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Atmospheric pressure (millibars)0 200 400 600 800 1,000
120
110
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0(Sea
Level)–80 –40 0 40 80 120
Pressure = 1,000millibars atground levelTemperature (˚C)
Alt
itu
de
(kilo
met
ers)
Alt
itu
de
(mile
s)
75
65
55
45
35
25
15
5
Thermosphere
Heating via ozone
Mesosphere
Stratosphere
Ozone “layer”Heating from the earth
Troposphere
Temperature
Pressure
Mesopause
Stratopause
Tropopause
Figure 17-2Page 419
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Alt
itu
de
(k
ilom
ete
rs)
Ozone concentration (ppm)
Alt
itu
de
(m
iles)Stratospheric ozone
Stratosphere
Troposphere
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
00 5 10 15 20
0
5
10
15
20
25
Photochemical ozoneFigure 17-3Page 420
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Primary Pollutants
Secondary Pollutants
SourcesNatural
Stationary
CO CO2
SO2 NO NO2
Most hydrocarbons
Most suspendedparticles
SO3
HNO3 H2SO4
H2O2 O3 PANs
Most and saltsNO3–
Mobile
SO42 –
Figure 17-4Page 421
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Figure 17-5Page 421
March 10, 2000 March 12, 2000
March 13, 2000 March 15, 2000
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Solarradiation
Ultraviolet radiation
NONitric oxide
Photochemical smog
H2OWater
NO2
Nitrogendioxide
Hydrocarbons
O2
Molecularoxygen
HNO3
Nitric acid
PANsPeroxyacyl
nitratesAldehydes
(e.g., formaldehyde)O3
Ozone
OAtomicoxygen
Figure 17-6Page 424
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Click to view animation.
Animation
Formation of photochemical smog.
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Nitric oxide Nitrogen dioxide Ozone40
30
20
10
06 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8A.M. Noon P.M.
Time
Par
ts p
er m
illi
on
Figure 17-7 (1)Page 425
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Figure 17-7 (2)Page 425
Smoggy day
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Figure 17-7 (3)Page 425
Clear day
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Ultra FineParticles
FineParticles
LargeParticles
Sea salt nuclei
Carbon black
Pollens
Cement dust
Oil smoke
Combustion nuclei
Metallurgical dust and fumes
Photochemical smog
Insecticide dusts
Coal dust
Average particle diameter (micrometers or microns)0.001 0.01 2.5 10.0 100.0
Tobacco smoke
Paint pigments
Fly ash
Milled flour
Figure 17-8Page 426
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Warmer air
Inversion layer
Cool layer
MountainMountain
Valley
Decreasing temperature
Incr
easi
ng
alt
itu
de
Figure 17-9 (1)Page 427
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Inversion layer
Mountainrange
Sea breeze
Descending warm air mass
Decreasing temperature
Incr
easi
ng
alt
itu
de
Figure 17-9 (2)Page 427
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Wind
Transformation tosulfuric acid (H2SO4)and nitric acid (HNO3)
Nitric oxide (NO)
Acid fog
Ocean
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)and NO
Windborne ammonia gasand particles of cultivated soilpartially neutralize acids andform dry sulfate and nitrate salts
Dry aciddeposition(sulfur dioxidegas and particlesof sulfate andnitrate salts)
Farm
Lakes indeep soilhigh in limestoneare buffered
Lakes in shallowsoil low inlimestonebecomeacidic
Wet acid deposition(droplets of H2SO4 andHNO3 dissolved in rainand snow)
Figure 17-10Page 428
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Click to view animation.
Animation
Acid deposition animation.
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Figure 17-11Page 429
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Potential problem areasbecause of sensitive soils
Potential problem areas because of air pollution: emissions leading to acid deposition
Current problem areas(including lakes and rivers)
Figure 17-12Page 429
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Iran
SaudiArabia
Pakistan
India
China
Myanmar
Thailand
Bay of Bengal
Arabian Sea
Ethiopia
EquatorIndian Ocean
Percentage of direct sunlight interceptedVery heavy 35%–45%
Heavy 20%–35%
Medium 10%–20%
0 Miles 1,000
0 Kilometers 1,600Figure 17-13 (1)
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Cool, dry winds
Monsoons
Winter
India
Himalayas
Warm, moist winds
Monsoons
India
Summer Himalayas
Figure 17-13 (2)Page 430
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Waterboatman
Whirligig
Yellow perch
Lake trout
Brown trout
Salamander(embryonic)
Mayfly
Smallmouthbass
Mussel
6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5pH
Figure 17-14Page 431
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Figure 17-15Page 432
Emission
Aciddeposition
SO2
H2O2
PANs
NOX
O3
Others
Direct damageto leavesand bark
Reducedphotosynthesis
and growth
IncreasedSusceptibilityto drought,
extreme cold,insects, mosses,
and diseaseorganisms
Soil acidification
Leaching ofsoil
nutrientsAcid
Release oftoxic
metal icons
Rootdamage
Reducednutrient
andwater
uptake
Tree death
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Click to view animation.
