Sitti Nurpahmi - E-books UIN Alauddin Makassar

Sitti Nurpahmi

Sitt. .

ENGLISH FOR SPECIFIC PURPOSES: INTEGRATED

APPROACH

Alauddin University Press

Hak Cipta Dilindungi Undang-Undang: Dilarang memperbanyak atau memindahkan sebaglan at<11J ieluruh isi buku ini ke dulam bentuk apupun t,mpn lz ln tertulls aarl penerbit

All flights Reserved ENGLISH FOR SPECIF.IC PURPOSES: INTEGRATED APPROACH

Penulis: -� Sitti. Nurpahmi

Editor: Asardian Maharani Asnur

Cetakan: I 2014 x + 210 halaman, 14 cm x 21 cm

ISBN : 978-602-328-007-0

Alauddin University Press Kampus I : Jalan Sultan Alauddin No. 63 Makassar Kam pus II : Jalan Sultan Alauddin No. 36 Sama ta - Gowa

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SAMBUTAN REKTOR

Jika engkau ingin meng"abadi", maka tinggalknnlal: "Legoo]"

Ungkapan di atas memberi gambaran bahwa setiap manusia hendaknya selalu melahirkan karya terbaiknya untuk dipersembahkan kepada umat. Karya itu akan menjadi sebuah legacy yang akan selalu diingat dan dikenang, bahkan diabadikan dalam catatan sejarah peradaban anak manusia. Jutaan bahkan milyaran anak manusia telah dan akan lahir di permukaan dunia ini, namun tidak semua mampu mencatatkan dirinya dalam kelindan sejarah yang "menyejarah". Han ya sebagian kecil anak manusia yang mampu menghadirkan dan meng"abadi"kan dirinya dalam garis lingkar lintasan sejarah.

Dalam bingkai dan konstruksi emosional, manusia pada hakikatnya ingin abadi. Itulah sebabnya manusia ingin selalu mengabadikan momentum penting dalam ruang dan waktu yang senantiasa berubah. Mereka membuat gambar, foto, lukisan, dan sejenisnya yang seakan-akan berkeingi.nan menyetop waktu yang senantiasa berubah. Demikian pula aktivitas manusia membangun monumen bersejarah tidak lain tujuannya untuk mengabadikan sebuah peristiwa penting dalam sejarah peradaban manusia, bahkan Khairil Anwar berkata: "Abt ingin hidup seribu ta/nm lagi",

Karya akadernik pada hakikatnya merupakan sebuah monumen penting dalam kehidupan yang dapat menjadi legacy. Karya itu dapat dinikmati oleh siapa saja yang cinta terhadap pengetahuan. Karya akademik bukan sekadar sebuah tulisan yang menjadi hiasan di dalam rak, lemari atau ruang baca, tetapi dia mampu melahirkan perubahan

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dan memberikan pencerahan kepada manusia. Terlebih dalam perspektif eskatologis, karya akademik dapat menjadi amal jariah di "alam sana".

Atas dasar kesadaran itulah, maka program Gerakan Seribu Buku (GSB) ini dilaksanakan, dengan harapan setiap dosen mampu melahirkan "legacy" dalam catatan kehidupannya berupa karya tulis yang dipublikasikan. Gerakan ini diharapkan menjadi "trigger" untuk melahirkan karya-karya berikutnya.

Saya merasa gembira bahwa dosen UIN Alauddin tidak saja mampu berorasi di atas mimbar, tetapi juga dapat menuangkan gagasan, ide, dan pikirannya dalam bentuk tulisan. Hingga periode akhir masa jabatan saya sebagai Rektor, program GSB ini telah tuntas dilaksanakan. Itu artinya, hingga saat ini tidak kurang dari 1000 buah karya akademik telah dipublikasikan oleh para dosen UIN Alauddin Makassar. Fakta ini harus diapresiasi dan menjadi catatan penting bagi pejabat (Rektor) berikutnya.

Karya tulis merupakan perbendaharaan terbesar di dunia akademik. Hanya dengan budaya menulis dan membaca, maka dunia akademik menjadi hidup, bahkan al­ Quran mengisyaratkan bahwa lahir dan hadirnya pengetahuan serta peradaban harus diawali dengan budaya "iqra/baca" dan "al-qalam/pena". Karena itulah, UIN sebagai kampus peradaban harus menjadi pioneer dari tradisi literasi ini, sebab rendahnya budaya "baca-tulis" pada suatu bangsa atau sebuah kampus mengindikasikan Iemahnya kesadaran terhadap eksistensi diri, alam, dan Tuhan.

Samata, 2 Oktober 2014 Rektor,

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Prof. Dr. H. A. Qadir Gassing, HT, MS PREFACE

Alhamdulillahi Rabbil Alamin, the writer would like to express her gratitude and thanks to Allah swt. for His mercy, blessing and great opportunity so that she was able to finish this book. Salawat and Salam are due to the greatest chosen prophet Muhanunad (peace be upon him) with his families and his followers till the end of the world.

English for specific purposes (ESP) is language learning approach. It is not a product but it is an approach to EFL learning. There are some approaches in designing ESP course such as language centred approach, skill centred approach, learner centred approach, and learning centred approach

I hope this book will be helpful and beneficial for students of English Department and teacher of ESP. The writer realize that this book does not satisfy every part who may use it. Accordingly, critics as well as suggestions for improvement of this book are warmly welcome

The writer

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TABLE CONTENTS

SAMBUT AN REKTOR iii PREF ACE ...........•...................•...................................... v TABLE OF CONTENT vii LIST OF FIGURE ..........•...•........................................ ix

PART I: INTRODUCTION 1 A. What is ESP course? 1 B. Approaches in ESP course 7 C. Integrated Approach 14

PART II NEED ANAL YSIS 17 A. Need Analysis Theory 17 B. Subject of Need Analysis 19 C. Instruments in Need Analysis 27 D. Steps in Need Analysis 41

PART III SYLLABUS DESIGN 45 A. Kind of Syllabuses 45 B. Approaches to Syllabus Design 48 C. Process in designing Syllabus 64

PART IV VII ESP MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT67 A. What is material 67 B. Techniques in Selecting material 69 C. Material Evaluation 71 D. Material Adaptation 79 E. Material development 83

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PART V TEACHING ESP 101 A. Principles in Teaching ESP 101 B. ESP Teacher 108 C Approaches, methods and techniques

in teaching ESP 111

PART VI EVALUATION IN ESP 133 A. Leamer Assessment 133 B. Course Evaluation 141

PART VII APPLICATION 149 A. Need Analysis 149 B. Syllabus Design 153 C. Material Development 156 D. Teaching ESP 167 E. Evaluation 173

BIBLIOGRAPHY 177 APPENDIXES .....•....•.....•.....................•.•.................. 183 CURRICULUM VITAE ..........•.................•............. 209

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LIST OF FIGURE

Figure 1 Factors affecting ESP Course Design 8 Figure 2. A language centered approach to course

Design 10 Figure 3. Skill centered approach 11 Figure 4. A learner-centered approach to course

design 12

Figure 5.Learning Centered approach 14 Figure 6 Integrated approach to course design 15 Figure 7. Process in material development 71 Figure 8. Process in material evaluation 72 Figure 9. A checklist for material evaluation 78 Figure 10. Process in adapting material 80 Figure. 11 Step in writing material 00 Figure 11: A positive learning cycle 106

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PART I BASIC CONCEPT IN ENGLISH FOR

SPECIFIC PURPOSES

A. What Is ESP Course? Course design is a series activity to design course or

learning activities. Hutchinson and Water (1987) define Course design is the process of interpreting the raw needs analysis data to produce "an integrated series of learning experiences to lead learners to a particular state of knowledge. While According to Munby (1978: 2), "ESP courses are determined in all essentials by the prior analysis of the communication needs of the learners".

Course design is a series process - need analysis, interpreting need analysis data, creating syllabus, material writing, classroom teaching, and evaluation.

Strevens (1988) characterizes ESP course with absolute characteristics and variable characteristics. The absolute characteristics of ESP are:

1. Language teaching is designed to meet specified needs of the learner;

2. It is related in content to particular disciplines, occupation and activities;

3. It is centred on the language appropriate to those activities in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics and so on, and analysis of the discourse

4. It is designed in contrast with General English.

Two variable characteristics of ESP are: 1. ESP may be restricted to the language skills to be

learned, e.g. reading; 2. ESP may not be taught according to any pre-ordained

methodology.

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Robinson's (1991: 3) gives two criteria of ESP course as follows: a) ESP is normally 'goal-directed', and b) ESP courses develop from a needs analysis which aim to

specify what exactly it is that students have to do through the medium of English, and a number of characteristics which explain that ESP courses are generally constrained by a limited time period in which their objectives have to be achieved and are taught to adults in hontogenous classes in terms of the work or specialist studies that the students are involved in.

Carver (1983) states that there are three characteristics common to ESP courses:

1. Authentic materials - the use of authentic learning materials is possible if we accept the claim that ESP courses should be offered at an intermediate or advanced level. The use of such materials, modified by teachers or unmodified, is common in ESP, especially in self directed studies or research tasks. The students are usually encouraged to conduct research using a variety of different resources including the Internet;

2. Purpose-related orientation - refers to the simulation of communicative tasks required by the target situation. The teacher can give students different tasks - to simulate the conference preparation, involving the preparation of papers, reading, note­ taking and writing. At Faculty of Agronomy in Cacak, English course for Agribusiness Management involves students in the tasks of presenting a particular agricultural product, logo creation, negotiating with the clients (suppliers and buyers), telephone conversation. They also practice listening skills, though the application is restricted because

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they employ newly acquired skills during their ESP classes with their colleagues and teacher.

3. Self-direction - means that ESP is concerned with turning learners into users. For self - direction, it is necessary that teacher encourage students to have a certain degree of autonomy - freedom to decide when, what, and how they will study. For high­ ability learners it is essential to learn how to access information in a new culture.

Furthermore, Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) characterizes ESP course with absolute and variable characteristic. The following are those characteristics:

1. Absolute characteristics: a. ESP is designed to meet specific needs of the

learner; b. ESP makes use of the underlying methodology

and activities of the disciplines it serves; and c. ESP is centred on the language (grammar, lexis,

register), skills, discourse and genres appropriate to these activities.

2. Variable characteristics: a) ESP may be related or designed for specific

disciplines; b) ESP may use, in specific teaching situations, a

different methodology from that of general English;

c) ESP is likely to be designed for adult learners, either at a tertiary level institution or in a professional work situation; it could be used for learners at secondary school level;

d) ESP is generally designed for intermediate or advanced learners; and

e) Most ESP courses assume basic knowledge of the

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language system, but it can be used with beginners.

Based on the above quotations, ESP is the use of English for specific purposes based on the learners' need. The information of the learners' need got through need analysis.

Moreover, Dudley-Evans and St John (1998:145) suggest some parameter to be considered in designing course as follows:

1. Should the course be intensive or extensive? 2. Should the learner's performance be assessed or non­

assessed? 3. Should the course deal with immediate needs or with

delayed needs? 4. Should the role of the teacher be that of the provide r

of knowledge and activities, or of a facilitator of activities arising from learners' expressed wants?

5. Should the course have a broad or narrow focus? 6. Should the course be pre-study or pre-experience or

non parallel with that study or experience? 7. Should the material be common-core or specific to

learners' study or work? 8. Should the group taking the course be homogeneous

or heterogeneous? 9. Should the course design be worked out by the

language teacher after consultation with the learners and the institution, or should it be subject to a process of negotiation with the learners?

Robinson's (1991, pp. 2-5) states that the characteristics of ESP courses as follows:

1. First, ESP is goal directed - the learners are not learning the English language for the sake of it, but

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because they need, or will need, to use English in their professional or academic lives. EAP learners are usually current higher education students or members of staff or they are hoping to go on to higher education after their EAP course. They need to learn English in order to succeed in their academic careers.

2. Second, ESP courses are based on an analysis of needs, which aims to specify as closely as possible exactly what it is that the learners have to do through the medium of English. This means taking into account the opinions of all the various stakeholders. For an undergraduate student, this could mean the learner, his or her parents, and sponsors, present and future lecturers, examiners, administrators, materials writers etc. EAP, therefore, involves an attitude to learning and teaching that believes that it is possible and useful to specify what language and practices are required in a particular academic context and that it is worthwhile to focus teaching on this. For that reason, one important feature of EAP courses is the close attention that is paid to the learners' aims and what they are working on, studying or planning to study. The first stage in any EAP, and ESP, course, therefore, is to find out exactly why the learners are learning English and what language and practices they will need to pay attention to.

3. Often there is a very clearly specified period for the ESP course. Most EAP students are undertaking fixed term courses in preparation for a particular task - such as an essay, dissertation or conference presentation - or an academic course or they are studying English for a short time every week along with their academic courses or jobs.

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4. ESP learners tend to be adults rather than children. Most EAP students are over 18 and they will either have made a difficult decision to study in an English medium university or, for example, researching, publishing or teaching in English may be a requirement.

5. Learners may need specialist language, but this is not necessarily so. It is the linguistic tasks - including language and practices - that the students will need to engage in that define the course. As with all ESP, an EAP lecturer would not take a text and ask, "What can I do with this text?" The starting point is always, "What do my learners have to do? What texts will they need to read? What will my students need to do with this text and how can we help them to do it?"

6. In some cases, a very high level of proficiency is not necessarily required, as long as the learners can succeed in their aims. Students, for example, need to be able to understand their lectures, fellow students and textbooks and obtain good marks for assignments and examinations. The role of the EAP lecturer is to find ways to enable them to do this - getting their present tenses correct may not be as important as understanding the overall structure of the report they have to write.

Based on the citation above it shows that Robinson's criteria to ESP course is goal oriented. According to him the learners are not learning the English language for the sake of it, but because they need, or will need, to use English in their professional or academic lives. EAP learners are usually current higher education students or members of staff or they are hoping to go on to higher education after their EAP

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course. They need to learn English in order to succeed in their academic careers.

While According Widdowson (1987:102) ESP course design must be process oriented. A process oriented approach in designing ESP course based on the principle to satisfy the cognitive need of the learners, guarantee the eventual attainment of desired terminal behavior. A process oriented approach based on subject methodologies contains because these needs converge in learning process itself.

B. Factors affecting ESP Course Design In relation to the factors affecting course design,

Hutchinson and Water (1987:21-22) used Kipling's honest serving men to outline the basic questions that we need to know before designing course, as follows:

1. Why does the student need to learn? 2. Who is going to be involved in the process? This will

need to cover not just the students, but all the people who may some affect on the process: teachers, sponsors, inspectors, etc.

3. Where is the learning to take place? What potential does the place provide? What limitation does it impose?

4. When is the learning to take place? How much time is available? How will it distributed?

5. What does the student need to learn? What aspect of language will be needed and how will they be described? What level of Proficiency must be achieved? What topic areas will need to be covered?

6. How will the learning be achieved? What learning theory will underlie the course? What king of methodology will be employed?

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Based on the questions, Hutchinson and Water (1987) identified factors affecting to ESP course design namely language description, theories of learning and need analysis, as can be seen in the following figure:

,.. ... ·

/_,.,..-WHAT? ··,\ .. _ i

�--·-----·-- ; · ·/,····::-;--,)

( -, \ ESP I �.. ( \

! Jylbbus \ . TTWll>odolo<Jy J Lan�uage J . coureej ,·. I Learning

\ descriptions .: [.. -·------- ·.] · .. \ theories ' / ...... /

-�

: /_,....----------� .... , .

/' ,� · I WHO'? WHY? WHERE? WHEN?

�

��ds

analys;� • __ .,,, Figure 1 Factors affecting ESP Course Design

The above figure shows that there are three main points affecting ESP course design. The first is language descriptions, the answer of question of what. Language description shows the language knowledge needed by the learners that put at the syllabus. The second factor is how the learner learn a language, and the third factor is the nature of particular target and learning situation.

Phillips (as citied in Wello and Dollah) considers factors contributing to the success and failure of ESP course as follows:

1. The subject content embodied in the learners' purposes;

2. The duration for ESP course

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: \ - nu1�r• or \ P'Jr1•c:ulllr \ target one ',

lo&rning IUtuD1tOO \

3. The weekly intensity of the course 4. The composition of the students group according to

their mother tongues 5. Age, academic background, degree of competence in

second language (if any) 6. The staff- students ratio 7. The staff teaching load 8. The organizational structure of educational

institution 9. The budgetary provision for the course and 10. The availability of educational technology.

Furthermore, Wello and Dollah (2008:97) classified factors affecting the ESP course into institutional - time allotted for learning English, classroom and learning condition, and attitude of the head institution and staff--, the teachers factor- the competence of the teacher, the confidence of the teachers in using English, teaching strategies, the attitude of the teacher--, and the learner factor - internal and external factors.

C. Approaches in ESP Course An approach is a set of correlative assumptions

dealing with the nature of language teaching and learning. An approach is axiomatic. It describes the nature of the subject matter to be taught (Anthony 1963: 63-67 in Jack C Richards 2001:19). There are many different approaches to ESP course design. Those approaches are explained as follows:

1. Language-centred course design Hutchison and Waters (1987: 65- 66) states that

Language-centred course design approachis the simplest kind of course design process and one most familiar to

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English teachers. It aims to draw as direct a connection as possible between the analysis of the target situation and the content of the ESP course. It proceeds as follows:

Identify learners' target situation

Select theoretical of language

Identify linguistic features of target situation

[ Create a syllabus ]

Design material to exemplify

Establish evaluation procedures to test acquisition of syllabus items

Figure 2. A language centered approach to course design

The figure above shows that this approach starts at identifying learner's target situation and then select theoretical language to identify the linguistic features that the learners need. Based on the identified data, syllabus created. The next step is designing material based on the syllabus, then establishing evaluation to see the successfulness of the course.

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2. Skills-centred course design

Skills-centred course design is a reaction both to the idea of specific registers of English as a basis for ESP and to the practical constraints on learning imposed by limited time and resources. I ts aim is not to provide a specified corpus of linguistic knowledge but to make the learners into better processors of information (Hutchison and Waters, 1987:70).

The process of the approach as follows:

Theoretical views of lg

Analyse skills/ Select texts Establish strategies and write evaluation

Identify target required to Write exercises to procedures situation 1--t oope in target 1--t s�labus 1--1 focus on skills/ r--t which require

situation t strategies in the use of skills syllabus I strategies in

s�labus

, ' : Theoretical : ! viewsof l j learning :· · • ··-················'

Figure 3. Skill centred approach

Skill centred approach starts at identifying target situation. Based on the data from target situation analysis, it is determined theoretical views of language, skill required to cope target situation, and theoretical view of learning. Based on all data it is created syllabus. Based on the syllabus, then it is developed material and then conducting evaluation.

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3. Learner-centred approach

It is based on the principle that learning is totally determined by the learner even though teachers can influence what is taught but what the learners learn is determined by the learner alone. Learning is seen as a process in which the learners what knowledge or skill they have in order to make sense of the flow of new information. Learning therefore, is an internal process, which is crucially dependent upon the knowledge the learners already have and their ability and motivation to use it. The following is the process in Learner centred model (Sysovey, 2000):

Analyze students

Formulating goals and objectives

Content

Selecting: teaching: material

Planning: the course

+ Evaluating: the course

Figure 4. A learner-centered approach to course design 4. Learning-centred approach

The term learning-centred approach introduced by Hutchison and Waters (1987:72). It is seen as a process in which the learner use what knowledge or skills they have to make sense of the flow of new information. It is an internal process, which is crucially dependent upon the knowledge the learner already have and their ability and motivation to

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use it. It is a process of negotiation between individuals and the society. Society sets the target and the individuals must do their best to get as close to that target as is possible. This approach has 2 implications:

a. Course design is a negotiated process. The ESP learning situation and the target situation will both influence the nature of the syllabus, materials, methodology and evaluation procedures.

b. Course design is a dynamic process. It doesn't move in a linear fashion. Needs and resources vary with time. The course design, therefore, needs to have built-in feedback channels to enable the course to respond to developments.

If we took a learning-centred approach, we would need to ask further questions and consider other factors, before determining the content and methodology of the course:

a. What skills are necessary to be taught? b. What are the implications for methodology of having

a mono-skill focus? c. How will the students react to doing tasks involving

other skills? d. Do the resources in the classroom allow the use of

other skills? e. How will the learners react to discussing things in the

mother tongue? f. How will the students' attitudes vary through the

course? Will thy feel motivated? g. How do students feel about reading as an activity?

The important point is that these questions must be asked and the results allowed to influence the course design.

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The learning-centred course design process is shown in this diagram:

Theoretical view of lg

Identify attitudes/ wants/ potential of

learners

dentifyneedsl potential/ constraints of learning/ teaching

situation

Identify skills and knowledge needed to function In the target situation

Evaluation

Write syUabusl materials to exploit the potential of the teaming

situation in the acquisition of the skiUs and knowledge re<{uired by

the target situation.

Evaluation

Figure 5.Learning Centered approach

C. Integrated Approach Integrated Approach is an approach that integrate

teacher centred learning, learner centred leaning and learning centred approach. It is based on the principle that learner in learning process must be guided by the teachers to learn optimally. Not all the learning source comes from the learner, but the learning process can be processed optimally if the all components of the learning process function well.

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Identify learner Present Situation

stakeholder

Need Analysis

Identify learning Identify learner Need Target Needs

Learner I I Teachers Expert

TARGET NEED T .F.A RNTNG NF.RD

CREATING INTEGRATED SYLLABUS

DEVELOPING INTEGRATED MATERIAL

TEACHING

Learner Centred

EVALUATION Teacher guided

Figure 6. Integrated approach

Integrated approach in need analysis means integrate three component of need analysis, PSA, TSA, and LSA, which are involved integrated source of data-stakeholder, learner, teacher, and expert.

The next step is creating syllabus which integrate more than two kinds of syllabus.

The third step in course design is material development. In this step, course designer integrate content material and functional language.

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Teaching ESP must integrate students centered and teacher guided. In teaching process the main factor determining the failure or successfulness are learners and teachers. The teacher is not does the only source of the material, but teacher play key role to facilitate learners to learn.

Evaluation is a final part in course design. In order the information gathered maximum so the method of collecting data for evaluation must also be integrated,

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PART II

NEED ANALYSIS

A. Need Analysis TlieonJ

Based on the ESP approach at the previous chapter, Need analysis is a starting point in designing course. Dudley-Evans and St John (1998:121) defines needs analysis as the process of establishing the wluztand how of a course. While Robinson suggests, needs analysis is not only for determining the II wlta t and how of a language of teaching". He also suggests that needs analysis study should be repeated so that it can be built into the formative process. This would lead to a very informative database of learners, sponsors, subject-specialists and above all ESP practitioners' views and opinions of English language (Robinson, 1991:8).

According to lwai et al. (1999), the term needs analysis generally refers to the activities that are involved in collecting information that will serve as the basis for developing a curriculum that will meet the needs of a particular group of students. formal needs analysis is relatively new to the field of language teaching. However, informal needs analyses have been conducted by teachers in order to assess what language points their students needed to master. In fact, the reason why different approaches were born and then replaced by others is that teachers have intended to meet the needs of their students during their learning.

According to Richards (2001:33), learners' needs in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) are described in terms of performance, that is, in terms of what the learner will be able to do with the language at the end of a course of study. In many cases, learners' needs may be relatively easy to determine, particularly if learners need to learn a language

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for very specific purposes, for example, employment in fields such as tourism, nursing, engineering or the hotel industry (Richards, 2001:53-54).

