Social and Emotional Development

CHAPTER 5

Socialand

Emotional Development

THEORIES OF SOCIO-EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development

Albert Bandura’s Theory of Social Learning

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

I. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development Concludes that all humans had the basic needs and

that each society and to somehow provide for those needs. This includes emotional and social needs.

o He viewed that social environment combined with biological maturation provides each individual with a set of “crises” that must be resolved.

I. Erikson’s Theory of Psychosocial Development• Socialization – a learning and teaching process that,

when successful, results in the person moving from its infant state of helpless but total egocentricity to its ideal adult stage.

• Crisis – a unique developmental task or challenge to be confronted and completed.

l. Six Stages of Erikson’s Psychosocial Development

Trust vs. Mistrust (Hope)Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (Will)Initiative vs. Guilt (Purpose)Industry vs. Inferiority (Competence)Identity vs. Role Confusion (Fidelity)Intimacy vs. Isolation (Love)

Trust vs. Mistrust(0-2 years of age)o Erikson acknowledged the major role of the

caregiver (mother or guardian) plays in this most critical stage which is the first life crisis.

Automacy vs. Shame and Doubt(2-3 years of age)o During this stage, the child learns what he/she can control

and develops a sense of free will and corresponding sense of sorrow for inappropriate use of self-control.

• Autonomy – means self reliance. This is independence of thoughts, and a basic confidence to think and act for one.

• Shame and Doubt – means disgrace and uncertainty, and obviously inhibit self-expression and developing one’s own ideas, opinions, and sense of self.

Initiative vs. Guilt(3-6 years of age)o Having learned the confidence in the previous stage, the child

learns to start action, to explore, to imagine as well as feeling remorse for their action.

• Initiative – is the capability to devise actions or projects, and a confidence and belied that it is okay to do so, even with the risk of failure or making mistakes.

• Guilt – means the feeling that it is wrong or inappropriate to instigate something of one’s own design.

Initiative vs. GuiltThe developing child who successfully resolves this ‘crisis’ learns:

• To manage, broaden his/her skills through active play of all sorts.

• To cooperate with others.• To lead as well as follow.

Initiative vs. GuiltOn the other hand, if the child unsuccessfully resolves this ‘crisis’ at this stage, he/she can:

• Be fearful.• Hang on the fringes of groups rather than join in.• Continue to depend too much on adults.• Be restricted both in the development of play skills

and imagination.

Industry vs. Inferiority(6-12 yrs. of age)o During this stage, the child learns to do things well or

correctly in comparison to standard or to others as he/she tried to develop a sense of self-worth.

The child who has successfully resolved the ‘crises’ from earlier stages is likely to be trusting , self reliant, and full of initiative.

The shame and guilt filled child is more likely to experience defeat and feelings of inferiority.

Industry vs. Inferiority

• Industry – refers to the purposeful or meaningful activity. It’s the development of competence and skills.

• Inferiority – is feeling useless; unable to contribute, unable to cooperate or work in a team to create something, with the low self-esteem that accompanies such feelings.

Industry vs. InferiorityAt this stage, the child learns to master the more formal skills of life such as:

• Interacting with peers according to rules.• Progressing from free play to play that may be

elaborately governed by rules and may require formal teamwork.

• Learning the subject matter taught at school.

Identity vs. Role Confusion(adolescent years)

The most important thing for the adolescent is the development of an identity which will provide a good base for adulthood. The adolescent develops a sense of self relationship to the other and to his/her own internal thoughts and desires.

Identity vs. Role Confusion• Identity – refers to the organization of individual’s

motivations, abilities, beliefs, and history into a consistent image of self. The individual must make deliberate choices and decisions especially about work, values, ideologies, and commitments to people and ideas. (Woolfolk, 2001)

• Role Confusion – is the negative perspective – an absence of identity. This means that the person cannot see clearly or at all who they are and how they can relate to and operate positively within their environment.

Intimacy vs. Isolation(young adult years)

• Intimacy – means willingness to relate to another person on a deep level – more than a mutual need.

The individual develops the ability to give and receive love and begin to make long-term commitment to relationships.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

The young adult’s life begins with the development of intimacy, the capacity to do commit oneself “to concrete affiliations and partnerships and to develop the ethical strength to abide by such commitments, even though they may call for significant sacrifices and compromises”.

Erikson is careful to not limit intimacy to affiliations of a sexual nature, but also includes friendship, combat, and inspiration as potential sites.

