Sixties, A Decade of Trouble. Vice President Nixon goes to Russia in 1959 He boasted of leaving the US in the dust Then Khrushchev came to the US The.

Sixties, A Decade of Trouble

• Vice President Nixon goes to Russia in 1959

• He boasted of leaving the US in the dust

• Then Khrushchev came to the US

• The Soviet premier played up his publicity to the hilt, boasting of their missile program.

• This fueled fears among Americans of a “Missile Gap”

• The U-2s disproved this

Eisenhower Hands Off to Kennedy• John F. Kennedy having won by a very narrow margin the Presidential election

over Nixon– The oldest President in history (Eisenhower) handed of to the youngest President in

history (Kennedy) in January 1961• Eisenhower’s parting words:• "We face a hostile ideology global in

scope, atheistic in character, ruthless in purpose and insidious in method...“

• "we must guard against the acquisition of unwarranted influence, whether sought or unsought, by the military-industrial complex... Only an alert and knowledgeable citizenry can compel the proper meshing of the huge industrial and military machinery of defense with our peaceful methods and goals, so that security and liberty may prosper together."

• Khrushchev considered US Vice President Nixon a hardliner, and was delighted by his defeat in the 1960 presidential election. He considered the victor, Massachusetts Senator John F. Kennedy, as a far more likely partner for détente, but was taken aback by the newly inaugurated US President's tough talk and actions in the early days of his administration.[203]

• Khrushchev achieved a propaganda victory in April 1961 with the first manned spaceflight and Kennedy a defeat with the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion.

• While Khrushchev had threatened to defend Cuba with Soviet missiles, the premier contented himself with after-the-fact aggressive remarks.

• The failure in Cuba led to Kennedy's determination to make no concessions at the Vienna summit scheduled for June 3, 1961. Both Kennedy and Khrushchev took a hard line, with Khrushchev demanding a treaty that would recognize the two German states and refusing to yield on the remaining issues obstructing a test-ban treaty. Kennedy on the other hand had been led to believe that the test-ban treaty could be concluded at the summit, and felt that a deal on Berlin had to await easing of East–West tensions. Kennedy described negotiating with Khrushchev to his brother Robert as "like dealing with Dad. All give and no take."[204]

Cuban Revolution• Starting with a band of less than 100 followers Castro set up an armed

resistance within the Sierra Maestra mountains of Cuba in 1956.• Batista regime weakened by arms embargo, unemployment and

dissatisfaction of middle class• By late 1958, Castro had developed enough popular support to launch

an insurrection. Jan 8, 1959, Casto’s forces took Havana & established Dr Manuel Urrutia Lleó as president to placate concerns US had about his intentions.

• By July 1959 the Marxist government became obvious when it nationalized $25 billion in private property. By the end of 1960 all forms of communication were controlled by the state.

Cuban Crisis• Fidel Castro was established as supreme leader, his brother

Raul as head of army and all govt appointments were loyal to Castro.

• A privileged client-state of Soviet Union, Cuba rapidly built up armed forces 2nd only to Brazil in Latin America

• Moderates, teachers, professors, clergy were purged; 20,000 tortured

• CIA attempts to assasinate Castro via Mafia connections failed

• Castro favored by Khrushchev

• Committees for the Defense of the Revolution (CDR), which provided neighborhood spying

•By 1961, hundreds of thousands of Cubans fled to the US•In February 2008, Fidel Castro announced his resignation, longest Communist leader on record. •Raul is current president

Bay of Pigs Invasion• Determined to rid the Western Hemisphere of Communism,

Eisenhower ordered the CIA Special Activities Division to train Cuban exiles in the Miami area in 1960 for a counter-revolution.

• CIA grossly underestimated the popular support for the Castro regime and existing anti-Castro guerillas were not included in the plans. The initial invasion site was changed to Bay of Pigs.

• On April 4, 1961 President Kennedy and his cabinet approved the Bay of Pigs option

• About 1,500 Cuban exiles were trained, equipped with WWII era bombers, landing ships and patrol craft

Bay of Pigs Invasion

• Despite preliminary attacks on Cuban airfields & diversionary landings, four days before the invasion, the Soviets were aware of when it would take place.