Richards (2001:52) further says that needs analysis in language teaching may be used for a number of different purposes. For example, to find out what language skills a learner needs in order to perform a particular role, such as sales manager, or tour guide; to identify a gap between what students are able to do and what they need to be able to do; to collect information about a particular problem learners experience; to determine which students from a group are most in need of training in particular language skills, and to identify a change of direction that people in reference group feel is important.

Salto-Youth Inclusion Resource Centre education and Culture points out that In essence, a needs analysis is:

1. A review of your past successes and challenges in terms of inclusion

2. An inventory of what has been developed and what areas still need to be explored

3. A health check of your internal procedures 4. A framework for understanding the "bigger picture"

of inclusion in your country. Furthermore, Salto-Youth Inclusion Resource Centre

education and Culture points out that In essence, a needs analysis involves:

1. Collecting background information 2. Understanding the real needs of the young people 3. Identifying potential partners and potential obstacles

in the inclusion field 4. Making an inventory of the skills, competencies and

resources available to you Needs analysis is a vital component in establishing the

specifications and parameters of this ESBP course. As

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Dudley-Evans (2001) has pointed out, needs analysis serves as a preliminary foundation for an ESP course in an attempt to locate the objectives of the course and to prepare the appropriate teaching activities and materials.

Richard, (1990) states that needs analysis is considered to be the main driving factor in ESP curriculum development. In the domain of language program design, needs analysis refers to a number of means for identifying and validating the needs and establishes priorities among those. While Brown (1995) defines needs analysis as the activities involved in gathering information that will serve as the basis for developing a curriculum that will meet the learning needs of a particular group of learners. Furthermore, Ellis and Johnson (1994) define needs analysis as a method of obtaining a description of a learner's needs (or group of learner's needs)

Based on the definition, thus the goals of needs analysis are to find out what learners want to use the language for and what level of competencies they have in the language at present. Data collection about the course materials is also necessary. Furthermore Richards (1985) observes that needs analysis is the requirement for fact finding or the collection of data from various sources, for example the data about learners, the materials and so on.

Therefore it is summarized that need analysis as a starting point in course design plays a crucial role because, it is a way to collecting various data from various source related to the 'field of study, and then give information needed to create syllabus, develop material, and teaching the material.

B. Subject of Need Analysis

Wello and Dollah (2008) stated that subject that will be

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involved in need Analysis as follows: 1. The target group which is made up of those people

about whom information will ultimately be gathered. The usual target group is the students in program, but sometimes, the teacher and/ or administrator also targeted.

2. The audience of need analysis which encompasses all people who will eventually be required to act upon the analysis. This group usually consists of teachers, teachers; aids. Program administrators, and any governing bodies or supervisors in the bureaucracy above the language program

3. The need analysts who are responsible for conducting the needs analysis. They may be consultants brought in for the purposes, or members of the faculty designated for the job.

4. The resource group which consists any people who may serve as source of information about the target group.

While Dudley-Evans and St John point out that the main sources for needs analysis are the learners, people working or studying in the field, ex-students and documents relevant to the field, clients, employers, colleagues and ESP research in the field (1998: 132).

Richterich and Chancerel (1980) formulate the most extensive range of devices for establishing the PSA. They suggest that there are three basic sources of information: the students themselves, the language-teaching establishment, and the 'user-institution'. ESP practitioners might also study the surrounding society and culture: the attitude held towards English language and towards the learning and use of a foreign language (Richterich and Chancerel, 1980).

Based on the quotation in the point of view of the writer the source information of need analysis in ESP course

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are learners, the ex-students, documents relevant to the ESP field, ESP teachers/ instructor, stakeholders, Experts, employers relevant to the ES field.

Integrated approach to need analysis covers the three components - present situation analysis, target situation analysis, and learning needs of the learners. 1 Present Situation Analysis (PSA)

According to Robinson (1991:8), the term "Present Situation Analysis" (PSA) seeks to establish what the students are like at the start of their language course, investigating their strengths and weaknesses". PSA aims at finding out the students' English proficiency level and their existing language requirements at the beginning of a language program,

Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998:124) state that PSA estimates strengths and weaknesses in language, skills and learning experiences. Munby (1978) argues that PSA represents constraints on the TSA. According to McDonough (1984), PSA involves 'fundamental variables' which must be clearly considered before the TSA.

The framework of present situation analysis as follows:

Indicators Questionnaire

Level of 1. What is your current level of proficiency English?

a. in listening: Average

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Good Very good Excellent

b. in speaking: Average Good Very good Excellent

c. in Writing: Average Good Very good Excellent

d. reading: Average Good Very good Excellent

Strength 2. What strengths do you have in English skill?

a) Writing: i. writing grammatically correct

sentences ii. free hand writing ... creating well - organized lll.

paragraphs iv. analytical, coherent and cohesive

writing b) Speaking:

i. can speak with grammatical correctness

ii. can speak in context iii. can speak fluently

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Weakness

iv. can speak in context, with fluency and intonation

c. Listening: i. can understands listening material

-indentifying specific, detail, main information from any kinds of listening material correctly

ii. can understands listening material -indentifying specific, detail, main information from easy listening material correctly

d. Reading: i. can get comprehension from

reading material well - specific, detail, main idea from any kinds of reading material

ii. can get comprehension from reading material well - specific, detail, main idea from short reading material

What weaknesses do you have in English skill? a) Writing:

i. can't write gr a mm.a ti call y correct sentences

ii. can't write in free hand iii. can't create well -organized

paragraphs iv. can't produce analytical,

coherent and cohesive writing b) Speaking:

i. can't speak with grammatical

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Prior knowledge bout the field

correctness ii. Can't speak in context iii. can't speak fluently rv. can't speak in context, with

fluency and intonation c. Listening:

i. cannot understands listening material -indentifying specific, detail, main information from any kinds of listening material correctly

ii. cannot understands listening material -indentifying specific, detail, main information from easy listening material correctly

d. Reading: 1. cannot get comprehension from

reading material well - specific, detail, main idea from any kinds of reading material

ii. cannot get comprehension from reading material well - specific, detail, main idea from short reacting material

Do you have any background in THIS field of study? a) Do not have any idea b) Yes c) No

Lack ' �

• .Which skills do you lack? a) Speaking

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I b) listening c) Writing d) Reading

2. Target Situation Analysis (TSA) Target Situation Analysis (TSA) is a form of needs

analysis, which focuses on identifying the learners' language requirements in the os..c�pational or academic situation they are being prepared for (West, 1994). According to Dudley­ Evans and St. John (1998:124), "TSA refers to task and activities learners exe] will be using English for target situation". Finally, they state that TSA includes objective, perceived and product-oriented needs (Dudley-Evans and St. J ohn, (1998).

The target situation analysis framework are : a. Why is the language needed? (1) for study; (2) for

work; (3) for training: (4) for a combination of these; (5) for some other purpose, e.g. status, examination, promotion.

b. How will the language be used? (1) Medium: speaking, writing, reading, or writing; (2) channel: e.g. telephone, face to face; (3) Types of text discourse; e.g. academic texts, lectures, informal conversation; (4) Technical manuals, catalogues.

c. What will the content areas be? (1) Subjects: e.g. medicine, biology, architecture, shipping; (2) commerce, engineering; (3) Level: e.g. technician, craftsman, postgraduate, secondary school.

d. Who will the learner use the language with? (1) Native speakers, non-native speakers; (2) level of knowledge of receiver: e.g. expert, layman, students; (3) 1:elationshi�: coll;:gue, tead1er cJJst0�1 supenor, subordmate. { p � � ,- U ST • � A. AN

I UIN AL..AUOOlN 2, MAl".�ssoR_

e. Where will the language be used? (1) Physical setting: e.g. office, lecture theater, hotel, workshop, library; (2) human context: e.g. alone, meeting, demonstrations, on the telephone; (3) linguistic context: e.g. in own country, abroad.

f. When will the language be used? (1) Concurrently with the ESP course or subsequently; (2) frequently, seldom, in small amounts, in large chunks.

It is obviously necessary to obtain answers to the questions from a variety of sources, and then to try and negotiate a satisfactory compromises

3. Learning needs To analyze learning needs, the similar checklist used

for target situation analysis. A framework for analyzing learning needs:

1. Why are the learners taking the course? (1) Compulsory or optional; (2) apparent need or covert; (3) Are status, money, promotion involved? (4) What do learners think they will achieve? (5) What is their attitude towards the ESP or general English course?

2. How do the learners learn? (1) What is their learning background? (2) What is their concept of teaching and learning? (3) What methodology will appeal to them? (4) What sort of techniques are likely to bore/alienate them?

3. What sources are available? (1) Number and professional competence of teachers; (2) attitudes of teachers to ESP; (3) teachers' knowledge of and attitude to the subject content; (4) materials; (5) aids; '6) opportunities for out-of-class activities.

4. Who.,nP 1"11P lP:::1rnP1·s? (1) Age/sex/nationality; (2) ',Vhat uo tney already know about English? (3) What

26

subject knowledge do they have? (4) What are their interests? (5) What is their socio-cultural background? (6) What teaching styles are they used to? (7) What is their attitude to English or to the culture of the English-speaking world?

5. Where will the ESP or general course take place? (1) Are the surroundings pleasant, dull, noisy, or cold?

6. When will the ESP or general course take place? (1) Time of day; (2) everyday/ once a week; (3) full­ time/ part-time; (4) concurrent with need or pre-need.

C. Instrument of Need Analysis Saito-Youth Inclusion Resource Centre education and

Culture use variety of method in need analysis. They are: Some possible methods include:

1. Questionnaires - an inexpensive way to gather data from a potentially large number of respondents (they also allow for a statistical analysis of the results)

2. Surveys - good tools for measuring levels of satisfaction, either internally or among your clients.

3. Statistics - a treasure trove of information. How many participants? How many projects? How many new clients? How many staff hours? Etc.

4. Interviews - allow you to gather more in-depth information from a specific group of candidates

5. Small group discussions - a semi-formal way to explore issues within a mixed group (mixed functions, mixed profiles, etc.)

6. Focus groups - a small group of candidates selected to represent a much larger group, usually sharing some specific characteristics of a defined profile.

7. Task and/ or systems analysis - a way to examine systems and activities which are carried out

27

consistently and repeatedly (e.g. the process involved in selecting project applications).

While according to Brown ( as citied by Basri and Dollah, 2008: 76) there are at least six kinds of instruments which are frequently used in gathering need analysis . f h . th f 11 bl m ormation as s own m e o owing ta e: Need Analysts Instruments Procedure Role Outsider looking Existing Record analysis In information Systems analysis

Literature review Letter writing

Tests Proficiency Placement Diagnostics

Observation Case studies Diary studies Behavior observation Interactional analysis Inventories

Facilitator Interviews Individual drawing out Group information

Meetings Delphi techniques Advisory Interest group Review

Questionnaire Biodata survey

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Opinion surveys Self rating Judgmental rating Q sort

Based on the above table, it shows that the instrument used in need analysis are document, tests, observation, questionnaire (survey), interview, and meeting. Among the six instrument the most commonly used by researcher are questionnaire, interview, and observation. Some of the researchers used triangulated instruments (the combination of questionnaire, interview, and observation).

According to Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998:132) the main data collection for need analysis are: questionnaire, Analysis of authentic spoken and written text, discussions, structured interviews, observations, and assessment.

Therefore it will explain in detail about the three kind of instrument as follows:

1. Questionnaire The following will be presented model of need analysis

instrument in ESP: a. Need analysis Model By Lamb (1996:34-8 as citied

by Wello and Dollah, 2008:79-83) as follows:

A. General learners' needs survey Name Age Language Leaming history Intended Occupation Purposes for English People with whom learner

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Will interact Target variety or dialect Current proficiency level Educational background Other languages Aptitude Where language will be used: _ Current proficiency level Degree of mastery required Language genre required

B. Language contact survey We would like you tell us which the following uses of English are important for you. Please put an X for each under the column "Very useful", "Useful", and Not useful" Do you want to improve your English so that you can f ti . th f 11 · t t ? unc on m e o owing con ex s. Items Very Useful Not useful

Useful 1. Tell people about

your self 2. Tell people about

your family 3. Tell people about

your job 4. Tell people about

your education 5. Tell people about

your interest 6. Use buses, trains,

ferries 7. Find new places in

the city 8. Speak to trade

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people 9. Speak to

landlord/ real estate agent

10. Buy furniture/ appliances for your home

11. Deal with door to doo salesmen

12. Communicate with your friends

13. Receive phone calls 14. Make telephone calls 15. Do further study 16. Get information

about courses, school, etc.

17. Get information about educational system

18. Help children with schoolwork

19. Apply for a job 20. Get information

about a job 21. Go to the

commonwealth employment service

22. Attend interviews 23. Join sport or social

club 24. Join hobby or

interest groups 25. Watch TV

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26. Listen to the radio 27. Read newspaper,

book, magazines 28. Give, accept, refuse

invitation 29. Make travel

arrangement 30. Talk to your boss 31. Talk to

doctors /hospital staff

32. Talk to neighbors 33. Talk to children

teachers 34. Talk to government

officials 35. Talk to English

speaking friends 36. Get information

about goods and services

37. Complain about, or return goods

38. Arrange credit /hire purchase/ lay-by

From the list choose five that you want to learn first 1. _ 2. _ 3. _ 4. _ 5 _

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C. Methodological preferences How do you like learn? Circle your answer 1. In class do you like learning

a. Individually b. In pairs c. In small group d. In one large group

2. Do you want to do homework? If so, how much time do you have for Homework outside class hours? How would you like to spend the time? a. Preparing for the next class? b. Receiving the days work c. Doing some kind of activity based on

Your personal experience or interest 3. Do you want to

a. Spend all your learning time in the Classroom

yes/no yes/no yes/no yes/no yes/no

---hour a week

yes/no yes/no

yes/no

yes/no b. Spend sometimes in the classroom

and sometimes practicing your English with people outside yes/no

c. Spend sometimes in the classroom and sometimes in an individual language center yes/no

4. Do you like learning a. By memory? yes/no b. By problem solving? yes/no c. By getting information for yourself? yes/no d. By listening? yes/no e. By reading? yes/no f. By copying from the board? yes/no g. By listening and talking? yes/no h. By reading and making notes? yes/no i. By repeating what you hear? yes/no

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yes/no yes/no yes/no yes/no yes/no yes/no

yes/no

yes/no yes/no yes/no

yes/no

yes/no yes/no

c. Tapes/ cassettes d. Written material e. The blackboard? f. Pictures/ posters?

8. Do you find these activities useful? a. Role play b. Language games c. Songs d. Talking with and listening to

Other students yes/ no e. Memorizing conversation/dialogues yes/no f. Getting information from guests speaker yes/ no g. Getting information from planned visits yes/ no

9. How do you like to find how much your English is improving a. Written task set by the teacher? yes/no b. Oral language samples taken and assessed

By the teacher yes/ no c. Checking your own progress by making

Tapes, listening to them critically

Put a check mark next to the three styles of learning that you find most useful 5. When you speak do you want to be corrected

a. Immediately, in front of everyone? yes/ no b. Later, at the end of the activity, in front

of everyone? c. Later, in private?

6. Do you mind if others students sometimes correct your written work? Do you mind if the teacher sometimes asks you to correct your own work

7. Do you like learning from a. Television. Video/ film? b. Radio?

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and comparing yes/ no d. Devising tour own written task for completion by

your self and other students yes/no 10. Do you get a satisfaction from

a. Having your work graded? yes/no b. Being told that you have made progress yes/ no c. Feeling more confident in situation that

You found difficult before yes/no

2. Questionnaire develop by Sismiati and Muhammad Adnan Latief (2012) as follows:

This questionnaire is part of an academic research. Your cooperation will aid the research. The researcher promises to maintain strict confidentiality of your information. Please put a tick on the correct options & write information if required.

1.Please provide the following information: a) Your age:

18-21 22-25 26-29 30+

b) Your sex: Male Female

c) Level of proficiency in English: Average Good Very good Excellent

d) Any other language known: e) Level of proficiency in third language:

Average

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Good Very good Excellent

2. For what immediate purposes do you need to learn Business/ Advance English Communication? Study Research Social purposes Travel Profession/Job Study abroad Other

3. How will the language be used? a) Medium: Speaking, Writing Other skills

b) Channel: Telephone Face to face Business correspondence

4. What will the content areas be? a) Subjects: Engineering, Commerce, Others b) Level: Technician, Field worker, Management, Others

5. Where will the language be used? a) Physical setting: Office, Hotel, Field, Workshop b) Human context: Alone ,Meetings, Demonstrations over

phone c) Linguistic context: Home country, Abroad

6. When and how will the language be used? a) Time: Concurrently with the ESP course Subsequently b) Frequency of use:

Always Very often Mode rately Little Rarely

7. What is your current level of English in writing and speaking?

a) Writing: Average

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Good Very good Excellent

b) Speaking: Average Good Very good Excellent

8. What strengths do you have in writing and speaking? a) Writing:

1) writing grammatically correct sentences 2) free hand writing 3) creating well- organized paragraphs 4) analytical, coherent and cohesive writing

b) Speaking: 1) can speak with grammatical correctness 2) can speak in context 3) can speak fluently 4) can speak in context, with fluency and intonation

9. What weaknesses do you have in writing and speaking? a) Writing:

1) can't write grammatically correct sentences 2) can't write in free hand 3) can't create well-organized paragraphs 4) can't produce analytical, coherent and cohesive

writing b) Speaking:

i. can't speak with grammatical correctness ii. Can't speak in context iii. can't speak fluently iv. can't speak in context, with fluency and intonation

10. Do you have any background in Business Communication?

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a) Do not have any idea b) Yes c) No

11. Which key job skills do you lack? a) Job application and resume writing b) Job interview c) Presentation in a meeting d) Business correspondence writing

12. What are your past language learning experiences? Average Good Very good Excellent

13. Why are you doing Business/ Advance English Communication course?

a) To develop professional communication in writing and speaking

b) To develop skill in writing business correspondence c) To develop job interview skill d) To develop presentation skill

14. How do you want the instructional materials to be delivered? a) Have no idea b) Traditionally face to-face c) On-line and multimedia based d) Not only face to face, but also using Internet and

multimedia presentations with sound system 15. What type of classroom do you want Business/ Advance

English Communication course to be held in? a) Classroom with white-board and OHP b) Multimedia facilitated with sound system c) Internet and multimedia facilitated with sound

system

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d) Internet and multimedia facilitated with sound system and decorated with posters and maps with speaking and writing tips, phrases and idioms, puzzles, vocabulary learning tips, etc.

16. What do you think of the nature of attendance in the course?

a) Attendance should be optional b) Attendance should be mandatory c) Attendance should be mandatory and a part of course

evaluation d) Have no idea

17. When do you think you should enroll in this course? a) In 2nd- 4th semester b) In 5th-- 7th semester c) In 8th -10th semester d) Last semester

18. What types of materials do you think the course should include? a) Textbooks, instruction/ equipment manuals, CDs,

DVDs, videotapes, and other materials used in content courses or to train people for a job

b) Materials used on a job, such as work forms, charts and samples of relevant course assignments and student papers

c) Materials from websites like business letters, dialogues, instructions, telephone conversations, pod -casts, vodcasts, etc.

d) Combination of all of these. 19. Are the classroom resources (i.e. white-board,

multimedia projector, OHP, etc.) sufficient? a) Yes b)No c) Have no idea.

20. When do you want the course classes to be held?

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a) In the early hours of the morning or evening b) In the middle hours of the morning or evening c) In the late hours of the morning or evening d) Any time.

2. Interview There are three kind of interviews structured

interview, semi structured interview, and unstructured interview. The following is the examples of structured interview guidelines: 1. Can the course fulfill students' academic and

occupational needs? 2. Can the course meet students' wants and interests? 3. Does the course make students think about what they

need to do to learn a language? 4. Have the students' reading skills and strategies

improved as a result of the course? 5. Does the textbook fulfill the students' needs? 6. What areas in the textbook are useful and what areas are

less useful? 7. What areas would you include in the textbook that

would be useful for the students' present and future needs?

8. Are the teaching methods effective and appropriate to satisfy the students' needs?

9. Is the time allocated to the course enough to meet students' language needs?

10. Are the classroom activities and exercises useful to satisfy the students' needs?

11. Are all the language skills practiced equally? 12. Which language skill is important to meet students'

present educational needs? 13. Do students use and produce language in the classroom?

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14. Is the class homogenous or heterogeneous (i.e. mixed­ ability)?

15. What type of grouping is used in the class: individual, pair, group, or whole class work?

16. How many semesters should the course be offered to the students?

D. Steps in Need Analysis Jiajing (2007) suggest method in need analysis as

follows: 1. Pre-course Needs Analysis in which the information

is collected by using questionnaire, interviewing and informal discussion.

2. Mid-course Needs Analysis where the feedback is got from learners' performance and assessments or test results. Chen (2006) named this kind as Ongoing Needs Assessment to gather data from students about their perceived progress, drawbacks and requirements in all the courses.

3. Post-course Needs Analysis is carried out by final test results.

A combination of pre-course, mid-course and post­ course analysis is conducted in order to see what students need to learn and improve upon through this course. The following table shows the structure of the needs analysis:

Questionnaires

Pre-course Needs Interviews Analysis Informal Discussions

Feedback from learners' Mid-course Needs performance and assigrunents

41

Analysis Mid-term Test Results

Post-course Needs Final Test Results Analysis

1. Pre-course Needs Analysis

In this particular research context, questionnaires are initially used to elicit information about learners' attitudes towards this course, and what they want to learn in this Business English course before the semester commences. Moreover, informal discussion allows students to convey their ideas and thoughts spontaneously and does not take much time to plan or prepare.

Interviewing the teachers who taught the general English course in the previous year enables the course designer to gain insights into the learners' current English proficiency, their specific weaknesses and strengths in the four skills.

Finally, with carefully prepared questions, interviewing former students is another effective way of gathering data. It is very worthwhile observing their actual performance in the workplace because they have a profound understanding of the effectiveness of the course. 2. Mid-course Needs Analysis & Post-course Needs

Analysis

Assessing learners' performances and assignments during the course can be an effective means in ascertaining their real problems during this course. After analyzing the feedback, readjustment in the subsequent course is useful for both teachers and learners. Furthermore, a mid-term test and end of semester examination are also important to check their progress, since this shows what they already know as well as what they do not know.

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According to Jordan (1997:29), steps in need analysis can be seen as follows:

a. Determine purpose of analysis b. Delimit students population c. Decide upon the approaches d. Acknowledge constraints/limitations e. Select method of collecting data f. Collect data g. Analyze and interpret result h. Determine objectives i. Implement decision ( decide syllabus, content,

method, etc) j. Evaluation procedure and result The above steps show that the steps of need analysis

come to the process into the implementation of need analysis. It can be seen at ninth step - implement decision - means that the result data from need analysis implemented in designing syllabus, developing material and teaching.

Therefore in the point of view of the writer, the steps of need analysis as follows:

a. Determine the purpose of Need analysis b. Determine the source of information of need

analysis or the subject of need analysis c. Select method of collecting data d. Collect data e. Analyze the data and interpret the data

43

44

PART III SYLLABUS DESIGN

A. Kind of Syllabuses A syllabus is a specification of the content of a course

of instruction and lists what will be taught and tested (Richard 2001:2). Nunan (2001) defines a syllabus is a statement of content which is used as the basis for planning courses of various kinds.

Therefore, a syllabus is a statement of content of a course of instruction and list what will be taught and tested during the course. It means that syllabus give information about what will be the content of the course.

