Small ruminant nutrition jvma

Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD

Introduction to Small Ruminant

Nutrition

JVMA Small Ruminant Medicine Workshop


Nutrient Requirements• Will vary according to:

– Stage of Production– Environmental Adjustments– Animal size and breed– Body Condition Scoring

• Nutrients of Importance includes:– Energy– Protein– Minerals– Vitamins– Fibre


Nutritional Stages

• Lamb and kid• Yearlings• Adult male• Adult female

Rumen function is important regardless of the stage of production


The Importance of Rumen Function

• Rumen is heavily muscled to promote grinding, churning and sorting of feed items

• Methane and CO2 makes up the majority of gases produced

• Papillae line the rumen and are responsible for the absorption of these gases which are critical to the maintenance of the animal

• Movement from high fibre to high concentrate should be done gradually to allow the papillae to adapt– High carbohydrates = high butyric and propionic acid =

increased papillae growth



• Microbial population in the rumen consists of bacteria, protozoa, and fungi

• Bacteria are grouped according to shape and size or substrate– products such as cellulose, hemicellulose, starch,

sugars, intermediate acids, protein, and lipids – These bacteria produce methane



• The methane-producing bacteria remove H gas by reducing CO2 with H gas to form methane. – Keeps the H concentration in the rumen low– allows methanogenic bacteria to promote the growth of

other bacterial species and provides for a more efficient fermenta tion.

• Removal of H encourages hydrogen-producing species to produce more H and thus alter their metabolism towards higher yielding pathways. – Results in the synthesis of more microbial cells, which

increases available protein to the ruminant.



• Higher numbers of protozoa are generally found in the rumen when high digestibility diets are fed. – Some protozoa numbers are higher when diets

contain large amounts of soluble sugars and other types predominate with high starch diets.

• The protozoa actively ingest bacteria as a source of protein. – Limiting the amount available to the animal in the

small intestine.


Rumination and Saliva Production

• Rumination is a by-product of evolution• animals can ingest large quantities of food in a

short time and then chew their “cud” at leisure later

• Rumination decreases particle size and increases surface area

• It enhances degradation by microbes



• Direct correlation between rumination time and saliva production

• Saliva acts as a natural buffer because it contains sodium, bicarbonate, phosphates

• Controls pH in rumen, despite the acids produced by fermentation



• Diet control = saliva control• Decreasing chewing time, decreases saliva

production• Drastic decrease in saliva results in acidosis, altering

the rumen environment and negatively impacting animal production

• Long hay and forages high in fibre increases rumination time

• High concentrates, finely chopped forages and silage decreases rumination time


NEONATAL NUTRITION


A Tale of Two Animals


Road to Success:Colostrum

• Colostrum Management should follow the 3Qs and 1C– Quickly– Quantity– Quality– Cleanliness

(adapted from R.W. Johnson and J. Drackley)


Feeding ScheduleLamb and Kids

• 10-20% of body weight in colostrum within 12 hours of birth

• Critical not just for immunity but for optimal growth

Growth & feed intake

Disease


Colostrum and SurvivalAntibodies from colostrum protect animals until active immunity Calf survival rates by IgG Levels


Antibody absorption 2 hours of age and 24hours of age


Impact of Contaminated Treats


Colostrum and Growth:Failure of Passive Transfer (FPT)

• Calves with FPT (< 10mg IgG/mL serum):– Increased time to first calving (Can Vet. J, 1986

50:314)– Decreased ADG to 180 days (J. Dairy Sci. 1998,

71:1283)– Decreased milk and fat yield in first lactation• Each unit of serum IgG > 12mg/mL = + 8.2 kg increase

in ME milk (J. Dairy Sci. 1989, 72:552)


Colostrum sources (lambs and kids) Dam Best source

Another female in flock Best substitute Thaw properly, if frozen.

A female in another flock (similar disease status)*

Next best substitute. Thaw properly, if frozen.

Ewe or doe

animal Lower in nutrition Milk from Jamaica Hope breeds higher in fat compared to Holstein

Colostrum supplement Nutritious, but no antibodies Use to supplement colostrum

Colostrum substitute Contains antibodies Homemade colostrum Lack of antibodies

Lamb or kid milk replacer Not an adequate substitute for colostrum. Feed after 24 hours.