Animation
Effect of air pollution in forests animation.
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Prevention Cleanup
Reduce air pollutionby improving energyefficiency
Reduce coal use
Increase natural gasuse
Increase use of renewable resources
Burn low-sulfur coal
Remove SO2 particulates, and NOx
from smokestack gases
Remove Nox frommotor vehicular exhaust
Tax emissions of SO2
Add lime to neutralizeacidified lakes
Add phosphatefertilizer to neutralizeacidified lakes
Figure 17-16Page 433
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ChloroformPara-dichlorobenzene Tetrachloroethylene
Formaldehyde
Benzo--pyrene
Styrene
Radon-222Methylene Chloride
Tobacco Smoke
Carbon Monoxide
Asbestos
Nitrogen Oxides
1, 1, 1-Trichloroethane
Figure 17-17Page 434
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Outlet vents for furnaces and dryers
Slab jointsWood stove
Cracks in floorClothes dryerFurnace
Radon-222 gas
Slab
Radium-222
Soil
Uranium-238
Sumppump
Cracks in wallCracks in wall
Open windowOpen window
Openingsaroundpipes
Openingsaroundpipes
Figure 17-18Page 436
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Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
Pharynx (throat)
Trachea (windpipe)
Bronchus
Right lung
Bronchioles
(see figure 17.18b)
(see figure 17.18c)
Figure 17-19 (1)Page 437
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Epithelial cell
Cilia
Mucus
Figure 17-19 (2)Page 437
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Bronchiole
Alveolar duct
Alveoli
Alveolar sac(sectioned)
Figure 17-19 (3)Page 437
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Indoor Exposure
Developingcountries(rural) 67%
Developing countries(urban) 23%
Developed countries(rural) 1%
Total deaths 2.8 million
Developed countries(urban) 9%
Outdoor Exposure
Developing countries(urban) 93% Developed
countries(urban) 7%
Total deaths 0.2 million
Figure 17-21Page 438
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Prevention Dispersionor Cleanup
Burn low-sulfurcoal
Remove sulfurfrom coal
Convert coalto a liquid orgaseous fuel
Shift to lesspolluting fuels
Disperseemissions abovethermal inversionlayer with tallsmokestacks
Removepollutants aftercombustion
Tax each unitof pollutionproduced
Figure 17-22Page 441
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Dirty gas
Dust discharge
ElectrodesCleaned gas
Figure 17-23 (1)Page 442
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Cleaned gas
Dirty gas
Baghouse Filter Dust discharge
Bags
Figure 17-23 (2)Page 442
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Dirty gas
Dust discharge
Cleaned gas
Figure 17-23 (3)Page 442
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Dirty gas
Dirty water
Cleanwater
Wet Scrubber
Wetgas
Cleaned gas
Figure 17-23 (4)Page 442
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Prevention Cleanup
Mass transit
Bicycles and walking
Less polluting engines
Less polluting fuels
Improve fuel efficiency
Get older, pollutingcars off the road
Give buyers tax write-offs for buying low-polluting, energy-efficient vehicles
Restrict driving inpolluted areas
Emission controldevices
Car exhaustInspectionstwice a year
Stricter emissionstandards
Figure 17-24Page 443
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Prevention Cleanup orDilutionCover ceiling
tiles and liningof AC ducts toprevent releaseof mineral fibers
Ban smoking orlimit it to well-ventilated areas
Set stricterformaldehydeemissionsstandards forcarpet,furniture,and buildingmaterials
Prevent radoninfiltration
Use officemachines inwell-ventilatedareas
Use lesspollutingsubstitutes forharmfulcleaningagents, paints, and other products
Use adjustablefresh air ventsfor work spaces
Increase intakeof outside air
Change airmore frequently
Circulate building’s airthrough rooftopgreenhouses
Use exhausthoods for stoves andappliances burning naturalgas
Install efficientchimneys forwood-burningstoves
Figure 17-25Page 443