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Scientif
cWritingA step-by-step guide
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Publish in English orPERISH
The simpletruth...
Publishing is the major
marker o productiit!in academia
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The scientifc
manuscript
For every person who reads the whole paper,about 500 read only the title so...
...catch the eye of prospective readers
Title
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The scientifc manuscript
"sk !oursel
What is the single most important pointmade in this paper?
Title
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The scientifc manuscript
"dice
se short, declarative sentences rather thanneutral sentences
Infuence o aspirin on human megakaryocyte prostaglandin synthesis
Inhibition o prostaglandin synthesis as amechanism o action o aspirin-like drugs(Nature)
Title
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The scientifc manuscript
"dice
se verbs instead of abstract nouns forthe sa!e of dynamics
Treatment o polycystic ovary syndrome
How to treat polycystic ovary syndrome
Title
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The scientifc manuscript
"dice
Avoid abbreviations Ocs o-t-c? "The Lancet #
Oral contraceptives over-the-counter?
$mit all waste words because inde%ingand abstracting services depend on theaccuracy of the title
Title
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The scientifc manuscript
"dice
&f the study is of a particular species,name it in the title
"e.g., narrative review, randomi'ed control trial#
#heck the targeted journal
Title
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The scientifc manuscript
"dice
(he main words in the running title shouldbe identical to words in the main title
#heck the targeted journal
RunningTitle
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The scientifc manuscript
Rules to be ollo$ed (o facilitate the inde%ing of published
papers, supply a list of the !ey words thatre)ect the most important aspects of yourpaper
"dice #heck the targeted journal
%e!$ords
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The scientifc manuscript
Rules to be ollo$ed
&t should not be longer than speci*ed in the&nstructions for Authors
&t should use the format speci*ed in the &nstructionsfor Authors "i.e., continuos vs. structured#
&t should be self-contained and able to stand alone
$mit all references to the literature and to tables or *gures
$mit abbreviations and acronyms
"bstract
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The scientifc manuscript
"dices
As you write the abstract, !eep the title ofyour paper in front of you
When the abstract is complete, compareit with the title of your paper
"bstract
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The scientifc manuscript
"dices +tate why you embar!ed on the proect
A gap in the literature? A debate in the literature?
A persistent social problem?
+tate what your study was about obective
+tate how you did your study methodology
+tate what you found in your study *ndings
+tate what conclusions you drawed from yourstudy argument
"bstract
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The scientifc manuscript
"sk !oursel
What places your research in the conte%tof earlier relevant wor! done by others?
What supports the decision to perform
your study?
What are the implications of your study?
Introduction
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The scientifc manuscript
"sk !oursel What is your argument?
(he argument is a thread that runs through yourdissertation
(he argument is a coherent series of statementsin which the author leads the reader from certain
premises to a particular conclusion
An argument has at least two parts "/# a claim and"# some evidence for that claim
A hypothesis is part of an argument
Introduction
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The scientifc manuscript
"sk !oursel 1ow to test if you have an argument
+tatements to which you can coherently respond Iagree or I disagree
Statement& (his article reviews factors that facilitateor hinder successful coping with 1&2, includingpree%isting psychological functioning, medical health
status, 3uality and ade3uacy of social support, stressand coping style, and perceived e%pected bene*ts oftreatment.
"rgument& (his article contends that grouppsychotherapy aimed at developing a positive self-identity is valueable for those individuals coping with
the challenges posed by their 1&2-positive serostatus.
Introduction
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The scientifc manuscript
"sk !oursel
1ow to write an argument-driven article?
4emember that publishable articles areargumentative, not representative
o not write li!e a detective collecting data
'(T
Write li!e a lawyer arguing a case
Introduction
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The scientifc manuscript
)rating !our argument
Write the argument of the article
6ist what evidence you are bringing to bear toprove your argument
+hare your argument with three other people to
get suggestions for revision +ome should be in your *eld
+ome should be outside of it
Introduction
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The scientifc manuscript
Reie$ing !our article or argument o & state my argument early and clearly?
1ave & organi'ed my introduction around myargument?
1ave & organi'ed the body of my article aroundmy argument?
1ave & presented evidence related to myargument?
o & restate my argument in the conclusionr?
Introduction
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The scientifc manuscript
"dices
(he writing-up should be organi'edaround an argument that lin!s all aspectsof the research process from problemformulation, through literature review and
the presentation of research methods, tothe discussion and conclusion
Avoid opening sentences that are vacuousand evasive
Introduction
d i
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The scientifc manuscript
"dices Avoid writing an introduction that is too
long Most medical coomunications are dicult
to read! To determine why" contributions tothree issues o the #ew $ngland %ournal oMedicine were studied and the prose
analy&ed! "New England Journal of Medicine) 7ite papers from the past couple of years
that form the immediate basis for yourstudy 'rainy et al! ()**+, and reerences therein
Introduction
d i
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The scientifc manuscript
"dices
8egin by introducing the reader to thepertinent literature
7ontinue by stating clearly the scope and
obectives of the study
9nd by mentioning the implications ofyour results
Introduction
* h d
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The scientifc manuscript"sk !oursel
What is your research design?