• KGB agents warned Castro and he prepared accordingly: 25,000 army troops, 200,000 militia, 9,000 police were mobilized

• 17 April 61, A small invasion force carrying 1,300 troops arrived in Bay of Pigs under cover of darkness. Militia sentries radioed an alert before being neutralized.

• By daybreak Cuban aircraft began counter-attacks, but the invaders managed to take Playa Girón and hold positions for two days.

Bay of Pigs Invasion• Massively overwhelmed, the invaders were beaten back

and attempts to evacuate them by US destroyers were thwarted by Cuban army tanks.

• By 20 April 1961, the invasion was over, only about 30 Brigade survivors were rescued,118 were killed and 1,201 captured. Although they managed to afflict over 4,000 to 5,000 casualties among Cuban forces, the invasion was a complete failure. The prisoners were tried for treason and 5 were executed and the rest sentenced to 30 years in prison

• On Dec 21, 1962, the US managed to negotiate for the release of 1,113 prisoners in exchange for $53 million in food and medicine given to Cuba.

• Meanwhile ships and carrier-based aircraft stood off Cuba observing the invasion from a distance.

• They were under strict orders not to get involved• U. S. Navy jets flew by Brigade troops offering moral

support and taking pictures• But the promised air

support never materialized• Kennedy did not want to ris

k getting the US involved or blamed for the invasion.

• But the whole plan backfired because of misinformation and bad advise presented by the CIA to the administration

• "I made a bad decision," President Kennedy told his personal lawyer days after the invasion. "The decision was faulty because it was based upon the wrong advice. The advice was wrong because it was based upon incorrect facts. And the incorrect facts were due to a failure of intelligence."

• Kennedy immediately appointed a bipartisan presidential oversight board to analyze the intelligence failures that led to the Bay of Pigs.

1. The CIA exceeded its capabilities in developing the project from guerrilla support to overt armed action without any plausible deniability.

2. Failure to realistically assess risks and to adequately communicate information and decisions internally and with other government principals.

3. Insufficient involvement of leaders of the exiles.4. Failure to sufficiently organize internal resistance in Cuba.5. Failure to competently collect and analyze intelligence about

Cuban forces.6. Poor internal management of communications and staff.7. Insufficient employment of high-quality staff.8. Insufficient Spanish-speakers, training facilities and material

resources.9. Lack of stable policies and contingency plans.

Report on the Cuban Operation 11/61

Aftermath• The failed invasion severely embarrassed the

Kennedy Administration and made Castro wary of future US intervention in Cuba.

• Kennedy was angered with the CIA's failure and wanted to "splinter the CIA into a thousand pieces and scatter it into the wind."

• CIA Director Allen Dulles, CIA Deputy Director Charles Cabell, and Deputy Director for Plans Richard Bissell were all forced to resign by early 1962.

• Castro’s grip on Cuba and his popularity was strengthened and any who thought of resisting him were completely demoralized.

Vienna Summit, June 1961

• Khrushchev was willing to show superiority over the fledgling US President who was still reeling from the “Bay of Pigs” fiasco

• Unlike the confrontation in Paris in 1960 with Eisenhower, Khrushchev was cordial, but not conciliatory.

• Although many topics were discussed including conflicts in Indochina, the over riding focus was Berlin and as usual, Khrushchev’s rhetoric was strong!

Vienna Summit, 1961• Khrushchev threatened to sign a “peace” agreement with

East Germany that would impinge Western air routes and road access to Berlin unless US withdraws from Berlin

• Khrushchev told Kennedy, "Force will be met by force. If the US wants war, that's its problem." "It's up to the US to decide whether there will be war or peace." "The decision to sign a peace treaty is firm and irrevocable, and the Soviet Union will sign it in December if the US refuses an interim agreement."