Nunan (2001) states that syllabus is concerned with the selection, sequencing and justification of the content of the curriculum. Traditional approaches to syllabus developed were concerned with selecting lists of linguistic features such as grammar, pronunciation, and vocabulary as well as experiential content such as topic and themes. These sequenced and integrated lists were then presented to the methodologist, whose task it was to develop learning activities to facilitate the learning of the prespecified content.

A well-designed course syllabus is a necessary component of a successful course from both the teacher's and student's points of view. For teachers, the course syllabus provides direction and guidance in the scope, sequence and pacing the classroom activities. For students, the syllabus provides at a glance the profile of the course's work and the expectations for successful completion of that work.

There are many kind of classification of syllabus. The classification is different because of the way the experts view

45

the content contained in a syllabus. Robinson in Rachel (2003) classified syllabus into three models. They are:

1. Content-based syllabus: language form, language notion,andlanguagefunction.

2. Content-based syllabuses: situation, topic. 3. Skill-based syllabuses: listening, speaking,

writing, and reading. Furthermore, Wello and Nur (citied by Nurpahmi)

argue that up to now there have been at least seven different kinds of syllabus conunonly found in current ESP courses and materials as listed below: a) Structural syllabus

It is one of the oldest currently used approaches to language teaching, however still popular among quite a number of teachers. The structural curriculum presupposes the "inventories of grammatical items and grading them as to the level of difficulty. The assumption behind most grammatical syllabuses seems to be that language consists of a finite set of rules which can be combined in various ways to make meaning. It is further assumed that these rules can be learned one by one, each item being mastered in its own before being incorporated into the learner's pre-existing stock of knowledge." (Nunan:1991).

Structural syllabus focus on grammatical forms; phonological and grammatical structure.Materials based on this syllabus is organized around grammatical points: Patterns of verb BE, demonstratives; personal pronouns, and soon. b) Situational syllabus

This syllabus focuses on contexts and situations where language is used. Organization in a situational syllabus will be based on common situation like: at the bank, at the airport, in a restaurant, and the like. The selection of

46

situations is usually based on some predictions that the students will encounter such situations. c) Topical syllabus

It is organized by topics or themes, rather than situations. Typically, the topic are selected by the textbook author on the basis of his or her sense of the importance of the topics or themes to the lives of students for whom the text is designed such as accounting, family, crime, and so on. d) Functional syllabus

Functional syllabus is organized around language functions. The function are selected based on the basis of the teachers' perceived usefulness to the students and then sequence them on the basis of some ideas of chronology, frequency, or hierarchy of usefulness of the functions, identifying, describing, explaining, reporting, giving directions, attending meetings, buying and selling and so on. e) Notional syllabus

This syllabus is organized around abstract conceptual categories called general notions, such as distance, duration, size, quantity, location, quality, and so on. f) Skills-Based syllabus

This syllabus is used to organize materials around the language or academic skills that they think the students will most need in order to use and continue to learn the language. g) Task-or activity-based syllabus

Materials in this syllabus are organized around different types of tasks that the student might be required to perform in the language. Such tasks might include drawing city maps, following directions, following instructions, being interviewed, and the like.

47

B. Approaches to Syllabus Design 1. The Threshold Level by J. A. van Ek ( citied in Long &

Richard, 1987) The Threshold level is an approach which was used by

the European organization the council of Europe to develop program goal, objective, and syllabus suitable for foreign language program destined for European learners. Van Ek and other associated with this project developed a syllabus known as the Threshold level, which specify the component of communicative competence that should be known learners reaching a "threshold level" of foreign language proficiency, that is, a level in which the learners could use a foreign language for everyday oral communication in basic social survival situation.

a. Determine language-learning objectives Van Ek (1987) states that Language-learning

objectives, like other learning-objectives, are defined in terms of behavior. The aim of learning is always to enable the learner to do something which he could not do at the beginning of the learning-process. This applies to physical ability, such as the ability to ride a bicycle, as well as to less directly observable abilities, such as the ability to appreciate the difference between a burgundy and a claret, or the ability to understand some scientific theory.

Moreover, learning-objectives must be geared toward learners' needs. This means that before defining an objective we must define the group of learners whose needs we wish to cater for, the target-group.

Once the target-group has been defined we try to determine as exactly as possible what they will need to do with, in our case, a foreign language.

It is not sufficient-not exact enough-to say that they "want to speak the foreign language." In the first place there is not much point, usually, in being able to speak a language

48

if one cannot understand it as well. Moreover, when can one be said to "speak a language"? When one can discuss the weather with casual acquaintances, or when one can address a formal meeting? It would seem that much depends on the kind of situations in which the learners may be expected to need the ability to use the foreign language. Will it be in the situation of an interpreter in a law court or in that of a casual tourist?

In order to define the learning-objective for a target­ group we first have to specify the situations in which they will need the foreign language. Specifying a situation means stating the roles a language-user has to play, the settings in which he will have to play these roles, and the topics he will have to deal with. More technically: by situation we mean the complex of extra-linguistic conditions which determines the nature of a language-act.

Once we have determined the situations in which the members of the target-group will want to use the foreign language we can try to specify just what they will have to be able to do in those situations.

First we specify the language activities the learner will be likely to engage in. These may be as comparatively "simple" as understanding the weather forecast on the radio or as complex as summarizing orally in a foreign language a report written in one's native language. The traditional division of language-activities into four skills-speaking, listening, writing, reading is not always fully adequate, as reflection on the last example will show.

Having determined the nature of the language activities we try to specify for what general purposes the learner will have to use the foreign language, what language functions he will have to fulfill. For instance, he may wish to express certainty or uncertainty, whether he considers

49

something right or wrong, he may wish to express gratitude, he may wish to apologize.

But the learner will have to do more than fulfill such general language functions. He will not only have to give information in the abstract, but he will want to give information about something: he will wish to express certainty or uncertainty with respect to something: he will want to apologize for something. In other words, he will need the ability to refer to things, to people, to events etc., and to talk about them. In order to do all this he will have to be able to handle a large number of notions in the foreign language. What notions he will need depends to a large extent on the topics he will deal with. If he is dealing with the topic "weather," he will have to handle notions such as fair, sunshine, to rain, etc., when dealing with a menu the notions meat, ice cream, and coffee may be required. We can draw up lists of such notions for each topic if we ask ourselves just what the learner will want to be able to do with respect to each topic and what nations he will need in order to do this. There are also nations which are so general that they may be needed in any situation, when dealing with any topic. These are notions such as existence/ non-existence, past/ present, before/ after, etc. Since such notions are not specifically related to any particular topic there is not much point in trying to derive them from a consideration of individual topics. Instead, they can be derived from a consideration of what, in general, people deal with by means of language. We may say, again in general, that people deal with:

1) Entities ( objects, persons, ideas, states, actions, evens, etc.),

2) Properties and qualities of entities, 3) Relations between entities.

The entities themselves will be largely determined by the topics, whereas notions of properties and qualities, and

50

those of relations, tend to be used more generally. In order to compose lists of these general notions we can set up a system of logically derived categories and subsequently determine what notions are likely to be used in each category.

When the specification of a language-learning objective has been completed up to this point we can determine what actual language forms (structures, words, and phrases) the learner will have to be able to use in order to do all that has been specified. These forms are determined by considering each of the language-functions and the notions separately and establishing how they are realized in a particular language, in other words by establishing their exponents.

The final component of a language-learning objectives is a statement about the degree of skill with which a successful learner will be expected to be able to do all that has been specified, in other words how well he will have to be able to do it. It is fairly easy to make such a statement in general terms, but very difficult, if possible at all, to do it with anything approaching the degree of exactness we can achieve for the other components of the definition.

To sum up: Our model for the definition of Ianguage­ learning objectives specifies the following components:

1) The situations in which the foreign language will be used, including the topics which will be dealt with;

2) The language activities in which the learner will engage;

3) The language functions which the learner will fulfill;

4) What the learner will be able to do with respect to each topic;

5) The general notions which the learner will be able to handle;

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6) The specific (topic-related) notions which the learner will be able to handle;

7) The language forms which the learner will be able to use;

8) The degree of skill with which the learner will be able to perform.

b. SpecifySituations By situation we mean the complex of extra

linguistic conditions which determiners the nature of a language-act. Properly speaking, situations are strictly personal and unique. One of the conditions is always the individual language-user himself with his unique background (the sum total of his experiences). For our purposes, however-the definition of a level of general language-ability will be an objective for a very large and heterogeneous population-we must ignore strictly individual conditions and we may concentrate on four components of situations, which, together, provide a sufficient basis for the further steps in our procedure. We shall, henceforward, distinguish four components of situations: 1) The social roles which the learner will be able to play;

The principal social roles for which T-level learners have to be prepared are:

a. stranger/ stranger b. friend/ friend

This selection is made from a study by Rich-terich (citied in Van Ek), 1987); on the basis of the characteristics of the target-group. Various other roles are subsumed under 1, e.g.:

priuate person/official patient/doctor, nurse, dentist

A role such as

Asker/gil1e

52

may be subsumed under both 1 and 2. The inclusion of role 2 (friend/friend) has important

consequences for the definition of the T-level. It raises this level above that required for purely physical survival in a foreign-language environment. It will prepare the learner for the establishment and maintenance of social relationships with the foreign-language speakers. Only when this need is fulfilled can our level be called "threshold level" in a meaningful way: it will enable the learner to cross the threshold into the foreign-language community. 2) The psychologtj roles which the learner will be able to

play; On the basis of the characteristics of the target-group

we select from Richterich-the following roles: a. Neutrality b. Equality c. Sympathy d. Antipathy

These roles are the more "neutral" roles and they are appropriate in a large variety types of linguistic interaction. 3) The settings in which the learner will be able to use the

foreign language; On the basis of the characteristics of the target-group, we may draw up a long list of settings in which the learners may want to use the foreign-language. The settings have been selected from lists provided by Richterich (op. cit.) and by Peck (private communication). In spite of its size this list not to be considered exhaustive. It is assumed, however, that is sufficiently comprehensive to produce-together with the other components of situations-specifications of language­ ability which will enable the learners to behave adequately also in various settings which have not been listen (transfer)

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1. Geographical location a. foreign country where foreign language is native

language b. foreign country where foreign language is not

native language c. own country

2. Place 2.1 Outdoors:

a. street b. square c. park, garden d. terrace e. countryside f. beach g. lake, sea h. mountains i. sport field j. open air swimming pool k. camping site 1. bus stop m. taxi stand n. sights o. marketplace p. car-park

2.2 Indoors: 2.2.1 Prioate life: a. house b. apartment c. room

d. kitchen

2.2.2. Public life: 2.2.2.1. Purchases:

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a. shop b. supermarket c. multiple stores d. indoor market

2.2.2.2. Eating and drinking: a. restaurant

b. cafe c. snack bar d. bar e. canteen

2.2.2.3. Accommodation: a. hotel room reception b. camping site c. holiday camp d. hostel e. boarding house f. farm house

2.2.2.4. Transport: a. railway station b. bus station c. airport d. ferry terminal e. ticket office f. travel bureau g. information office h. lost property office i. customs and immigration j. garage k. petrol station I. indoor car-park

2.2.2.5 Religion: church

2.2.2.6 Physical services: a. hospital

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b. doctor's/ dentist's waiting-room c. surgery d. chemist e. public lavatory f. sauna g. hairdresser

2.2.2. 7. Learning: a. School b. Language institute c. Classroom d. library

2.2.2.8. Displays: a. Museum b. Art gallery c. Exhibition

2.2.2.9. Entertainment: a. theater b. cinema c. concert hall/ opera d. nightclub

2.2.2.10 Communication: a. post office b. telephone booth

2.2.2.11 Finance: a. bank b. money exchange office

2.2.2.12 Work: a. office b. workshop

c. factory 2.2.2.13 Means of transport:

a. bus b. tram c. train

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d. underground railway e. boat/ferry f. aeroplane g. taxi h. private car i. bicycle 1. Surroundings (human) a. family b. friends c. acquaintances d. stranger

4) The topics which the learner will be able to deal with in the foreign language. On the basis of the characteristics of the target-group, the

following list of topics has been drawn up. A similar list provided by Peck has been used as the main source. In the composition of the list the social roles we have selected have been used as criteria for inclusion. With respect to this list the same remark applies which was made a propos of the list of settings: a certain measure of arbitrariness in the classification does not affect the value of the list as long as all the more important topics are included somewhere. Even this claim, however, cannot be upheld. No matter how carefully a list of this kind is composed, it is bound to be far from complete. However, this weakness is-to a certain extent-offset by the transfer-potential of linguistic ability. It may be assumed that a listed will also be able to deal with several other topics for which he has not necessarily been prepared.

1. Personal identification a. name b. address

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c. telephone number d. date and place of birth e. age f. sex g. marital status h. nationality i. origin j. profession, occupation k. employer I. family m. religion n. likes and dislikes o. character, temperament, disposition

2. House and home a. types of accommodation b. accommodation, rooms c. furniture, bedclothes d. rent e. services f. amenities g. region h. flora and fauna

3. Trade, profession, occupation a. trades, professions, occupations b. place of work c. conditions of work d. income e. training f. prospects

4. Free time, entertainment a. hobbies b. interests c. radio, TV, etc. d. cinema, theater, opera, concerts, etc.

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e. sports f. intellectual pursuits g. artistic pursuits h. museum, galleries, exhibitions i. press

5. Travel a. travel to work, evening class, etc. b. holidays c. countries and places d. public transport e. private transport f. entering and leaving a country g. nationalities h. languages i. hotel, camping site, etc. j. travel documents k. fares 1. tickets m. luggage n. traffic

6. Relations with other people a. Friendship/ aversion b. Invitations c. Correspondence d. Club membership e. Political and social views

7. Health and welfare a. parts of the body b. positions of the body c. ailments/ accidents d. personal comfort e. sensory perception f. hygiene g. insurance

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h. medical services i. emergency services

8. Education a. schooling b. subjects c. qualifications

9. Shopping a. shopping facilities b. foodstuffs c. clothes, fashion d. smoking e. household articles f. medicine g. prices h. weights and measurements

10. Food and drink a. types of food and drink b. eating and drinking

11. Services a. post b. telephone c. telegraph d. bank e. police f. hospital, surgery, etc. g. repairs h. garage i. gas station

12. Places 13. Foreign language

a. ability b. understanding c. correctness

14. Weather

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a. climate b. weather conditions

c. Set Language Functions In relation to the language function in T level, Van Ek

list various functions the learners will be able to fulfill at T­ level, whatever language here limited to those spoken in the member countries of the Council of Europe-they have studied.

In setting up list of language functions it has been distinguished six main categories of verbal communication:

1) Imparting and seeking factual information; 2) Expressing and finding out intellectual attitudes; 3) Expressing and finding out emotional attitudes; 4) Expressing and finding out moral attitudes; 5) Getting things done (suasion) 6) Socializing

Each of these six main categories, and, indeed, each of the functions, may be realized separately in language-acts. Often, however, two or more of them will be combined in a single language-act. Thus, one may seek factual information while at the same time expressing surprise (emotional attitude). Yet, it is convenient to deal with each function separately and to specify just what each function involves by way of language-content (Vanek 1987)

The list of functions is far from exhaustive. In the first place it is unlikely that is possible at all to draw up a complete list. Secondly, the list represents a deliberate selection for T-level. At higher levels more functions would be added.

It should be emphasized that the lists presented here are not to be regarded as final or definitive. They will-it is hoped-provide a sufficiently solid basis for practical

61

applications of an experimental work will undoubtedly lead to numerous modifications in the lists. Language Functions for T-Level 1. Imparting and seeking factual information

a. identifying b. reporting (including describing and narrating) c. correcting d. asking

2. Expressing and finding out intellectual attitudes a. expressing agreement and disagreement b. inquiring about agreement or disagreement c. denying something d. accepting an offer or invitation e. declining an offer or invitation f. inquiring whether offer or invitation is accepted or

declined g. offering to do something h. stating whether one remembers or has forgotten

something or someone i. inquiring whether someone remembers or has

forgotten something or someone j. expressing whether something is considered possible

or impossible k. inquiring whether something is considered possible

or impossible I. expressing capability and incapability m. inquiring about capability or incapability n. expressing whether something is considered a logical

conclusion ( deduction) o. inquiring whether something is considered a logical

conclusion ( deduction) p. expressing how certain/ uncertain one is of

something

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q. inquiring how certain/uncertain others are of something

r. expressing one is/ is not obliged to do something s. inquiring whether one is obliged to do something t. expressing others are/ are not obliged to do

something u. inquiring whether others are obliged to do something v. giving and seeking permission to do something w. inquiring whether others have permission to do

something x. stating that permission is withheld

3. Expressing and finding out emotional attitudes a. expressing pleasure, liking b. expressing displeasure, dislike c. inquiring about pleasure, liking, displeasure, dislike d. expressing surprise e. expressing hope f. expressing satisfaction g. expression dissatisfaction h. inquiring about satisfaction or dissatisfaction i. expressing disappointment j. expressing fear or worry k. inquiring about fear or worry 1. expressing preference m. inquiring about preference n. expressing gratitude o. expressing sympathy p. expressing intention q. expressing about intention r. expressing want, desire s. inquiring about want, desire

4. Expressing and finding out moral attitudes a. apologizing b. granting forgiveness

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c. expressing approval d. expressing disapproval e. inquiring about approval or disapproval f. expressing appreciation g. expressing regret h. expressing indifference

5. Getting things done (suasion) a. suggesting a course of action (including the speaker) b. requesting others to do something c. inviting others to do something d. advising others to do something e. warning others to take care or to refrain from doing

something f. instructing or directing others to do something

6. Socializing a. to greet people b. when meeting people c. when introducing people and when being introduced d. when taking leave e. to attract attention f. to propose a toast g. when beginning a meal

C. Process in designing Syllabus According to Nunan (1985:7), in designing a syllabus,

the most important step is analyzing the learner's needs. The step in demonstrating syllabus are need analysis, formulating goal, selecting and grading content, selecting and grading task, selecting and grading objectives. In line with Nunan, Yalden (1983) also has the same idea. He also suggested 5 following steps in designing syllabus: Needs analysis, determining Objectives and aims, Sequencing, Teaching method, and Testing and evaluation.

1. Formulating Goal from need analysis data

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Based data got from need analysis, the syllabus designer formulates objective. According to Nunan (2006) Goal can refer to cognitive and affective aspects of the learner's development, what the teacher hopes to achieve in the classroom, what the teacher hopes the learners will achieve in the classroom, the real-world communicative tasks the learners should be able to perform as a result of instruction, and so on. Product-oriented goals can be derived directly from the learners them- selves, that is, by asking the learners why they are learning the language. Alternatively, they can be derived by syllabus designers through a process of introspecting on the sorts of communicative purposes for which language is used. These can either relate to a restricted domain ( as in ESP) or to the more general purposes for which language is used. The lists of functional items developed by people such as Wilkins and van Ek were the result of attempts to describe and categorize all the different things that users of a language might want to do with that language.

2. Selecting content based on the objective After formulating the goals, then syllabus designer

select content which is suitable with the objective. Selecting process must be based on the syllabus approach. If the syllabus designer selects grammatical approach, so it must select and

3. Grading the content After selecting the content that suitable with the

syllabus approach used, then the content graded based on the suitable approach as well. For example if the syllabus designer apply grammatical syllabus, so the content graded according to grammatical notions of simplicity and complexity.

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PART IV ESP MATERIAL DEVELOPMENT

ESP material development is a step conducted after designing syllabus. Based on the syllabus, the designer should select material suitable for the syllabus.

A. Wltat is Material? In language learning, material is anything which is

used to help to teach language learners. Materials can be found in the form of a textbook, a workbook, a cassette, a CD-Rom, a video, a photocopied handout, a newspaper, a paragraph written on a whiteboard: anything which presents or informs about the language being learned. (Tomlinson, 1998: xi).

Dudley-Evans, (1998:170 as citied in Nurpahmi) points out that the role of material in ESP are as follows: 1. As a source of language

In some situation, where English is a foreign not a second language, the ESP classroom may be almost the only source of language. Materials then play a crucial role in exposing learners to the language, which implies that the material need to present real language, as it is used, and the full range that learners require.

Consider the situation where learners need to extract information from English medium subject textbooks. A reading only course could be suitable. However, if nearly every text comes from magazines such as time or the New Scientists, content and style will be journalistic. The language differ substantially from the didactic/ pedagogic style of textbooks. So the language is real but it cannot provide the range of features that learners require.

67

Where the classroom is the primary source of language, the material also needs to maximize exposure to the language, for instance, by providing additional material: not everything needs to be studied in detail; interested learners will use for their own learning practice. Another source of language in material is the rubrics (instructions). In monolingual situation, the first language maybe used in material for instructions and explanations. If learners have very little exposure to English, having up to 50 per cent of the material written in first language seems a lost opportunity. When learners, begin with a low level of language, one solution is to use both languages and gradually remove L1 version. 2. As a learning support

As a learning support, materials need to be reliable, that is, to work to be consistent and to have some recognizable pattern. This need not mean a rigid unit structure; we would argue against a fixed format. There have been material published where each text is followed by ten comprehension questions. Such a constraint is an imposition that takes no account of either the real or carrier content of the materials. The text may lend itself to detailed study and asking of more than ten questions. More likely, the questions that arises naturally will be fewer. The other questions become trivial fillers and distract from the real objectives.

To enhance learning, materials must involve learners in thinking about and using the language. The activities need to stimulate cognitive and mechanical process. The learners also need a sense of progression. 3. For motivation and stimulation

To stimulate and motivate, material need to be challenging yet achievable; to offer new ideas and information whilst being grounded in learners experience

68

and knowledge; to encourage fun and creativity. The input must contain concepts and/ or knowledge that are familiar but it must also offer something new, a reason to communicate, to get involved. The exploitation needs to match how the input would be used outside the learning situation and take account of language learning needs. The purpose and the connection to the learners' reality need to be clear. 4. For references

Many ESP learners have little time for class contact and rely on a mix of classes, self-study and reference material. For self-study and reference purposes, material need to be complete, well laid out and self explanatory, The learner will want explanation (possibly in an first language, as well as in English), examples and practice activities that have answers and discussion keys.

The materials will need to take account of different learning styles and allow for the explorer, who will follow through a train of thought; the browser; who will pick and choose at random; and the systematist; who will work through methodically. This implies that an important features is the overt organization of the material- through informative content pages and index. Content pages that provide a matrix of objectives, skills, language activity and topic are far more helpful.

B. Techniques in Selecting Material Hutchinson and water (1987) state that there are three

possible ways of turning your course design into actual teaching material:

1. Select from existing material: material evaluation 2. Write your own material : Material development a) Modify existing material: material adaptation. In line with Hutchinson and water opinion, Ana

69

Bocanegra-Valle (2010:144-145) point out that at its most basic level, the process of ESP materials development is as shown in Figure 1. Firstly, available materials are reviewed, evaluated and selected according to different criteria and with reference to a particular ESP course. Then, if there is a lack of materials, or if materials available are not suitable according to such evaluation, practitioners might be required to develop materials from scratch or abridge, extend, refine, rewrite - in short, adapt - the available materials for a particular learning situation, ESP area, target group of learners, timing or set of resources. There exists the possibility that, although there are materials available for classroom use, practitioners feel the need to provide additional materials for out-of-classroom work, self-study or the like. In this case, the process would not differ.

Lastly, because materials development is an ongoing process, those engaged in creating or adapting materials will be required to pilot test or perform evaluative reviews so as to adjust materials over time in response to implementation outcomes, current trends in the field or research findings.

