ into question certain

;;t iJ;t accepted valucs of life? Adapt or perish has

tr*li. *rti.., iu* of nature for all its children Are we

prepared?

According to one estimate' even in 20q *.P' 7|o/o ol

I"di;b;;;;6ion is likelv to be rural-based This means

ii"iitt.""t *il be considerable tensioq and even-violencq

if adequate steps are not taken to forestall and counter

iit.-.'gi""l"ni to the Parliamen! Assembileq Jilla

iiu.i.ftuOt and the Panchayats have introduced consider-

"uii-p.L,i"f for violence in the rural areas' not only at

the time of the elections but also long afterwards' depend-

i"" l" ift" trail of bitterness that all elections keenly con-

;J;1;;;" ;;hind Population growth in the rural areas

*irr 1aA ro the increase in the number of landless

"g.i."f r*"i-r"uourers. Peasant agitations. organized by the

landless will aggravate and unsettle conditions arising out

oithe scarcity-of ,..ou""s Except in the case of Gujarat

;;; ih; caste conflicts surface-d in a very pronounced

form in some urban centres during the 1980 and 1985

176 SOCL{L CHANCE AND VTOLENCE

agitations, this phenomeno{ is largely a feature of therural areas in the ot.rr^--+L.-.^r^ __:- .. .hen _states, Even during theM,ararhwada agtation whicd had it, ;;;; ,r'"rifrJ,iillt-{. *ir primarily urban, much of the violence tookl-t::. Ir the distant villages, lhough certain u.Lun-."rro.,were also not free from iilt iq therifore i_|"."i". ,i"t rrr"9lt.."l Justice System which is p.t;;;ii),'il;.rlo.i.rrr.ol'^,'^"lr:gy:t*ad.iocational-lg#ii;;ilir,r';:l;ilH:::role.correctly and promptly. Thi, hu, .p..i.l ..f .""""* ,"l5*i:.:::^llS rtr; norice rhe polic'ing of ,;.'.our,,,yj:.0.:11^1"_:"rilyurban-orieirtedNot"r"'"er,,lii,r'6re.,,:ilg{.1":,,qo,o" illo the nat{re and the tyi" oi piou"_,that we will be called upon t[ f"". ir-inJ'*.iuf "ui."r. ,"this. connection, the insuffi,bi.".y of ttr" lLui'pori".:"r:1",1^ 9,:rh

in rerms of tlieir ""-..i.uf ,,i"igrf, u,ra

"it l ::t^""1 _which are rrot strut.gi" .rrou gi

l i; ;;;q

" ""yof the infrastructural back up i" tJr-, oi;;j;;;;;and communication are factohs whi"h .,^nr;Lt,r-4uu uommuntcatron are lacto[s which contribute to mak_ing the policing of the rural u[.u, io.r.urirrgffim.utt i.,ll.-h.: of the mounring chalienges. rf th;

-rft;'ro,r.".,of tension are not atlended to u'A.q"ut.ty,

"pp."pri",.iy:19^ 11 -,tT.

by orga n ized in stitutiona I . tfoJlrio,i' u uou.,violence from below from these several cenires willbecome inevitable- To bring dut a significarrt ,ee;errt ofthe-Indian population out-od a f.ri'rliJ. p*ijirro uo

:r^"ljl1.t"il_li.r","t is not going to U" .ury. r,o.'i, it rit.ry to:s^":j:1"":l_li.r","r rs not going to be easy, nor is it likely toDe rree lrom violence. The me{sure of the statemanship ofour leaders and the institutio,hal capabflif u"i-.or"_iuT"tq *il be judged by the^levrel to which violence-is keptdown in the process of transforrfring ou, .o"i.ty L.iih. li.r.,of the Constitutional goal that twe Iu"" ,"t or'rr"iu"*

,^ ,-t,_t: oo, always rh.at

the .9fdet' imposed by the policeis in consonance with the .14w, tfr.rgf, ifr.'*J ,"*,which have come to be weddedi go tog"iir".. iii. iiroe trrutthe authorities realised that in de;ing;tfr tfre Aacorts anathe Naxalites often the .orde[' aciiev.a ui -r.r"l

rrigf,ljiil:"'ll i1 lyrarJr at varia[rce with the i-p..litu.. orrne law; or rs lt that they have 4eaiised the factual position

Conclusion and Policy Implications 177 "

and it suits them to go along quietly with the Policg to get

along conveniently with the system? An administrationwhich is indifferent in its reactions to the lake encounterswith dacoits or the so'called Naxalites can and will over aperiod of time come to believe in the genuineness of the

ilaims that its functionaries are making on its behalf Thiqin turrL will result in a growing disinclination or the part

of the Government to subject these claims to any serious

internal scrutiny. Such indifference can generate a fype ofwork ethics among the administrative and law enforcingagencies, from the damaging consequences of which even

the most law abiding citizens will- not be able to escape.

Accountability for the responsible use of power by itswielders is a must even in the best of times In the seething

social brew such as the one that we are living through, thisaccountability is a categorical imperative"

The violence that has rocked some of our cities alrd

towns in the 'wcent past has a special message which we

can ignore only at our peril. The economically deprived

and the socially backward will no longer wait for a happyand peaceful transition from their present deprived status

to a higher level of economic and social mobility. With the

social and political awareness that they have developed, themessage to live on more and better consumer goods dis-

played in the catchy advertisements in the television hourafter hour, day after day, are not lost on this class of the

deprived sections of the population They as a class are ina hurry to make good the lost time. Their children demandmore and better amenities and they see no reason whythey should be denied items of goods which a neighbouror even someone further away has It needs to be men-

tioned that there is widespread hostility and bitterness

among the millions who have not shared the nation s

limited prosperity. There is visible anger and yet a sullen

acceptance of the conditions for the time being The

threshold of tolerance is likely to shrink fast No democ-

ratic government can long endure without serious damage

to its structure and stability, with the existancg within its


major urban centres and the rural areas of millions ofcitizens below the poverly litg who as a group understan-dably feel deeply aggrieved

If the socio-economic cliange that is being held out bythe leaders is not ushered i{ as a perceptible programmeof every day life, the change rnay well force itself violentlyat irreparable cost to society. Evidently, the vast mass ofpeople still nurse the hope that the Government would beable to bring about the much needed change in the {brese-