• To this, Kennedy replied, "Then, Mr. Chairman, there will be a war. It will be a cold, long winter.“

• Although the Summit concluded with an impasse, Khrushchev realized that he had underestimated Kennedy

Khrushchev Heats Up the Cold War

• After returning empty-handed from Vienna, Khrushchev began to force the issue by building the Berlin Wall

• Began placing missiles on Cuba as leverage to force the Americans to make concessions

Cuba: Act II

• An Older and Wiser President Kennedy confronted the next crisis in Cuba

• Perceiving that US invasion of Cuba was imminent, Castro secretly agreed with Khrushchev to place MRBM (medium range ballistic missiles) with nuclear warheads in Cuba.

• Khrushchev still considered Kennedy as weak and indecisive and felt that Kennedy would back down & tolerate the presence of Soviet missiles in Cuba.

U-2 Program Continues

• After May 1960, U-2 flights over the USSR were abandoned.• Main focus of U-2 flights shifted to Cuba and Indochina where they provided extremely valuable information on military developments

there. CIA U-2s were used up until 1974 when the remaining aircraft were turned over to the Air Force.

• Flights originated from Laughlin AFB TX and with the advent of inflight refueling, from Edwards AFB, CA

• U-2s were used to support the Bay of Pigs invasion and were continued monthly thereafter.

• In August 1962, CIA analysts noted substantial increases in Soviet arms shipments to Cuba. On August 29, the U-2 produced hard evidence that the Soviets were building SA-2 SAM sites on western half of Cuba

• On Sept 5, more SAM sites were discovered along with the newest Soviet fighter the MiG-21– Added substance to fears that Soviets might make Cuba a

missile base with SAMs to protect them– The U-2 was now vulnerable again, risk of losing another was

high

After much debate it was decided to continue over-flights in a more cautious manner (crossing narrow parts of the island rather than flying the length of it.

Ground observers reported sightings of what may be SS-4 MRBMs on the western end of the island, increasing the urgency for photo confirmation

It was decided to use USAF pilots flying the CIA planes as the Navy and USAF were already engaged in peripheral reconnaissance. The cover story would be that they strayed off course.

Indeed on Oct 15, 1962, the U-2s detected the presence of MRBM in San Cristobal area.

http://www.foia.cia.gov/browse_docs_full.asp

Crisis Begins• The new discoveries prompted multiple daily

U-2 flights from 15-22 Oct. USAF pilots knew the risks as they crisscrossed Cuba in search for more MRBMs.

• US Navy RF-8s flew low-level recon missions at high speed based on targeting information from U-2s

RF-8 photos reveal various stages of MRBM site construction.Only one aircraft hit by single 37mm shell; it returned safely.

Kennedy Stands Up to USSR• “It shall be the policy of this nation to regard any

nuclear missile launched from Cuba against any nation in the Western Hemisphere as an attack by the Soviet Union on the United States, requiring a full retaliatory response upon the Soviet Union.” Kennedy announced on Oct 22,1961.

What should US Do?

• Do nothing. (Allow missiles to remain in Cuba)• Use diplomatic pressure to get the Soviet Union

to remove the missiles.• An air attack on the missiles.• A full military invasion.• The naval blockade of Cuba, which was redefined

as a more selective quarantine

• Kennedy ordered a Naval quarantine to intercept and turn back Soviet supply ships headed for Cuba:– "To halt this offensive buildup, a strict quarantine

on all offensive military equipment under shipment to Cuba is being initiated."

• According to international law a blockade is an act of war, but the Kennedy administration did not feel limited, thinking that the USSR would not be provoked to attack by a mere quarantine

• “They, no more than we, can let these things go by without doing something. They can't, after all their statements, permit us to take out their missiles, kill a lot of Russians, and then do nothing. If they don't take action in Cuba, they certainly will in Berlin.”

Crescendo of the Crisis• The night of 23 Oct, SAC bomber force goes to DEFCON

2, one level short of all out war, with deliberate leakage to Soviet intelligence

• Navy Task Force prepared to deliver an amphibious assault on Cuba

• On October 27, 1960, U-2 piloted by Maj. Rudolf Anderson was shot down by SA-2 SAM, pilot killed– There is some evidence that Soviet field commander ordered

the attack. Khrushchev halts further SAM firings• Navy patrol bombers & destroyer detected Soviet sub

threatening blockading ships and drop explosive signaling devices

Diplomatic Negotiations• Kennedy’s cabinet and Soviet diplomats feverishly

worked to resolve the situation peaceably• On Oct 28th, Khrushchev stated that, "the Soviet

government, in addition to previously issued instructions on the cessation of further work at the building sites for the weapons, has issued a new order on the dismantling of the weapons which you describe as 'offensive' and their crating and return to the Soviet Union.“

• The MRBMs were eventually removed & shipped back to USSR.