This last step is a desirable practice because "materials that undergo this evaluative review and revision process are likely to serve student and teacher audiences more effectively than materials that do not" (Stoller et al., 2006: 175 in Ana Bocanegra-Valle2010). Developing materials is a matter of trial and error, and it will be convenient to bear in mind that materials that are appropriate for a particular ESP course/ area may not prove so efficient for other ESP courses/ areas.

70

Desiga and develop in.Jiowe materials from scratch and/or authentic texts

Implement Adapt authentic materials Alldlor matmals published for other ESP areas

Evlluate matmals

Select md implement

Figure 7. Process in material development

C. Material Evaluation Evaluation is basically a matching process: matching

needs to available solutions (Hutchinson and Water, 1987:97). Therefore material evaluation in ESP is a process to matching needs-presenting in syllabus-- to available material.

Furthermore, Hutchinson and Water (1987:97) divide the evaluation process into four mayor steps(see figure 7):

1. Defining criteria 2. Subjective analysis 3. Objective analysis 4. Matching

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The materials evaluation process

SUBJECTIVE ANALYSES

OBJECTNE

Figure 8. Process in material evaluation Based on the figure, it shows that the first step is

defining criteria by asking on what basis will you judge material and which criteria will be more important?. Next step is conducting subjective analysis to know what realization of the criteria the learners want in their course. The next is conducting objective criteria to know how the material being evaluated realize the criteria. The last step is matching to know how far the material match with the learner needs. 1£ the material matches with the learners' need, so it can be used in application.

The following are checklists for objective and subjective analysis:

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Subjective analysis Objective analysis (i.e analysis of your course in (i.e. analysis of material terms of material requirements) being evaluated

Audience lA Who are your learners? 1 B Who is the material e.g intended for

-age -Sex Nationalities Study or· work specialism (e.g. banking, medicine, etc) Knowledge of a)English b) specialism c) other e.g. knowledge of the

world etc) educational background interest, etc

AIMS 2A What are the aims of your 28 What are the aims of

course

73

the material (note: check that aims are actually what they are said to be by looking carefully at the material itself)

CONTENT

3A \\lhat �c:I w,gwp dMcnprion do YOU R!Qulret Slloutd tt be SIUdUrill, 11odonal, '1mctiomil, db<ou�. some otl,c:, kind, o combinmion of one or more of these? (,ee ch. "1).

4A What Ian� ptllntc st.oukf be ccverdCi.e. What panicular 511UCCures, functfons, \ICICabulary �" e1d)

6A Whatrnfa'� do vou neec.H <e.g dedudnc rhe manfngsd unfamiliar wocds­ see Munby (1978), p,ges 1li-U2)

7 A. Wh� te.u-types should be incl�dedl es, - manualsr - let1cnf - daloguest - eKpcri,nemal �rb� - vsual texa {pic:tuN!5,

ct�mt, cham. graphs, t:111.00M Qttjl

- rtmmtna te)IS, - any other kind?

74

38 Whit type(� of lirlsuw clescn,,don ls/ate used ln the materiibl

48 What tansU9 points do Ille materials CO\'er�

SB Wtm b die prop<NUon of wort <»11 c:Kh :slinl b tlicn: Kilb-intqp-atr:d ��?

68 Wh:at miero-1liJs ate�� in the rnaremlr

78 Wh;tlcmdsofte>r.UUttherain tno mattrialsr

8A What �Mtatt.er areaM is/are required (o.g. mcdicirie, bioloSY OCC.)l

What le� of lniwledge should be assumed (e.g. xc«idarr sc:hoolA rnt yearcolJegeluflM!ISity I post-pd�b> *9)?

\Nim types of rtJPks :ro N?ededl (ct.g. in medicine: ho!pital orpnisatioa, medk:al technology etc.)f

Whet trotw�tshCXlld dte topics be si','en (o,a. 'strafshlforward' #

faciuaJ; 'human intetEsl' anpt; huDIOtOUS: unusua IJ&rspectt\le; r.akins intD ac:a,unr wues. om�.ac.)

9A How shoutd the c:ontcmtbo Ol'/Jllffl'Od lit,oupout lf)t COl)ft:JOf - around bnguage Poinb� - by subjea-manert - by 1001eodle1mea�

(e.g.��l:,Jl - by a conti1u1Uon of

meensl

10A t-t>w moulo dte C00181t be o,ganJs,ed � lhecoorae IJllitJi - by a ,et� ol coniponeral - by a�olpabm,l - by some Other mean,� - m aJkM a cear foci& on

e.g. cenatn sklD .ums. a tomff'U11caliortwktt(:.f

11 A Howchoul:t the content� �th�ltteaxmel a.9. - (ram e95B" ID fflDl'e diffiaJltf

- ro cl'Shvarietyl - to prO\f de recydng? - by<Jtherc:r4eai4? Shc�d there be no ob� &UqUOt'!Col

75

88 \Mlal is/are chesubjed-matter ;��,. :tWJMed leYd of lcnowledp, and types d topfcs in tM materbls:l

'Whet trmlmffit are 1tn, wpo gMi'llf

98 How ic the corunt organised lhrotlghout !he matNrakf

11 a t-t:M s tM ronrentsequenced thro111hout the bool<r

SUBJECTIVE ANALYStS

1.2A How $hould me conlef'lt be �ced Mtnin• uniti e.g. - from guided to free?

- from c;omprehension co producticnl

- accuracy to fluency? (see Brtrntit T 934, p.52-7)

- by 5(Jme other rneans?

Shotild lfwn be no o,bv;aus se:auanc&f

OBJKTM ANAlY51S

126 How b the content sequenced wfthlll a un11r

MEl HODO LOC V

13A What dlEctyllec d ie:fmin8 $hould the course be based on! Shoold it be behav£ouri5t, �tive, a.fedill'e, � olhet lcfod, e co,n�n of one Of moro of� (SoG ch.S)

76

138 What theorylies of leamins are lhe mabi!riats bzed onl (Chedc carerully-don't fust take the aulhcr'5 QI" p.iJ!bh«'i word ror iU}

148 WhatattilJJdes 1D/e,cpectatfon.s about lea ming fnj,Clsh are 1tla matedals. based on?

I SB Whatlcinds of ecerci5e51\osb tl'e inducted f:n tho m::m:thld

17A Wk.at �ltlt aro�.blo Fou.�o-Z 178 Wh:at �d, do the m:zleri:k requir&l e.g. - canette rec:orders� - watead proJe,cttnt - ree!Ja? -� - videot - other?

77

SUBJECTIVE ANALYSIS

19A How llexibledottie matemk rieedlO beJ

OBJECll\lf ANALYSIS

198 In what w� are the mall!ri.lls flexll>k!l @,8. - can they be begun at diffecent

pointsl - can the units be UKd In

diffinnt ordenl - can they bellnked � other

matwialsl - can they be us.eel withOut SOfflll

of their CO�lS (e.g. gssettes)f

OTHER. CIUTERIA

lCB Whet b the price?

21A When and in what quantides 218 When and ho.tr readJly can llhe should d'IC mlf.eriah be availabtel materlab be obalned?

et.c. c:tc.

Figure 8. A checklist for material evaluation (Hutchinson, 1987:99-104)

The steps should be followed in using the checklist: 1. Answer the A question first to identify your

requirements. You can the use the information either as a basis for writing your own materials or as input to the later stages of material evaluation

2. Analyze the material you have selected by answering the B question. If possible, test your ideas by teaching extract from the material

78

3. Compare the A and B finding. This can be done impressionistically or by awarding points: 0 :;:;;: does not match the desired feature 1 = partly matches the desired feature 3 = closely matches the desired feature

4. Make your choice and your finding to prepare any documentation needed for defending your decision (Hutchinson,1987:104-105).

D. Material Adaptation Material adaptation is one of the three way to design

material. Ana (2010: 152) states that materials may be adapted by means of different techniques as explained and illustrated in Figure 9. Moreover, this range of techniques may be applied for adapting materials across disciplines, within disciplines, from other learning materials and from authentic materials.

Figure 9 shows that there are five techniques to adapt material:

1. Adding is a process in supplementing existing material and providing more materials.

2. Deleting is a process in removing parts or sections of existing materials.

3. Simplifying is a process in rewording text so that it becomes more accessible to learners or sun plifying an activity to make it more manageable.

4. Reordering is a process in sequencing an activity in a different way so that it makes more pedagogic sense,

5. Replacing is a process in substituting part or section of existing way (to cater for specific culture interest, etc).

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EXTENDING- supplying more of the - same type of material

ADDING- supplementing (quantitative change) the existing materials and

- providing more materials i-

EXPANDING- adding something different to the materials - (qualitative change)

SUBSlRACTING- ... extracting pan of the available materials

DELETING- (quantitatn.-e change) i- removing parts or sections i-

of existing materials ABRIDGING- Materials

adaptation excluding certain parts techniques i-,. - and focussing attention

ea ethers (qualitative change)

SIMPLIFYING - i-,. rewording a text so that it becomes more accessill!e to lHmen or

smiplifying an activity to make it more manageable

REORDERING- - sequencing an activity in a different way so that it makes more pedagogic sense

REPLACING- - substituting parts or sections of existing materials with different purposes (to cater fm culture specific intaests, etc.)

Figure 9. Process in adapting material

Harmer, 2001 and Lamie, suggest techniques in adapting material as follows: 1. Add activities to those already suggested. 2. Leave out activities that do not meet your learners' needs. 3. Replace or adapt activities or materials with:

a) supplementary materials from other commercial texts b) authentic materials (newspapers, radio reports, films

80

etc) c) teacher-created supplementary materials.

4. Change the organizational structure of the activities, for example, pairs, small groups or whole class. Modern technology provides teachers with access to tools that enable professional results in materials production. Computers with Clipart, Internet access and digital pictures offer unprecedented means for publishing high quality teaching materials.

SAMPLE ACTIVITY: My ship's voyage (see Appendix3) This example illustrates how materials can be

adapted within disciplines from published learning materials (Blakey, T.N. (1987) English for Maritime Purposes, London: Prentice Hall, page 100 cities by Ana, 2010) and by means of extending, expanding, reordering and replacing techniques. Here, Maritime English learners were asked to write a similar description to the one exemplified by using the prompts given and inserting the corresponding prepositions and definite article if necessary. The main similarities and differences between source and adapted material are summarized in Table below.

Feature Original exercise Adapted exercise ESP area Maritime Maritime English

T"' _1·�1-

Exercises/f asks One/Two Four/Six

Language level Low Low-intermediate

Grammatical Place/ movemen Place, movement and time aim t prepositions, definite article,

prepositions, simple past, past continuous definite article, and superlatives simple past

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Yocaoulan) aim Ship types, Ship types, maneuvers, maneuvers, geographical names, types geographical of cargo, identification names

Skills aim Reading Reading comprehension, comprehension, guided and free writing, guided writing listening and speaking

Tasks Describe as Choose among options, guided deduce grammar rule,

relate prepositions to place and movement, transfer information from and to visual aid, interact orally

Type of input Text Text, drawing, peers

Rubrics Direct Building of context to instructions to resemble a real context. carry Gradual presentation with out the exercise increasing difficulty

Visual aids No Yes. Maps

Preparation time O minutes 60 minutes approx.

Implementation 10-15 minutes 45-50 minutes time Group work Teacher to large Teacher to large group,

group, individual work, pair-work individual work with oral interaction

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E. Material development Material development refers to anything which is

done by writers, teachers or learners to provide sources of language input and exploit those sources in ways which maximize the likelihood of intake: in other words the supplying of information about and/ or experience of the language in ways designed to promote language learning (Tomlinson, 1998:2).

Howard (104-105) explains six key factors that teachers need to take into account when embarking on the design of teaching materials for their learners. These relate to, and refer back to some of the advantages and disadvantages. Some will also be expanded further in the guidelines which follow.

The first and most important factor to be considered is the learners. If the point of teacher-created materials is relevance, interest, motivation and meeting specific individual needs, then clearly teachers must ensure they know their learners well. Any consideration of syllabus or materials design must begin with a needs analysis. This should reveal learning needs with regard to English language skills in listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary knowledge and grammar; as well as individual student's learning preferences. It is not just learning needs that are relevant to the teacher as materials designer, however. Equally important is knowledge about students' experiences (life and educational), their first language and levels of literacy in it, their aspirations, their interests and their purposes for learning English.

The curriculum and the context are variables that will significantly impact on decisions about teaching materials. Many teachers are bound by a mandated curriculum defining the content, skills and values to be taught. Whether imposed at school or state level, a curriculum outlines the

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goals and objectives for the learners and the course of study. Whatever the curriculum, it is the teacher's responsibility to ensure that the goals and objectives of the overarching curriculum are kept close at hand when designing materials (Nunan, 1988).

As noted earlier, the context in which the teaching and learning occurs will impact on the types of materials that may need to be designed. For example, a primary-level mainstream, English-speaking setting, with a set curriculum and access to native speakers may require materials that facilitate interaction about subject content, and develop cognitive academic language proficiency. However, refugee adults may need teaching materials that focus on meeting immediate survival needs and gaining employment.

The resources and facilities available to the teacher­ designer are also mentioned above as an element of context. Clearly teachers must be realistic about what they can achieve in terms of materials design and production within the limitations of available resources and facilities. Access to resources such as computers (with or without Internet access), a video player and TV, radio, cassette recorder, CD player, photocopier, language lab., digital camera, whiteboard, OHP, scissors, cardboard, laminator etc will impact on decisions in materials design. Hadfield and Hadfield (2003) offer some useful suggestions for 'resourceless' teaching which address the impoverished reality of some teaching contexts.

Personal confidence and competence are factors that will determine an individual teacher's willingness to embark on materials development. This will be influenced by the teacher's level of teaching experience and his or her perceived creativity or artistic skills and overall understanding of the principles of materials design and production. In reality, most teachers undertake materials

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design to modify, adapt or supplement a course book, rather than starting from scratch, and this is probably the most realistic option for most teachers (adapted from Harmer, 2001 and Lamie, 1999).

Teacher designed materials may range from one-off, single use items to extensive programs of work where the tasks and activities build on each other to create a coherent progression of skills, concepts and language items. The guidelines that follow may act as a useful framework for teachers as they navigate the range of factors and variables to develop materials for their own teaching situations. The guidelines are offered as just that - guidelines - not rules to be rigidly applied or adhered to. While not all the guidelines will be relevant or applicable in all materials design scenarios, overall they provide for coherent design and materials which enhance the learning experience.

Howard (104-105) explains the guidelines in Designing Effective English Teaching Materials

1. English language teaching materials should be contextualized

Firstly, the materials should be contextualized to the curriculum they are intended to address (Nunan, 1988, pp. 1-2). It is essential during the design stages that the objectives of the curriculum, syllabus or scheme within the designer's institution are kept to the fore. This is not to suggest that materials design should be solely determined by a list of course specifications or by large inventories of vocabulary that need to be imparted, but these are certainly among the initial considerations.

Materials should also be contextualized to the experiences, realities and first languages of the learners. An important part of this involves an awareness on the part of the teacher-designer of the "socio-cultural appropriacy"

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(Jolly & Bolitho, 1998, p. 111) of things such as the designer's own style of presenting material, of arranging groups, and so on. It is essential the materials designer is informed about the culture-specific learning processes of the intended learners, and for many groups this may mean adjusting the intended balance of what teachers may regard as more enjoyable activities and those of a more serious nature. Materials should link explicitly to what the learners already know, to their first languages and cultures, and very importantly, should alert learners to any areas of significant cultural difference.

In addition, materials should be contextualized to topics and themes that provide meaningful, purposeful uses for the target language. Wherever possible, these should be chosen on the basis of their relevance and appropriateness for the intended learners, to ensure personal engagement and to provide motivation for dipping further into the materials. For some ages and stages the topics may well be 'old faithful, such as money, family and holidays. Part of the mission for the materials designer is "to find new angles on those topics" (Bell & Gower, 1998, p. 123) and having done that, to develop activities which will ensure purposeful production of the target language or skills. When producing materials for one-off use with smaller groups, additional student engagement can be achieved by allowing students to 'star' in the passages and texts that have been designed specifically for them.

2. Materials should stimulate interaction and be generative in terms of language

Hall (1995:9) states that "most people who learn to communicate fluently in a language which is not their Ll do so by spending a lot of time in situations where they have to use the language for some real communicative purpose.

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Ideally, language-teaching materials should provide situations that demand the same; situations where learners need to interact with each other regularly in a manner that reflects the type of interactions they will engage in outside of the classroom. Hall outlines three conditions he believes are necessary to stimulate real communication: these are the need to "have something we want to communicate", "someone to communicate with", and, perhaps most importantly, "some interest in the outcome of the communication". Nunan (1988:8) refers to this as the "learning by doing philosophy", and suggests procedures such as information gap and information transfer activities, which can be used to ensure that interaction is necessary.

Language learning will be maximally enhanced if materials designers are able to acknowledge the communication challenges inherent in an interactive teaching approach and address the different norms of interaction, such as preferred personal space, for example, directly within their teaching materials. Effective learning frequently involves learners in explorations of new linguistic terrain, and interaction can often be the medium for providing the 'stretch' that is necessary for ongoing language development. Materials designers should ensure their materials allow sufficient scope for their learners to be 'stretched' at least some of the time, to build on from what is provided to generate new language, and to progress beyond surface fluency to proficiency and confidence.

3. English language teaching materials should encourage learners to develop learning skills and strategies

It is impossible for teachers to teach their learners all the language they need to know in the short time that they are in the classroom. In addition to teaching valuable new

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language skills, it is essential that language teaching materials also teach their target learners how to learn, and that they help them to take advantage of language learning opportunities outside the classroom. Hall (1995) stresses the importance of providing learners with the confidence to persist in their attempts to find solutions when they have initial difficulties in communicating. To this end, strategies such as rewording and using facial expressions and body language effectively can be fine-tuned with well designed materials.

In addition, materials can provide valuable opportunities for self-evaluation by providing the necessary meta language and incorporating activities which encourage learners to assess their own learning and language development. This can utilize the learners' first language as well as English. Some EFL course books, such as Ellis & Sinclair (1989), also build in exercises for students to explore their own learning styles and strategies.

1. English language teaching materials should allow for a focus on form as well as function

Frequently, the initial motivation for designing materials stems from practitioners' desires to make activities more communicative - often as "an antidote to the profusion of skills- based activities and artificial language use pervasive in the field of ESL instruction" (Demetrion, 1997, p. 5). Sometimes, though, in the desire to steer a wide berth around this more traditional approach, materials are developed which allow absolutely no scope for a focus on language form.

The aim of Guideline 3 is to develop active, independent language learners, To help lflt=!t=!t thi§ goal, materials also need to encourage learners to take an analytical approach to the language in front of and around

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them, and to form and test their own hypotheses about how language works (Nunan, 1988). Well-designed materials can help considerably with this by alerting learners to underlying forms and by providing opportunities for regulated practice in addition to independent and creative expression.

2. English language teaching materials should offer opportunities for integrated language use

Language teaching materials can tend to focus on one particular skill in a somewhat unnatural manner. Some courses have a major focus on productive skills, and in these reading and listening become second-rate skills. With other materials, reading or writing may dominate. Bell & Gower (1998) point out that, "at the very least we listen and speak together, and read and write together" (p. 125). Ideally, materials produced should give learners opportunities to integrate all the language skills in an authentic manner and to become competent at integrating extra-linguistic factors also.

3. English language teaching materials should be authentic Much space has been devoted in language teaching

literature to debating the desirability (and otherwise) of using authentic materials in language teaching classrooms and, indeed, to defining exactly what constitutes genuine versus simulated texts ( e.g., Harmer, 1998; Hedge, 2000; Nunan, 1988, 1991). It is the authors' view that it is imperative for second language learners to be regularly exposed in the classroom to real, unscripted language - to passages that have not been produced specifically for language learning purposes. As Nunan points out, "texts written specifically for the classroom generally distort the language in some way" (1988:6).

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When the aim for authenticity in terms of the texts presented to learners is discussed, a common tendency is to immediately think of written material such as newspapers and magazines. Materials designers should also aim for authentic spoken and visual texts. Learners need to hear, see and read the way native speakers communicate with each other naturally.

Arguably more important than the provision of authentic texts, is authenticity in terms of the tasks which students are required to perform with them. Consideration of the types of real- world tasks specific groups of learners commonly need to perform will allow designers to generate materials where both the texts and the things learners are required to do with them reflect the language and behaviours required of them in the world outside the classroom

4. English language teaching materials should link to each other to develop a progression of skills, understandings and language items

One potential pitfall for teacher-designed materials mentioned in the first part of this article relates to the organization within and between individual tasks. There is a very real danger with self-designed and adapted materials that the result can be a hotchpotch of unconnected activities. Clearly stated objectives at the outset of the design process will help ensure that the resultant materials have coherence, and that they clearly progress specific learning goals while also giving opportunities for repetition and reinforcement of earlier learning.

5. English language teaching materials should be attractive Criteria for evaluating English language teaching

materials and course books frequently include reference to

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the 'look' and the 'feel' of the product (see, for example, Harmer, 1998; Nunan, 1991). Some aspects of these criteria that are particularly pertinent to materials designers are discussed below.

Physical appearance: Initial impressions can be as important in the language classroom as they are in many other aspects of life. Put simply, language-teaching materials should be good to look at! Factors to consider include the density of the text on the page, the type size, and the cohesiveness and consistency of the layout.

User-friendliness: Materials should also be attractive in terms of their 'usability'. Some simple examples: if the activity is a gap-fill exercise, is there enough space for learners to handwrite their responses? If an oral response is required during a tape or video exercise, is the silence long enough to allow for both thinking and responding?

DurabilihJ: If materials need to be used more than once, or if they are to be used by many different students, consideration needs to be given to how they can be made robust enough to last the required distance.

Ability to be reproduced: Language teaching institutions are not renowned for giving their staff unlimited access to color copying facilities, yet many do-it-yourself materials designers continue to produce eye-catching multi­ colored originals, and suffer frustration and disappointment when what emerges from the photocopier is a class-set of grey blurs.

6. English language teaching materials should have appropriate instructions

This guideline applies as much to the instructions that are provided for other teachers who may use the materials, as it does for the intended learners. It seems to be stating the obvious to say that instructions should be clear,

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but, often, excellent materials fail in their "pedagogical realization" (Jolly & Bolitho, 1998: 93) because of a lack of clarity in their instructions. For instructions to be effective, they should be written in language that is appropriate for the target learners, and the use of the correct metal language can assist with making instructions more concise and efficient.

7. English language teaching materials should be flexible This final guideline is directed primarily at longer

series of materials rather than at one- off tasks, but has pertinence to both. Prabhu (cited in Cook, c. 1998:3) maintains that much of a student's language learning is "mediated by the materials and course books the teacher uses in terms of both language content and teaching technique". He proposes constructing materials that allow teachers and students to make choices- at least some of the time. He suggests the materials designer may offer flexibility in terms of content by providing "a range of possible inputs. . . [that] are not themselves organized into lesson units" (cited in Maley, 1998:284), and that teachers or, indeed, students, could then choose which of these to use and which "procedure" (e.g. comprehension exercise, grammar awareness exercise, role play, etc) to apply to them.

Maley (2003:7) takes this idea a stage further, acknowledging the benefits of diversity in the areas of content, roles and procedures for both teachers and students, and proposing that flexibility is also possible in approach, level, methodology, logistics, technology, teaching style, evaluation procedures and expected outcomes. He concludes with this challenge for materials designers: "Those involved . . . could greatly extend and diversify the range of what is offered to students with relatively little effort. Will they make that effort?".