* Dam with single kid or lamb usually has extra colostrum


Colostrum Replacement for Kids

Homemade• 740 ml animals milk (goat

milk preferable) • 1 beaten egg• 1 teaspoon cod liver oil (as a

laxative)• 1 teaspoon glucose sugarOr • 600 ml milk• 1 tsp castor oil• 1 small egg

Commercial


Milk and Milk Replacer


Feeding ScheduleLamb and Kids

• 10-20 % of body weight in milk daily (a 10kg lamb or kid should receive 1.5 to 1.9 litres of milk divided into 4-6 feedings daily)

• Milk replacers: 20% protein, 20% fat, whey proteins


Milk Replacer Protein Sources

Preferred Acceptable as partial substitute

Marginal

Dried whey protein concentrate

Soy protein isolate Soy flour

Dried skim milk Protein modified soy flour

Modified potato protein

Casein Soy protein concentrate

Dried whey Animal plasma

Dried whey product Egg protein

Modified wheat protein


Milk or Plant Based Protein



Creep FeedingLamb and Kids

• Must be palatable if going to be successful• Start by 3-4 weeks of age• Must consume 0.25 kg daily until weaning if

increased performance is to be attained• Should provide an additional 0.5 kg of weight

gain for each 1.8-3.2 kg of feed consumed


Omasum

Abomasum

RumenReticul.


Effect of Creep Feeding on Weight Gains of Kids

Adapted from Stanton, 2012


Digestion and Absorption in Ruminants



Milk Milk & Grain Milk & Hay

6 Week Calves


Milk Milk & Grain Milk & Hay

8 Week Calves


Weaners

• Early weaning at 3-4 weeks of age• Preferably delay until 8-12 weeks of age• Stressful!• Accustom animals to drinking out of a water trough

and eating out of a feeder prior to weaning• Offer free-choice good-quality hay/fodder for the

first 2 days of weaning• Concentrate feed offered at 1% of body weight per

day


Finishing• Can finish on high-quality forage• Feedlot or semi-intensive situations• Stepwise feeding program where lambs and

kids get more grain/concentrate as they get larger

• High grain diet during this period may predispose to urinary stones, enterotoxemia and bloat


Finishing

• Slowly introduce animals to this diet over 2-4 weeks and vaccinate against problematic diseases

• High risk of production diseases


Yearlings

• Most females gain 0.25-0.5 lb daily from weaning until breeding.

• Keep the body condition score between 2.5 and 3.5.

• Most males gain 0.75 lb daily during this period.

• Monitor males for production-related diseases!


Adult Male

• Maintain prebreeding BCS of 3-4 as they will lose weight during the breeding season

• Feed a concentrated energy-protein supplement 4-6 weeks before breeding season

• 1-2 lb of concentrate daily is reasonable• Outside of breeding season, maintain on a

maintenance feed


Adult Female

• Maintenance• Pasture or range settings suffice

• Breeding• Flushing: increased nutrition (energy) before and

during early breeding increases the ovulation rate• Do not overcondition!• Provide lush pastures or supplement with 0.33-1 lb of

10-20% crude protein grain/head/day• Start 2 weeks before male is introduced and continue

for 2-3 weeks after• BCS of 2.5-3 are optimal


Adult Female

• Early-middle gestation• Requirements not greatly increased over maintenance• Maintain BCS of 2.5-3 and monitor every 2-3 weeks


Adult Female

• Late gestation• 70% of fetal growth occurs during the last 6 weeks of

gestation• Substantial increase in energy needs• Feed between 1/3-1 lb grain daily per head depending

on size of animal• Maintain BCS of 2.5-3• Promote adequate energy intake

– Ewes: 2.2 lbs daily during final 4 weeks– Does: 1-2 lbs daily during final 4-6 weeks


Adult Female

• Lactation• Peak milk production 2-3 weeks after birth• Rapid decline 8-10 weeks after birth• Requires adequate levels of proteins prior to lactation• Addition of fat to increase the energy density of the

diet (do not exceed 4-5% of the diet)


Nutritional Phases in theProduction Cycle-Goats Summary

• Move clockwise starting at top of innermost circle.

• Continue through the next cycle or move to next shell after 360°.

• Note that there are two possible routes after the kid is weaned.

(Tisch, 2006)

Tanika O’Connor-Dennie, PhD 43

Metabolic Disorders Arising From Unbalanced Diets

Cause Symptoms Treatment Milk fever Sudden decrease in blood

calcium levels. Decreased intake and milk yield. Kidding paralyses, death

Feeding management prior to kidding to stimulate animal’s ability to mobilise body calcium

Grass tetany Low blood magnesium levels

Decreased intake and milk yield. Muscular staggers, death

Feed magnesium supplements

Ketosis or acetonaemia

Animal rely on fat reserves for energy during early lactation

Decreased intake and milk yield, Characteristic smell of breath

Feed well balanced diet during early lactation

Lactic acidosis (grain poisoning) & laminitis

Rumen pH becomes very low due to high starch intake

Decreased intake and milk yield.