II. Bandura’s Theory of Social Learning

Observational or social learning is based primarily on the work of Albert Bandura. He and his colleagues were able to demonstrate through a variety of experiment that more efficient learning could occur through the simple processes of observing someone else’s learning activity or a model of the desired outcome.

II. Bandura’s Theory of Social LearningBandura’s Four Step Pattern on the Theory of Social

Learning

• Attention• Retention• Reproduction• Motivation

1. Attention

• For observational learning to take place, the individual must be paying attention to the desired model. This means finding a way to get the child’s attention and interest.

2. Retention

• In order to imitate a behavior, it needs to be remembered. Once the child’s attention is captured, then the model of behavior is presented and is then the time for the child to practice the behavior themselves.

3. Reproduction

• At this stage, the individual produces an action that is a copy of what was observed. It may not yet be perfect and so may require more practice.

4. Motivation

• A newly earns action or behavior may not be performed unless there is some motivation to perform it.

• Reinforcement – praise, acceptance, or a reward of some kind – is a strategy used to motivate students.

Three Forms of Reinforcement (Bandura)1. Direct reinforcement – is when a behavior is recognized by

an observer and the observer provides immediate praise and positive feedback.

2. Vicarious reinforcement – occurs when an individual observes the positive feedback given to others for a behavior.

3. Self-reinforcement – occurs when an individual is please with themselves when they achieve a desired outcome.

II. Bandura’s Theory of Social Learning“Learning would be exceedingly laborious, and

hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do.”

Bandura’s work draws from both behavioural and cognitive views of learning. He further added that mind, behaviour, and the environment all play an important role in the learning process.

Social Influence a process of changing attitudes, values, and behaviours,

in response to the attitudes and behaviours of others.

o A young child’s social life changes and evolves in predictable ways which may grow from an intimate relationship with parents or guardians to include other family member, non-related adults and peers.

o Different social influences can affect a child as they develop socially and emotionally from a wide variety of role models for them to copy or imitate.

Socialization and CultureSocialization – the process by which a child learns

behaviours that are appropriate for people of their gender and age, within their particular culture.

o The primary agents of socialization are home, school, and peer groups.

o As a child socializes, he/she acquires the traditions, beliefs, values and customs of their groups.

Socialization and Culture

What is learned through socialization is determined by cultural context.

it is the setting (or state of the environment) in which development occurs. It is influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural context.

Example:Barangays, Universities, the National Cultures

Socialization and CultureCulture – is defined as the behaviour patterns,

beliefs, attitudes, and traditions shared by particular groups of people, that are passed on from generation to generation.

o Cultural groups evolve ‘norms’ of their rules for acceptable and unacceptable behaviour. (Santrock, 2002).

Socialization and Culture

o The ‘average child’ will behave differently in similar among different cultural groups (Lefrancios, 2001).

By the time children begin school, they have learnt many aspects of the culture in which they live such as language, beliefs, attitudes, ways of behaving and foods they like.

Socialization and CultureFactors that affect the cultural background of a child.

o Ethnicity – family’s cultural heritage, race or tribe, religion, language

o Socioeconomic status – measure of prestige within a social group that is usually based on income, occupation and education

o Religiono Home languageo Gendero Any other group identities and experiences

- Slavin, 2006

Socialization Trough Imitation of Role Models He believed that imitation (copying a

model) is an important way that young children learn to become socialized, especially during their first three years of life. Later, identification takes place.

o Identification – is defined as the process of adopting the behaviours, values, and beliefs of another person (their model) – identifying what that person.

Erik Erikson

Socialization Trough Imitation of Role Models His social learning was also based on

observation and imitation. This is known as vicarious learning or observational learning which is observing another person learn.

o Through observational learning, children learn:

1. How to perform a behaviour.2. What will happen when the behaviour

is performed in specific situations.

Albert Bandura

Socialization Trough Imitation of Role Models Role Models

When a society is composed of a wide variety of people then the role models for children are also highly varied. In advanced societies, many role models are symbolic which may not be real people.

One of the most powerful of these symbolic models may be television. Another powerful source of social influence are young children’s friends or peer groups (Lefrancios, 2001).

Gender Identity and Roles Another aspect of socialization and culture is the influence that it

has on determining the gender identity and gender roles within a particular culture.

o Gender – is identified as ‘the social and psychological dimensions of being male or female’.

o Gender Identity – is ‘the sense of being male or female, which most children acquire by the time they are 3 years old’.

o Gender Role – is ‘a set of expectations that prescribe how females or males should think, act, and feel’.

o Gender Typing – describes ‘the process by which boys and girls learn masculine and feminine behaviour. It refers to the acquisition of masculine and feminine behaviour for male and female respectively.