What is your test setting?
1ow was access achieved "if relevant#?
What is your sampling approach?
What are your independent, dependent, and control variables?
1ow you proceeded with your analysis?
*ethods
* th d
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The scientifc manuscript
"dice
se chec!lists li!e PRIS*" ":referred4eporting &tems for +ystematic 4eviews and;eta-Analyses#, #+,S+RT "7onsolidated+tandards of 4eporting (rials#, or -"RS
"
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The scientifc manuscript
Rules to be ollo$ed
4efer to each illustration immediately afteryou describe the results that are comprised inthat illustration
'(T
o not repeat the data within the te%t se the te%t merely to point out the trends or
highlight the signi*cance of some of the mostinteresting data
Results
R lt
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The scientifc manuscript
Rules to be ollo$ed
&ndicate where, in the te%t, each illustrationshould be printed
+tandardi'e tables so that they appear the
same way throughout
se a table only if the comple%ity of the datawarrants it 9dward (ufte the =alileo of =raphics
Results
R lt
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The scientifc manuscript
"dices
8uild your manuscript around the argumentand the results section which provides theevidence to support your argument
$nly provide results that pertain directly tothe title of the paper and that relate to yourargument
Results
R lt
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The scientifc manuscript
"dices
:rovide illustrations "i.e., tables, diagrams, *gures, graphs#
:oint to particularly salient aspects of the illustrations
(itles of illustrations should describe the variables that
appear as well as the type of data presented
se )owcharts "especially in reporting of the randomi'edcontrolled trials#
Results
R lt
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The scientifc manuscript
"dices
4eport the number of dropouts and their reasons forwithdrawal
4eport the number of participants who were lost to follow-upand describe their characteristics as at the last e%amination
escribe the controls ust as thoroughly as the participantsfrom the treated or e%posed group
4eport the si'e of the e>ects for the readers to be able to udge the clinical importance of the results
Results
R lt
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The scientifc manuscript
"dices o not give a reference for statistics in common use
o not give a formula for statistics in common use When reporting inferential statistics, include
sucient information to allow the reader (o fully understand the conducted analyses
(o con*rm the basic reported analyses
(o enable the construction of e>ect-si'e estimates andcon*dence intervals beyond those supplied in thepaper
When using a statistical term in the narrative, usethe term, not the symbol
Results
)i i
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The scientifc manuscript
"sk !oursel
1ow do your results illuminate yourresearch 3uestion?
Are there alternative e%planations for your
*ndings? What are the implications of your *ndings
for the argument and the research3uestions that have driven your research?
)iscussion
)iscussion
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The scientifc manuscript
Rules to be ollo$ed
4esist the temptation to overanaly'e andoverinterpret your results
o not repeat what you have written in theintroduction section beyond a singleintroductory sentence that places your resultsin an appropriate conte%t
o not introduce new results from your study
in the discussion section
)iscussion
)iscussion
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The scientifc manuscript
Rules to be ollo$ed &nsert a paragraph about critical assessment
shortcomings in study design, limitations inmethods, )aws in analysis, or validity ofassumptions
&nsert a paragraph on comparisons with otherstudies start comparisons with studies
consistent with your own, continue withstudies less consistent, end with studiescontradicting your *ndings
&nsert a paragraph on possible implications ofyour *ndings and suggestions for future
research
)iscussion
)iscussion
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The scientifc manuscript
"dices
(ry to !eep it as concise as possible
iscuss each of your results in the sameorder as you presented them in the resultssection
:resent the signi*cance and the novelty ofyour results
'(T
8e careful in claims about causality
)iscussion
)iscussion
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The scientifc manuscript
"dices 8egin by stating your wor!ing hypothesis
7ontinue by discussing whether the wor!inghypothesis has been con*rmed or not, and if not,speculate about some possible reasons for andthe implications of their refutation
9nd by considering the present and future
impact of your results and of the conclusiondrawn from them @ou could also mention the practical implications of your
research
@ou could also mention the e%periments that you plan toperform or are currently performing to e%tend your results
)iscussion
"ckno$ledgme
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The scientifc manuscript (han! those who are not listed as authors but
whose e>orts contributed to the research
described in the paper and to the preparationof the paper itself (he authors than!... for...
A!nowledge those organi'ations that
contributed *nancially to your study
isclose any possible con)ict of interest in thecover letter that accompanies your paper andat the end of your a!nowledgments section
"ckno$ledgments
Reerences
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The scientifc manuscript
(here are few aspects of the preparation ofa manuscript that are more tedious and
irritating than correcting a list of referencesthat has been compiled according to anincorrect format
"dice +tudy a list of references that has alreadybeen published in your target ournal inaddition to the &nstructions for Authors
Reerences
Reerences
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The scientifc manuscript 4eferences to papers
4eferences to in press papers or unpublished data
+enden, (.