Aftermath• Kennedy-Khrushchev Pact secretly included

removal of US MRBMs from Italy & Turkey– Because this was not made public, resolution of crisis

was political embarrassment to the Soviets, in particular Khrushchev was perceived as weakening

• Many Americans were unhappy e.g. Gen LeMay held that Cuba should have been invaded

• Soviet-Cuban relations were strained as Castro was not included in any of the negotiations– After reluctantly agreeing to accept Soviet missiles and

crews in Cuba to begin with– These were withdrawn without Castro’s consent

In Retrospect• In 2002, historians realized how close the crisis came to the bink of all

out war: the most dangerous moment in the crisis was unrecognized until the Cuban Missile Crisis Havana conference in October 2002, attended by many of the veterans of the crisis, at which it was learned that on October 26, 1962 the USS Beale had tracked and dropped signaling depth charges on the B-59, a Soviet Foxtrot-class submarine which was armed with a nuclear torpedo. Running out of air, the Soviet submarine was surrounded by American warships and desperately needed to surface. An argument broke out among three officers on the B-59, including submarine captain Valentin Savitsky, political officer Ivan Semonovich Maslennikov, and chief of staff of the submarine flotilla, Commander Vasiliy Arkhipov. An exhausted Savitsky became furious and ordered that the nuclear torpedo on board be made combat ready. Accounts differ about whether Commander Arkhipov convinced Savitsky not to make the attack, or whether Savitsky himself finally concluded that the only reasonable choice left open to him was to come to the surface.

America in Shock

• Having given America new hope in the losing race against the USSR, John F. Kennedy’s youth and energy were inspiring

• On November 1963, his assassination left the US bewildered and lapsed into national depression

• Lyndon Baines Johnson (LBJ) became president

Connections?• The assassin Lee Harvey OswaldWas a Marxist from age of 15. Served two

years in USMC where he earned nickname “Oswaldski”

Taught himself rudimentary Russian. At age 19, he applied for hardship discharge, traveled to the Soviet Union in October 1959 and attempted to become a Soviet citizen.

After spending 2 ½ years in USSR, he married a Soviet citizen and apparently returned to US.

2 days after his arrest as prime suspect, he was shot and killed by Jack Ruby

Kennedy’s Accomplishments

• His inaugural statement pretty much characterized his life:"Ask not what your country can do for you--ask what you can do for your country.“

• Provided priority impetus to get a man on the moon by the end of the decade

• Overall the victor in the Cuban Crisis• Eventually led to better understanding between

Kennedy and Khrushchev• Finally achieved a test ban treaty in 1963• His administration saw the beginning of new hope for

equal rights of Americans

• On August 5, 1963, after more than eight years of difficult negotiations, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Soviet Union signed the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty

• The Treaty:– prohibits nuclear weapons tests or other nuclear explosions

under water, in the atmosphere, or in outer space– allows underground nuclear tests as long as no radioactive

debris falls outside the boundaries of the nation conducting the test

– pledges signatories to work towards complete disarmament, an end to the armaments race, and an end to the contamination of the environment by radioactive substances.

Supreme Soviet• Legislative body of the USSR formed in 1938 with

representatives from 15 Socialist Republics.– Each SSR has its own Soviet which congregated twice year as

Supreme Soviet of all SSRs.– Its representatives were elected by unopposed elections until

late 1980s when first free elections held.• The Presidium of the Supreme Soviet was a permanent

body that carried on while the Soviet was between sessions (analogous to Central Committee of CP)

• Council of Ministers is the executive body appointed by the Supreme Soviet on first session of each convocation, every 4 years– The chairman is the Premier of the Soviet Union

Khrushchev’s Downfall• The ambitious military and space technology programs

of the USSR under Khrushchev’s leadership took a heavy toll upon the economy. Of the GNP was funneled into them.