3ble future One cannot dabe predict how long this willhold in an atmosphere of rootlessness of mobile people;loosening of the traditional social organisations anddecline of the influence o[ religion as legitimsing theinherited social system and inducing a degree of fatalisticacceptance of things as they are. The picture is not beingoverdrawn The intention [s merely to emphasise themessage to those who ought to listen. This will call for aresolute and determined effdrt at norm setting It is mostunrealistic to ask for a socidty without violence if there ispoliticisation of criminals, br criminalisation of politics,and an unholy alliance between those in power, inadministration and in businpss leading to deals which arecontributing in no small rheasure to the generation ofblack money, corruption and a parallel black economy

Above all. we would do lwell to abandon our faith in apolice solution to problems which are born essentially ofunresolved and evaded sociDeconornic issues. The policecannot be expected to take ttre responsibility of sorting outthe results of wrong politilcal and economic decisionstaken by the government To do so would be to give a roleto the police which it cannbt and should not have in a

Â.ccordingCommission on

Conclusion and Policy Implications 179

backlog of unemployment as of 1985 the over all

,oug"iiuO. of additional employment,-to be-generated by

itte-yeat ZOOO would be around 130 million But the figures

ur-i.gitt.."A by the Employment Exchanges all over the

.ouniry ut on jl'12-1985 stood at 26 million which i.s vas-

tty Jif..."t from the Planning Commission's figures of 9'2

*ifiio" But even going by the figures of the Planning

Co--ittiott, the Jituation would constitute a major

"-fruff."g. *hi"h *ill have to be met by the creation of

additioial employment opportunities' Since there will

"l*"yt U" a segment of people left out of employment' this

aun b" u source of violence. This can get further compoun-

A.J ii urno"g those thus left out there are significant

,.ga..ttt of iopulation belonging to the minorities and

ihE *eake. sictions. It will therefore have to be ensured

iitu, no, only is there adequate employment opportunities

i"i ,ttu, these get distributed fairly between the-different

t"g-."tt of thJ employment seekers Failure to do so will

halve the potentials of communal and caste violence'

The demographic perspective also implies a pro-

sre ssive decline-in ihe siie of land holdings' The problems

io"t.q"."t on this will have to be met by removing the

obrtu"i.t to increased productivity of small farms' which

*iff ."t"if significant institutional improvement, in the

;;lit;t systeir of the various extensioa services which are

i"ti.ui.ty connected with agriculture' The whole process

*iit- ttu"" t" be institutionalised in a manner that the ves-

,Jin,"t.ts among the landholders are not able to thwart

tft. "p*u.a sociai mobility of the weaker sections by

"oifuai"g with the functionaries manning the administra-

tive and developmental infrastructure'

According to the Planning Commissiorl the popula-

tion in the yJar 2,000 is estimated to reach 972 million

ittit p-j""tion has been made apparently on the assumP

tio" ^ tttit the Family Welfare Programme will be

i*ot.-.rrt"A effectively and uniformly' The growth of

;;;;l;,i." woul4 by itselfincrease the areas oftension hv


the mere fact of the limitedan ever-expaflding populatito get further accentuated ifleads to differential growth f population between thecommunities. This trend is evident in some of thestates. Considering the po that unequal growth inpopulation holds, which in rn will impinge on severalother factors such as employment and other

our while to ensure thatis accepted uniformly by

opportunities, it would be

urces having to go aroundBut this problem is likelyfamily welfare programme

the Family Wellfare pall the communities

_ The urban population in lhe year 2.000 AD. is expee-ted to be nearly 315 million i$dicating a share of 32o/o ofthe total population This is rolrghl y 54o/o of the total addition to population between lggl and the year 2.000 ADUnless there is a corresponding increase ani improvenrentat the level

-and quality of thb urban housing and crvicamenitieg, the problems cre{ted by the sh-ortfall cangenerate considerable urban te]nsion. It is expeced thar by2000 AD., ffio/o of the villages would be connecred by aliweather roads as against the $resent 34o/o. That being sqthe urban tensions generally. iird parricularly of the com_munal variety, can travel from the urban to ihe rural hin_terland much faster and with lreater damage to life andproperty.

Inspite of planning over dhe years, the plan projec_tions have not always been ed in certain sectors ofparticular importance to socia{ well being and harmony.The comulative shortfalls in mafter of employmen!cducatio4 housing and the basic civic u..riti.rl.u'n

"orr_tribute to the creation of deep t because of frus-trated hopes and unfulfilled tions of the millions,w-hich can erupt into mindle.. uiol"n"e. Only timely anOeffective action of the authoritigs concerned ut tt

"-C..rt."1nd ln the states, can prevent this frightening prosDecrfrom becoming a reality.

frightening prospect

Conclusion and Policy Implications l8l

The study of the various incidents reported from dif-

fer€nt parts of the country indicates that there is no single

itteoryôf conflict resolution which can be applied unifor-

mlv io all the conflict situations in different parts of the

countrv. There are a variety of causes and even the same

causes do not have an identical outcome every where'

As we survey the scene in some of th€ states, it is apparent

that Indian society is in a state of flux, even if the general

framework has not changed significantly' There are very

distinct and discernible signs of changes that are coming

over in society, with a still largely unaltered social structure'

There is no rigid and uniform alignment of forces in

terms of class, caste or groups. The alignment varies from

state to state, and even within a statg depending upon the

nature of the issues involved and their relevance in the

local socio'economic context' Since the benefits accruing

from reservations have to be availed o4 and the reser-

vations are based on caste, there is no likelihood of caste as

an identity disappearing in the near future, though its

implications in practice may get increasingly diluted in the

urban and semi-urban centres.

As Sardar Patel had observed years ago: "It will be

folly to ignore realities; facts take their revenge if they are

not laceJ squarely.". (5) It is time that the realities arising

out of the socio'economic changes of the last two decades

are faced in all their grim implications

The choice is open The direction of change is unmis'

takable. Do we have the necessary political and. adminis-

trative will and wisdom to give the people of this country

at least peace amidst the several disabilities inherent in an

""orro*y under strain because of aa exploding population

and scarcity of resources and opportunities ?

We as a nation are capable of doing much better than

what we are doing at present in terms of administrative

competence and giving a fair and honest deal to our entire .