The reasons why According to Ana (2010: 145) ESP

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practitioners need to grow their own materials may be varied and can be summed up as follows:

a. To have course materials b. To add variety to available materials and classroom

work c. To supplement course books and other available

materials d. To exploit authentic materials e. To foster particular language items or skills f. To modify or increase/ decrease the difficulty of

learning targets g. To enhance or simplify informative content h. To attend to learners' needs, lacks and wants i. To highlight genre and/ or discourse conventions j. To cater for learning diversity (i.e., differing learning

styles) k. To deal with large, heterogeneous learner groups 1. To maximize resources and time available m. To provide supplementary work n. To promote language learning autonomy o. To adapt the course to suit the demands of a

particular institution and/ or country/ region Moreover, she point out that some ESP areas are

particularly sensitive to in-house materials due to the lack of published materials available. Hence, ESP practitioners dealing with minor disciplines (in the sense discussed above) are required to rely wholly or mostly on their self-designed materials. In other cases, materials available may be too country /region-specific or, on the contrary, too internationally oriented; therefore, some replacement may be needed. There might be other particular circumstances, such as external mandates, by which ESP practitioners may fee] obliged to provide their own materials.

In any case, following Krzanowski (1998), as far as

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possible good self-designed ESP materials should: a. balance informative, language and communicative

content (i.e., 11 adequacy of content"); b. be based on topics of general academic and

professional interest; c. be directly linked to related

degree/ course/ curriculum; d. be recyclable and evergreen; e. be evaluated against length and time available; f. be set in a memorable context; g. meet the criterion of authenticity; h. ideally cover both language and skills; i. offer students the opportunity to gain transferable

skills; j. not over-promote one discrete skill; k. lend themselves to being adapted and/ or extended; I. stimulate student interaction; m. adapt preferences to learners' needs and knowledge; n. be professionally printed and edited; o. help practitioners develop their own teaching style.

Choosing ESP materials determines the running of the course and underlines content of the lesson. Good material should help teacher in organizing the course or what is more it can function as an introduction into the new learning techniques, and support teachers and learners in the process of learning. Materials are also a kind of teacher reflection, II they should truly reflect what you think and feel about the learning process." Teachers should be aware of the fact if the material is suitable not only for a particular discipline and answers given course goals but also for teachers and learners themselves. Materials should also function as a link between already learnt (' existing knowledge') and new information. (Hutchinson and Waters, 1992).

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Good material should be based on various interesting texts and activities providing a wide range of skills. Teachers determines which aspects of ESP learning will be focused on but one piece of material can serve for developing more than one skill, e.g. reading, listening, vocabulary etc. "Teaching materials are tools that can be figuratively cut up into component pieces and then rearranged to suite the needs, abilities, and interests of the students in the course." (Graves, 1999:27).

Concerning the selection of material and 'ESP' material some criteria must be matched as well. Language teacher is responsible for selecting an appropriate text that contributes to students' effectiveness that means he or she should pay attention to suitable criteria for its choice. Wallace (1992, 9.1) suggests those main criteria:

a. Adequacy - should be at the appropriate language, age level.

b. Motivation - should present content which is interesting and motivating for students work. It goads into students effectiveness, interest and pleasure of work.

c. Sequence - it is important if there is some relation to previous texts, activities, topics not to miss the sense of a lesson.

d. Diversity - should lead to a range of classroom activities, be a vehicle for teaching specific language structure and vocabulary and promote reading strategies.

e. Acceptability - it should accept different cultural customs or taboos.

Selecting an appropriate material regarding the main criteria is an essential phase in organizing each course. It may happen that learners' needs and expectations are not met due to wrong choice of material. "Materials provide a

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stimulus to learning. Good materials do not teach: they encourage learners to learn."(Hutchinson and Waters, 1992:107).

Sismiati&Latief (2012) point out that text as a learning material can be used for learning and practising wide range of skills. In ESP course it can be source for new vocabulary, communicative or reading skills. To make working with a text as much effective as possible it is necessary to involve all students' skills. It is preferred to combine working with printed text with listening to audio­ cassette or video-cassette that means receptive with productive activities. Concerning the ESP activities it is necessary to keep in mind the context that should be consistent with studying subject matter.

1. Wanning-up activities - pre-teaching and activation of new vocabulary or grammar structures, discussing questions concerning the topic. We can use various types of plays, puzzles, collocation grids, questionnaires etc. to increase students' interests in given topic and lead them into further problems. It is a kind of preparing step. Wallace (1992) e.g. considers pre-reading activity very important for students motivation; topic or genre of the text is introduced e.g. with collective discussion or some pictures to be fully motivated. (Wallace, 1992, p 62). I see warming-up activities as a very important and necessary phase on which the next working process depends.

2. Receptive activities - work with a text itself, reading, listening. We can realize various reading strategies e.g. aloud, quiet, skimming, scanning, with or without translation, informative. They should lead to encouragement of students. We can distinguish

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language-based approaches ( e.g. jigsaw reading, gap­ filling) or approaches relating to content of the text. Both of them should aim students to be as much active and reflexive as possible.

3. Productive activities - practicing of acquired knowledge. Work in pairs, in groups or individual with help of teacher who takes notice of using target language. Summarization of lesson that should be done by students, it shows how students understand given topic.

4. Follow-up activities - next improving, developing, appropriate using of learnt. We can practice it in a form of creative homework, exercises. Harmer (1991) draws that large scale of skills and activities can be developed e.g. drawing characters, making discussion, creating some pictures, dramatic activities etc. (Harmer, 1991, p 188). Material development is one of the most

characteristic features of ESP in practice and a large amount of ESP teachers' time may well be taken up in writing materials. The following are the steps in developing material (Hutchinson and Water, 1987:106) 1. Defining objective

The first stage in developing material is defining objectives. It must be answer the question: What are the materials supposed to do. Related to this stage, there are principle must be considered as guide in defining objective: a. Materials provide a stimulus to learning b. Materials have to organize teaching-learning process c. Materials embody a view of nature of language and

learning. d. Materials reflect the nature of the learning task

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e. Materials can have a very useful function in broadening the basis of teacher training, by introducing teacher a new techniques.

f. Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use.

2. Selecting the model of material design Taking into account the principle, then we can select the model of design material. The model consists of four elements: input, content focus, language focus and task. a. Input: This may be the text, dialogue, video

recording, diagram or any piece of communication data, depending on the needs that have been defined in analysis. The input provides a number of things:

1) Stimulus material for activities; 2) New language items 3) Correct models of language use; 4) A topic for communication 5) Opportunities for learner to use their

information processing skills; 6) Opportunities for learner to use their

existing knowledge both of the language and their subject matter.

b. Content focus: language is not an end of itself; but a means of conveying information and feelings about something. Non linguistics content should be exploited to generate meaningful communication in the classroom.

(', f .r111gur1ge focus: Tt aims at enabling learners to use

language, but il is unfalr lo give learners communicative tasks and activities for which they do riot huvo enough of the necessary language knowledge. Good material should involve both opportunities for analysis synthesis. In language focus, learners have the chance to take the language

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to pieces, study how it works and practice putting back together again.

d. Task: The ultimate purpose of language learning is language use. Material should be designed, therefore, to lead towards a communicative task in which learners use the content and language knowledge they have built up through the unit.

3. Writing material (The application of model chosen) The following are the step in writing material: a. Identification of need of material. b. Exploration of need c. Contextual realization of material d. Pedagogical realization of material e. Production of material f. Students use of material g. Evaluation of material

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The steps can be figured as follows:

Identification need of

------· Dynamic path Optional steps and feedback loops

............... ' ' \

�� I

Evaluation of materials ag ·

agreed objectives

Figure. 11 Step in writing material

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PARTV TEACHING ESP

A. Principles in Teaching ESP Teaching is a process to transfer knowledge, concepts,

value to the learners. It is not an easy job, there are some consideration related to it.

Munby (1978 p. 217) point out that the starting point for all language teaching should be an understanding of how people learn. But it is too often the case that 'learning' factors are the last to be considered. ESP has been particularly guilty in this regard. As we saw in the previous chapter, the overwhelming weight of emphasis in ESP research and materials has been on language analysis. Learning factors, if considered at all, are incorporated only after the language base has been analyzed and systematized (citied by Hutchinson and Water. 1987:39).

Hutchinson and Water (1987:39) state that language can only be properly understood as a reflection of human thought processes. Language learning is conditioned by the way in which the mind observes, organizes and stores information. In other words, the key to successful language learning and teaching lies not in the analysis of the nature of language but in understanding the structure and processes of the mind. Un.fortunately, we still know too little about how people learn. Nevertheless, if we wish to improve the techniques, methods and content of language teaching, we must try and base what we do in the classroom on sound principles of learning.

Therefore one must be considered in relation to the teaching is learning theories.

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Learning theory has developed followed a similar pattern to those in language descriptions, and each has had some effect on the other, it is best to consider the theories relating to language and learning separately.

Until the twentieth century there was no coherent theory of learning available to the language teacher. Certainly there were empirical observation, such as Comensius' studies made in the sixteenth century and the percepts of the Direct Method at the end of the nineteenth century (see e.g. Stern, 1983). But no coherent theory of learning emerged until psychology had been established as a respectable subject of scientific enquiry in the early twentieth century. We can identify five main stages of developments since then, which are of relevance to the modem language teacher (see Littlewood, 1984, for an excellent survey of theories of learning).

In relation to the development of theories of learning, Hutchinson and Water (1987:39) have summarized it as follows: 1. Behaviorism: learning as habit formation

The first coherent theory of learning was the behaviorist theory based mainly on the work of Pavlov in the Soviet Union and of Skinner in the United States. This simple but powerful theory said that learning is a mechanical process of habit formation and proceeds by means of the frequent reinforcement of a stimulus-response sequence.

The simplicity and directness of this theory had an enormous impact on learning psychology and on language teaching. It provided the theoretical underpinning of the widely used Audio-lingual Method of the 1950s and 1960s. This method, which will be familiar to many language teachers, laid down a set of guiding methodological principles, based an assumption that second language

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learning should reflect and imitate the perceived processes of mother tongue learning. Some of these percepts were:

a. Never translate. b. New language should always be dealt with in the

sequence: hear, speak, read, and write. c. Frequent repetition is essential to effective learning. d. All errors must be immediately corrected.

2. Mentalism: thingking as rule-governed activity There was considerable empirical evidence among

language teachers that the Audio-lingual Method and it behaviorist principles did not deliver the results promised. For apparently perverse reasons, language learners would not conform to the behaviorist stereotype: the insisted on translating things, asked for rules of grammar, found repeating things to a tape recorder boring, and somehow failed to learn something no matter how often they repeated it (see Allwright, 1984a). Such evidence from the classroom, however, did little to diminish the influence of the theory - a sad example of human mistrust of intuition and experience in favor of theory!

The first successful assault on the behaviorist theory came from Chomsky (1964). He tackled behaviorism on the question of how the mind was able to transfer what was learnt in one stimulus-response sequence to other novel situations. There was a vague concept of 'generalization' in behaviorist theory, but this was always skated over and never properly explained. Chomsky dismissed the generalization idea as unworkable, because it simply could not explain how from a finite range of experience, the human mind was able to cope with an infinite range of possible situations. His conclusion was that thinking must be rule­ governed: a finite, and fairly small, set of rules enables the

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mind to deal with the potentially infinite range of experiences it may encounter.

Having established thinking as rule-governed behavior, it is one short step to the conclusion that learning consists not of forming habits but of acquiring rules - a process in which individual experiences are used by the mind to formulate a hypothesis. This hypothesis is then tested and modified by subsequent experience. The mind, in other words, does not just respond to a stimulus, it uses the individual stimuli in order to find the underlying pattern or system. It can then use this knowledge of the system in a novel situation to predict what is likely to happen, what is an appropriate response or whatever.

The mentalist view of the mind as a rule-seeker led naturally to the next important stage-the cognitive theory of learning.

3. Cognitive code: learners as thinking beings Whereas the behaviorist theory of learning portrayed

the learner as a passive receiver of information, the cognitive view takes the learner to be an active processor of information (see e.g. Ausubelet al., 1978). Leaming and using a rule require learners to think, that is, to apply their mental powers in order to distil a workable generative rule from the mass of data presented, and then to analyze the situations where the application of the rule would be useful or appropriate. Learning, then, is a process in which the learner actively tries to make sense of data, and learning can be said to have taken place when the learner has managed to impose some sort of meaningful interpretation or pattern on the data. This may sound complex, but in simple terms what it means is that we learn by thinking about and trying to make sense of what we see, feel and hear.

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The basic teaching technique associated with a cognitive theory of language learning is the problem-solving task. In ESP such exercises have often been modeled on activities associated with the learners' subject specialism.

The cognitive code view of learning seems to answer many of the theoretical and practical problems raised by behaviourism. It treats the learners as thinking beings and puts them firmly at the center of the learning process, by stressing that learning will only take place when the matter to be learnt is meaningful to the learners. But in itself a cognitive view is not sufficient. To complete the picture we need an affective view too.

4. The affective factor: learners as emotional beings People think, but they also have feelings. It is one of

the paradoxes of human nature that, although we are all aware of our feeling and their effects on our actions, we invariably seek answers to our problems in rational terms. It is as if we believed that human beings always act in a logical and sensible manner. This attitude affects the way we see learners - more like machines to be programmed (I've taught them the past tense. They must know it.') than people with likes and dislikes, fears, weaknesses and prejudices. But learners are people. Even ESP learners are people. The may be learning about machines and systems, but they still learn as human beings. Learning,

We can represent the cognitive/ affective interplay in the form of a learning cycle. This can either be negative or a positive cycle. A good and appropriate course will engender the kind of positive learning cycle represented here:

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� �

Leamer wants to learn

r ,,,. "\ r �

Leamer sees learning as an enjoyable and

satisfying experience

t

Leamer applies cognitive powers to acquire knowledge

r Increased �

competence enables learner to learn more

\.... easily �

Learner's competence

develops

Learning is successful

Figure 12: A positive learning cycle

The relationship between the cognitive and emotional aspects of learning is, therefore, one of vital importance to the success or otherwise of a lnguage learning experience. This brings us to a matter which has been one of the most important elements in the development of ESP - motivation.

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The most influental study of motivation in language learning has been Gardener and Lambert's (1972) study of bilingualism in French speaking Canada. They identified two forms of motivation: instrumental and integrative.

a. Instrumental motivation is the reflection of an external need. The learners are not learning a language because they want to (although this does not imply that they do not want to), but rather because they need to. The need may derive from varying sources: the need to sell things to speakers of the language; the need to pass an examination in the language; the need to read texts in the language for work or study. The need may vary, but the important factor is that the motivation is an external one.

b. Integrative motivation, on the other hand, derives from a desire on the part of the learners to be members of the speech community that uses a particular language. It is an internally generated want rather than an externally imposed need.

Gardner and Lambert's conclusion was that both forms of motivation are probably present in all learners but each exercises a varying influence, depending on age, experience and changing occupational or social needs.

Motivation, it appears, is a complex and highly individual matter. There can be no simple answer to the question: 'What motivates my students?' Unfortunately the ESP world, while recognising the need to ask this question, has apparently assumed that there is a simple answer: relevance to target needs. In practice this has been interpreted as meaning Medical texts for the student of Medicine, Engineering English for the Engineer and so on. But, as we shall see when we deal with needs analysis, there is more to motivation than simple relevance to perceived needs. For the present, suffice it to say that, if your students

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are not fired with burning enthusiasm by the obvious relevance of their ESP materials, remember that they are people not machines. The medicine of relevance may still need to be sweetened with the sugar of enjoyment, fun, creativity and a sense of achievement. ESP, as much as any good teaching, needs to be intrinsically motivating. It should satisfy their needs as learners as well as their needs as potential target users of the language. In other words, they should get satisfation from the actual experience of learning, not just from the prospect of eventually using what they have learnt.

B. ESP Teacher Teacher plays important role in transfer knowledge

concepts, and value. Different with the other teacher -not ESP teacher, he/she have functions not only as a teacher but also as course designer, syllabus designer, material provider, evaluator.

In relation to the roles of the ESP teacher, Dudley Evans and St. John (1998) identify five key roles for the ESP practitioner:

1. teacher 2. course designer and materials provider 3. collaborator 4. researcher 5. evaluator.

It is the role of ESP practitioner as course designer and materials provider that this paper addresses. The premise of this paper is based on David Nunan's observations about the teacher as a curriculum developer.

It seems fairly obvious that if teachers are to be the ones responsible for developing the curriculum, they need the time, the skills and the support to do so. Support may include curriculum models and guidelines · and may include

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support from individuals acting in a curriculum advisory position. The provision of such support cannot be removed and must not be seen in isolation, from the curriculum (Nunan, 1987: 75).

Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 13) coined the term "practitioners" for ESP teachers since, they believe that ESP work involves much more than teaching. Many pivotal roles such as course designers, materials developers, researchers, evaluators, and classroom teachers should be taken on by an ESP instructor in addition to their role as teacher. Dudley­ Evans and St. John (1998: 13) mention that one of the basic differences between ESP and GE teacher is that the teacher in ESP is not in the position of being 'the primary knower' of the carrier content of the material. They further argue that the students in many cases, certainly where the course is specifically oriented towards the subject content or work that the students are engage in, know more about the content than the teacher. In other words, the students do know more the context of the subject matter than the teachers do. At the same time it advocates that teacher-centered learning that puts teachers as the source of knowledge is totally inappropriate in ESP since it neglects the aspect for which the language skills is required to carry out function related to the context, in this regard the students workplace situation.

As course designer and material provider, ESP practitioners often have to plan the course they teach and provide the materials for it. The use of particular textbooks without need for supplementary material is rarely possible. The ESP practitioners need to choose published material, adopt it or even write material where to make it suitable (Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 14,15). It means that in the role as course designer and material provider ESP

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practitioners may have three specific roles namely as a chooser, adopter and writer of material as well.

Dudley-Evans and St. [ohn (1998: 15) argue that ESP teachers need to be aware of and in touch with research in the area of ESP. They advocate that research finding need to be able to be incorporated when carrying out needs analysis, designing a course and or writing teaching materials. What they advocate seems important since the ESP practitioners may benefit from the research finding primarily when they it has to do with the specific context the teacher teach. This finding may varied in terms of needs analysis, methodology, approach and model.

Since the ESP teacher lack knowledge in the student subject matter particularly when it is too specific, it is highly advised to work with specific subject teacher. The ESP teacher may work with other teacher which is knowledgeable in the subject matter to support their pedagogical knowledge in language. According to Dudley­ Evans and St. John (1998) this may involve simply cooperation in which the ESP teaches finds out about the subject syllabus in an academic context or the task the students have to carry out in work or business situation (Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 16).

Similarly to GE teacher, an ESP teacher is also evaluator. The ESP teacher also needs to be able to devise achievement test to assess how much learners have gained from a course. Evaluating course design should be done while the course is being taught, at the end of the course and after the course has finished (Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 16,17)

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C. Approaches, methods and techniques in teaching ESP 1. Content-Based Approach

Content-based instruction, CBI, refers to the teaching of language through exposure to content that is interesting and relevant to learners (Brinton, 2004). The content-based instruction refers to the concurrent teaching of academic subject matter and foreign language skill. In a content-based approach, the activities of the language class are geared to stimulate students to think and learn, and communicate through the use of the target language. This approach naturally integrates the teaching with the four language skill. For example, it employs authentic reading materials which require students not only to understand information but to interpret and evaluate it as well. In this approach, students are exposed to study skills and learn a variety of language skills which prepare them for the range of academic tasks they will encounter (Wello and Dollah, 2008).

A content-based instructional approach has a number of implications for language teachers -the teachers are asked to let the content dictate the selection and sequence of language items, and truly contextualize their lessons by using content as the point of departure (Brinton, Snow, Wesche, 1989). Other researchers like Scarce Ila and Oxford (1992) point out that in content-based instruction students practice in a highly integrated fashion all the language skills while participating in activities or tasks that focus on important content in areas such as science, mathematics, and social studies. In his pioneering work on content-based language learning, Mohan (1986) argues that any educational approach that considers language learning alone and ignores the learning of subject matters inadequate to the needs of these learners.

In content-based language instruction, the language teacher's primary goal is to help students develop

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communicative competence, which are might define as the ability to use the language effectively, and accurately in a variety settings, for example, social, academic, and professional, despite limitations in knowledge. Short (1991), and Mohan (1979) state that the content-based teacher's secondary goals are to introduce concept and terminology relevant to the given subject area, to reinforce content-area information learned elsewhere, and to teach specific learning strategies for writing, reading, or general study via the means of interesting material.

This content serves several purposes. First, it provides a rich context for the language classroom, allowing the teacher to present and explain specific language features. Additionally, it provides for what Stephen Krashen (1985) calls Comprehensible input--- challenging language that is slightly above the current linguistic level of the students, which, according to Krashen, provides the foundation for successful language acquisition.

a. Rationale for Content-Based Language Teaching There are some implicit rationales for integrating the

teaching of language and content in content-based approaches (Figure 10). Proponents of ESP note that in order to enhance successful language learning, the language syllabus must take into account the eventual uses the learner will make of the target language. In other words, the focus is on the language form and functions. Even though learner language needs and interest do not always coincide, the use of informational content which is perceived as relevant by the learner is assumed by many experts to increase motivation in the language course which can promote more effective language learning.

The content-based approaches apply the pedagogical principle that any teaching should build on the previous

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experience of the learner, that is the existing knowledge of the subject matter and their target language knowledge. Another essential issue in foreign language teaching is that language should be learned in context rather than in fragmented examples of correct sentence-level usage. By focusing on the contextualized use of language, the learner will be aware of effective use of language, as well as of the correct grammatical conventions. Based on the input hypothesis theory, Krashen (1985) suggests that a necessary condition for successful language learning is that input must be understood by the learner. In addition, the input should also contain new elements to be acquired so that comprehension can be accomplished with the help of situational and verbal context. The association of form and meaning which are required for successful communication feed into a developing stock of formal, functional and semantic relationships as the learners acquires new elements in the language.

Scarcella and Oxford (1992) believe that content­ based instruction is valuable at all levels, but the nature of the content differs according to student proficiency level. Snow (1991) emphasizes that content-based second language instruction generally has strong English for Academic Purposes (EAP) orientation because the main instructional goal is to prepare second/ foreign language students for the types of academic tasks they will encounter in school, college, or university.

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Language Forms & Functions

Comprehensible Input: i + 1

Learners' Needs

Learners' Background &

Experience

Language Instruction

Contextualized Language Instruction

Figure 10. Con ten t-based Instruction

b. ESP and Content-Based Instruction Content-based instruction means the use of subject

matter in second/ foreign language teaching. Subject matter may consist of topics or themes selected for student interest or need, or it may be very specific, such as the content course material which students are currently studying. This approach is in keeping with ESP where the vocational or occupational needs of the learners are identified and used as the basis for curriculum and material development(Wello and Dollah, 2008).

Obviously ESP courses have always been content­ based oriented and generally involve pragmatic, experience­ based instruction, and are aimed at preparing learners for a real-world demands. ESP courses, as we all know, are particularly suitable for adult learners with identifiable foreign language objectives and are a response of academic as well as commercial language teaching programs to the

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specialized requirements of college students and those engaged in business or other occupations. In ESP courses the primary emphasis has traditionally been on the "what" of language instruction - language content which reflects the foreign language needs of learners "for whom the learning of English is auxiliary to some other professional or academic purposes" (Widdowson, 1983).