• Beginning in 1964 Khrushchev’s rival Leonid Brezhnev began calling for Khrushchev’s removal

during the premier’s absence– Accused him of policy failures & erratic behavior– Brezhnev member of Politburo since 1957– Bloodless coup ensued

• “I'm old and tired. Let them cope by themselves. I've done the main thing. Could anyone have dreamed of telling Stalin that he didn't suit us anymore and suggesting he retire? Not even a wet spot would have remained where we had been standing. Now everything is different. The fear is gone, and we can talk as equals. That's my contribution. I won't put up a fight.”

• On October 14, 1964, the Presidium and the Central Committee each voted to accept Khrushchev's "voluntary" retirement from his offices. – Brezhnev was elected First Secretary– Aleksei Kosygin succeeded Khrushchev as premier.

Turmoil in Southeast Asia• Colonies of France since 1888, French

Indochina consisted of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam

• League for the Independence of Vietnam (Viet Minh) was formed in 1941 initially movement to liberate Vietnam from the French and later the Japanese in WWII

• Ironically, Viet Minh were funded by the US and Nationalist China in opposition to the Japanese

• Leader was Ho Chi Minh • Established first Communist government

in Indochina

Ho Chi Minh

• Embraces Communism while he spent four years in France under the influence of Marcel Cachin founder of French Communist Party (SFIO) in 1920. Cachin was a member of French National Assembly and was the Communist Presidential candidate for 4 elections: 1931, 1932, 1939, 1953.

• Joined with Cachin as founding member of SFIO and became advocate for liberation of French Indochona in France

• Son of Confucian scholar who saw to it his sons had a French education.

• In his twenties he traveled the world, working various menial jobs but was always an avid book-reader with strong political interests

Ho Chi Minh• Missed Opportunities? Twice he petitioned for a

nationalist government in Vietnam but was unsuccessful:– Treaty of Versailles 1919– President Woodrow Wilson 1920

• After 1921, he went to Moscow, became Comintern’s Asia representative and principle theorist on anti-colonial warfare.

• After participating in Fifth Comintern Congress of 1924, he returned to Asia in Nov where he taught classes in Canton on revolutionary movement

Ho Chi Minh• With the coup of anti-communist Chiang Kai Shek

in 1927, Minh fled to Moscow and Europe until he returned to China in 1938 as an advisor to Chinese Communist forces.

• In 1940 he adopted the name Ho Chi Minh “bringer of enlightenment”

• In 1941 he returned to Vietnam and organized the Viet Minh independence movement financed by the US for resistance against the Vichy French (Axis) and Japanese in WWII.

Rise of Communism in Indochina

• Viet Minh were strengthened by 600 Japanese soldiers who defected to their ranks and taught them to be expert fighters.

• As in Europe, the end of WWII brought a power struggle as Communism sought to fill the vacuum left by the retreating Japanese

• In August 1945, Japanese handed government function over to Viet Minh and other rival Vietnamese factions while keeping former French officials imprisoned. This take over is sometimes referred to as “August Revolution”

• After the August Revolution (1945) organized by the Việt Minh, Hồ became Chairman of the Provisional Government (Premier of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam) and issued a Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam that borrowed much from the French and American declarations.

• Though he convinced Emperor Bảo Đại to abdicate, his government was not recognized by any country. He repeatedly petitioned American President Harry Truman for support for Vietnamese independence, citing the Atlantic Charter, but Truman never responded.

• The new government only lasted a few days

• Under the Potsdam Agreements, occupation forces were set up in Vietnam with Nationalist Chinese forces north of the 17th parallel and British forces south of the 17th parallel

• At request of Viet Minh, Nationalist Chinese forces gave way to colonial French government in 1946. (French preferred over Chinese)

• Soon relations between the French and Viet Minh broke down. The First Indochina War began. In 1950, Ho met with Stalin and Mao to get their support

First Indochina War

• When Ho Chi Minh’s Marxist intensions became known, the US turned against him & supported 80% of French expenses.