182 Socldl- CHAr\GE AND VIOLENCE

populatioL That we are ha{nstrung by the traditions ofcastq feudalism and coloniafl inheritance need nor makeus underestimate our capabi$ty for rising above each andeyery ol9 of the legacies fro!,r our past What is necessaryabove all is to recover our f{ith in ourselves and work tobuild up a better and a clean{r society in which those whoask for payment of minimrfm wages. and certainty oftenurial rights on lands cultfvared by thern need not beshot down by labelling thefn as Naxalities, where thelajority is without tyranny and the minorities wirhoutfear. where the Covemment dbes the proper thing not onlywhen it is expedient to do soi but beiauie it is iisht, andall our people can count on a happy future.

Refe(nce:

I tu{r_" Bereilte: "Equatiry as a righr and as a policy- 11986)2. Atul Kohli's paper : From elite Radicalism to d..*.ut. Consolida-tion: The rise of Retbrm Commr]rnism in Wesr Bengal (19g4).3. IBID-Arul Kohli's papcr

4. Nikhil Lakshrnan : 'Despair, Fr{rstration and Anger.'.lllustrated Weekly of India 30th November. 1986.

5. Sri L.P. Singh : "Sardar patel ar{d the Indian Administration .. Sar-

dar Patel Memorial Lecure Surlrl l5th December. 19g6.

Annexures

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

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CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

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190

i_-

SQCIAL CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

DISTRIBUTION

TotalMain Workers

Cornmunities

SC

197 |

l98 t

l97 t

l98l

t97 |

l98l

Source : Ceasus l97l and t98lFigurts in brackets ar€ the p€rcentages toAP. - All PersonsSc. :.Scheduled CastesST. - Scheduled Tribes

t80373399(100.0)

222sr6574(100.0)

290'1359(100.0)

378,t4568(100.0)

14f'244r'.l(r00.0)

2 t963688(100o)

78t76707(43.4)

925?2835(41.6)

8101567

Q7.e)10661t28

Q8.2)8418491(57.5)

1t954765(54.4)

the iotal Main Workers

19lAnnexures

OF WORKERS

Annexure C

Agricul$ralLabourcrs

Househotd lndustries

Manufacturing Pro'cessing RePairs

47489383(26.3)

5y97M(24.e)

15044761(51.8)

18249360(48.2)

4832427(33.0)

7174898(32.7)

63517l4(3.5)

77 t@zo(3.s)

967225(3.3)

1252502(3.3)

150486(1.0)

3l1865(1.4)

4E354589(26.8)

667831 l5(30.0)

4957806( 17.0)

7681578(20.3)

1223037(8.4)

25221fo(l | .5)

CHANCE AND VIOLENCE

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193I Annsures

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stNc

SOCIAL CTTANGE AND VIOLENCE

Sta/(' rent showing the ol albtncnt ol eiling s*plw lond n

StatdUnionTEEitotY

l. Andhra Pradcsh2. Assa63. Bihat4. Gujsrat5, Haryatra6. Himachal Pradesb

7. KanatakaE. Kerala9. Madhya Prsdcsh

10. Maharashrall. Manipur12. Orissa13. Punjab14. Rajasthan15. Tanil Nadu16. Tripura17. Uttar Prsdesh18. Wesl Bengal19. Dadra & Nagar Haveli2!. D€lhi21. Pondich€rry

TotalArea

distri-buted

10.8.323 4,42'766 3,1?,s83

5.68,873 4,89575 3220t52..18,192 r,5L249 r,49,3&t.63512 @,U6 12,045

?9.228 N,437 mJ731.13,971 I,12,635 33442.95,7m 1,,18,039 1,04,920

t24.M tt,782 54,422

Ls6,4U 1J5,788 87,884

3.?0,193 X81,586 2,81,586

t.029 159 37

t.47 J75 t,23,79E 1,0692&.62 r7 ,0t4 I 3,353

L(8,533 2,3\Sr't 1,32,185

87.951 E1267 63,654

1,690 1,558 I,l 13

2.88.081 Z64,lA Zl6,57s\e,767 l,rz8r8 62,&

t,958 6116 3,616

7n 374 37(b)z5& 1,112 9n

Total 41,90,q)8 A,K383 t9J47t8

@ These hgures have been readjusted upwards to tally with thearea already declared surplus as theby the State Governmenl are lowerdeclarcd surplus

ofarca estimated surplus giventhose of area alreadv rcoort€d as

(b) The Agradar, Reforms Act 19?6, was enacted and brought into foreonly recendy alld no report od th€ irogress made has yet been received

(c) Extent of area has been estir{ated in proponion to the number ofbeneficiaries since the State Govt h{s furnished only the break-up of iotalnunber of beneficiaries and not of lotal area distributed

(d) Includes Scheduled Tribes. alCo.

(e) Includes an area of88052 acres given to6488l beneficiaries belongingto other backward classes

(0 Includes an area of 13641 acr,4s given to institutions

Annsures 195

TINNEXURE E

rte Sche.luld Cast(4 Schedulal Tribes and othen fot the perid upto 4th March 1983)(Iri acres)

Scheduled Castes Schcduled Tribes Others

TotalNo ofbeoefFciaries

Arca No ofdistri- beDefi-butcd ciaries

Arca No ofdislri benefi-buted ciaries

Areadisrri-butcd

No. ofbcneft,ciaries

7 8 9 l0 ll l3

2,21,rs2 rA3A72 l, ,l7l s6,386

2;15,6t7 2,t75 n544 31,990

1,68,690 79,161 (c) %,W tg4rl(c)1900 9248 Zl58 lJros,830 qs68 LWI4362 2326 L% r34

24,383 56,854 M,A2 L34,$,588 r9fi3 ,ffi 4261yAss 21,%s 994 4Z@676892 92294 24,4t8 s1,072

l8-E2,180 33ft6 n555 45,902

36,86.2 | ,17 J25 (e)

20617 e67,8s0 (0t7 34r flJ82(c)

364 1,3&7

10,605

262 884

613 45,717

5247 {,6(9t4,255 2!,82315,675 1,38,220

32,072 n,8246,7n

4247 69,833(h)15 42,903

t50 659

- 96,,186

Y,333 24,ffi(c)1,59!1 2

374(D

36

79,n9u2456

56,085

37E

3I231,194

9,4't847,93r02s636,799

l822453

1,665

t3,ltl23358

57E

50,,o69,583

I

n7.