ESP courses are possible only when the characteristics, needs, and purposes of a group of students are relatively homogeneous. Such students usually serve specific occupations, field, or level of study. The unifying feature is that the objectives and language content of each course are defined according to learners' functional needs in the target language. EAP (English for Academic Purposes) which prepares students to understand their subject matters, write papers and for study in English speaking countries are probably a major subset of ESP courses in the world. ESP courses through frequent use of authentic materials and attention to the real-life purposes of the learners often apply a similar methodology to that of other content-based models in which a major concern is learning language in context (Wello and Dollah, 2008).

The above discussion suggests that content-based instructional approaches can be very effective to teach ESP in college education context since it fulfills a number of conditions which are found in the literature of characterize those conditions as follows:

1) takes into account the interests and needs of the learners

2) incorporates the eventual uses the learner will make of the target language

3) builds on the students' previous learning experience 4) allows a focus on use as well as on usage

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5) offers learners the necessary condition for second language learning by exposing them to meaningful language in use (Wello and Dollah, 2008).

As matter of fact, all of the conditions mentioned above are the main concern of any ESP course.

c. Models of Content-Based Instruction In the work done by Donna Briton, Ann Snow, and

Mari Wesche (Briton, Snow, and Wesche, citied by Zhangm 2010), they identify several prototype forms of CBI---namely theme-based language instruction, sheltered content instruction, and adjunct instruction. These forms differ in several important respects:

l)the type of population and setting that they serve; Theme-based instruction is the most generally

applicable, it is appropriate at virtually any level of language learning and in a wide variety of settings. Sheltered and adjunct instruction, however, are more restricted in their applicability. Sheltered courses are typically found in middle schools and high schools where large populations of learners are receiving subject matter instruction in a language other than their first language. Finally, adjunct courses are typically found in settings where students are studying language as well as subject matter, such as high schools, colleges, and universities.

2) The respective degree of focus on language or content; Theme-based instruction focuses on language.

Sheltered instruction focuses on content. Adjunct instruction focuses on both.

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3) The selection of content; In ESL courses at university, for example, contents are

selected from a range of general education courses that students take to graduate from the university.

4) The degree of faculty coordination with subject matter courses and instructors.

Adjunct instruction is quite different from the other two models in this respect since it requires the systematic coordination of the language and content instructors. These instructors typically meet before the course (and periodically throughout the course) to discuss curriculum and to coordinate objectives. They may also use this time to discuss the types of assignments they will set for students. This is not true for sheltered and theme-based instruction, where the instructors do not coordinate in this fashion.

Wello and Dollah (2008) examine the characteristics which distinguish each of the three models from one another as follows:

1) Theme-based language instruction Theme-based, in which the language skills are fully

integrated in the study of a theme, for example, economics, and ecology. The theme must be of strong interest to students and must allow a wide variety of language forms and functions to be practiced. Theme or topic-based language courses are one way to increase the use of subject matter content in language classes. In such courses, the language class is structured around topics or themes. The content material presented by the language teacher provides the basis for language analysis and practice. For example, the topic might be initially presented as a reading selection, the topic and the vocabulary would then be recycled in guided discussions, related audio or video material and a writing

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assignment. The model usually restricts the topic to a single activity, such as reading or listening exercise. The materials are usually teacher generated or adapted from outside sources, and an attempt is often made to integrate the topic into the teaching of language skills. To ensure the contextualization and significance, the language syllabus is enriched with language items or activities. According to Scarcella and Oxford (1992), theme-based instruction works effectively because the themes are chosen for their relevance, importance, and interest to students.

2) Sheltered content instruction Basically, in sheltered content instruction learners are

taught the subject matter and language course work in English that is modified to students' level of proficiency (Scarcella and Oxford. 1992). Sheltered courses consist of content courses taught in the target language to segregated group of learners by a content area specialist. In English speaking countries non-native speaking students are separated from native-speaking students in order to place them in the same linguistic boat. Sheltered language courses assume an institutional framework such as a high school, community college, or a university in which access to content courses and content teaching staff proficient in the target language. The instructional materials are carefully selected for their organization and clarity; the instructor may gear lectures more closely to the written text and makes certain linguistic adjustments to allow for students' listening comprehension difficulties.

3) Adjunct language instruction In this model student enrolled concurrently in two

linked course - a language course and a content course - with the idea being that the two courses share the content

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base and complement each other in terms of mutually coordinate assignments. Both non-native and native­ speakers of the target language attend the same lecture. Basically, in this kind of content-based instruction, language and content courses are linked through instructor and curriculum coordination (Scarcella and Oxford, 1992). In other words, two separate courses are conducted, but they are carefully linked.

According to Zhang( 2010) these prototype models represent early attempts of practitioners to apply CBI principles to various student populations and instructional settings. A recent innovation in CBI is sustained-content language teaching (SCLT). SCLT (Pally, 2000; Murphy and Stoller, 2001citied in Zhang, 2010) involves a focus on "single content area, or carrier topic ... (along with) a complementary focus on L2 learning and teaching" (Murphy and Stoller,2001, p3). SCLT does not require coordination of the language teacher with a content area expert. Instead, the content serves as a point of departure for language instruction. As such, SCLT most closely resembles theme­ based instruction, with the difference that theme based courses cover a variety of topics, whereas in SCLT the content is sustained, and students work with only one topic.

2. Communicative approach in teaching ESP Richards and Rodgers (1986:72) stated that there are

three elements of underlying learning theory of communicative language teaching, these are communicative principles, task principle and meaningfulness principle and which relate each other. We speak one element; it means that we speak on a relation subject with other elements, when we present meaningfulness principle; it means that we present meaningful language, meaningful task and meaningful

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communication. They address the conditions needed to promote language-learning activities.

Richard (2006: 28) states that there are ten core assumptions of communicative approach as described below:

a. Second language learning is facilitated when learners are engaged in interaction and meaningful communication.

b. Effective classroom learning tasks and exercises provide opportunities for students to negotiate meaning, expand their language resources, notice how language is used, and take part in meaningful interpersonal exchange.

c. Meaningful communication results from students processing content that is relevant, purposeful, interesting, and engaging.

d. Communication is a holistic process that often calls upon the use of several language skills or modalities.

e. Language learning is facilitated both by activities that involve inductive or discovery learning of underlying rules of language use and organization, as well as by those involving language analysis and reflection.

f. Language learning is a gradual process that involves creative use of language, and trial and error. Although errors are a normal product of learning, the ultimate goal of learning is to be able to use the new language both accurately and fluently.

g. Learners develop their own routes to language learning, progress at different rates, and have different needs and motivations for language learning.

h. Successful language learning involves the use of effective learning and communication strategies.

i. The role of the teacher in the language classroom is

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that of a facilitator, who creates a classroom climate conducive to language learning and provides opportunities for students to use and practice the language and to reflect on language use and language learning.

j. The classroom is a community where learners learn through collaboration and sharing.

There are some principles of the Communicative Approach, which can guide the real teaching in classrooms contexts. The main principles are (1) Teaching is Learner­ centered and responsive to the needs and interests. (2) The target language is acquired through interactive communicative use that encourages the negotiation of meaning. (3). There is exposure to examples of authentic language from the target language community (Brufit, 1983, qtd in Lu Xiaoquan, 2007).

The principles of communicative approach described below are based on the view of Morrow (1981), Freeman (1986) and Tomlinson (1990).

a. The processes are as important as the forms. A method that aims to develop the ability of the students to communicate in a foreign language will aim to replicate as far as possible the process of the communication, so that practice of the forms of the target language can take place within a communicative framework. The three such processes that are incorporated and likely to be communicative rather than mean cal are the information gap, choice and feedback;

b. The teacher should use English whenever possible in the English lesson in order to help the students to become familiar and comfortable with English;

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provide the students with exposure to meaningful English; provide a model for natural pronunciation;

c. Know what you are doing. The focus of ( or part of a lesson) should be the performing of some operation­ learning how to do something. Every lesson should end with the learner being able to see clearly that he can do something which he could not do at the beginning;

d. The teacher should try to create a positive. It means that a positive rapport with the students and a non­ judgmental, non-threatening atmosphere to help the students become related and confident learners;

e. To learn it, do it. Education must be ultimately concerned not just with teaching but with learning. One consequence of this that what happens in the classroom must involve the learner and must be judge in terms of its effect on him. Another equally important consequence is that learning becomes to the large extent the learners' responsibility. The teacher can help, advice and teach, but only the learners can learn. Only by practicing communicative activities can we learn to communicate;

f. The teacher should expose the students to different varieties.The styles and the register of English should try to make this input as meaningful and comprehensible as possible by: the use of pre­ reading/listening activities which activate the students' relevant schema. Using real a visual aids, simulation, drama etc. to apply the "here and now" principle: the use of material relevant to the students' own world and interest: the use of "good friends" using pair and group work to enable students to pool their resources and help each other to understand the input;

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g. The whole is not the sum of the parts. Communication cannot easily be analyzed into component features without. Its nature being destroyed in the process. It is, of course, possible to various formal features of the way language is used communicatively;

h. Mistakes are not always mistakes. One of the most frequently voiced critics of a communicative of the most frequently to language teaching is that it encourages students to make mistakes, particularly of grammar. There are two factors, which may account for this and they should be viewed differently. The first possibility is that the students may be though by a teacher who believes those "trivial" mistakes of grammar or pronunciation do not matter as long as the student gets his massage across. The second is that the students may be forced into activities for which he has not been prepared and in an effort to deal with them, he makes mistakes;

i. The teacher should enable the students to develop their conscious. Awareness of the semantic and syntactic system of English by helping them to discover generalization for themselves. The teacher should encourage the students to produce English themselves but should not force them to do so. This may be achieved, for example by creating situations likely to promote communication;

j. One function can have many different linguistic forms.Since the focus of the course is on real language use, a variety of linguistic forms should be presented together;

k. Games are important because they have certain features in common with real communication events­ there is a purpose to the exchange. Also, the speaker

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receives immediate feedback from the listener on whether or not he has successfully communicated. Having students in small groups maximizes among of the communicative practice, they receive.

Communicative Approach and ESP Of all approaches of foreign language teaching,

Hutchinson& Waters (1984) maintain that Communicative Approach is usually thought to be closely related to ESP and widely used in ESP teaching as an effective teaching approach. How to conduct Communicative Approach into Business English teaching in order to integrate English, business and culture into students' communicative competence is an increasing concern ofbusiness English teachers. Effective application of communicative approach can largely trigger students' zeal for learning BE, enhance their practical abilities, and therefore achieve a gratifying teaching result. It is a great challenge for teachers to conduct CA in BusinessEnglish teaching, for they should adapt their changing roles as facilitator and organizer in BE classroom, but CA actually realizes the students-centered teaching mode and brings a lot of benefits (Yan Xiaorong. 2009). a. CA can activate classroom atmosphere and motivate

learns' interest. Business English emphasizes the combination of

theory and practice, and requires learners to use language communicating in simulated circumstances, while in CA classroom teachers can provide students for enough opportunities to practice. In addition, teachers can use all kinds of student-centered activities based on the principles and theories of Communicative Approach, in order to create business communication contexts, cultivate various necessary skills and motivate students' initiatives and zest. Various kinds of tasks,like role-play, simulation and group

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discussion, make teaching process communicative, which can motivate students' passion and increase "the interactive communication". For example, teachers instruct students to conduct negotiation as exporters and importers. Through this practice, students make the related vocabularies, academic terms, syntactic structures and expressions in use, and improve their language skills as well as communicative competence. At the same time, students can learn to use appropriate expressions to make communication coherent and fluent. In the free studying environment, they can develop their independent learning methods, cultivate their learning motivation and decide their learning strategies.

b. CA adopts authentic contents to enrich teaching content. Business English focuses on strong practicality and

feasibility, whose terminal objective is to cultivate students' business skills and cross-cultural communicative competence. Communicative Approach emphasizes genuinely meaningful language use, along with unpredictability, risk-taking, and choice-making. It also advocates exposure to examples ofauthentic language from the target language community. Using authentic materials in Business English teaching to organize classroom teaching can motivate students to joincommunicative activities and foster their cross-cultural communicative abilities. Thereby,Communicative Approach can be adopted in Business English and has become indispensable teaching methodology.

c. CA benefits learner-oriented classroom teaching. Self-direction is characteristic of ESP courses; Carter

(1983) adds that there must be a systematic attempt by teachers to teach the learners how to learn by teaching them about learning strategies (Lu Xiaoquan, 2007). CA teachers

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assume a responsibility for helping students their learning goals, that is, communicative competence, and solving their problems to make communicative process more efficient. Learners are the main characters in CA classrooms, and their needs are the teaching aim, so they should be responsible for their own studies, equipped with strong desire, rich knowledge and flexible strategies to achieve their goals. CA procedures also require teachers to acquire more learner­ centered classroom as a setting for communication and communicative activities. The teacher monitors, encourages, and takes part in an activity, which can find out students' disadvantages and lead them to a good direction. At the same time, the teacher leads in the debriefing of the activity, pointing out alternatives and extensions and assisting groups in self-correction discussion. Besides, CA emphasizes learning is an inter-dependent behavior in a co-operative environment. Each student can easily get help from other students and teachers, while his help is also available when others have difficulties. Meanwhile, they provide timely feedback on the communicative syllabus and its effect for teachers, which can enhance teaching efficiency and improve the current teaching situation.

3. Case studies Case studies are a feature of many professional

courses such as business, law, engineering and medicine. Their purpose is to present students with some aspect of a real-life scenario, through which they can apply and integrate knowledge, skills, theory and any experiences. The role of case studies varies from one profession to another: in law, cases establish precedent; in medicine, case conferences can take the form of an enquiry as to whether there is anything else that can be done. On business courses, students are presented with data concerning some aspect of

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an organization's business and a brief which could comprise some questions, a specific problem or a decision about 'where would you go, what would you do now?'. These case studies are carried out in 'syndicates' which provide experience of teamwork and develop students' abilities to fulfill various team functions and roles. The result may be written up as a report or poster and/ or presented orally. Evaluation considers the accuracy of analysis, the appropriacy of any models applied and the business rationale behind the proposed solution.

The business case study approach fits comfortably within ESP principles since it is activity based, often uses authentic material and involves learners in both individual and group work. There is challenge, participation and the use of professional know-how. It is a multi-skilled approach in which learners' attention is directed towards the task more than the language (Krashen, 1981).

On the negative side, business case studies can involve a large amount of background reading, difficult texts and difficult concepts. Data overload is a feature of their construction, so the time to read, understand and absorb the data can be over-long when the students' aim is to develop language and skills. On EAP courses, where the students are being prepared for the use of case studies in their subject courses, the use of long case studies is clearly justified (Charles, 1984). On other courses, the use of mini-case studies may be the best option. Some of the case studies for introductory business courses can be adapted and used with both EBP and non-EBP students. The tasks below are examples from a book of mini-case studies suitable for students on introductory business courses (Hugget R. 1990. Business Case Studies, CUP); they could easily feature as ESP tasks:

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a e smg' cases ui ies Stage Business Course ESP Course 1. Data Input Data presented Data presented

through paper through paper documents- documents, audio scope for CD- and video Rom. recordings. Good

scope for CD-Rom in the future.

a. Design an advertisement/ a market research questionnaire/ a poster;

b. Write a letter/ a report; c. Draw up a business plan; d. Design an announcement for display on computer

screens. The briefs are one two pages long and the language is

not difficult. On the negative side, experienced business personnel would find them very simplistic. Another word of warning-many have been prepared around western concepts of life and business; more serious adaptation will probably be required to use them in other cultural situations.

The case-study approach can be broken down into three main stages: data input, data processing and output presentation. Both the case and the way it is used can reflect the learners' professional world (Charles, 1984). However, each of the three stages may be handled slightly differently for ESP purposes: there may be more structuring of activities than usual and more of the work may be carried out in class so that language work can be undertaken as required. Table 10.1 illustrates some of these differences. (The data processing stage can be further broken down into several phases such as understanding and manipulating the data, analysis, the application of knowledge and skills, and

T bl 101 U . t ii

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2. Data No specific help Guided questions processing: given. Syndicate on the input to for-example members apply focus attention on understanding experience and key aspects and and learning from areas where manipulating subject modules. language could data hinder

understanding;

3. Output No specific help Oral presentation presentation given. planned, rehearsed

videoed for language feedback; support and feedback for planning, drafting and revising written reports.

Weighing up alternative solutions- it has been given just one phase.) The case-study approach is a deep-end approach with the ESP teacher making decisions about what language and skills to feed in as it becomes apparent that without input or practice learners will be hindered in their work.

An issue with case studies is the degree of subject expertise required by the ESP teacher. Some understanding of the concepts behind a particular case study seems essential: experienced professionals do not require specialist guidance from the ESP teacher but they will have more confidence in, and respect for, a teacher who has a grasp of the relevant concepts. Students on or preparing for a subject course may benefit from some guidance to the approach they

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should adopt and the issues they should take into consideration. As always, the carrier content needs to be within the realms of their experience. The need for an understanding of relevant subject or business concepts suggests that, in the first instance, it is advisable for an ESP teacher who does not have the subject or business background to work with a specialist somewhere on the cooperative: collaborative: team-teaching continuum (Dudley-Evansand St. [ohn, 192-194). 4. Project work

In a case study, the resource materials and brief which generate the language and skills development are given to students. In project work it is the students who find and assimilate information for a brief that, preferably, they have generated for themselves. The degree of involvement and ownership is thus much higher. When students are well prepared for project work and understand what is required of them, the purpose and the benefits, their motivation can be very high. Project work can be very rewarding but it is also a high-risk activity. Students have to search out information themselves, so there is a good deal of out-of­ class activity. The project begins in the classroom, and provides an opportunity for real world and classroom experience to overlap.

One of the first examples of project work was that used most effectively by Herbolich (1979) with his Box Kites. In the late 1970s he was working with engineering students at the University of Kuwait on a Technical Report Writing course, one component of which was Manual Writing. To successfully write manuals authors need to know how to operate the machinery or produce something themselves, so it was decided that the students should construct something and box kites were selected. This was because:

a. they were new to most people

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b. they required engineering skills c. the work enjoyable d. the language involved was relevant e. there was little available information on them so

there were no short-cuts The project worked well, an additional reason being

that most of the kites did work - they 'flied and flied' (Herbolich, 1979, reproduced in Swales, 1985). In this project, there was a tangible object created from the carrier content manual; the students worked in pairs but the topic was selected by the ESP teacher.

Project work has become a standard feature of much EAP work as most students have to carry out a project during their undergraduate studies (in postgraduate studies the project is the dissertation) and EAP practitioners have devised work to parallel these. In subject projects students generally have to:

a. generate a hypothesis b. carry out a literature review c. test the hypothesis d. write a report e. give an oral presentation or seminar

A number of disciplines set library projects which involve stages 2, 4 and 5 but do not require the setting and testing of a hypothesis.

While many EAP courses now include input on all these aspects, the EAP project rarely runs in parallel time with the subject project. Therefore, ESP teachers have to devise project situations. Few of us are as creative as Herbolich and most projects do not have a tangible object as their outcome, although projects can involve students in real research as individuals, pairs or groups. Mini-research projects for individuals or pairs can be formulated around interviews or questionnaires. More often projects are based

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on library research, engaging individuals in extensive purposeful reading followed by a written report and oral presentation (Bloor and St John, 1988). Which of these three approaches is most suitable depends on students' goal, the circumstances of the course and cultural considerations.

In many situations in life we gather information from more than one source, collate it, select from it and then transform it into spoken or written format to transmit to someone else. In ESP, it is appropriate to provide opportunities for this, for example by giving several texts for reading or listening and setting a task that exploits them jointly. The gathering and then transmitting process involves a minimum of two skills and probably all four, thus it is also often appropriate to use an integrated skills approach. These are features common to both project work and case studies which can also be built into smaller scale activities (Dudley­ Evansand St. John, 195-196).

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PART VI EVALUATION IN ESP

Hutchinson & Waters (1987:144) propose two prominent ESP levels of evaluation: learner assessment and course evaluation. These two forms of evaluation, they maintain, are not always distinct. In other words, evaluation of the learners reflects not only the learners' performance but also to some extent the effectiveness or otherwise of the course. In ESP, there are three basic types of learner assessment: placement tests, achievement tests and proficiency tests; and according to Alderson & Waters (as cited in Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).

A. Learner Assessment

Evaluating and measuring the progress of the students and the courses they learn have always been an obsession foreducators. As the goals of education have become more complex and the number of students has enormouslyincreased, evaluation has, accordingly, become much more difficult. Regarding the ESP courses, the evaluationrequirements take on even more importance by the fact that these courses normally have specified objectives (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987).

Moreover, assessment evaluates the benefits of learning, tests can give learners a sense of accomplishment and a feeling that the teacher's evaluation matches what skills and knowledge have been covered. Along the same lines, Richards and Renandya (2002) suggest that assessment yields an observed judgement of the effectiveness of teaching. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 210) add that assessment »encompasses benefits such as reinforcement, confidence building, involvement and building on strengths«.

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Moreover, assessment evaluates the benefits of learning, tests can give learners a sense of accomplishment and a feeling that the teacher's evaluation matches what skills and knowledge have been covered. Along the same lines, Richards and Renandya (2002) suggest that assessment yields an observed judgement of the effectiveness of teaching. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 210) add that assessment »encontpasses benefits such as reinforcement, confidence building, inroltemeni and building on strengths«.

Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 121) states that assessment does not stand alone, but occupies a prominent place in the ESP process, giving an ESP teacher a wealth of information on the effectiveness and quality of learning and teaching.

Self-assessment and peer assessment result in increased motivation, autonomy, direct involvement through the implementation of the following: oral production (student self-checklist; peer checklist; listening to tape-recorded oral production to detect pronunciation or grammar mistakes); self-revision or peer editing; and listening comprehension(Brown, 2001). Dudley-Evans and St John (1998) also state that peer assessment is greatly effective as a learning aid which is beneficial in large classes because teachers are frequently burdened with grading assignments.A range of class activities focusing on achievement, involvement and progress can be provided for assessment such as asking them to grade their efforts made in class and attitude to learning. Students can also be requested to reflect upon how well they use the target language to fulfill tasks, and identify what they are not able to do (Graves, 2001). Achievement assessment can be used to examine the extent to which learners have learned what has been taught. Furthermore, the result of the assessment can inform teachers about individual learner's achievement of

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the learning objectives as well as provide the feedback on the effectiveness and quality of this course (Brown, 1996).

Alenka (2008) point out that ESP testing can be viewed into three views. Firstly, the field of ESP testing has been seen as a separate and distinctive part of a more general movement of English language testing, focusing on measuring specific uses of English language among identified groups of people, such as doctors, nurses, lawyers, civil engineers, tour guides, air traffic controllers, and others. Secondly, ESP testing has been viewed in the broader context of the teaching and learning process. Thirdly, tests enhance the learning process and act as a learning device.

1. Characteristics of ESP tests Specific purpose testing is primarily concerned with

facilitating learners to perform particular communicative tasks, providing feedback on learning, confirming what students have mastered and highlighting those skills needing further attention, encouraging learning, and monitoring progress.

In principle, any ESP test can be classified as a performance test assessing the skills needed to »perform« in the language successfully. Given that language performance in individuals varies according to the context in which the language is used, then the test taker's performance on a test depends largely on the interaction between language knowledge and specific purpose content knowledge. Unlike general English tests, which can be used with young learners (e.g. Cambridge Young Learners Test) or adults (e.g. First Certificate in English), ESP tests are more likely to be used with adults or secondary school learners at intermediate and advanced level, or learners who have already acquired basic knowledge of the language system.