• The Viet Minh won the war and in 1954 the French gave up all claim to the colony in Vietnam.

• 1954 Geneva Conference established Democratic Republic of Vietnam as legitimate government north of the 17th parallel under Ho Chi Minh. To the south was the State of Vietnam under the emperor Bao Dai. All opposing forces were to withdraw to their respective sides after the cease fire. This partition was only to be temporary

• The conference stipulated that Vietnam would be unified on the basis of free, internationally supervised elections that would take place in July 1956

Republic of Vietnam Established

• In 1955, Bao Dai’s Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem plotted to oust the emperor. – An effective smear campaign destroyed Bao Dai’s reputation – Unofficial elections held in south were rigged so that Diem was

declared the new president.– The State of Vietnam became the Republic of Vietnam (South

Vietnam), a non-Communist government with Diem as President.

• A 300 day transition period was granted to allow people to migrate to more favorable conditions– About a million Vietnamese (mostly Catholic) migrated to the

south and a much smaller number (mostly Communists) migrated north

Problems in the South• Although he was hailed as champion of democracy

and supported by US, Diem’s autocratic (one person with absolute power) and anti-democratic methods were deeply disappointing to the US and concerning to the international community. Diem also made enemies in the south.

• At first Communists raised no objection to these events in South Vietnam.

• In July 1956, Diem refused the national elections stating the Republic of Vietnam never signed the Geneva Accords. Furthermore, he began anti-communist campaign.

The Second Indochina War

• Both sides began massive buildups of armed forces in violation of 1954 Geneva Accords

• Diem’s enemies formed Communist guerilla movement in the south, Viet Cong/NLF

• DRV formed Vietnam People’s Army (VPA) heavily armed by the Soviet Union and PRC invading from north of DMZ

• In the south, Diem organized the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) supported by US advisors and equipment

• As guerilla activity escalated in the south in Sept 1959, this was the beginning of the Second Indochina War more commonly known as the Vietnam War

ARVN

VIET

CONG

North Vietnamese Army (NVA)

The Purge Begins

• In accordance with Stalinist doctrine, in 1956, Ho Chi Minh initiated “land reforms” in which hundreds of thousands of land owners were executed, tortured and starved in prisons. Millions more fled to South Vietnam.

• Ho appointed Le Duan as acting party boss in charge of insurgency movement into South Vietnam called Viet Cong– Viet Cong used guerilla tactics whereas North Vietnamese

Army used more conventional tactics– 1959 Ho Chi Minh trail was built to facilitate movement of

supplies to Viet Cong from north to south through Laos and Cambodia

Ho Chi Minh Trail

Second Indochina War• Better known as “Vietnam War”• Most extensive conflict of Cold War• Fought as much within the United States in terms

political opposition• Within South Vietnam, the Viet Cong engaged ARVN

forces in guerilla warfare “insurgents” while the North Vietnamese Army (VPA) fought more conventionally from the North

• Was very prolonged Sep 26, 1959 – Apr 30, 1975

Military Advisory & Assistance • Similar to Korea, US entered war to prevent Communist

takeover of South Vietnam as part of strategy of containment• Initially American involvement was advisory beginning as

early as 1950 with the French, then after 1954 when the French were defeated with the Government of South Vietnam under Ngo Dinh Diem.

• As usual, US diplomats were completely ignorant of Vietnamese culture. The tendency to interpret American motives to Vietnamese actions hampered proper handling of the conflict. Diem warned his mentors that Western methods would not solve Vietnamese problems. Under Eisenhower, the CIA broadcast propaganda appealing to Catholics like the Virgin Mary moving to South Vietnam

Troubles with Diem• Republic of Vietnam created largely as

result of President’s Eisenhower administration’s desire for anti-communist state

• Openly praised, John Foster Dulles conceded Diem was selected b/c no alternative

• A wealthy Catholic, Diem viewed by many Vietnamese as part of old elite who had helped the French.

• Majority of Vietnamese Buddhist, so Diem’s attack on Buddhist community served only to deepen mistrust.