Include rumen buffers in diet and sufficient roughage

Bloat Build up of foam in rumen which stops gas from escaping

Left side of cow is swollen. Animal stands up and lies down frequently

Put hose down oesophagus, administer oil, stab left flank to release gas

Urea toxicity Ammonia poisoning Rumen stops moving, death

Feed toxicities Anti-nutritional factors in diet.

Sickness and death Identify cause and remove from diet

Forages


Hypocalcemia• Primarily a problem in dairy goats• Ewes susceptible in late gestation and early lactation• Greatest calcium demand for non-dairy animals is 3-4

weeks prior to birth• High producing dairy goats have problems after birth• Signs

• Stiff gait, tremors, tetany, constipation, decreased rumen contractions, etc.

• Diagnosis• History and signalment• Serum Ca < 4-5 mg/dl


Hypocalcemia

• Treatment• 50-100 ml of a 23% calcium borogluconate solution IV• 50-100 ml of calcium chloride SQ• Monitor heart rate: stop if slows or the rhythm

changes!

• Prevention• Diet low in calcium• Low cation-anion ratio


Hypomagnesemia• Grass tetany• Problem in animals grazing lush pastures

during early spring• Reduced absorption of magnesium due to

high nitrogen and potassium levels in the forage

• Clinical signs• Ewes 2-4 weeks after lambing • More common in ewes with twins• Excitability, convulsions, muscle spasms, increased

respiratory rate, dead in pasture


Hypomagnesemia

• Diagnosis• Serum magnesium < 1.5 mg/dl or post-mortem

magnesium levels in CSF, urine or anterior eye chamber fluid

• Treatment• 20-25% calcium borogluconate and 50 ml of 4-5%

magnesium

• Prevention• Offer high-magnesium mineral supplements before

growth of lush forage and before lambing


Copper Toxicosis• More common in sheep • Results from chronic accumulation in the liver

due to getting excess dietary Cu in relation to molybdenum or sulfate

• Sources of excess Cu• Trace mineral mixtures and feeds for cattle and horses

• Clinical signs absent during accumulation phase

• Acute disease• Off feed, lethargy, depression, diarrhea, weakness,

hemolysis, jaundice, port-wine colored urine


Copper Toxicosis

• Diagnosis• Blood Cu levels 10-20 x normal (50-200 µg/dl)• Kidney Cu levels postmortem (> 100 ppm)• Liver Cu levels postmortem (> 350 ppm)

• Treatment• Usually unsuccessful

• Prevention• Avoid high dietary Cu, high Cu-Mo ratio, Cu-containing

foot baths, etc.


Concentrate Overload

• Rumen acidosis• Forage-fed animals suddenly introduced to a high

concentrate diet• Fermentation of carbohydrates decrease in rumen

pH lactic acidosis death of rumenal protozoa fluid from circulatory system drawn into the rumen dehydration and shock

• Chronic changes• Liver abscesses• Laminitis• Fungal rumenitis





• Clinical signs• Anorexia, depression, weakness• Severe dehydration, toxemia• Colic, distended abdomen, diarrhea

• Diagnosis• Rumen pH < 5.5• Few protozoa• Large gram-positive rods



• Treatment• Correct shock, dehydration, acid-base abnormalities• IV fluids with 5% sodium bicarbonate• Anti-inflammatories• Rumen transfaunation• Thiamine supplementation• Systemic antibiotics

» Penicillin

• Prevention• Introduce concentrate feeds slowly over 2-3 weeks• Rumen buffers• Minimum crude fibre content of 20%


Protein Overload

• Urea-ammonia toxicity• Dull, depressed, muscle tremors, frequent urination

and defecation, excess salivation, increased respiration, ataxia, tetanic spasms and death• Treat with vinegar and water via stomach tube

• Do not feed excessive levels of protein or non-protein nitrogen


Bloat

• Frothy bloat• Diets promoting formation of stable froth• Ingestion of legume forages or hay, lush cereal grain

pastures

• Free gas bloat• Diets promoting excessive gas formation

– Grain diets in animals unadapted to diet• Failure to eructate

– Esophageal obstruction– Various other conditions

• EMERGENCY!