3,141 6a'63 tA76D,W 45,634 |576 16,718

432t9 N"739 tg,W t2r.o(D 245 n4 M

1,93.926 I,i{),189 1,43,726(d)

l36t6l 25,671(c) 72,454 l2,'8A()t,613 30 13 3,584

1.036 6t8 749

14,4!,505 729,711 5fi,s12 2,87,7m 1,84,052 e512E7 6,5195r

(g) Includes an area of 3006 acres given to 3 institutions(h) lncludes an area of3882 acres handed over io the Tamil Nadu Sugar

Cane Farm Corporation Limited and8456 acres reserved under Disposal ofSurplus Land Ruleq 1966.

(i) Area distributed to institutionysocietios

Namc ofplace of@cunlnc€

CTIANGE AND VIOLENCE

Impoftant Caes o!

of pe$ons killed/inj ured

Judgcmcnt M FCMFCotherdamagcs

K IK IK JK IK IBELCHI(Bih8r)PIPRA(BihadKAILA(Bihar)

BISHRAMPUR(Bihar)

XAFALTA(u.P.)

l5-4-El I 4

25 huts bumt

Out of thrced€ad twobeheadcdl8 hous€sbumt

I hut bumt

,1-1;17

25ai80

'.^12.78

2s1.7E

95-E0

r9.tt-8t

l9-5-80

5-&El

7- 10.80

m-42

*7-8/

8-1-U

JETALPUR 2612-80 3l-8-81 -(Gujarat)

-- -l --

-- -314-PALPUR(u.P.)

l3-2.E I

SOHWALIA 7-CEI(Bih8r)DIIARAMPT'RA 20.Itr??(Bihar)

DEOLI(u.P.)SADOPUR 3S 12-81

Source: sshcdulcd cagtes Eackward Clsssca lt lL{ Note: M-MaleF-FeEalec-ch dK-KillcdI-IojurEd

t97Annexures

At @iliat on Hari@annqtt" D

Rcsarlt of Judgcmcnts

Death Life ImPr!' Othcr Acquit'

3€n- senmcot PunfuF ted

Caus€ of srimc lqoce mcnts Rcmarts

2157-

No dcfmitr 50 ll I Pcrson

cnrrc dc8d

r"ia ai"po, 3 8 3 -(2 yri)

RcvGagp 8nd n 4 -Animsity

Prcvelcnt cultom 33 Srstc Covt bar

thst Harijsn bridF filed an appcal

gr*. *hoold oot in HiSh Coun

bc carricd ir" a Do|ithrougb thc villagc

l) Monqy dcaliog - 3 7 -bctwcsn RrjPutEatrd PEtcl

14 Thcft by tbcdcccascd

NorFPryEctt of - 3t 12 -wtger

4mknd dtuputc 4q

(Batsidsri)

Enmity i'

198

Year

soFlAL CHANGE AND VToLENCE

Cases Registered U PCR Act 1955 and their

Disposal

Brought No. of freshForward cases Regd

TOtal CasesChallaned a

in court

BroughtForward

t9771978

t9791980

l98l1982

z9m 2273375t 39533444 .|{}03

3550 55792865 49952(65 4547

?26 3425247 4729396 49rl927 4303698 .m85

690 ,1087

Source : Ministry of Home Affails (Annual Repon on the pCR

Annacuret

Disposal by Police and Court

199

Annexure E

Disposal by Court Resutts ofcases in Cburt

Fresh TotalChallened

cases in court

Cases ConvictedDisposed

of by court

ssr Q7.36%)490 (19.65%)

68 (ns2%)n67 (n.6%)ur (17.6%)l99 (10.86%)

146.3 (72.&%)2002 (80.34%)

M2(77.58%)2866 (69.34%'

208s (82.54%)

1633 (89.14%)

2920 5193 mr43751 770/. 2492

3& 8247 267s

3550 9129 4133

2855 7860 2526

2f6s 7212 1832

Act 1955 for the years l98l-82).

SOCIAL CTIANGE AND VIOLENCE

Srltltsst rlgsdlng thc rcgfutcrcd un&r rbe Pmtcctio! of

Stdt/Unibn Teri.tory

Andhra PradcshAssamBiharGujaratHarya!&Jammu & Kashmirt'Himachal PredeshKarnstakaKcraleMadhya Pradcsh".Msharashtra*

OrissaPunjabRajasthanTaEil NaduUttar PradcshChandigiarbDelhiGoa, Damao & DiuPondichcrry

Total (1981)

Total (1980)

Increas€ or dccleasc over 1980

Percedag€ incrcas€ dr decreas€

over 1980.

fonrardcd Numbcrof c&!€rrrgirt€tad

,. Court llfcsh

Numb!rof ca86cloccd byp"lioafter irvestigationbut withoutchallaoing

,l

238 29

I Nilt72

261 25

6P5-165

5 90]8 24

2!798 32s106 37

Nil Nilt73 6l

1136 n'ln4 9l

221032 Nil143

tnNitIUI555

t02t

172

o777

r,021

3t2I

22153443rNil

TJ

Nil6

69q 49e5 4,08s e82

n1 5,57e 4303 2

-U -5t4 -218 Static

-24;10 -10.47 -5.07 Static

cases brought forwarded with courtof Maharashtra has been adopted.

awaited from the Gov€rnmentPradesh-

nd, Tripur4 West Bengal &b, Dadra & Nagar Haveli,has been report€d

Annecurd

lnnqun EI

Ctvil Rigbts Act, 1955 rnd thcif .tlsposrl dudrg thc ycrf 1961

201

NumDerof cas€s

challancdir thceourt

Number of c$c8 dispolcd olfby coun

eodiag ia cndiag Totalcnviction aquittal

Numbcr of cascs pcndiagat thc cnd of thc ycar

with

Policc ,Coutt

l0

t2tNit28

2lI

Nilt52

tn58

NilB76

32

4NilNil

t2s5

l8

mlx

Nil9t

u1t59Nilu2

NilWA

It

79

Nil

l9l6

Nil3t63t

NitI

MI

gNil

6436

9

l4313tt

;58

Nil'57/|89

5lNitNil

I'4

6lNi!