Armed Propaganda Teams 1955-1960

• Viet Cong engaged in carefully orchestrated propaganda/terrorism/assassinations:

• Ho Chi Minh stated, – "Do not engage in military operations; that will lead to

defeat. Do not take land from a peasant. Emphasize nationalism rather than communism. Do not antagonize anyone if you can avoid it. Be selective in your violence. If an assassination is necessary, use a knife, not a rifle or grenade. It is too easy to kill innocent bystanders with guns and bombs, and accidental killing of the innocent bystanders will alienate peasants from the revolution. Once an assassination has taken place, make sure peasants know why the killing occurred."

In-Country War• Le Duan (second only to Ho Chi Minh)was brought to Hanoi

to give top priority to the Viet Cong APTs– In 1957, four hundred South Vietnamese government officials

were assassinated– By 1958, twenty percent of all rural village chiefs were killed and

replaced by “shadow” governments• Terrorist targets expanded to include those bringing stability

to South Vietnam:– School teachers, health care workers, agricultural officials

• By 1960 Diem was in trouble on three accounts:1. increasing unpopularity due to acts of repression and

incompetence, 2. significant population supporting Communists in South, 3. In 1959 the Central Committee of DRV authorized troops and

arms shipments south along Ho Chi Minh trail.

Kennedy’s War in SEA

• First to use Special Forces as “counter-insurgency”– Green Berets were committed limited numbers– By 1963 advisors increased to 16,000 c/w 900

committed by Eisenhower– Kennedy opposed use of large ground forces– Diem must win against guerillas on his own

• Kennedy was busy with Europe and Latin America– Asia was backburner issue– Dec 1960, Hanoi formed National Liberation Front NLF• Unified Viet Cong, So Vietnamese Communists under one

administration• Exploited deteriorating So. Vietnam control of rural villages

The Green Berets and Phoenix Project• The opening chapter of American involvement in Vietnam

was the story of Special Forces, the US Army Green Berets– Unconventional in methods: assassinations, infiltration,– 16,000 acting as advisors to ARVN troops– American run and orchestrated

• Phoenix Project also had CIA advisors but was run by South Vietnamese– Strategic Hamlet Program to counter NLF APTs– Conceived to arm & fortify villages against infiltration– Forced relocation, executions of Buddhist chiefs unwilling to

comply, random location, corruption among RVN administrators and failure to respond to hamlet calls for reinforcement made program unpopular.

– Only 20% of the 8600 hamlets Diem reported “complete” were ready by US standards…the program was worse than a failure

Diem’s Demise• Diem became increasingly pre-occupied with preserving ARVN

for staving off coups– Incompetent leadership resulted in lost battles against the NLF,

increasing popularity of NLF– ARVN forces were used rather to repress Buddhists majorities in

South Vietnam to favor Catholic policies• The situation became more desperate when South

Vietnamese generals approached CIA with a proposal to remove Diem and his hated brother – CIA promised not to punish generals or remove US support– Diem & his brother executed Nov 2, 1963, CIA acted without

Kennedy’s approval– So Vietnam plunged into turmoil as one military government after

another failed– None of these were trusted & considered to puppets of US

Change of Command

• Plunged into world mess after the death of Kennedy, Johnson (LBJ) only turned a reluctant glance at Vietnam and was preoccupied with social reforms of “Great Society”

• By the end of 1963, LBJ made strides for disengagement in SEA, withdrawing 1,000 troops– Johnson pledged that he was not "... committing

American boys to fighting a war that I think ought to be fought by the boys of Asia to help protect their own land.“

– This was not to last

Gulf of Tonkin Incident• American politics took a dramatic turn of events in 1964:

– Aug 2, 1964, 3 NV torpedo boats engaged a patrolling US destroyer in Gulf of Tonkin

– An alleged second attack on Aug 3, 1964 may have been contrived by McNamara and the Pentagon

• LBJ publicly addressed Congress, requesting permission for military response & promising support for people of South Vietnam• This pivotal event led to Congressional and Public approval of limited retaliation against North Vietnam• By end of 1964, Viet Cong forces numbered 100,000 (up from a mere 5,000 in 1959), North Vietnamese Army a million troops supplied w/ Soviet arms• facing these were ill-equipped ARVN forces and 16,400 American advisors

Escalation 1965-1969

• The Gulf of Tonkin incident was the catalyst that led to LBJs policies of escalation

• This began as airstrikes (Rolling Thunder) against North Vietnam’s infrastructure and Ho Chi Minh trail– Goal of forcing the North to stop supporting the NLF was

never achieved– "this is a political war and it calls for discriminate killing.