Gender Identity and Roleso Gender is a social construct. It is defined by social groups

and it develops according to accepted social norms.

o The range of behaviours considered appropriate for males (masculine) and females (feminine), as well as the attitude and personality characteristics associated with them, determines the nature of the gender roles. The learning of gender-appropriate behaviour is gender typing.

Gender Identity and Roleso Boys and girls learn gender roles through imitation or

observational learning, by watching what other people say and do.

Socializing Agents Through Which Children Learn Their Gender• Their parents• Other family members• Culture• School• Peers• The media

Parents are the most important influence on gender development during early years. Mothers usually have more responsibility while fathers are more likely to be involved in the playful interactions.

Studies have shown that fathers contribute more in to the distinctions between the two genders (Santrock, 2002).

Studies have also shown that parents support their children for stereotyped activities more than for cross-gender activities (Seifert and Hoffnung, 1991).

Gender Role Stereotypesʘ Stereotype – is a conventional image or concept that conforms to the

widely accepted type.

ʘ Gender stereotypes- are broad categories that reflect our general impression and beliefs about males and females.

ʘ Gender typing – when children become aware of their gender identity and its meaning, they actively participate in organizing their behaviours and their environments to conform to gender appropriate patterns.

o Girls are more likely to learn to play with dolls and houses during childhood.

o Boys are more likely to play with cars and guns during childhood.

ʘ Gender schemas – are children’s knowledge about characteristics associated with being male or female.

The gender schema theory explains that the child begins with no understanding of the nature of gender or no basic gender identity (Bern, 1981).

Children’s gender schemas should be well established in the late preschool stage, before they start school.

Research across different cultures indicates that gender role are among the first roles that children learn and that all cultures treat males differently from females.

Theories of Development of Moral Values Moral values – are concerned with the principles of right

and wrong or conforming to standards of behaviour and character based on those principles.

The children’s moral judgements build on their cognitive development (Piaget).

The developmental stages of moral reasoning and the thinking process that occur when we consider right or wrong (Lawrence Kohlberg).

III. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentBoth Piaget and Kohlberg thought that morality emerges

from a child’s experiences of rules and punishments imposed on them by adults, and from different forms of social experiences and interaction and that the development of morality is constructivist.

Children form ways of thinking through their experiences which include understandings of moral concepts like justice, rights, equality, and human welfare (Kohlberg).

III. Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral DevelopmentLevels and Stages of Moral Development.

LEVEL 1: Preconventional/PremoraloMoral values reside in external, quasi=physical

events, or in bad acts. The child is responsive to rules and evaluative labels, but views them in terms of pleasant or unpleasant consequences of actions, or in terms of the physical power of those who impose the rules.

Stage 1: Obedience and punishment orientation

This stage is often characterized by avoidance of punishment and unquestioning power as values in themselves.

• Egocentric deference to superior power or prestige, or a trouble-avoiding set

• Objective responsibility

Stage 2: Individualism, instrumental purpose and exchange.

At this stage, the individual will engage in his/her own interest, but also let others do the same.

• Right action is that which is instrumental in satisfying the self’s needs and occasionally others’.

• Relativism of values to each actor’s needs and perspectives.• Naive egalitarianism, orientation to exchange and reciprocy.

Level 2: Conventional Reasoning/Role Conformity

o At this level, there is some internalization of morals. The individual will follow certain standards but they are the standards of others such as parents or laws of society.

o Moral values reside in performing the right role, in maintaining the conventional order and expectancies of others as a value in its own right.

o Stage 3: Mutual interpersonal expectations, relationships, and interpersonal conformity.

(Good-boy/good-girl orientation)

This stage is driven by a desire to please or help others with hope of winning their approval.

• Orientation to approval, to pleasing and helping others.• Conformity to stereotypical images of majority of natural

role behaviour.• Action is evaluated in terms of intentions.

o Stage 4: Social Systems Morality/Authority and Social-Order-Maintaining Orientation

At this stage, the focus is on understanding the social order, law, duty, and justice.

• Orientation to “doing duty” and showing respect for authority and maintaining the given social order or its own sake.

• Regard for earned expectations of others.• Differentiates actions out of a sense of obligation to rules from

actions for generally “nice” or natural motives.