64v

l0.:t7

9225

759a

Nil.8E

))f,E2

NilIl

2rI

It3M

4

l8a542

l06tn4

tn4w508

Nil

I7

2fis. 3,550

-685-1930

4lt261

-826<5.t9

2085

\w-781

-n 25

\sa64131

[email protected]

e0 +sl698 1!tX

-t -8-r.15 -&99

202 sqcrAl CHANGE AND VTOLENCE

Statcmont rgsrditg thc rgistered under the Protection of

Sa.f/Union Teritory forwarded Numb€r Numberof cases of cases

registered clos€d bpfresh police

after in-vestigationbut withoutchallaning

Andhra PradeshAssatrBiharGujaralHaryaoaJammu & Kashmirr.Hirnachal PradeshKarnatakatKeralaMadhya Pradesh.tMaharashta'OrissrPunjabRajastha!Tamil NaduUttar PradeshDelhiChandigarhGoa, Danan & DiuPondicherry

Toral (1982)Total (1981)Increas€ or d€qcas€ owr l9ElPerccntage increar€ or decrcas€over 1981.

r23NiI28

2lI

Nil152

I

169

58

NilE76

32

4

NilNil

n3I

I lJ

3g

It835

a

1.063

I

w50E

NilI7

263Nit28

34'l5

6614a

769t25

4186

t,105t86

I

12

50

Nil

36

5

88

8

2tl@

Nil86

262

3

2

I

690698

-8-1.15

\vr14,96

-49-8.9

89,1

2

-88-8.X

4,087

4,085

+2+0.05

Note: t Disposal of Brougtrt forwardof Karnataka

awaited from the Government

+t Correct figures of Brought Forqard cases and disposal oI casesawaited from the Govemmetrt of Jammu & Kashmir and MadhvaPradsb.

Annqures 203

AffiquE E2

Clyil Rifbt! Ac! 1955 8nd theit diEi'olsl during th€ vcar 19E2

Numbcrof cagcs

challancdin the@utr

Nirmbcr of cases diilposed offby court

Number of cascs Pcndingat th€ end of the Ycsr

endiryin eading in Totalcnvictio! aquittsl

witb

Police Coufl

lll09

163

Nil12

f28I

l3Nil

lvAl1

Nil

NilI

Nil-_)ll0

Nitu5lt1

INitNil

2

7lNil

N/A4mNil

lln29

n357

94t04

INil

It3

E4

NilN/A437

Nil

1l23

29

330

67

r5E

g5127

2Nil

Il5

173

Nil404

Nir

Nil183

,o48

Nill5

lgl92I

Nil

302I

r25255

f,

'"380

30

1390

2822

zl4956

5A23

NilI

Nil

5

&3t'l

657

4108"t55

126

2

NilII

L66s2,865

-200-6.98

l99441

-242-54.88

1,633

4085452

-2r.68

t,832

Ls26

-694-n.4'l

725 4,545

690 4,54',1

+35 -2+5.0? -0.u

IVA Not availableFrom Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Tripur4 West Bengal"Andaman & Nicobar Islandg Arunachal Pradestr, Dadra & NagarHaveli, Lakshadeep, Mizoram no case has been reported.

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

Annexurc E J'

COMPARATIVE STATEMENT G STATE.WISE BREAK.UPOFATROCITYCASES CO ON SCHEDULBD CA$

TES DURING 1979. I l98l and 1982

State/Union Terntory of cases rcported during

1980 l98l

3

t982

Aridhra PradeshAssamBiharGujaratHimachal PradeshHaryanaJammu & KashmirKarnatakaMadhya PradeshKeralaMaharashtraOrissaPunjabRajasthanTamil NaduTripuraUttar PradeshWest BengalDelhiGoa Daman & DiuArunachal PradeshPondicherry

t5z 2M 2t3Nil Nil Nil

1,890 1,983 2,073498 6y 45568 69 7378 74 t4tm n4 45377 397 363

3,877 4p33 4,749478 2Q 145518 695 6E080 80 15079 51 73

1,180 t,562 1,731

t{ 199 I53Nit 18 3

4279 3.865 397733 23 t703 06 0lNil 0l 02Nil Nit Nil16 08 07

Total

Statistics about other States are Nil

13,866 14J08 15,054

m5Annexurcs

StatdUnion Territory Number of cases rePorted during

Annexure E 4

Comparativeslalementshowingslate,wisebreak.upofAtfocitycases?"i.ri*i ""-s"n-Jled

Trib--es during 1979' l98o' l98l and 1982

t979 1980 r98l 1982

Andhra PradeshBiharGujaratKarnatakaKeralaMadhya PradeshMaharashtraOrissaPunj abRajasthanTamil NaduWest BengalGoa. Damin & DiuArunachal Pradesh

Dadra & Nagar Haveli

Total 2.t34 1.578 3.381 4030

2007Z

z0JJ

I.J /J

r8ll6

3

205

NANA

I

l4l0l93

I3

829lz16

l44l

308NA

tzNA

l6NA

29

t7495

5

7

2.M)1')

l0NA186

l4NA

8

.NA

ll85

104

04l0

3.1l0213NAN.{472NANA

00NA0l

Statistics of other States wcre not available

;;;;;;i ; Ea : v Report, of the commission for scheduled castes and

Scheduled Tribes

LiterrcrFor all €ommudtei, S#;;g

SL India/Statey'UnionNo. Territorv

SOCIAL CI{ANGE AND VIOLENCE

Annaurc F

in l97lScheduled tribes and al[ Com-

Com- Schedu- Sbhedu- AII Com_Costes led munitiesled Tribes exclu&

ing SC

&ST

munites (Excluding castes and schedulgd tribes)

STATEVU.Tsl. Andhra Pradesh2 Assamt3. Bihar4. Gujarat5. Haryana6. Himachal pradesh7. Jammu & Kashmir8. Kamataka9. Kerala

10. Madhya pradeshI I. Maharashtra12. Manipur13. Meghalaya14. Nagaland15. Orissa16. Punjab17. Rajasthan18. Sikkim19. Tamil Nadu20. Tripura21. Unar Pradesh22. Wesr Bengal23. Andaman & Nicobar

Islands24. Arunachal pradesh25. Chandigarh26. Dadra & Nagar Haveli2?. Delhi28. Goa Daman & Diu

24.5928.7219.94

35.7926.98

31.96r8.5831.52Q.4222.1439.18

32.91

29.49

27.q26.t833.6719.07

t7.74p9.46

f0.e8Pr.7013.2043159

1t.2961.56

14.e756.61

44.7 5

10.66 5.3425.79 26.036.53 t1.64

27.74 14.1212.@

18.82 t5.8911.97

13.89 14.85&.2r 25.72t2A9 7.6225.27 n.7426.U 28.7 |20.38 26.45

24.0115.6t 9.416.12

9.t4 6.4717.42

2l.82 9.02mst 15.0310.20 14.s917.80 8.92

17.85

27.6829.36

23.34Q3l30.22

36.81

19.18

34.3662.7 628.41

41.95

35.01

42.42

53.78

35.02

394223.38I t.tb43.5841.06

24.7939.t948.40

36.28 5.20 34.232438 66.3033.18 8.90 58.7228.15 61.8926.14 12.73 45.41

Anneeures NI

29. LakshadweeP30. Mizoram31. Pondicherry

43.6 41.3',t 13'52

Included in Assam

6.02 18.?0 5l'01

I Including Mizoranii. p"i"Z"tug"t ftave been calculated on the total population inclusive

of the popouiation in the age erouo of 0-4'Source":

'&eoisior, of Lists C;lL bc A sco Divisioo' Ministry of

Home AITairs.