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The publishing process"sk !oursel
What does your audience assume aboutyour subect?
Which aspect"s# of your subect do theyassume isEare still open to 3uestion?
Which aspect"s# of your subect do theyassume isEare not open to 3uestion?
Will you challenge any of theseassumptions in your paper?
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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The publishing process
"dices
As with any other form of communication,you have to address the needs of youraudience
Find a way to bridge the gap between what youwant to say and what editors, reviewers, andreaders want to hear
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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#ommon reasons $h! journalsreject articles
Too naro$
With proper conte%tuali'ation, nothing has alimited purpose or limited audience
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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#ommon reasons $h! journalsreject articles
Too broad
=ive pertinent e%amples=ive speci*c e%amples to support your
argument
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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#ommon reasons $h! journalsreject articles
+1 topic
Inappropriate subject matter
An unsuitable subject
utside the scope of this journal
+tudy the ournals you want to submit to
7ontact the editor
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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#ommon reasons $h! journalsreject articles
,ot scholarl! !lopp" # $udimentar" # %asic # &olo'uial #
bious 8e meticulous about documentation
7ite recent literature
7ite relevant literature
7ite multiple sources
4eference debates in the *eld
:rovide evidence
:rovide a critical framewor!
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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#ommon reasons $h! journalsreject articles
,ot su2cientl! original No new nowledge
*uplication of alread" published articles
+ailing to announce originalit"
4ead in your *eld
Articulate originality
7laim your idea
evelop your voice
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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#ommon reasons $h! journalsreject articles
Poor structure ,oor writing # ,oor presentation # ,oor
organi-ation +urface your structure by using summary
paragraphs, transition sentences, andsubheadings
+tic! to your point by organi'ing your article
around a single signi*cant idea - argumentelete the redundant or irrelevant
+ubordinate the concrete by relating theparticular usually evidence to the general usually the theory or argument
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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#ommon reasons $h! journalsreject articles
,ot signifcant
Insigni.cant # /nimportant # f little merit #Not applicable
Articulate signi*cance
+elect the right ournal
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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#ommon reasons $h! journalsreject articles
Theoreticall! or methodologicall!3a$ed
,oor conceptual design # Argument notsupported b" data # Insu0cient data #Inaccuratel" calculated statistics #Methodological problems # Inade'uate theor" etail your methodology
7ite opposing views
Avoid imbalance because theory comes alivethrough concrete particulars ust as the concretebecomes signi*cant through e%planatory theory
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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#ommon reasons $h! journalsreject articles
Too man! misspellings and gramatical
errors
!lopp" # badl" written # hastil" written #nonnatie # poorl" presented
4un a spelling chec!
4un a grammar chec!
1ire an editor
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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The importance o picking therigh journal
(he most important thing you can do to
improve your chances of publication +tating your argument early and clearly
(he second most important thing you can do
to improve your chances of publication :ic!ing the right ournal
:ic!ing the wrong ournal can signi*cantlydelay publication
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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inding suitable academic journals
Searching or journals
As! your advisor and colleagues
7hec! your citations and their bibliographies
+earch electronic databases
Targeting a -ournal
Targeting a
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*atching !our article tosuitable journals
oes the ournal have an upcoming theme or
special issue on your topic?
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*atching !our article tosuitable journals
oes the style of your article match the ournalsstyle?
Formal vs. &nformal 7onservative vs. :rogressive
:layful vs. +erious
o you !now any of the ournals editors?
8efore ma!ing a *nal decision, send a 3uerryletter and if the response is positive, read recentissues
g g -ournal
Submission
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inali4ing !our article
The perils o perection
(here are diminishing returns toperfecting your wor!