Level 3: Post-Conventional Reasoning/Self-Accepted Moral Principles

o At this level, the moral behaviour is completely internalized and is not based on standards of others. Alternative views of morality are considered and explored.

o Stage 5: Social contracts and individual rights/Legalistic orientation

At this stage, the individual can examine social laws and systems, and evaluate the extent that they preserve and protect the human rights and values.

• Norms of right and wrong are defined in terms of laws or institutionalized rules which seem to have a rational basis.

• When conflict arises between individual needs and law or contract, though sympathetic to the former, the individual believes the latter must prevail because of its greater functional rationality for society, the majority will and welfare.

o Stage 6: Universal ethical principles/Morality of individual principles of conscience.

At this stage, the individual has developed a moral standard based on universal human rights. When there is a conflict between the law and the individual’s conscience, the person will follow their conscience even though there may be personal risk involved.

• Orientation not only toward existing social rules, but also toward the conscience as a directing agent, mutual trust and respect, and principles of moral choice involving logical universalities and consistency.

• Action is controlled by internalized ideals that exert a pressure to act accordingly regardless of the reactions of others in the immediate environment.

• If one acts otherwise, self-condemnation and guilt result.

Turiel’s Domain Theory Turiel observed that the stage theory of Piaget and Kohlberg

did not really work as neatly in real life as it did in theory, because children appeared to be inconsistent in their normal decisions. Out of these observation came the Domain Theory.

The three domains of thought are:• Moral domain• Social domain• Personal domain

Turiel’s Domain Theory Social Domain

As children grow and develop, the begin to know what the ‘right’ action is and what the ‘wrong’ action is in a given situation. Part of this ability is due to their knowledge and understanding of the role of social conventions enabling the smooth working of society.

o Social knowledge – is formed through interaction with their social groups – family, school, and peers.

Turiel’s Domain Theory Moral Domain

Moral rules are not defined by a social context – the two domains (social and moral) operate separately, but side by side.

o Children’s moral judgements are formed around experiences involving:

• Harm to persons• Violation of rights• Conflicts based on different claims

Turiel’s Domain Theory Personal Domain

A young person will consider the social and moral implications presented by a given situation based on:

– Their interpretation of interactions in social context (social domain).– The rules and instructions they have received from adults (moral

domain).

o Information from both the social and moral domains will be used to guide the decision-making process.

Factors Affecting Social and Emotional DevelopmentThe social and emotional development of children involves their understanding of themselves and of others as they learn to interact socially within their cultural context.

DevelopmentThe quality of the relationship of a child with their parents/guardians, family, and peers in their immediate environment has significant influence on their development in his/her early years.

Main factors affecting a child’s personal and social development.1. Parents (and their parenting styles)2. Peer groups3. School (teachers)4. Media influence (esp. television)

Factors Affecting Social and Emotional Development

Parenting – a complex activity that includes many specific behaviours that work individually and together to influence child learning outcomes.

Three main important functions of a family1. To provide food, shelter, and clothing.2. To support developmental functions through parenting and

care giving3. To ensure access to education, health care, a safe

environment

Parenting Styles

Parents should be neither punitive (give punishment) or aloof (distant), but they should develop rules for their children, and show them affection (Diana Baumrind, 1971).

The Four Parenting Styleso Authoritarian Parenting

Restrictive and punitive style. This type of parenting enforces firm limits and controls on the child, allows very little verbal exchange.

This parent may also hit the child, enforce rules rigidly but not explain them, and show anger toward their children.

Children of the authoritarian parents are often:

Unhappy Fearful Anxious about comparing themselves with others. Fail to initiate activity Have weak communication skills

The Four Parenting Styleso Authoritative Parenting

Encourages children to be independent, but still provides limits and controls on their actions.

Authoritative parents show pleasure and support for their children’s constructive behaviour.

Children of authoritative parents are often:

– Cheerful– Self-controlled and self-reliant– Friendly with peers– Cooperate with adults– Cope well in stress

The Four Parenting Styleso Neglectful Parenting

A style in which the parent is very much uninvolved in the child’s life.

Children, whose parents are neglectful, develop an understanding that other aspects of their parent’s lives are more important than they are.

Children of neglectful parents often:

Tend to be socially incompetentHave poor self-controlDon’t handle independence wellHave low self esteemAre immatureIn adolescence, show patterns of truancy and

delinquency

The Four Parenting Styleso Indulgent/Nondirective/Permissive Parenting

Style of parenting in which parents are highly involved with their children, but have few controls or demands on them.