Bloat

• Pass stomach tube of free gas bloat• Frothy bloat: administer hand soap or

vegetable oil• Prevention

• Limit access to above dietary changes• Add ionophores (monensin) to diet


Urinary Calculi Prevention

• No supplemental P• Add Ca to 2.0-2.5 Ca:P ratio• No milking ration• Plenty of clean/warm water• Salt• Ammonium chloride .5%


Nutritional Recommendations• Free choice fresh, good quality water• Each ewe/doe with at least 1 foot of water trough

space• Energy

• Structural carbohydrates: bulk of diet• Fat: 4-5% maximum

• Protein• Minimum of 7% dietary crude protein needed for normal rumen

bacterial growth and function• Minerals

• Calcium-phosphorus ratio between 1:1 and 2:1• NaCl at 0.5% of diet


Nutritional Recommendations

• Make feed changes slowly!• Avoid excessive carbohydrates and protein in

diet• Ensure appropriate stocking density for

forages • Use BCS as a guideline


Meat Goat Production Handbook, Langston University, 2007


USE OF FORAGES AND OTHER SUPPLEMENTS


Forages are Crops and should be treated as such

• Three types of forages:– Grasses (average CP

10.6%)– Legumes (19.4% CP)– Non – leguminous

shrubs and trees (> 12%CP)

• Managing leaf:stem ratio is important Feed value of fodder decreases with

growth stage at harvest

Tisch, 2006)


Grass - Legume Combinations

Possible advantages• Improvement in nutritive

value of forage on offer• Possible nitrogen fixation in

soils

Limitations• Difference in optimal

harvest intervals for the two species results in non –persistence of the legumes.

Siratro/Pangola grass


PasturesUtilization and Management

• Pastures are utilized in two ways:– Grazing – animals are allowed to do their own harvesting.

• During this process they return organic matter to the system.

– Cutting or zero-grazing – forage is harvested and brought to the animal.• During this process there is no return of organic matter to the system.


Grazed PasturesSystems of Utilization

• Rotational Grazing – a system in which a single pasture is subdivided into smaller paddocks and animals are moved from paddock to paddock in a systematic pattern.

• e.g. An 8 - paddock , 4 - day rotation will give each paddock a 28 day rest period .

• In choosing a cycle one must consider the species being grazed since different species have different recovery rates.


• Set-Stocking – also known as continuous grazing.– This is a system in which animals remain on the

same pasture for an extended period of time.

– This system is not recommended for intensive livestock production.




• Occasional Grazing – in this system grazing is limited to restricted areas set aside for specific periods such as during a dry spell(forage banks).

• Leguminous trees or shrubs are the species generally utilized in this system.

• These trees or shrubs should be cut back 2 or 3 times each year to prevent them becoming too tall or woody.


Cutting/Zero Grazing Systems

• Forages harvested for daily feeding (green chop).

• Forages harvested for conservation.• Forages harvested from forage banks during

dry periods.


Zero Grazed Pastures

• Allows for an increase in carrying capacity through the use of high producing forages such as king grass.

• Allows for the production of high quality feeds for specific groups such as fatteners and lactating animals.

• Reduces losses from trampling and selection that is experienced on grazed pastures .

Disadvantages• Labour intensive or heavy

machinery required• Forage will be harvested

and transported and should therefore be located close to the site at which it will be utilized.

Advantages


Forage Conservation

• Ensures a continuous supply of forage throughout the year

• achieved by harvesting and storing forage material as either silage or hay.

• Both processes can be carried out on a large or small scale.

• Includes silage, hay and leaf meals.


Silage• Forage is allowed to ferment in the absence of air

and in the presence of suitable soluble carbohydrates.

• Acidification of the forage material acts as a preservative.

• Stable for years as long as it is not exposed to air with no decrease in nutrient value.




Best time to use Silage


Hay

• Fodder dried to a moisture content of 15% or less

• Can be stored for several months without great deterioration in quality.

• Requires large scale production and costly machinery


Leaf MealMulberry

This is the dried leaves of legumes or non – leguminous shrubs.

Gliricidia


Multi-Nutrient Blocks

• One of the least expensive means of rectifying the deficiency in forage quality

• High percentage of rumen by-pass nutrients, most notable urea and molasses (FOA, 2007).

• Decreases labour cost and increases forage intake• Excellent supplement during dry period– At Bodles animals fed combination of 1/3 level

concentrate + MNB performed as well as those receiving 100% concentrate

– Basal diet was pangola hay


Thank you

Small ruminant nutrition jvma

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