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Douglas (2000: 10) cites that ESP tests are »contrived language use eoents« in which, ideally, the test taker's specific purpose language ability and knowledge of the specialist field are measured. If we keep in mind that language ability refers to what a learner can do in or with a language, then what really matters in ESP testing is whether learners can communicate in a specific target language and use knowledge of the field in order to achieve their aims, in order to understand and be understood, in order to get their message across in English.

ESP tests are related in content, themes and topics to particular disciplines, and involve a higher degree of language specificity. Special lexical, semantic and syntactic characteristics of technical language, in addition to its communicative function enable people in a particular academic, professional or vocational field to convey the meaning more specifically. Precision in language is therefore a unique concept in specific purpose language testing.

Not only that, ESP testing enterprise is designed upon the demands of the linguistic characteristics of the specialist area of work or study, as language varies from one situation to another. There are important differences between, say, an English test of engineers and that of tourist guides, as they address the nature of particular varieties of English from a specific vocational and professional field.

Further, one of the prevailing principles of ESP testing is that tests should contain tasks that mirror faithfully those of the candidates' target language use situation.

This leads us to a view of ESP testing in which tests are developed on the basis of a detailed analysis of characteristics of context and tasks in target language use situation. The target language profile for assessing a specific group of learners would thus entail samples of communication activities, communication purposes,

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linguistic features, functions, descriptions of content areas, language skills, etc. For instance, if we were to devise an English test for tourist guides, we would first describe a range of typical situations in which tourist guides work, typical uses and characteristics of English language that they most often find themselves in.

In that case, if an awareness of the learners' needs shapes the design of an ESP course and teaching materials, then the analysis of the learner's target language use situations is the first and perhaps the most important stage in designing an ESP test. A thorough coverage of typical real-life communicative events would, firstly, result in the selection and creation of suitable test tasks, secondly, facilitate a more integrated and thematically linked assessment, in which test tasks authentically characterize the reality of the learners, and, not lastly, such tests would have higher validity (Douglas 2000; Hutchinson and Waters 1987; Munby 1978).

Alenka (2008) point out that accordingly, ESP tests are more concerned to present learners with tasks that involve them in reading, listening to, speaking or writing the target language, and evaluating how well they can do this. Of course, an important component in assessing how well somebody can use English is how accurately they can produce or understand texts written or spoken in the language, but the key to this assessment is to present learners with tasks that resemble in some way the sort of things they may have to do with the language in real life. Therefore, the ESP approach in testing is based on the analysis of learners' target language use situations and specialist know ledge of using English for real communication. In view of what has been said it is clear that an ESP test is one in which the purpose, the test content and the methods are more narrowly defined. Consider for

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instance tests in English for Civil Engineers or Military Service devised for the purpose of evaluating occupational language abilities. If we accept the existence of specific purpose tests as described here, the next question might be: How many ESP tests are there? Namely, specific purposes can be wide or narrow, vocational or academic, including anything from English for Airport Controllers, Chemists or Hoteliers to Legal English and beyond. This diversity in itself poses a question: Is ESP testing truly possible between such widely differing fields or does each field of human activity have an ESP test of its own?

Alenka (2008) states that no human activity and no specific purpose field can simply be classified without overlaps. Thus, the line where one ESP test begins and where another ESP test ends is very vague indeed. A test that is constructed for chemistry engineering and a test devised for assessing lawyers, although belonging to various fields, tend to share a number of features. What is truly fascinating about the practice and testing of ESP is that the vast repertoire of specific tests offered is also underpinned by a common structure of testing principles and techniques. In this sense, then, ESP testing provides a framework relevant across different disciplines.

2. Assuring the quality of ESP tests When devising an ESP test one should aim at creating

good and dependable measures of language ability which need to:

a. be as authentic as possible, b. provide accurate and reliable measures of language

ability, c. have beneficial effects, d. be practical and economical in terms of

administration, time, money and personnel.

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Most authors (Alderson et al. 1995; Bachman and Palmer 1996; Douglas 2000; Dudley-Evans and St. John 1998) identify authenticity of task, reliability, validity, practicality and economy as the most important factors affecting the quality of a test in a positive or negative way. A detailed account of the above-mentioned factors would go beyond this paper, therefore, I shall briefly define the element of authenticity as one of the salient features of ESP tests.

In case of authenticity, test takers should be engaged in a variety of genuine tasks in which language ability and field specific content knowledge interact in a way which is similar to the student's real-life language use. This interaction between language knowledge and specific purpose content knowledge makes an integral part of the whole ESP testing concept. When authentic language and material are discussed, we usually think of language used in non-test or non-pedagogic texts, language referring to real­ life situations and natural communication, and texts close to the readers' needs and language use.

Accordingly, in the ESP testing situation authenticity of task refers the similarity of the test task to the target language use situation, the more authentic a text or task is, the more probable it is for the test taker to carry out the test task in the same way, as he/she would perform it in the actual target situation. Thus, authentic texts and tasks are representative of the specific language use situation or similar to the tasks a test taker actually performs in his/her work.

Another important factor in ESP testing is backwash or washback effect. The notion of backwash is that of impact, which seeks to investigate the relationship between test use and the ESP situation in which it is used (Hughes 1989). Put simply, it is the effect of testing on classroom instruction, on »tohat is taught and how it is iaught« (Dudley-Evans and St.

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Jolm 1998: 214). Tests, especially those that are important for the test takers, may generate positive or negative backwash.

The example of EAP tests which is very widely used and provide some useful information. About learners performance in EAP are: 1. The International English Language Testing System

(IELTS) is jointly managed by the British Council, the University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate and the International Development Program of Australian Universities and Colleges. It provides a systematic and continuously available system of assessing the English-language proficiency of non-native speakers who intend to study in the medium of English. The IELTS test is divided into four sub-tests: reading, writing, listening and speaking. A test report form gives details of the results of the test. Each sub-test is reported separately in the form of a band score. The individual sub-test band scores are added together and averaged to obtain an overall band score. Each band corresponds to a descriptive statement, which gives a summary of the English of a candidate classified at this level. The scale of bands increases from 1 to 9. This qualification is accepted by most British universities, who ask for levels of between 5.5 and 7 depending on subject and level of study. An intensive EAP course of around three months would normally be necessary to improve the students' IELTS scores by one band.

2. The Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) is a single subject examination recognised in most countries of the world as an indication of English proficiency for placement of students in colleges and universities. At the moment, there are three versions of the test, depending on which part of the world the test is taken in: a. The traditional Paper-Based TOEFL test (PBT)

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b. The Computer-Based TOEFL test. (CBT) c. The Internet-Based TOEFL test (iBT)

B. Course Evaluation Evaluation in ESP situations is concerned with the

effectiveness and efficiency of learning, with achieving the objectives (assuming that need analysis has set valid objectives) (Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998:129). Moreover (Hutchinson and Water, 1987:) There are four main aspects of ESP course evaluation to be considered:

1. What should be evaluated? 2. How can ESP courses be evaluated? 3. Who should be involved in the evaluation? 4. When (and how often) should evaluation take place?

Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998: 132) states that the main for evaluation are the learners, people the learner work or study with, document and records used, ourselves and colleagues. While the method to collect data are checklist and questionnaire, assessment, discussion, and record keepings. Structured interviews, observation.

Course evaluation has to be built in as part of the course design. Evaluation of ESP courses focuses on the effectiveness and efficiency of the course in meeting the learner needs and achieving the proposed objectives of the course. The former took place at or after the end of an activity while the latter was ongoing and typically undertaken at intervals. The course evaluation analyzed the variables affecting the course design and implementation. The information for evaluation of the present course was gathered by: i) the results of learners' assessment; ii) the learners appraisal on course framework, materials and teaching methods (a questionnaire was distributed to the learners at the end of this course); iii) the trainers' reflective

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report (it was conducted by the trainer during the teaching process); iv) informal interviews with some randomly selected learners, the manager and HR of the company. Information collected by different means was analyzed. The final formal feedback on the progress of the participants and the evaluation of the course were submitted to stakeholders to demonstrate that the ESBPcourse had fulfilled the business English learning goals of thecompany' s newly recruited employees.

The following are data collection method used in evaluation: 1. Checklist and questionnaire

Checklist and questionnaire consist of statement with the choice in which respondent are asked to check their choice. For evaluation purposes, attitude scales, rating scales, pair comparisons, Likert scale, balance non comparative rating scale and adjective checklist can quickly assess views. 2. Structured interviews

Structured interview consist of question which have been carefully thought out and selected in advance. It provide valuable information.

3. Observation Robinson (1991) points out that observing past students

who are working may be an effective means in seeing to what extent the ESP course has fully prepared them for workplace needs. After such observation, the course designer is then able to reorganize the course materials for the following year students. 4. Assessment

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Assessment includes formal and informal judgment of students performance and progress through classwork, assignment and test. 5. Discussion

Discussion are more informal; they can be planned but are often spontaneous. In discussion, what most beneficial, to check whether the views are representative of every one or only reflect the vocal minority. 6. Record keeping

For evaluation, in lessons record keeping is a must. This can include teacher records of what actually happen in lesson, and learner records such as diaries.

Pre-course, Mid-course and end-of-course evaluation Pre-course evaluation applies before course to know the

prior knowledge of the learners. Since this course lasts two academic semesters, a mid-course evaluation questionnaire can be given to learners in order to fine-tune the course before it finishes(Feez, 1998). End-of-course evaluation can be achieved through analyzing learners' outcomes, particularly, their final examination results and performance. They can also be asked to review their work and keep diaries of what they think easy /hard, interesting/ uninteresting. The findings from such diary input can be analyzed periodically(Hedge, 2000).

Student feedback and teacher self-evaluation

After each class, it is helpful to ask the learners to evaluate the class to provide feedback to the teacher(Hedge, 2000). However, informal discussion with individual students could be a more appropriate and spontaneous means for students to express what they really think about the course because in a more formal situation such as

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interviewing a group of students may feel inhibited. It could also be valuable for teachers to evaluate themselves by filling in a self-assessment sheet or keeping a log book(Hedge, 2000).

Pre-course information questionnaire

PERSONAL DETAILS Family name First names _ Nationally Main language _ Date of birth Female/ male _ Contact address----------------- Contact numbers e-mail address _

PROFESSIONAL DETAILS Name of organization-------------­ Length of time with organization---------- Job title _ Length of time in current job-----------­ Working language of organization----------

CURRENT USE OF ENGLISH Do you use English in your current job? _ If yes, is this mainly spoken, written or both _ How many hours a week are you likely to use English?

Do you use English mainly in-company, externally or both?

Do you use English mainly with native speakers (for example Americans), non-native speakers or both?

Please give details of previous English studies.

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FUTURE USE OF ENGLISH Do you want to improve your current job or s new one?

Is there a particular reason for wanting to take a course at this point in your life?

If yes, please specify?

Will your future use of English be different to your current use?

If yes, please specify in what ways.

YOUR JOB Please describe the roles and responsibilities of your job.

Evaluation of the workshop: English for research communication

10+ 7-9

The course participants contributed to the content of this evaluation form. 1. Please rate your experience in writing articles for

publication. a) You have drafted

0 1-3 4-6 7-9 10+ b) You have had

0 1-3 4-6

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2. How useful was this workshop for you? 0 1 2 3 4 5 (not) ( extremely) 3. What language is your mother tongue? 4. Please fill in the table.

Most useful Unnecessary Could have been improved

5. Please indicate your feelings about the following (a to i): very satisfied fairly not

satisfied satisfied satisfied

a) achievement of objectives

b) amount of input

c) level of input

d) participants' contribution

e) handouts

f) number of exercises

g) duration of workshop

h) the room

i) other facilities

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When you tick 'fairly satisfied' or 'not satisfied' please give your reasons. 6. What were the best sessions/ aspects of the course?

7. What were the least satisfactory session/ aspects?

8. What improvements would you suggest for repeat course?

9. What would you suggest for follow-up to this course?

10. Please list the outcomes of the course for you personally.

11. Please add any other comments.

Course evaluation student questionnaire This was devised by teacher who had been trying new approaches and new materials in course. New approaches to learning and writing Tick only the appropriate box, thus:

a) How did you find group activities in the classroom? very interesting interesting not interesting

b) Did you find the activities before the actual writing exercise very interesting interesting

c) Did you like tolerate

interesting

dislike

not

hate discussing and correcting errors in your draft work with your colleagues?

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d) Editing each other's written work was very useful useful not useful

e) How did you find sharing the teacher's comments in your market work with your neighbor? very useful useful not useful

f) How did you find working in pairs in class? very useful useful not useful

g) Did the pre-writing activities make it easier for you to produce better pieces of writing? Yes No

h) Did you find the passages used for comprehension and summary relevant to your area of study? Yes No

i) Did you find the passages and exercises extremely difficult above your level but challenging within your level below your level

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PART VII APPLICATION

A. Need Analysis

This part describes need analysis conducted by Jiang Shaohua (2011: 58-82) at Chinese International Business Personnel as a starting point in course design. The researcher applied integrated method in conducting NA. The multiple sources for the Need Analysis used in this course design are: the company manager, the HR representative, the direct supervisor of the target learners, the senior staff in this division, the target learners, and the documents which the trainees are expected to read and write in their daily work. The present NA draws on discussions, interviews, analysis of authentic texts, assessments and questionnaires in order to acquire information that may be contributive to 'target situation analysis (TSA)', 'learning situation analysis (LSA)' and 'present situation analysis (PSA). 1. Procedure of Need Analysis

The "pre-course needs analysis" was conducted to establish "the what and how of this ESBP course", "ongoing needs analysis" was carried out during the course, to ensure its relevance and efficiency for the learners. Likewise, evaluation of the course and the progress of its participants were presented both during and at the end of the course. During the implementation of the NA, authorization from the managements in the company was granted before the course designer proceeded with the data collection. a. Discussion with the company vice-president and the HR

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representatives The researcher first received the major concerns

about the ESBP course from the company vice-president of Eurasia Trading Company and the representatives from the human resources department who are in charge of on-the­ job training programs for the new employees. It would be essential to acquire as much information in regard to the roles and responsibilities of the trainees as well as their most required areas of business English language learning. As the manager and HR representatives stressed, "it is the insufficient English communicative abilities of their general working staff (the target miscommunications with their overseas trade partners". Thus, this immediate intensive ESBP course has to be established to equip the employees with sufficient language skills to conduct effective communication with the foreign trade clients.

b. Structured interviews with the direct supervisors and written introspections by senior staff (domain experts)

It is assumed that the supervisors of the target students may be able to identify what their subordinates lack regarding BE skills in the working environments. It would be more feasible and favorable to talk to them and to ask for relevant authentic documents in international trade operation for NA and teaching materials in person. Therefore, the course designer had managed to reserve time with the supervisor to do the structured interviews. Not surprisingly, they not only pointed out the weaknesses and deficiency in English language skills of the target learners but also provided a pile of international trade documents as

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well as their expectations from the trainees. By this phase, information for TSA has been obtained.

According to findings from the interview, most of the senior staffs considered the following five aspects as the most important:

1) descriptions of product specifications and market trends,

2) business communication and negotiation, 3) listening comprehensions of different English accents

or clarification skills, 4) understandings of cross-cultural issues 5) English presentations.

c. Business English proficiency test, questionnaire, structured interview and participatory discussion for the target learners

The target trainees were required to take a BE proficiency test in terms of listening, reading and writing before the implementation of this course. The past paper of The Business English Certificates (BEC) (intermediate level) was used in the pretest. The test results were analyzed for PSA to find out their defects when compared with the results of TSA.

After analyzing all the collected data, the course designer drafted a list of the topics and then designed a questionnaire for the students to complete. The questionnaire is believed to be the most popular means of carrying out a needs analysis (Ellis & Johnson, 2002). In addition, some open-ended questions were constructed in the questionnaire which can provide some indications of the

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learner's writing ability in English. The purpose of this questionnaire is to understand the students' preferences in their learning process (LSA). The questionnaires were distributed to the prospective learners via e-mail, because they are in-service personnel and are fully occupied on the weekdays. A strictly structured interview with individual learner was conducted respectively in their spare time.

A participatory discussion was held by the course designer to assess the learners' current level of English speaking skills in BE communication.

d. Observation and collection of authentic texts/ documents Williams (1998) claimed a careful observation of the

target language situations is far superior to the imagination of the teacher or materials writer (Williams, 1998, cited in Edwards, 2000). The real workplace was visited by the course designer and the target learners' daily routine job, like the communication and negotiation with their foreign clients via telephone or E-mail and the operation of international trade documents, were carefully observed and recorded, so that TSA could be further perfected. As Dudley­ Evans and St. John (1998) have suggested, two types of authentic documents were collected for the NA and teaching materials during the process of observation. One is for TSA: workshop agendas, meeting minutes, contracts' terms and conditions, market reports, tender specifications, safety specifications, press releases, user's manuals, and advertisements. The other, such as business correspondences produced by the target trainees, can be used for PSA. All these above activities were carried out only after the

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permission of the company, and all the information and materials collected were merely accessible for this ESBP course in strict confidentiality

e. Ongoing needs analysis Ongoing needs analysis was carried out during the

implementation of this course, to ensure that this course was effective and useful for the trainees. The casual conversations (informal interview) with the learners were conducted during the whole process of learning to provide the teacher with means for updating information for the on­ going needs analyses concerning needs variation of the participants. In this way, the teacher could assess the effectiveness and efficiency of the undergoing course and correspondingly make necessary modifications on the teaching contents, materials and methodologies to ensure that the course benefits the participants and meets the learning objectives.

B. Syllabus Design

Based on data got from the need analysis, Jiang Shaohua design an multi-layered syllabus which is composed of the three complementary, closely interwoven strands of functions, topics and vocabulary" (Edwards, 2000) was designed for this course. The integrated multi-strand syllabus features in the combination of different aspects of language for maximal comprehensiveness and the accordance with specific target situations as well as the needs of the learners.

According to the course objectives and the results of need analysis, the situational syllabus and notional­ functional syllabus (Brown, 1995) were established. The situational syllabus takes the real-life contexts of language

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uses as its basis. It was designed to teach the BE skills that occur in situations related to and the communicative skills involved in the international business setting. The functional syllabus, which developed alongside the notional syllabus, was mainly focusing on teaching students the social functions of BE to deal with the elements such as invitation, apologies, suggestions, etc.

Intrinsically, the ESBP course syllabus is scaffolded by English written and oral skills. So the English grammar and vocabulary knowledge were incorporated into the syllabus. This is inspired by Paltridge' s espousal of using whole texts to teach language while looking at how "meanings are expressed at the level of grammar and vocabulary" (2001, p. 92).

Broad Category Breakdown

grammatical or structural syllabus, notional-functional syllabus,

content or product situational syllabus, topic syllabus, content-based syllabus

Skills Listening, Speaking, Reading, Writing.

process syllabus method or process procedural or task-based syllabus,

learning-centered or negotiated syllabus

Therefore, the syllabus produced based on data got from need analysis as follows:

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Areas Topic

1. Telephoning/I' e Answering/ transferring phone leconferencing calls, taking messages, listening

skills, clarifying skills (numbers and spelling)

2. Introductions Greetings, introducing people,

hosting foreign visitors, small

talks, introducing local cultures, arranging itineraries, etc

3. Product Describing product specifications, presentation introducing new technologies,

suggesting market strategies,

describing market trends (presenting facts and figures), etc. Introducing cultural differences in

4. Cross-cultural communication, lifestyles, communication gestures, taboo topics, etiquettes,

table manners etc. Chairing a meeting, turn-taking,

5. Business showing

agreements/ disagreements, note- meetings taking skills, summarizing, etc. 6. Business Writing to show invitations and correspondence

confirmations, to inform/ advise, to

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persuade, to report good/bad

news, to send out ultimatums, etc.

7. Business report Writing marketing proposals and writing meeting minutes 8. Business Deciphering legal documents documents ( contracts, terms and conditions, reading

etc.), market reports, safety

specifications, tender specifications, etc.

9. Business Negotiating on the prices, the negotiations shipment, the condition of the

business deal, etc. 10. International Communicating with foreign communication business partners successfully.

C. Material Development In this part, it will be described a research that

Sismiati and Latif Conducted in developing material. The research model used in their study is based on

Yalden' s (1987) model, Language Program Development (LPD) which consists of Needs Analysis, Development, Validation and Revision, Try-out, and Revision to produce Final Product.

Based on the results of the needs analysis, materials development was accomplished following these five stages: (1) description of purpose; (2) selection of syllabus type; (3) production of a proto-syllabus; (4) production of a

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pedagogical syllabus; and (5) production of the teaching materials.

A communicative syllabus, specifically a functional one was chosen to address the needs of the learners. A proto syllabus was designed by considering the early stages of development of the functional syllabus in this study. The objectives of the functional syllabus were stated primarily in terms of communicative functions and were used to determine the functions, which in turns were used to determine the selection and sequencing of grammatical materials.

A pedagogical syllabus was developed to provide guidelines of how teachers teach and what strategies they use in their work. The production of a pedagogical syllabus contains the main teaching-learning activities based on CTL approach and the real context of nursing settings in daily working hours in hospitals.

The proposed functional syllabus on speaking for nursing students is taken as the main basis to develop the 'speaking materials' in this study. Therefore, the textbook is developed to reflect their language needs within their prospective professions as nurses in hospitals. The materials development is initiated by choosing the topics and mapping the materials to be developed. The topics selection stage was continued by formulating the general objectives, stating the specific objectives, and developing topics into tasks.

Following the needs analysis and materials development is expert validation, which involved experts in materials development, doctors, nurses, and English lecturers, whose competence and experience have contributed to the refinement of the developed materials. The validation covers evaluation of the content, language, and the style of delivery in teaching learning process. The doctors and nurses validated the content of the product

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related to their field and knowledge while the expert of materials development validated the language and the style of delivery in teaching learning process. The English lecturers evaluated the textbook and their corresponding indicators, which have seven main aspects under interest, namely: content, exercises, communication, culture, connections, communities, and general elements.

Following expert validation is limited try-out conducted to get feedback on the developed materials, to eliminate the weaknesses so that the developed materials can meet the intended quality. The subjects of the try out were 40 students of nursing school of University of Muhammadiyah Malang. The try out involved the implementation, observation, reflection, and revision. Three topics were used to teach the students in the speaking class of the nursing school. The students were encouraged to learn and practice according to the tasks given in each topic. Their performance was guided, monitored and evaluated by their lecturer and the researcher. The students' activities in the classroom were observed. Their interactions with their classmates and the lecturer and their individual performance were observed to see how much the developed materials are applicable to be used in the classroom. Some notes on the problems encountered by the students were taken in the observation sheet. The students were interviewed after the class. Some important information, such as, problems encountered by the students was noted down and analyzed. If the developed materials meet the criteria of 'success' then the developed materials are to be considered appropriate for the speaking class of nursing school.

To gain more information of the lecturer and students' opinions for the developed materials, they were given another form of evaluation with certain aspects and criteria. This evaluation is useful for a general impression

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about a particular aspect. The acceptability of each aspect of the materials is measured based on the criteria that if the number of responses under a particular aspect gets lower than 50 %, the aspect under evaluation is interpreted as being not satisfactory and, therefore, needs to be revised.

The results of the try-out were used as the basis for final revision of the product, which consists of a syllabus, teachers' book, students' book, and audio CD for nursing students.

The final products of this development are a syllabus and speaking textbook materials for nursing students, presented in students book, teachers book and audio CD. The materials have the characteristics of the CTL approach appropriate to help the students in mastering good speaking skill. These characteristics are reflected in particular contexts with the elements of effective learning: constructivism, inquiry, questioning, learning community, modeling, reflection, and authentic assessment.