The parents allow their children to do what they want. The result is that the children never learn to control their own behaviour, and always expect to get their own way.

o Children of indulgent parents often:

Have difficulty controlling their behaviourAre not popular with peersHave little respect for othersAre aggressive, domineering, or non-complaint

(uncooperative)

Peer Groups Peer group – group of people of about the same age or maturity level.

One of the important functions of a child’s peer group is to provide them with information and comparison about the world outside of their family.

Research has shown that good peer relations can be necessary for normal social development.

Children who are withdrawn and rejected by their peers and feeling lonely are at risk of depression. Children who are aggressive with their peers are at risk of developing a number of problems, including delinquency (anti-social) and dropping out of school (Santrock, 2002).

Play – interaction with peers in early childhoodA large amount of peer interaction during early

childhood involves play, including social play.

Play is essential for young children’s cognitive development as well as their social and emotional development.

Children feel more relaxed in the context of play, and are more likely to express their true feelings.

Need for peer groups in late childhood and adolescence

Teenagers (adolescents aged between 13 to 19 years old), want to be with people their own age – their peers.

They spend more time with their peers, with less parental supervision. With their peers, teenagers can be both connected and independent, as they break away from their parent’s images of them and begin to develop identities of their own.

The influence of peers in adolescence

While the families help adolescents to feel proud and confident of their unique traits, backgrounds, and abilities, peers are often more accepting of the feelings, thoughts, and actions associated with the adolescent’s search for self-identity.

Peer Group Pressure Peer group pressure is the influence of peers to conform (be similar)

to the peer group’s expectations and values.

A large amount of peer conformity consists of the need to be involved in the peer world such as wearing similar clothes, hairstyles, etc.

Conforming (complying) to peer group pressure brings the rewards of being accepted and valued by their peers, which is very important to individuals during late childhood and adolescence.

Positive Peer Group Pressure

At its best, peer pressure can activate an adolescent’s energy, motivate for success, and encourages them to conform to healthy behaviour.

Peers can and do act as positive role models, do demonstrate appropriate social behaviours. Peers often to, and accept and understand the frustrations, challenges, and concerns associated with being an adolescent.

Negative Peer Group Pressure

The need for acceptance, approval, and belonging is especially important during the adolescent years.

Those who feel isolated or rejected by their peers or family are more likely to engage in risky (dangerous or bad) behaviours in order to fit in with the group.

In such situations, peer pressure can impair good judgement and encourage risk-taking behaviour, drawing an adolescent away from the family and positive influences, and into dangerous activities.

Peer groups can influence its members, only if a member has the ff. needs or fears:

A compulsive need for acceptanceA strong need for an identityThey agree with the options of others they admireThey internalize peer labelling to become a self-

fullfiling prophecyThey don’t want to be left outThey don’t want to lose their friendsThey are afraid that their peers will tease them and

say bad things about them

Mass media Mass media includes all the many different ways (or mediums)

that information can be received.

Examples: the internet CDs/DVDs Newspaper, magazines Television. Movies Cellphones, tablets, desktops FM radios

Positive Influences of Mass Media

Enhancing cognitive skills Increasing knowledgeModeling social conductPromoting physical well-beingProviding opportunities to develop technology skills

Negative effects of mass media

Mass media teaches children social norms and even influences how they perceive gender roles

Making violence normal Risky sexual behaviour Controls and constructs the images that are seen Deal health issues Making everything commercial

Television

Few developments in society in the second half of the twentieth century had a greater impact on children than television. Many children spend more time in front of the TV that they do with their parents.

Television is the most influential of the mass media that affect children.

Negative effects of Television Violence

What are the effects of television violence on children’s aggressive behaviour? When children grow up, can television violence increase the possibility that they will violently attack someone?

A large number of research studies have been conducted to try and answer this questions, and many experts argue that television violence can induce aggression.

Critical Viewing Skills Children need to be taught critical viewing skills to

balance the harmful effects of television violence.

Examples of critical viewing skills1. How television is not like real life2. Why is it bad to imitate TV violence3. What are the effects of watching too much

television

Characteristics of children that may be more easily affected by violence on television (Canadian Pediatric Society)

• Children from monitory and immigrant groups• Emotionally disturbed children• Children with learning disabilities• Children in families with distress• Children who are abused by their parents

influences of television Studies have demonstrated that television can teach children to

behave in positive, social ways.

Mass media can have both negative and positive influences on the socio-emotional development of children and adolescents.

Negative influences include the large amount of unedited and potentially harmful; material that is readily available to children via the internet and television.

Positive influences include the availability of motivating educational programs and providing role models of positive social behaviour.