Source : Selected statistics on scheduled castes (19M) (occasional papen

: irn develtoment of scheduled castes) MlLd

Annexurc FI

Literacy rates of Scheduled CasteVscheduled Tribes and all com'

munities for the year 1931 ,196l' 197l and 1981

Percentage of Literacy

1931f 195r 196l a 1971r l98lr

Scheduled Castes

Scheduled TribesGeneral(All c,ommunities)

1.9 N.A0,7 N.A

9.5 16.7

10.3

8.5

24.0

14.8

11.3

D.5

21.4

16.4

36.2

Note :* : Source : Selected statistics on Schedul€d Castes'

Home Affairs.

a : Source : Report of the Commission for Scheduled

Tribes(April 1981-March 1982{th Report)

Ministry of

Castes and

Literacy rates of Schedulcd Castegyear

StateVUnionTerribory

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

Annexure E

Scheduled Tribes for the

Scheduled ScheduledCastes Per Tribes pepcentago of centage ofLiteraEs Lilerates

8.5 4.424.4 n.55.9 9.1

22.5 n.7Punjab ---*---

Andhra PradeshAssamBiharGujaratHaryanaHimachal PradeshrJammu & KashmirKarnataka (Mysor€)KeralaMadhya PradeshMaharashtraManipufMeghalayaNagaland*OrissaPunjabRajasthanSiktimTamil Nadhu (Madras)Tripura*Uttar PradeshWest BengalAndaman & Nicobar IslandsArunachal Pradesh (NEFA)ChandigarhD & N HaveliDelhiGoa Daman & DiuLakshadweapMizoramPondicheryAll-India

Union Territories during the

d.)5.09.1

24.7

8.6

7.9

17.7

6.4 4.0

7 .9 5.1

15.8 7 )22.4 2;.i

*'--Composite Assam -.----25.4 14.8ll.6 749.6 16.5

Anneeures 2@

Annexure G

LITERACY RATES IN I98IFor All Communitieq Scheduled casteq Scheduled tribes and-all com'- - -Uunities

excluding Scheduled castes and Scheduled tribes

Sl. India/State/UnionNo. Territory

All Schedu- Schedu- AllC:m- led led com-

munities Castes Tribes muntiesexcludingsc& sT

INDIASTATES/U.Ts

l. Andhra Pradesh

2. Assam3. Bihar4. Gujarat5. Haryana6 Himachal Pradesh7. Jammu & Kashmir8. Karnataka9. Kerala

10. Madhya Pradesh

I l. Maharashtra12. Manipur13. MeghalaYa14. Nagaland1.5, Orissa16. Punjab17. Rajasthan18. Sikkim19. Tamil Nadu20. Tripura21. Uttar Pradesh22. West Bengal23. Admand & Nicobar

lslands

3623 21.38 16.33 41.30

2994 t7.u-26.20 10.40

43.70 39.78

36.t4 m.r442.48 31.50

26.67 22.44

38.,f6 2059't0.42 55.96

27 .87 18.97

47.t8 35.55

41.3s 33.63

34.08 25.18

42.57

34.23 22.41.10.86 23.86

24.38 lA.M34.05 28.06

4.76 29.67

42j2 33.89

27.16 14.96

40.94 24.37

51.56

7.82 33.91

16.99 30.17

2t.r4 48.14

39.q)25.93 47 .31

27.0s

20.14 42.95

3t.79 75.32

1068 36.15

22.29 51.55

39.7 4 42.1r

31.55 u9140.31 54.39

13.96 4.2247.ll

10.27 29.31

33.13 34.84

20J6 51.01

23.07 53.93

20.45 30.45

t3.2r ,18.12

3l.l I 54j1

210

StNo.

India,/Stare/UnionTerritory

sqcIAL cHANcE AND VIOLENCE

All Schedu- Schedu- Allled led com-

Castes Tribes munitiesex cludingSC&ST

",

24. Arunachal Pradesh25. Chandigarh26. Da&a & Nagar Haveli27. Delhi28. Goa Daman & Diu29. Laskshadweep30. Mizoram31. Pondichery

SOURCE : IBID

20.79

64.7 8

2F.67

6F.545f.66st.0759.88

37.t4 14.04

3'7 .07

5120 16.86

39.30

38.38 26.48

53.13

84.44 59.63

32]6

36.39

[email protected]

66.44

57.38

84.57

63.53

@.32

Source : Revision of Lisrs Cell SC & $CD Ditisiorl Minisrry of HomeAffairs.

Anngures 2lr

Annexute H

NO. OF POST MATRIC SCHOI.ARSHIPS AWARDED TOSCHEDULED CASTES AND SCHEDULED TfuBES STUDENTS

Scheduled Castes Scheduled Tribes

Year No. of Expendi.Awards ture

(R$ in lakhs)

No of Expendi-Awards tune

(Rs in lakhs)

l95t-52 1604

.196t-62 49015't971-72 184565

l98l-82 553540

1982-83 626242

198+85

575

85.18

zTtg104069

I194.83

Total awards of scholarships

2.82

36.78140.22

l0r 5.l9

9,00,000(approximately)

8.18213.83956.00

5285.08

Source : Selected Statistics on Scheduled CastesOccassional Papers on DevelopmemroFScheduled Castes (2) (June' 1984)

