Page | 1 INTRODUCTION A skyscraper is a very tall, building. The minimum height requirement currently to be accepted as skyscraper is 800 feet (244 meters). The word skyscraper was first known to such buildings in the late 19th century, which reflects public amazement at the tall buildings that are being built in New York City. The structural definition of the word skyscraper was later refined by architectural, historians, based on engineering developments of the 1880s that had enabled construction of tall multi-story buildings. This definition was based on the steel skeleton as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical limit in 1891 with Chicago's Monadnock Building. The steel frame developed in stages of increasing self-sufficiency, with several buildings in New York and Chicago advancing the technology that allowed the steel frame to carry a building on its own. Today, however, many of the tallest skyscrapers are built more or less entirely with reinforced concrete. In the United States today, it is a loose convention to draw the lower limit on what is a skyscraper at 153 metres (500 feet). Thus, calling a building a skyscraper will usually, but not always, imply pride and achievement. Though never made famous, the Incans made a feeble attempt to build the first skyscraper. This skyscraper, was to be called "UtzaInti" which can be translated to "road to the sun god Inti." In 1440 the Incan emperor Bhutilishus II commissioned 2,000 slaves from the nearby province of Uhrhythrah to begin a 1000 foot tower. The tower was to have one room called a LintzaTianu. Construction began in approximately 1442 under the royal architect, whom priests called Tahmihpohn Puhpuhsi or, "builder of our empire." Construction on the building occurred for three years until an earthquake destroyed the base of the structure. All efforts to rebuild the tower were ignored. A skyscraper taller than 305 metres (1,000 feet) may sometimes be referred to as a supertall. The crucial developments for skyscrapers were steel, reinforced concrete, water pumps, and elevators. Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were rare. So many flights of stairs were impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure was usually insufficient to supply running water above about 15 metres (50 feet). [2]
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Page | 1
INTRODUCTION A skyscraper is a very tall, building. The minimum height requirement currently to be
accepted as skyscraper is 800 feet (244 meters). The word skyscraper was first known to such
buildings in the late 19th century, which reflects public amazement at the tall buildings that
are being built in New York City. The structural definition of the word skyscraper was later
refined by architectural, historians, based on engineering developments of the 1880s that had
enabled construction of tall multi-story buildings. This definition was based on the steel
skeleton as opposed to constructions of load-bearing masonry, which passed their practical
limit in 1891 with Chicago's Monadnock Building. The steel frame developed in stages of
increasing self-sufficiency, with several buildings in New York and Chicago advancing the
technology that allowed the steel frame to carry a building on its own. Today, however, many
of the tallest skyscrapers are built more or less entirely with reinforced concrete. In the United
States today, it is a loose convention to draw the lower limit on what is a skyscraper at 153
metres (500 feet). Thus, calling a building a skyscraper will usually, but not always, imply
pride and achievement. Though never made famous, the Incans made a feeble attempt to build
the first skyscraper. This skyscraper, was to be called "UtzaInti" which can be translated to
"road to the sun god Inti." In 1440 the Incan emperor Bhutilishus II commissioned 2,000
slaves from the nearby province of Uhrhythrah to begin a 1000 foot tower. The tower was to
have one room called a LintzaTianu. Construction began in approximately 1442 under the
royal architect, whom priests called Tahmihpohn Puhpuhsi or, "builder of our empire."
Construction on the building occurred for three years until an earthquake destroyed the base of
the structure. All efforts to rebuild the tower were ignored.
A skyscraper taller than 305 metres (1,000 feet) may sometimes be referred to as a supertall.
The crucial developments for skyscrapers were steel, reinforced concrete, water pumps, and
elevators. Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were rare. So many flights of
stairs were impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure was usually insufficient to supply
running water above about 15 metres (50 feet). [2]
Page | 2
ABSTRACT Skyscrapers are known to be super tall building either residential, work place or of mix use.
They are now tends to coincide with major downturns in the economy. Today the number of
skyscrapers that are being built all around the world are increasing where the land is highly
expensive (as in big / metropolitan cities) as they provide high ratio of floor space to be used
to per unit area of available land. They are not built just for the economy of space, they are
considered to be symbol of city’s economic power. They do not only define the skyline but
also defines the city’s identity. In many places exceptionally tall skyscrapers have been built
not just because of necessity of space but to define the city’s identity and presence of power as
a city. The first skyscrapers would have been typically an office building of more than 10
storeys. The concept was undoubtedly originated in the USA, in Chicago and in New York,
where space was limited and where the best option was to increase the height of the buildings.
The crucial developments for skyscrapers were steel, reinforced concrete, water pumps, and
elevators. Until the 19th century, buildings of over six stories were rare. So many flights of
stairs were impractical for inhabitants, and water pressure was usually insufficient to supply
running water above about 15 metres (50 feet). The weight-bearing components of skyscrapers
differ substantially from those of other buildings. Buildings up to about four stories can be
supported by their walls, while skyscrapers are larger buildings that must be supported by a
skeletal frame.
Review of Literature
DEVELOPMENT OF MODERN SKYSCRAPERS
In the late 19th century, the first skyscrapers would have been typically an office building of
more than 10 storeys. The concept was undoubtedly originated in the USA, in Chicago and in
New York, where space was limited and where the best option was to increase the height of the
buildings. The Home Insurance Building in Chicago was perhaps the first skyscraper in the
world. Built in 1884-1885 its height was 42 m/10 storeys. Designed by Major William Le Baron
Jenney, a graduate of l’EcoleCentrale des Arts et Manufactures de Paris, the structural skeleton
was a bolted steel frame without bracing supporting the loads coming from the walls and the
slabs, founded on a raft. This led to what is known as the “Chicago Skeleton”. [1]
.
Methodology
STRUCTURE, MATERIAL AND BUILDING TECHNIQUE
Foundations and the Excavation Pit
Skyscraper foundations are considerably more complex than those for normal buildings. The
complexity brought is just because of their height and weight and can be further depend on the
certain specific factors such as nature of soil, exposure to wind , earthquake and their location in
relation to surrounding property. Depending on the nature of the structure, the type of foundation
and the characteristics of the ground, the value of the foundation / excavation can be as much as
the 7.5% of the total project value.
The foundation is the supporting layer of a structure. The main purpose of the foundation is to
transfer the various loads (wind, seismic, dead and live) from the structure into the ground.
Different factors can influence the type and dimension of the foundations; soil type and
stiffness, water content, void ratio, bulk density, angle of repose, cohesion, porosity to name but
a few. Characteristics of the ground can also experience change due to the geological history or
previous construction activities. [8]
There are many different types of retaining walls:
• Interlocking sheet piles; these can be temporary or permanent
• Contiguous, secant piled walls, the latter more likely to be used in soft/wet soils
• Diaphragm walls; particularly used in soft ground with high groundwater and/or adjacent
to other structures
• Crosswalls; often used in addition to one of the above where is a particularly high
exposure to adjacent properties
Typically in the case of coverage for skyscrapers clauses should be considered which address the
following specific areas:
• Piling
• Dewatering
• Vibration, weakening or removal of support
• Dilapidation
Figure 1: Shanghai, China : Possible failure of the foundation