6earn to send your imperfect wor! outinto the world
Submission
Submission
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Sending !our article
Writing the coer letter
se letterhead
Dame the editor
:rovide the title
&nclude the abstract Articulate the contribution
escribe the appeal to the readers
Sub ss o
Submission
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Sending !our article
Writing the coer letter
;ention the ournal
$>er warrants Authorship
$wnership :ublication
+ubmission
Submission
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Sending !our article
Writing the coer letter
=ive the word count
;ention any permissions
;ention any funding
&nclude your full contact information
Submission
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Sending !our article
Writing the coer letter
;iscellaneous :rotection of human subects
7on)icts of interests
4eviewers
Submission
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Sending !our article
Putting !our article in the journal5sst!le
Preparing the fnal print or
electronic ersion
Submission
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Sending !our
article
+ubmission on paper
+ubmission on 7
9lectronic submission
Response
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The publishing process Acceptance without revision #elebrate &)
Acceptance with "minorEmaor# revisions #elebrate moderatel!6 &7
4eection with an o>er to reconsider
$utright reection
p
Response
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#ongratulations8
!our paper has beenaccepted6
p
Ethical reporting oresearch results
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Ethical and /egal
Standards in Publishing 9nsure replication
9nsure veri*cation
o not fabricate data
o not falsify data
o not modify results
o not omitt observations
research results
)ata retention andsharing
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Ethical and /egal
Standards in Publishing
4etain raw data for a minimum of *ve years
after publication
4etain instructions, treatment manuals,procedure details, software for a minimumof *ve years after publication
:rovide upon re3uest
sharing
)uplicate andpiecemeal publication
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Ethical and /egal
Standards in Publishing )uplicate publication G the publication of the
same data or the same idea in two separatesources
The case& brief reports
*a!be the case& manuscripts previously published inabstracted form in the proceedings of an annual meeting
or in a periodical with limited circulation or availability
,ot the case& the material that has been o>ered forpublic sale such as conference proceedings or boo!chaptersH the reanalysis of published data in light of newtheories or methodologies
p po data
)uplicate andpiecemeal publication
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Ethical and /egal
Standards in PublishingPiecemeal publication G the unnecessary splitting of
the *ndings from one research endeavour into multiplesources
Inorm the editor& whether the publication of two or morereports based on the same or closely related researchconstitutes fragmented publication is a matter of editorial
udgment
,ot the case& multidisciplinary proects, longitudinal studies,large scale studies as long as the di>erent papers ma!euni3ue scienti*c contributions
7onse3uences the manuscript can be reected withoutfurther consideration or retracted once published
p po data
Plagiarism
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Ethical and /egal
Standards in Publishing
9ach time you paraphrase another authorby summari'ing a passage or rearrangingthe order of a sentence and change some ofthe words, you need to credit the source inthe te%t G this applies to written words but
also to ideas
Sel9
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Ethical and /egal
Standards in Publishing
When duplication of ones words or ideas is
e%tensive, you need to cite yourself
All of the authors own words or ideas that are citedshould be located in a single paragraph or at mosta few paragraphs, with a citation at the end of each
$pen such paragraphs with a phrase li!e IAs & havepreviously discussedJ
plagiarism
#on3ict o
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Ethical and /egal
Standards in Publishing
isclose the potential positive or negative
distorting in)uences
The case& being the copyright holder of andEorrecipient of royalties from a psychological testHparticipation on a board of directors or any other
relationship with an entity or person that is in someway part of the paper
,ot the case& holdings in a company through amutual fund
interests
"uthorship
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Intellectual propert! rights"uthorship G Authorship is reserved for personswho ma!e a substantial contribution to and whoaccept responsability for a published wor!
Substantial contribution G formulating theproblem or hypothesisH structuring thee%perimental designH conducting the statisticalanalysisH interpreting the resultsH writing a maorportion of the paper
*inor contribution G designing and building theapparatusH advising about the statistical analysisHcollecting the dataH entering the dataH recruitingparticipantsH conducting routine observations ordiagnoses
"uthorship
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Intellectual propert! rights+rder o authorship (he name of the principle contributor should
appear *rst, with subse3uent names in orderof decreasing contribution
&f authors played e3ual roles in the researchand publication, they can note this in theauhtor note
4elative status should not determine theorder of authorship
octoral students should be listed asprincipal author, if the paper is substantiallybased on their dissertation
Writing
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What makes good
$riting
=ood writing communicates an idea
clearly and e>ectively
=ood writing communicates an ideaelegantly and stylish
'asics
Writing
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What makes a good
$riter
1aving something to say
1aving a logical and clear thin!ing
nowing a few simple, learnable rules of
style
'asics
Writing
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Steps to becoming a good$riter
Write to engage your readers
4ead and imitate
4evise. Dobody gets it perfect on the*rst try.
7ut ruthlessly. Dever become tooattached to your words.
(a!e ris!s. Find your voice as a writer.
'asics
Writing
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Inorm and persuade the
reader %no$ !our reader and $rite or !our reader
9liminate unnecessary redundancy
Avoid digressions
Avoid overstatements
ont generali'e unnecessarily
+impler words are preferred over comple% words
+impler sentences are preferred over comple%sentences
se armative rather than negative constructions se transitions
7ite sources
Prooread !our paper careull!
'asics
Writing
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"im or econom!
because instead of based on the fact that
for or to instead of for the purpose of
there were seeral subjects who completedK
it is suggested that a relationship ma" e1ist K
both alie
one and the same
a total of n subects
four di>erent groups
absolutely essential
'asics
Writing
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"im or econom!
found previously
small in si'e
in close pro%imity
very close to 'ero
much better
period of time
summari'e brie)y
the reason is because
also included
e%cept for
'asics
Writing
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"im or precision
patient or g"mnast instead of subject
concentration or fre'uenc" instead of leel
'asics
Writing
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:rammar usage ; Parallel #onstruction
'etween and nd
#orrect& We recorded the di>erence bet$een theperformance of subects who completed the *rst tas!and the perormance of those who completed thesecond tas!.