Ministry of Home Affairs

SOCIAL CTTANGE AND VIOLENCE

It5 b88RS3tRS rt I rloo ldcjejoctdetd<t ld | .Z

l** r+r+trtt+ l+ | !I ttEI lt;l+ssgR$F=s+sn le i €l oi d r -.: -.: i d i - d - - l- | !ttt()I tlEtt,otttstltatltrt)

l8$h$8DS8s33h lh I el..i d i J o -.r o ,.i - . - - i- | iI ttgtttaI ltElr=e=s=a:EFss l3 i elr+++++++tt+t lr | €I tt?I llsl-o-o\oodd\^r

| | =

l*$5$:$$p:s:F iF I tI ll:I llal+sssEHsBsnas ln I Flo'$ s 'd (' <t vi ,'i .o ..i .d '.- ;r{ | .qI ll;tttrlrrs'llollI I ldE.;I I lil!'r| | tqEEI El lEig

l,;3sssif =sxE j;

lgi.lr^t"vi6F-croi9=d I lgt

212

'E

o\F€t\o\

g\a.-€Fo\

OFFFo\

€FFFo\

'

€

o

EoFv)

oo.cl

O?..,

d

ID

(D

(,)4t)

2IDro

ca)

!,:tHHEli>scl

FF

E.F

o.\lr-05Fo\

&n

F

z&

trzEI

rJ

&zttFO

o

F

&

art

'*l-.(J

dE

2t3

-i+

€

..1

x

+

nF

(..1

t--

3z..1,1

SEKggN6 .:qEoctctoooci I looo+++ | | l+ + l+

I r-\oooo| .-.: vl v-1 v)

I r-ooooor,.1 .qn.1

r3$$ss*E5qqid..i,/i t"i i Fi $ '<..,.'r.. €

ARR€=8D-.: d .-: cj ci ct o

- <:l .a.n a{ \OFF-OOra)Fr.r1-.: d -: .-.: ci ct o

8$KRssElqeE€cjc,O€ti.i;c).lrOo+ l+ | | r+ l++ l+

3n:gR5n5Iia3

rDt

, #3g$9f,F, c EE

i...i..i+d\or-di-gjd

(F€t\o\

at-Ft-(t\

E

'

t

o\Faaa-c\

ar

tt)

i)Fa)

lD!oaoo(D

o

Eo

Ort)

l|)!ocl

o||,

-.iFc-(

IIIr

dz

Annexures

tF

&F.A

,1

(taFo\

t{F

7*oEitr>zeltll '-{J

ztrlFan\.t)

F

'I

a

'F;J

I

214

Star€

NUMBEROF

CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

ONLR. ATTHE ENDOF

1979 r9&)

982J285.7503.7

3n.l289.3

108.1

474

Andhra PradeshAssamBiharGujaratHaryanaHimachal pradeshJammu & KashmirKarnatakaKeralaMadhya PradeshMaharashtraManipurMeghalayaNagalandOrissaPunjabRajasrhanSikkimrTamilnaduTripuraUttar PradeshWest Bengal

536.605r.7

1237:l

319.2

t98.6120.4lts ?

l t9.4s2.7

553.9tM.2737.5

1|9.788.1

r0.3

4.3429.6q7.6338.4

14F.22

314.7

2,94.0&9.9357.1

t4t.05r.4

597.1

1579.r

n6.71n9.81025

9.8

5.t4t.z4s2.6

36t.7

756.4

TJMoN TERRIIoRIE$' Andaman & Nicobar

IslandsArunachal pradeshrChandigarhDadra & Nagar lfaygliesr*DelhiGoaLakshadweepMizoramPon;licherry

India Toal

987.6 1092.270.8 70.9

1q7.6 1357.5?fr82.1 2s36.4

8.1 9.5

52.8 62.6

281.4 307.025.2 29.24.4 4.215.3 16.832.0 38.0

t4333.9 16200.3

to this Union Terriiorv.Labour D.G. & T.

74.7

10.4

3.2

3l: I

6t.l68.375.1

49.0

4.7'5.7

3.00.4

74

+ No Employment Exchance isi* One Employment Exchan'ge is

t" llJ"oi&:L"ot u'iog

'""Jiu"a uioiJt"'

Annexures 215

AnnexureK

DECEMBER BACH YEAR (ALL CATEGORIES)(In thousands)

l98l 1982 1983 r984

15,t04nL4

2419.7533.9

325.0159.3

55.9

629.4

1u7.98E2.2

1394.8

132.61048.5

488.1486.0

396.2

1255.9

82.8

1493.8

29D.8

10.9

68.9

*,3l.E

4.815.6

4.9

t1&.8399.9

2556.3

580.2%.8169.0

61.7

&4.42029.6

913.0

1551.3

149.1

9.8

8.6.181.8

505.5q4:

t392.019.r

1610.4

v38.2

t2.l

n2$ 2172.8

476.4 487.1

2&4.8 2ffij580.5 631.8

438.5 457.6

186.2 257.6

70.4 66.7

735.4 770.0

2262.2 2529.1

1055.3 I 115.4

l't26.7 21004167.5 186.0

10.9 I1.910.5 13.4

536.3 559.4

530.8 526.2

465.1 5M.7

rs75.4 1706.5

83.1 92,7

1854.9 1873.2

389.2 4124.2

154

128.7

33.05.3

14.0

48.6

103

83.2

3s;34.3

)./l9A55.0

n.7

88.3

45;430

6.3

16.7

64.0

17838.1 19753.0 21953.3 2!546.0

2t6

THE NUMBER OF JOB

CHANGE AND ,VIOLENCE

Annexue Kt

ON THE COUNTRTS 8OOEMPLOYMENT EXCHANGES ON DECEMBER,3r, 1965

(ln lhousands) Women (in-cluded in total)

I2

3

Below Mitlric ( including illiterares)MatriculalesPersons who possed Highcr(including I nlL'rmcdiatevundergraduatcs)

4 (;raduales (includingi) Ansii) Scicncciii) Commarcciv) Enginc'c'ringv) Medicine

vi) Veterinaryvii) Agriculturtviii) Lawix) Educationx) Othcrs

Total

lllnstrated weeklyDespai( F-rustration Anger.

26270.0 2,832.8

30 1986 Nikhil Lakshmsn :

12294.58,045.3

3.530.4

2399.7

t.t27.5484.1

417.0

35.5t1 I

25.9

10.5

225.929.3

1.635.5

623.9

57 3.4282.6| 04.3

{5.92.3

5.2

0.3

0.9t23.3

82

0.7 Not available

Anndures

HOW THE STATES AND UNION TERRITORIES FAREDVI$A.VIS UNEMPI.OYMENT

217

Annexure K2

Region No of applicantson the Live Register

at the end ofDecember. 1985 (in

thousands)

STATES

l. Andhra Pradesh

2. Assam3. Bihar4, Gujarat5. Haryana6, Himachal Pradesh

7. Jammu & Kashmir8. Karnataka9. Kerala10. Madhya Pradesh

I L Maharashtra12. ManiPur13. MeghalaYa14. Nagaland15. Orissa16. Punjab17. Rajasthan18. Sikkim19. Tamil Nadu20. Tripura21. Unar Pradesh22. West Bengal

2328.8

603.4

2549.5

729.8

479.2

314.5

7,1.9

926.82571.5

1429.0

2423.9

219.4

t7.316.9

720.5

632.6b//.6

Not arailable2079.0

100.2

256/..33960.2

l.