The best weapon... would be a knife... The worst is an airplane.“

• The first ground troops sent on March 8, 1965: 3,500 Marines were committed to guard the air bases in South Vietnam

Too many restrictions….there would be anti-aircraft guns shooting at us across the border but we could touch them… it was as though we were defenseless”

Escalation• By December 1965, US troops increased to 200,000• Gen William Westmoreland realized that ARVN were

incapable of defeating Viet Cong let alone NVA, proposed a bold plan:– Phase 1. Commitment of U.S. (and other free world) forces

necessary to halt the losing trend by the end of 1965.– Phase 2. U.S. and allied forces mount major offensive actions to

seize the initiative to destroy guerrilla and organized enemy forces. This phase would be concluded when the enemy had been worn down, thrown on the defensive, and driven back from major populated areas.

– Phase 3. If the enemy persisted, a period of twelve to eighteen months following Phase 2 would be required for the final destruction of enemy forces remaining in remote base areas

Public Opinion Sours• Ho Chi Minh realized that American public had limited

tolerance and that South Vietnam was teetering on brink of disaster; time was on his side, this was a war of attrition.

• At first in 1965, public opinion was overwhelmingly supportive of another chapter in global struggle against Communism

• LBJ employed "policy of minimum candor“, keeping escalations secret from the media– Developed credibility gap– Communist activity at home was strong stirring up protests– War fighting was excessively micro-managed by the Johnson

administration, air strikes were under heavy restrictions

Tet Offensive • At a time when LBJ was telling

the media that the US was winning, On Jan 31, 1968 (Tet Vietnamese holiday)NVA and NLF launched simultaneous attacks on 100 cities. Fighting lasted over a month in Hue and Ke Sahn near DMZ.

• Although Communists sustain huge losses and forced to retreat, Tet was pivotal in the declining public support of US in Vietnam

• Fierce battles were fought for Hue and Khe Sahn

Decline of Support in 1968

an early January Gallup poll indicated that forty-seven percent of the American public still disapproved of the President's handling of the war.[23] The American public, "more confused than convinced, more doubtful than despairing...adopted a 'wait and see' attitude.“ Meanwhile protests were mounting

Anti-War Movement

• Anti-war protests built upmomentum across the campuses of America. • Ranks of New Left movements such as

Students for Democratic Society (SDS), Student Non-violent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) swelled as support for US policies in Vietnam deteriorated.

• Oct 1, 1964 “free speech” movement at UC Berkeley was beginning of protests that eventually erupted into violence on campuses across the country by 1968-1970.

Violence In US• Protests took violent turn in late 60’s for

several reasons:• Communist student organizations were

powerful and tolerated on campuses• Involuntary draft led young men to

uncertain future• Unprecedented negative media coverage;

daily body counts demoralized public• Distrust of authority earned by

misrepresentation to meida• From 1967-1970, National Guard had no

role in Vietnam but intervened on civil disorders 200 times!

EscalationVietnam Troop Levels

Source: Congressional Quarterlies

1960 900

1961 3,200

1962 11,300

1963 16,300

1964 23,300

1965 184,300

1966 385,300

1967 485,600

1968 536,100

1969 475,200

1970 334,600

1971 156,800

1972 24,200

By 1972, an estimated 70,000 draft evadersand deserters were living in Canada

•Thru the remainder of LBJ’s presidency, the war would escalate as more and more US troops were committed to the failing effort in Vietnam.•In order to support the large buildup, 18-25 y/o American men were pressed into service by the draft•Against growing protests and violence, dwindling popular support, President Johnson decided not to seek reelection in 1968.•Within five years he would die of massive heart attack