Incorrect& We recorded the di>erence bet$een theperformance of subects who completed the *rst tas!and the second task .
'asics
Writingi
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:rammar usage ; Parallel #onstruction
'oth and nd #orrect& (he names were dicult both to pronounce
and to spell.
Incorrect& (he names were both dicult to pronounceand spell.
Dever use both with as well as. (he resultingconstruction is redundant. #orrect& (he names were dicult to pronounce as $ell
as to spell.
Incorrect& (he names were dicult both to pronounceas $ell as to spell.
'asics
Writingi
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:rammar usage ; Parallel #onstruction
#either and #or # $ither and Or
#orrect& ,either the responses to the auditory stimulinor the responses to the tactile stimuli wererepeated.
Incorrect& ,either the responses to the auditorystimuli nor the tactile stimuli were repeated.
#orrect& (he respondents either gave the worst answer
or gae the best ans$er. #orrect& (he respondents gave either the worst answer
or the best ans$er.
Incorrect& (he respondents either gave the worstanswer or the best ans$er.
'asics
Writing' i
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:rammar usage ; Parallel #onstruction
#ot only and 'ut also
#orrect& It is surprising not onl! that pencil-and-paper scores predicted this result but also that all otherpredictors were less accurate.
Incorrect& It is not onl! surprising that pencil-and-paper scores predicted this result but also that all otherpredictors were less accurate.
'asics
Writing' i
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:rammar usage ; Parallel #onstruction
9lements in a series should also be parallel in form
#orrect& (he participants $ere told to make themselves comfortable, to read the instructions, and toask about anything they did not understand.
Incorrect& (he participants $ere told to make themselves comfortable, to read the instructions, andthat the! should ask about anything they did notunderstand.
'asics
Writing' i
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Spelling ; Preerred
Spelling
Singular
Appendi%
7riterion
atum
:henomenon Freuds
Plural
Appendices
7riteria
ata
:henomena (he Freuds
'asics
'reit!
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#ommon clutteread weight words and phrases As it is well !nown
As it has been shown &t can be regarded that
&t should be emphasi'ed that
9mpty words and phrases
8asic tenets of nnecessary argon and acronyms
4epetitive words or phrases
'reit!
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#ommon clutter
Word! ersion
A maority of
A number of
Are of the sameopinion
6ess fre3uently
occurring All three of the
=ive rise to
ue to the fact that
1ave an e>ect on
#risp ersion
;ost ;any
Agree
4are
(he three 7ause
8ecause
A>ect
'reit!
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E
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E
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Eects of :=Falpha on dogs, wascarried out by intravenously introducingthe drug. &n the e%periments, arelatively small 3uantity, L0 mg, wasadministered to each animal. &n each
case, :=Falpha proved fatalH all /0dogs e%piring before a lapse of *veminutes after the inection.
/ogic =#larit!
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E
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Take home messagesStart earl!1ow to present and ustify the research 3uestions that are driving
your research?
1ow to structure the theoretical and research literature that willhave been used to frame your research 3uestions?
'e persuasie:ersuade your readers that your *ndings and conclusions are
signi*cant and that they are plausible
:et eedback =et as much feedbac! as possible
4espond positively to the points made
Structure !our $riting
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:rantWritingA step-by-step guide
T!pes o:rants
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:roect grants :rimarily support research proects
+econdarily support salaries usually cover 0M to 5M of the principal
investigators salary
7areer development grants :rimarily support salaries
usually cover C5M to /00M of the principalinvestigators salary
:rants
undingSources
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Agency for 1ealthcare 4esearch and Nuality
"www.ahr3.gov#
7ommunity of +cience
"www.fundingopps.cos.com#
=rantsnet
"www.grantsnet.org#
(he Foundation 7enter
"www.fdncenter.org#
(he Dational &nstitutes of 1ealth
"www.grants.nih.gov#
Sources
To Remember
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" strong proposal is in
a lotter!
ho$eer
" $eak proposal iscertainl! dead
Read the call
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What is the scope of the re3uested proects?
What is the time frame of the grant process?
What is the length of the grant?
Are there any special needs or uni3ueaspects of the grant?
oes the grant re3uire cash or in-!ind
match?
Step >& read the grant
inormation and conditions
Read the call
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Are the proects granted and end-pointsre3uested within your ability or capability toprovide?
Are these proects within the mission of your
organi'ation?
Step ?& decide i the grant is a good
match or !our organi4ation
Read the call
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o you have the e%pertise to run thisproect, or can you hire the e%pertise?
&s this a substantial deviation from yourroutine or normal proects?
Step ?& decide i the grant is a good
match or !our organi4ation
Step @& stud! the grantRead the call
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(a!e notes and ma!e an outline of thethings they are as!ing for
6oo! for !eywords "so called bu'' words# inthe document eywords usually are repeated fre3uently in the
document and indicate a philosophy or strategy,
which the funder wants to be followed
Step @& stud! the grantconditions
Read the call
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Who is your audience?