.'.

4.

5.

6.1

8.

9.

lL4Not available

n2.2Not available

w.250.5

6.1

23.6

75.6

Region

UNION TERRTfORIES

Andaman & Nicobar IslandsArunachal PradeshChandigbrhDadra & Nagat HaveliDefhi6oaLakshadweepMizoramPondicherry

All India Total

Source : Same as Kl

, CHANGE AND VIOLENCE

No of applicantson the Live Register

at the eEd ofDecsmber, l9E5 (in

thousandg

Annqura

St.n&rd

219

Ann*ute L

NO. OF EDUCATED SCHEDUI,BD CASTES AND ALLCATEGORTES (INCLUDING SCHEDULBD CASTES)

-ON gfl

nBcrsrsn oT.EMPLOYMENT EXCHANGES (AS ON 3l'i2'80)NO ON

Cetego Percentsgcries Scheduled

Csstes ollive rcgister

to allcategories

i

z,J.

i.{atricHigh $eeondaryGraduates(Toral)

r) Artsii) Scienceiii) Enginceringi9 MedicalPost Gradu8tes(Total)

i) Artsii) Scienceii) Engineeringiv) MedicalAll Educated

55fi2 61ffi169v9 3106'2205 22531

606 l,tm!)5395 r345r4

.f013 78549

497 25651g 1235

12 1836

585980 8163545

41381518292683844

456['2:25

n7g,35rt8977l

9.06

8.83

6.03

8.22

3.01

0.91

4M4Jl

5.1I1.94

0330.65

8.40

CHANGE AND VTOLENCE

Schedulcd cac& irb on livc rcgirt€r iE soEG

Educational SbndardGujarat

l9E{' 1984

MatricHighcr SecondaryGraduate (Total)

i Artsii Scienceiii Comocrceiv. Engineeringv Medical

Vi furiculturevii Lawviii Educationix Othcrs.

Post Graduat€s (fotaDi Arlsii Scietceiii Commerceiv. Engineering .v. Medical

vi Agriculturcvii Lawviii Education

ix. Orh€rs

Educated Tot3lTotal S.C on LiveRegistcr

.1831)

9787

509037n7U250

'r1

l3t4

179

68100

JTIt6E

54

268

633Utt58270

6t3t3 24f.s9 3693017810 1565 &l99D4 1833 195266ll l2t9 ll302258 47 47558 373 516162 243544015 t0 t4ll 5 5

274 l5l 15072 24 t7

226 36 t,t8100 25 104

2-13

:::

t79496 t4

9s343 28293 43y2120n0. 64323 %*l

Source : Ministry of Labour

Annsures 22r

Annaurc M

.elected rtates and All Ildio during the years 19E0 and 19&f

Strtes

Krrnatska Maharashtra1980 l9E4 r9E0 1984

Uttar Pradesbr9E0 1984

AlL lndiar9E0 r9E4

mB 31219 59362 92f{.tn3l 34ll 60a) 10930

3749 4163 9566 13155

2r9f 2587 a27 7m288 293 783 1356

206 n2 2249 3116

13 l8? 6 ln81 2U4ml48 ln 16 lvl517688

6 289 56 634

863 127 19 86

n9 78 16l m45l7l 539 58 1258

47 179 11 150

11 30 33 413

tl762-

37 49

12 l6E

60136 413815 6728y60E95 r82v26 26n513f2g 83844 ll896E22117 55&2 72625

3588 9349 18576

1537 9385 l4,l355 m5 loo54 6ffi 1394

585 453 lul113 193 67

2019 &r3 8331

61 1638 650

v1r 5395 12009

zns /t013 8430

l1l 497 1303

187 458 ll3394

438r48906

t929216310

936'691

20l5

1935

1028

58zn9l83l

97

141

)

I7

l82

t726

t2 17

39 33

t4320 583

9l lm3

28sn57686

3g54t 75115 118733 lr4r74 154631 685980 1066562

i1os8 188741 280218 2365s 294102 1815284 2617957

222 CHANGE AND VTOLENCE

ON IJVE RECISTER TN

19&) & 1984

Educational riaadard Gujarat

l9t0 19841984

MatricHigher SecoadaryGraduatc (Total)

i Artsii Commerteiii Scienceiv. Engineerlngv. Medical

vi Agricultutevii Lawviii Educationix Ghers

Post Craduatds Clotal)i Artsii Commerceiii Scienceiv. Etrgineeritgv. Medical

vi Agriculturevii Lawviii Fducationir Others

Educated TotalTotal ST. on LiveRegister

33216 11414 158689369 853 ?9 386430 nm 1385.1018 1116 816785 t88 278

lll9 39 3918471388lt 49 3213z

4n 3t0 17323 t0 30126 16 5059 12 3rll 2ll I

30 1

7

I

I15294%t t{0$ m243

132147 31227 38516

Source : Ministry of labour

Annacures

SOMB SELF,CTED STATES AND ALI'INDIA DURING THE YEAR'

STATES

223

Karnataka Maharashtra

1980 1984 1980 lg'd,/

Uttar Pradesh

1980 l9E4

All-rndia

1980 1984

3368478558309&869z

5̂

24

79430

t4

_

_44486499

5176lll9904

T

-6

It1

!:

ll;1932

33it2 lll82 17811

654 12({ 2n6sll ll55 1833

262 621 930

51 47 $363 98 272

123222523910419

70 18 92

184143 l0 119

927605-35

'jlIat

I.1t-

4680 13613 22039

8,f65 37214 53853

69E 91124 153330

675 M9 53562

279 13202 22449

t94 9165 14926

m 1355 n9348 1238 2408

14 16l79 m5107 109

21 48

l7 941 l55l262 248

68 803 222048 600 l5l212 39 187

3 rr2 3188

l0r1at

5 37 ll012 71

nm 145178 231561

3262 4757V1 659606

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