Who will read the proposal and evaluate it?
What have they funded before?
Are there other programs in the countrywhich provide similar services?
Step A& do !our home$ork
Read the call
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While you donOt want to PcopyP their programs,you donOt want to have to re-create the wheelfrom scratch either
@ou also want to learn from other programsOmista!es if possible
o they have a philosophical orientation anddoes it agree with yours?
What literatureEresearch is available on the
topic?
Step A& do !our home$ork
Step B& conceptuali4e the#onceptuali4e
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(his is a critical step. &t is EL of the process.
8efore you try to write anything, spendsome time thin!ing about how you would dothe program.
=et Pthe big pictureP clear in your mind. @oumay want to start by building a logic modelor drawing a )ow chart.
Step B& conceptuali4e theprogram
Step B& conceptuali4e the#onceptuali4e
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&t is important to !nowWhat program components will be needed.
1ow these program components will beimplemented.
1ow each program component relates toother program elements.
1ow each program component relates tothe goals of the proect.
1ow each program component relates tothe re3uirements of the funder.
1ow the program components relate toyour e%isting activities.
Step B& conceptuali4e theprogram
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D>st7 )rat
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;a!e it easy for the reader to identify what theyare reading. 7learly label each section.
6ead the reader by the hand. (ell them whatthey are reading and why.
4elate each section to the others "your )ow
chart and outline will help here#.
4elate each program element to a goal of thegrantor.
Step C& drat the grant
proposal
D>st7 )rat
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4elate each program element to the othersand the Pbig pictureP.
7learly spell out facets important to thereview process.
se the bu'' words where appropriate"donOt parrot#.
Step C& drat the grant
proposal
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Rest
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After writing the *rst draft, set it aside anddo something else for a day or two.
@ou want to get some separation from the*rst draft.
Step & set the proposal aside
or a da! or t$o
Reie$
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After Q-QR hours, read your proposal.
&magine you are a reviewer.
6oo! at your proposal as if you !new nothingabout it.
+core your own proposal using the evaluationcriteria you outlined from the grant programguidelines or ac3uired through yourcommunication with the program ocer.
Step F& read !our proposal as a
reie$er
Reie$
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;ar! areas in the proposal which confuse you orare not clear enough
onOt try to edit them at this time, ust mar!them and read on.
(a!e notes about what you found unclear, wea!,
or missing in the proposal.
7ompare your draft against any chec!listprovided by the grantor.
Step F& read !our proposal as a
reie$er
Reie$
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7hech whether your proposal is clear andcomplete.
4eview your draft with a critical eye.
Anticipate the strongest obections and
counter them.
emonstrate that your re3uest is serious bydescribing the speci*c program activities.
Step F& read !our proposal as a
reie$er
Reie$
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7learly state the purpose and *nancialre3uest of the proposal in your cover letter.
8e con*dent in your approach.
onOt be apologetic.
Step F& read !our proposal as a
reie$er
D?nd7 )rat
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Dow is the time to edit.
7orrect areas you found wea! or unclear.
+trengthen the lin!ages between the
sections of the proposal.
@our goal "as it was in the *rst draft# is toma!e it easy for the reviewer.
Step G& using the notes rom !our
reie$8 $rite the second drat
D?nd7 )rat
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(hin! visually when you write.
8e descriptive.
8e brief.
Step G& using the notes rom !our
reie$8 $rite the second drat
D?nd7 )rat
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se transitional e%pressions - words andphrases to connect your paragraphs, asthese connectors can help you achieve
coherence in your writing.
(ell a story that has a clever beginning, anabsorbing middle and an unforgettable
ending.
se plain language.
Step G& using the notes rom !our
reie$8 $rite the second drat
eedback
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Always have an outside party review andcriti3ue your proposal.
@ou are too close to the draft now to beobective.
=ive colleagues a copy of the grant
re3uirements, evaluation criteria, and your draft- as! them to mar! up your draft, ma!ing noteswhere you confuse them or where they donOtunderstand the connection between a part ofthe proect and the overall proect.
Step >& gie the second drat
to other people to read
eedback
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&t is important you select someone who isliterate and who will be 84(A6
@ou want honest feedbac!
Step >& gie the second drat
to other people to read
inali4e
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7onsider your peers input
For each point you must decide if their criticism
is valid
&n the end, you must be comfortable with theproposal
o pay attention to the your colleagueOscomments however. &f you confused them youwill probably confuse the reviewer.
Step >>& using !our colleagues
input8 $rite the fnal proposal
Triple #heck
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8efore delivering or mailing the *nalproposal, use the chec!list you preparedwhen you studied the proposal.
9nsure each re3uired item is attached,including all mandatory appendices andsupporting documents.
;a!e sure you did not violate anyinstructions regarding proposal length,typeface, style, page numbering, etc.
Step >?& compare !our proposal $ith
!our checklist o reJuired items
Triple #heck
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&f the funder re3uired special labels orpac!aging of the proposal, follow theme%actly.
:roofread the entire grant two or threetimes for completeness, accuracy andtypographical errors.
:roofread your proposals in multiplereadings, loo!ing for di>erent features oneach reading.
Step >?& compare !our proposal $ith
!our checklist o reJuired items
Triple #heck
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7ontent oes your proposal have enough substance?
Are your ideas complete?
Form &s your organi'ation logical?
Are all facts and *gures accurate?
Are ideas e%pressed clearly?
&s the proposal design visually appealing?
Are all the maor pieces of the proposal in theproper order?
oes your draft loo! attractive and readable?
Step >?& compare !our proposal $ith
!our checklist o reJuired items
Triple #heck
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;echanics
Are words spelled correctly, especially proper
names?
Are all numbers and computations accurate?
Are sentences grammatically correct, includingsubect-verb agreement?
Are sentences punctuated properly?
Step >?& compare !our proposal $ith
!our checklist o reJuired items
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Tip >& understand the
perspectie o the reie$ers4eviewers are
intelligent
4eviewers are savvy
about research4eviewers have a broad
fund of scienti*c!nowledge
'(T
4eviewers have little in-depth e%perience inyour area of interest
Focus
7onciseness
7onceptual clarity
(ransparent languageAvoid argon
Avoid topic-speci*cabbreviations
Avoid topic-speci*c
terminology8uild a self-contained
proposal
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(heir guidance can be invaluable in the
grant writing process
Tip ?& seek guidance rom the program
o2cer or grants administrator
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For Dational &nstitutes of 1ealth fundingmechanisms, information on funded grants
can be obtained from the 7omputer 4etrievalof &nformation on +cienti*c :roects database"www.crisp.cit.nih.gov#
Tip @& reie$ successul grant
applications
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Find out in advance as much as possibleabout the potential reviewers
&dentify possible reviewers from the scienti*cliterature
&dentify possible reviewers from the websitesof foundations
Tip A& kno$ !our audience
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(he importance of the proposed studyshould be
communicated clearly
readily apparent to someone outside the *eld
:resent the burden of the problem in3uantitative terms
Tip B& stress the signifcance
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emonstrate the impact of the proposedresearch on the *eld
o you add to the e%isting body of !nowledge?
o you advance understanding?
o you alleviate human disease and su>ering?
Tip B& stress the signifcance
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emonstrate the impact of the proposedresearch on the *eld Why is this research important?
Why is this research innovative?
What are the implications of this research in
terms of incremental !nowledge?
What are the implications of this research interms of paradigm shift?
Tip B& stress the signifcance
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$btain and follow all the guidelines e%actly
&nstitutional 4eview 8oard approvalre3uirements
Formatting re3uirements
Tip C& ollo$ all the rules
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+ee! advice early on for input about
+tudy design
+ample si'e
ata analysis
Tip & get adice and input
rom a biostatistician
i ll h i
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+et yourself an internal deadline forcompleting the application Q to S wee!s
before the actual deadline to allow for reviewby mentors and colleagues
Tip F& allo$ enough time or
reie$ and reision
Tip G& $rite the abstract
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(he abstract should distill the essentialelements of the research proect into short,concise, and clear statements
(he abstract is the *rst portion of the grantthat reviewers read
(he abstract must engage the interest of
reviewers immediately
(he abstract must sustain the interest ofreviewers throughout
careull!
Tip G& $rite the abstract
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(he abstract will guide the assignment of a grant toa particular study
(he abstract should highlight the nature of the problem
(he abstract should highlight the need for the research
(he abstract should highlight the hypothesis to betested
(he abstract should highlight the methods to be used
(he abstract should highlight the signi*cance anduni3ue features of the research
careull!
What gets a proposalrejected
+bjecties = H!potheses
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#ommon critiJues
nderdeveloped
:oorly focused
$verly ambitious
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
+bjecties = H!potheses
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Kaluable suggestions 8egin the section with a concise, accurate
synopsis of the research +tudy design
+ample si'e +tudy groups
:rimary outcomes
7ontinue with primary and secondary aims andrelated hypotheses Focused
Feasible
7learly conceptuali'ed
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
'ackground = Signifcance
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#ommon critiJues
(he section did not ustify the need for the study
(he section provided too much e%traneousbac!ground information
(he section overstated the signi*cance of the
study
(he section is too long
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
'ackground = Signifcance
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Kaluable suggestions For each bac!ground subsection it is important
to show e%actly how the provided informationdirectly lin!s with the proposed proect
(his sections should naturally progress from thedescription of the current state of !nowledge tothe gap that the proposed research will *ll
Add a signi*cance paragraph at the end of thesection
+pecify in strong but realistic terms how theproposed proect will contribute to the *eld
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
'ackground = Signifcance
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(hus, these studies demonstrate the importance ofthis areaK
(hese studies provide the important bac!ground forthis study inK
(he proposed proect will build on this previous wor!K
(he proposed proect will address limitations in theprevious wor! byK
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
Pilot Work
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#ommon critiJues
:reliminary or pilot wor! was lac!ing
:reliminary or pilot wor! was inade3uatelydescribed
:reliminary or pilot wor! lac!ed clear lin!age tothe proposed study
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
Pilot Work
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Kaluable suggestions
+ummari'e the principal investigators "or co-investigators# previous wor! related to the
proposed proect
7onvince the reviewers that (he principal investigator has the e%pertise and
e%perience to carry out the wor! (he wor! is feasible
+uitable groundwor! has been done
+tudy participants are available
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
:eneral Issues
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#ommon critiJues
6ayout and formatting
&nformation presented in the wrong sections
(ypographical errors
+mall font si'es
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
:eneral Issues
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Kaluable suggestions
=ive time and attention to proofreading
:rovide spaces between paragraphs and betweensections
;a!e the grant easy to read
Address study limitations thoroughly andrealistically
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods
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#ommon critiJues nderdeveloped methods
Kaluable suggestions 6ength evote at least 50M of the page allowance
to methodsesign and setting What is the randomi'ation
procedure? 1ow will you blind participant allocationto treatment groups? 1ow will you select controls?Will you enroll a representative sample? &f not, will
there be any potential biases? 1ow will you handlethem? o the settings compare and e%trapolate toother settings?
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods Dsample7
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#ommon critiJues (he study sample is potentially biased or
nonrepresentative
(he inclusion criteria are poorly described or not
well-usti*ed (he e%clusion criteria are poorly described or not
well-usti*ed
(he e%clusions would result in important bias inthe sample
&mportant e%clusions were overloo!ed
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods Dparticipants7
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#ommon critiJues (he availability of participants for the proposed
study is not assured
Kaluable suggestions
:rovide data and assurance that ade3uatenumbers of patients will be available for thestudy in the proposed setting, given the inclusionand e%clusion criteria
:rovide data from pilot study :rovide data from previous related studies
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods Dprocedures7
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#ommon critiJues
&nade3uate description of the proposed studyinstruments or variables
7oncerns about validity and reliability of the datacollection methods
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods Dprocedures7
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Kaluable suggestions
escribe all study procedures and instruments indetail
A tabular format can help provide information onstandardi'ed and validated instruments,including references and performance
characteristics such as sensitivity, speci*city,and reliability statistics
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods Dprocedures7
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Kaluable suggestions 6ist and de*ne all variables in tabular format
$utline the screening and enrollment procedures
$utline subse3uent assessment and follow-upprocedures
9lucidate the interviewer training andstandardi'ation or reliability assessments
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods Doutcomes7
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#ommon critiJues
7oncerns about the lac! of or inade3uateblinding of outcome assessment
&nade3uate description or speci*cation of theoutcome measure
7oncerns about validity or reliability of theoutcome
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods Doutcomes7
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Kaluable suggestions Fully de*ne the outcome and describe the
performance characteristics of the measuresused for each outcome
&deally, the outcomes should be assessed bytrained research sta> who are not involved in theintervention and who are blinded to the studyhypotheses and to the intervention status of theparticipants
(he study should be ade3uately powered toevaluate all of the primary outcomes in the study
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods Dinterention7
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#ommon critiJues
=rant proposals poorly describe the intervention
=rant proposals present an unstandardi'edintervention
=rant proposals present an intervention of3uestionable potency
=rant proposals do not address contamination or co-intervention in the control group
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods Dinterention7
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Kaluable suggestions $>er enough detail so that to ensure the
intervention can be replicated
escribe the interventionists, their pro*ciency, andany training re3uired
=ive details on how you will trac! adherence tointerventions
4eport how you will monitor potential sources ofcontamination or co-intervention in the control groupduring the study
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods Ddata anal!sis7
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#ommon critiJues
&nsucient description of the analytic approach
&nade3uate control for potential confounders
&nsucient description of the handling of missingdata
Dot enough consideration of attrition
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods Ddata anal!sis7
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Kaluable suggestions 9arly and ongoing involvement of a biostatistician
Fully describe data management and 3uality
assurance procedures such as double dataentry, error and validity chec!s, and training ofsta> who will handle data managementprocedures
6ay out proposed analyses here for each speci*caim or hypothesis
rejected
What gets a proposalrejected
*ethods Ddata anal!sis7
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Kaluable suggestions se caution in specifying only one statistical
approach, since loc!ing oneself into a particularstatistical method may raise concerns
iscuss alternate strategies considered and why youdecided on your approach
7arefully address how nonresponses and missingdata will be handled in analyses
:rovide relevant sample si'e and power calculations
for primary outcomes applying best estimates fore>ect si'es from pilot wor! or previous studies
rejected