In the developed materials, the teachers could facilitate the students' knowledge construction, as they are required to practice and discuss the topics especially selected from their workplace. When the students are working together, in discussion, pair work, or role-play, they can give and get other information and enrich their nursing knowledge from their partners. Besides, the topics are presented in a series of tasks requiring the students to use the language, which has about the right level of difficulty for them, so that the language is still within their ability to use. In giving an explanation to the patients about the procedure of preparing the operation, for instance, the students are only required to use imperatives. As senior high school graduates, the students are supposed to have learned such patterns. Now, they only need to activate this knowledge. The difficult thing for the students, in this case, may be the

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vocabulary they have to use in their instructions, yet, they can work together with their partner to recall as well as to enrich the vocabulary they have learned previously.

The expert of syllabus and English for Specific Purpose materials design argued that the products were generally good and eligible to be used as the syllabus and 'speaking textbook' for nursing students. However, some suggestions were given to revise some points. Generally the contents, the language, and the steps of delivery in the Hand Book of Speaking for Nursing were considered good. The use of color pictures in every unit and the use of native speakers' voice in giving the model of dialogues gave good impression. It is good for students to see the real nursing settings as they can see the nurses' duties and the real problem in nursing activities that should be communicated. However, it was suggested that the book should provide diagrams and charts in color pictures because a nurse should learn how to read and report something based on diagrams or charts.

The expert also suggested revision on the course overview, especially those related to course identity, course objectives, topics and subtopics, and the scheme of the topics. Furthermore, she recommended that the draft be completed with preface and table of contents.

On the basis of the experts and lecturer's comments and suggestions, the drafts of the materials were revised. The revision was done mostly on language rather than on content. The word to understand in the general objective of the functional syllabus, for example, was changed to produce, the word to gain confidence was omitted.

In Unit 1, the word carting was changed into charting. In Unit 2, asking the intensity and degree of pain was changed into asking and recording the intensity and degree of pain.

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In Unit 3, reading a prescription charts was changed into reading a prescription chart and expressing was changed into expression.

The materials of the try-out were limited to three topics (Unit 1, Unit 4, and Unit 11) based on the lecturer's suggestion. The try-out was conducted in three sessions in April to June 2010. The lecturer conducted the try-out, while the researcher served as an observer.

The implementation of the first try-out ran well. The materials were presented without encountering much difficulty. The lecturer seemed motivated in conducting the try-out. The atmosphere was quite conducive because the students were also eager to follow the try-out. The second try-out was conducted to find out more about the usability of the materials, particularly, to get more information on the process of how the teacher and the students could run the learning process using the materials developed.

The syllabus and the materials for speaking classes of nurses have been developed following the CTL principles: constructivism, inquiry, questioning, learning community, modelling, reflection and authentic assessment. Inquiry is a cycling process that involves observing, questioning, investigating, analyzing, and theorizing. Hence, students' improved knowledge is expected to be the result of this process, and the teachers should set up the situation that enables this process to take place. The students may investigate the phenomena that appear as the consequence of the particular language they use. These phenomena can become the data that needs to be analyzed. The analysis, then, will result in a theory which may be in line with the models or the development of the models.

Questioning, facilitated in the developed materials, is a strategy for the lecturers to prompt, guide and assess the students' thinking. For the students, it is used in their

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inquiry to dig up the information, to confirm the already known information and to concentrate on the unknown information. Each topic is preceded by the lecturers' questions to activate the students' previous knowledge.

The students' answers enable the lecturer to decide what they will do to guide the students towards the discussion of the rest of the tasks. The lecturer may encourage the students to share ideas with their friends, to use available dictionaries, reference books, manuals, etc. When the students have already been involved in the discussion process, the questions given to the students are intended to assess how well they are getting along in the learning process. For the students, the arrangement of the tasks in the material requires them to discuss in pairs or in groups to enable them to communicate with their lecturer as well as their friends.

Learning community, which is also reflected in the developed materials, is a technique of learning where a group of students share information in a mutual learning. The implication of this concept is that the result of the learning and teaching process will be achieved by cooperating with each other. The classes are divided into groups so that the students could help each other through group work and make questions and answers about the topics being discussed. They share their understanding about the topics with their friends in their groups.

Modeling refers to the activity of giving a model to be initiated during the learning and teaching process, which can be done by the lecturers, students, or other people from outside the classroom. In modeling, the teachers demonstrate how students should do something. The students can also be asked to demonstrate the skill they have mastered as a model of performance standard that should be imitated by their friends. Other people from outside the

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classroom, such as English native speakers, if available, can also be asked to demonstrate how native speakers speak English. Modeling is given in the developed materials. It can be seen at the beginning of the new part of each topic, where the lecturer gives a model of the questions that the students have to listen and answer orally.

Reflection refers to the evaluation towards the effectiveness of the learning and teaching activities that have already been done. It is intended to determine which parts of activities still need to be improved. By identifying such weaknesses, the lecturers can revise the activities, and the students can revise their strategy in doing the activities facilitated by the lecturers in their efforts to construct their knowledge.

The developed material provides opportunities to make a reflection. At the end of each meeting, the lecturer can ask students to apply the information they have got in class to the situation in the real life. The students may be asked to describe, for example, the diabetic care for their surroundings after the discussion about the topic has been completed. In this case, the result of the students' work can be used to evaluate whether the learning and teaching activities guided by the lecturers as well as the learning strategies used by the students are quite effective. Authentic assessment is a process of gathering data, which can describe the development of the students' learning. This description is needed by the teachers to ensure whether the students have been going along the learning process well. Hence, the assessment should not only be carried out at the end of the learning and teaching process, but it should be integrated to the process of learning. It should be implemented to the real activities or tasks that the students do during the process of learning. This kind of assessment is already reflected in the material, since the material is equipped with the guidelines

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to assess the students' performance in the oral language as well as in the written language. To get information about the students' achievement levels and the progress the students make in their learning, the students can be asked to demonstrate their speaking skill by telling personal information, describing objects, giving instruction, describing sequential activities, etc. They can also be asked to demonstrate their skill for writing those topics.

The syllabus proposed for the school of nurses is the functional one. This syllabus was used as the mapping of the first draft of the materials. Its content is a description of language covered in the program. The syllabus consists of topics, sub topics, communication skill, language functions, activities, and time.

The topics were selected based on the priority of nurses' duties in the real world of working hours in a hospital. The materials were arranged as follows: 1. The 'Warming Up' serves as an introduction to the unit.

Unlike other sections, it is not meant to "teach" but rather to stimulate interest in the topic and motivate students to think briefly about their own and others' practices in regard to a particular nursing situation. Pictures are used to attract the students' attention and see the real situation of patients. Instructors generally pose short warm-ups; in some cases, not all questions need to be asked. In addition, instructors are encouraged to substitute questions with more suitable questions for their particular class.

2. 'Building- up vocabulary' serves the students to think and add to their vocabulary or medical terms used in different medical situations, as the students are also encouraged to learn medical know ledge from the sentences. 'Exercises' were designed to train the students to match the dialogue, fill the blank of dialogues, and

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match the medical terms. The aim of the exercises is to help the students learn the written dialogues before they can use them in practicing the oral dialogues.

3. 'Listen to the dialogue and answer the questions based on the dialogues by native speakers' are used to train the students' listening comprehension and used as the model of dialogues. These dialogues serve to introduce a specific nursing situation. The dialogues are meant to reflect as closely as possible a natural conversation between two speakers. Instructors may wish to vary this section by having students work in small groups to discuss the content of the dialogue and language function used.

4. 'The class activity' is meant to be accomplished with the class under the instructor's supervision. The section may involve such activities as pair and small group activities. These activities include role-play, problem solving discussion, and simulations. Role-plays are meant to be discussed by the participants and then be practiced and presented to the group or the class. Instructors can assign all the role-plays or only those they find most beneficial to their particular class. The class activities done by the class as a whole are generally meant to be teacher­ guided. In some of these activities, students are asked to correct inappropriate or incorrect expressions used. The instructor acts as a resource person or works with a particular group of students. If the class is small, all groups or group representatives may have the opportunity to present their work in class or, groups can take turns during the semester. Class discussion and comments from students are encouraged during this section. Teachers are encouraged to substitute the role­ plays in the text with others more suited to their particular class. Students may initially feel

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uncomfortable about presenting their role-play to the class. Peer and instructor feedback is to be carried out in a way that will encourage discussion rather than criticism. The class and the instructor can call attention to useful strategies of nursing interaction that students have adopted and in some cases suggest more appropriate expressions. Instructors can point out language strategies themselves depending on similar circumstances. The class can also discuss ways in which cultural differences may cause misunderstanding and what the speakers did or could have done to remedy this. Instructors are welcome to custom tailor these role-plays to their particular class and use the picture as a cue card to develop variety of conversation. The number and types of role-plays assigned may depend on the enthusiasm of the students. If students feel role-plays are useful as well as fun, they will be more eager to participate in them. Feedback from the instructor as well as other students is therefore important. In addition, instructors can help students who are overly concerned with correcting grammar to focus more on the social functions of language.

5. 'Language focus' summarizes the communication skill and language, which has been discussed in connection with the topic. These points are stated as rules of communication and are considered as generally useful in the particular situation being discussed. These rules serve only as a general guide, and the instructor may wish to expand or modify them for a particular situation. The instructor can present it in the form of lecture, or students can read the points and present them to the class. Students can also create their own points to remember and compare to those in the book.

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D. Teaching ESP

This part describes implementation of Content-based instruction in the classroom. Qixuan Zhang, (2009) implemented the use of music as the content in an integrated language unit for intermediate-level learners in the music­ majored school setting. This entire theme unit is designed to span several weeks of instruction. (See the overview of the complete unit.) The extracts illustrate the integrated skills focus of CBI as well as the other underlying principles: Extract 1 Introduction to the CBI unit "Types of Music" In the classroom extracts, T stands for teacher and S represents a particular student. Ssstands for students.

Background: Prior to this activity, the teacher has begun the unit by displaying some key words related to the theme on the screen (e.g., jazz, classical music, blues, rock music, rap, country musk, opera, pop music, rock' n' roll, dance music, folk, reggae) and asking students to work on their own and tick the words they know, with the new words checking the picture dictionary at the back of the book. She next displays several questions on the overhead projector. T: Who can read aloud the first question? S: (raises hand) T: Okey, Xu Jin. S: "What types of music do you like?" T: Great. Then what types of music do you like? S: I like classic music and opera. T: You mean you like classical music? S: Yes, classical music. T: What about you, Wang Bo? S: I like blues.

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T: Anybody else? S: I like pop music and dance music. S: I like rock' n' roll. S: Jazz and R&B. S: Rap. T: Anyone who has heard raggea? T: Yes, Zhao Pu? S: Yes, I have one piece of raggea music saved in my mobile

phone, and I can play for everybody to listen to. T: Wow, you're so cool! Thank you very much. T: Well, who can read the second question? Chang Caimei? S: Who are your favorite bands/ singers/ composers? T: Thanks. Okey, who would like to tell us your favorite

singers? S: Jay Zhou. S: Maria Carry. S: Witney Huston. S: Tao Zhe. S: Liang J ingru. S: Yu Quan. T: Mmhmmm ... there are many you can count. Then look at

the last question, and who can read it aloud? S: What was the last concert you went to? T: Is there anybody who would like to tell us about you

musical experience? S: I played drums in the last-week concert. S: I went to a graduate concert two weeks ago. T: Now, get in your groups, and take out one piece of paper

per group. I want each group to choose one person to write. In the space at the end of the page, I want your group to write whether you like the same music as others in the group. And then, I want each group to share your answer in class. Is everybody clear what I want you to do?

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Ss: Yes. T: Okay, you have ten minutes. Commentary: The teacher began this lesson by reviewing vocabulary associated with "types of music". She then elicits reactions from students, prompting or guiding them into discussion activity. This segment of the lesson is controlled by the teacher. However, the atmosphere is interactive and students are free to give their opinions. The activity sets the stage for the next, student-centered activity in which students create a group statistical work about musical interests. Extract 2 Grammar review Background: Prior to this activity, students have completed a group work task involving magazine papers. Each group was given a piece of magazine paper and asked to (1) find out the character's name and (2) select types of music he/she likes. The magazine papers are posted on the blackboard for all to see. Figure 1 shows the final blackboard layout.

Scott Julie Patt Maggie Jingjing Rock Rock pop folk folk Jazz rock pop Country music Figure 1 Blackboard layout. T: That's great! So now, we have all the papers on the

blackboard. Do you think these guys are friends? Ss: Yeah. S: Not everyone. T: Right, they probably aren't all friends. Do you think Scott

and Julie are friends? Ss: Yeah. T:Why? Ss: Because they are the same. T: Exactly. What about Julie and Maggie? Ss: Probably not.

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T: Right. Their preferences are pretty different. I don't think they are friends. Okay, so let's take a look at the preferences you have just listed. What about Scott? Who can read me the preferences listed for Scott? Wang Xinying?

S: Rock, jazz. T: Thanks. Tell me again ... Scott likes ... S: Scott likes rock and jazz. T: Right. Somebady else? Tell me about Julie ... Okay, Yuan

Yuan? S: Julie likes rock. T: Excellent. Everybody, take a look at the board. Can you

find two people who have the same preference? Ss: Scott and Julie. Ss: Julie and Patt. Ss: Patt and Magie. Ss: Maggie and Jingjing. T: Right. So tell me about Scott and Julie, Ma Nan? S: Scott prefers rock and Julie prefers rock. T: Can we say it another way? Remember what we practiced

last class? Try again, Ma Nan? S: Scott prefers rock and so ... does J uie? T: Great. (Writes following pattern on board: X likes/prefers _ and so does Y.) Everyboday, repeat, Scott prefers rock and so does Juie.

Ss: Scott prefers rock and so does Juie. T: (Points on the board to Julie and Patt, monitoring students to chorally repeat.) Ss: Julie prefers rock and so does Patt. Ss: Patt prefers pop music and so does Maggie. Ss: Maggie prefers folk and so does Jingjing. T: Okay, get in your groups again and everybody writes five

sentences using this (pointing at the blackboard) pattern. See?

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Ss: Yeah. T: Let's go. Commentary: In this grammar review activity, the teacher prompts student responses by pointing out similar preferences and asking students to construct sentences (either individually or chorally) using the patter "X likes/prefers _ and so does Y" which have been previously practiced. Students are active participants. The teacher is carefull recycle language from previous lessons ( e.g., the grammar pattern being practiced) and from previous tasks (e.g., vocabulary presented in the introduction to the unit). Because the focus of this activity is on accuracy, the teacher uses peer- and self-correction techniques to focus students' attention on the correct form of the utterance.

3. An overview of the complete unit Course book: New Era Interactive English Introductory Level Book 2 Content: Unit 4 Section B "The Rhythm of Life" Length: more than three weeks Participants: Music Academy-majored college students Week 1 Week 2 Week 3 (1) Dictionary definitions:

Students examine dictionary definitions of the "types of music" words. (2) Vocabulary building:

The teacher presents words that describe "types of music" (e.g., folk, raggea). Students then practice

(3) Vocabulary review: The teacher begins by reviewing vocabulary associated with II types of music". She then elicits reactions from students, prompting or guiding them into discussion activity.

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(4) Listening doze: Students listen to conversations about people's musical experiences and complete a listening doze on p58.

(5) Grammar review: The teacher prompt students to pick out the sentence pattern "X likes/prefers_ and so does Y", and guide students to practice this pattern ( either individually or chorally).

Week2 (1) Reading 1: Students get into groups and each group was

given a piece of magazine paper. They were asked to (1) find out the character's name and (2) select types of music he/she likes in a group work.

(2) Grammar review: The magazine papers are posted on the blackboard for

all to see. Students are prompted and guided to. (3) Listening doze:

Students listen to conversations about people's musical experiences and complete listening doze. (4) Grammar review:

The teacher prompt students to recognize and summarize the rules with Present Perfect and Past Simple, and guide them to practice the sentence patterns (Did you ever go to _? And Have you ever been to _?). Week3 (1) Reading 2:

Guided by the teacher, students answer literal comprehension questions about "Jay Chou" (e.g., "What did his mother notice when Chou was a kid?" "Why is Chou like a sponge when it comes to music?") about the passage.

(2) Jazz Chant: As a whole class entertaining activity, students practice singing following a jazz chant found from the

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pronouncing the words, focusing on word stress patterns. practice the sentence pattern "X likes/prefers_ and so does Y" and the words of "types of music" according to the blackboard layout Internet.

(3) Vocabulary building: The teacher presents words that appear in Reading 2. Students then practice pronouncing the words, focusing on word stress.

(4) Presentation: In groups, students make Powerpoints about Jay's files. They then present to the whole class.

(5) Writing: Students are asked to choose one of Jay's CDs and prompted to write a CD review.

E. Evaluation This part will describe the evaluation to ESPB course

developed by Jiang Shaohua (2011: 79-82). The research applied assessment to the learners and course evaluation it self. The following are description of the evaluation process:

1. Learners' assessment Hutchinson and Waters (1987) stressed that the

assessment of the learners serves two main purposes: measuring the learners' current knowledge about the content and providing a positive feedback to both the learners and the teacher about what the learners still need to learn. It can provide an important input to the teaching content and methods of future work. Three types of assessments - placement tests, achievement tests and proficiency tests, are mainly used in the ESP course (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987). In this ESBP course, the proficiency test was given at the beginning of this course to diagnose the learners' business English proficiency. The continuous achievement tests were

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often internal to the whole process of learning in this course and the results were used to inform teachers of the individual learners' achievement of course objectives and what progress the participants have made. Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998, p.210) claimed that the learners in the ESP course should be assessed on their performance when using English in target situations. Thus, the skills studied intensively at the beginning of the week were required to be applied in the learners' real workplace immediately. The feedback on problems or success was discussed in the following workshop. In order to make the tasks as beneficial as possible to the learners, the assessment tasks designed took the forms of writing two or more international trade documents and completing actual work-based projects.

These assessment tasks were assembled into a portfolio which was reviewed in last session of the course.

2 Course evaluation Course evaluation has to be built in as part of the

course design. Evaluation of ESP courses focuses on the effectiveness and efficiency of the course in meeting the learner needs and achieving the proposed objectives of the course. Two kinds of evaluations, summative and formative evaluations (Dudley-Evans & St. John, 1998), were used in this course. The former took place at or after the end of an activity while the latter was ongoing and typically undertaken at intervals. The course evaluation analyzed the variables affecting the course design and implementation. The information for evaluation of the present course was gathered by: i) the results of learners' assessment; ii) the learners appraisal on course framework, materials and teaching methods ( a questionnaire was distributed to the learners at the end of this course); iii) the trainers' reflective report (it was conducted by the trainer during the teaching

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process); iv) informal interviews with some randomly selected learners, the manager and HR of the company. Information collected by different means was analyzed. The final formal feedback on the progress of the participants and the evaluation of the course were submitted to Eurasia Trading Co. Ltd to demonstrate that the ESBP course had fulfilled the business English learning goals of the company's newly recruited employees.

The trainees and the manager of the company are quite satisfied with this ESBP course according to the course evaluation conducted at the end of this training. However, several trainees have suggested in the course evaluation sheet that more professional international business knowledge should be added into the ESBP course. This suggestion has made the course designer think deeply. Two puzzles have held his attention and need to be further explored.

Puzzle 1: Should an ESP course be a course of English language learning or a course of specialized know ledge learning?

Both Strevens (1988) and Dudley-Evans and St. John (1998) agreed with one of the absolute characteristics of ESP, that is, ESP should be centered on language suitable to those contents in syntax, lexis, discourse, semantics and the language skills. On the contrary, Hutchinson and Waters (1987) defined ESP as an approach rather than a product. They claimed that ESP does not only focus on a particular kind of language, teaching materials or methodology, but also emphasizes the function of this course because it must meet the needs of the learners who seek to fulfill their future goals by learning an ESP course.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987) again pointed out the goal-directed nature of ESP. Similarly, Robinson (1991) stressed that "the role of English in ESP is just a medium",

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which indicates that the aim of ESP should help the learners to obtain the specific kind of knowledge under the help of English. Puzzle 2. Can we really 'learn two in one' in an ESP course?

Optimists and those who contend there is no sense arguing about whether ESP should be a course of English or of specialized know ledge believe that learners can obtain both in one ESP course. The definition of ESP in their mind might be a dual-goal course in which a learner can fulfill the tasks of improving English proficiency and learning specialized knowledge. In theory, this can be a perfect assumption, but in practice it has been proved that a learner with the so-called dual-goal pursuit may end up in achieving neither. According to a survey on English majors in Chongqing University, China (Wu et al, 2004), 66.6% of them felt dissatisfied with the EBP course because the teacher kept switching between conveying specialized information in business and explaining language points in class which greatly interfered with their concentration and focus, and thus resulted in poor outcomes.

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Appendix 1 Survey of English language needs of medical professionals

Part One

1. Hospital where you work 2. Job title 3. Specialty 4. Name of University you graduated from 5. Name of college and major 6. Year you graduated from college

Part Two

7. What percentage of your work is conducted in English? Please write down a percentage in the space below

8. Have you been engaged in medical training courses while working at the hospital? Please circle one answer. Yes/no

9. If you answered yes, which language is used in these courses? Please circle one answer.

a. Indonesian b. English c. Both d. Others

10. Do your coworkers include people who communicate in English only? Please circle one answer. Yes/no

11. If you answered yes, how often does your job require you

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to communicate with them? Please circle one answer. a. A lot b. Somewhat c. A little d. Never

12. How important is it to have a high level of English proficiency to perform your job effectively? Please circle one answer.

a. Very important b. Somewhat important c. Little important d. Not important

Part Three 13. Which level of the listening English language skill enables

you to perform your job effectively? Please circle one answer. a. Excellent level b. Good level c. Satisfactory level d. N/A

14. Which level of the speaking English language skill enables you to perform your job effectively? Please circle one answer. a. Excellent level b. Good level c. Satisfactory level d. N/A

15. Which level of the reading English language skill enables you to perform your job effectively? Please circle one answer. a. Excellent level

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b. Good level c. Satisfactory level d. N/A

16. Which level of the writing English language skill enables you to perform your job effectively? Please circle one answer. a. Excellent level b. Good level c. Satisfactory level d. N/A

17. Rank the following English language skills in terms of importance in conducting your job? Please rank using numbers from 1 to 4, with 1 being most important and 4 being least important. a. Listening b. Speaking c. Reading d. writing

18. How important is it to have a high level of English proficiency when performing the following activities? Please circle one number with 1 being most important and 5 being least important

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Listenin Speakin Rea din Writing g g g

A Dealing with 12345 12345

B Dealing with 12345 12345

c Phone conversations 12345 12345

D Letters 1234 12345

E Memos 1234 12345

F E-mails and Faxes 1234 12345

G Research 1234 12345

H Forms/ Applications 1234 12345

I Reports 1234 12345

J Using Computers 1234 12345

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K Meetings 12345 12345 1234 12345

L 1234 12345 Instructions/ 12345 12345 explanations 5

M Presentations 12345 12345 1234 12345

N Others, please 12345 12345 1234 12345 specify: 5

19. How would you rate your knowledge of English before you began college? Please circle one answer.

a. very good b. satisfactory c. poor d. very poor

20. How did the intensive English language courses that you studied at the college level help you in the following tasks? Please look at the scale below and circle the appropriate number accordingly. a. A lot b. Somewhat c. A little d. Not relevant at all

21. How were the English language courses during your college study relevant to your medical needs? Please circle one answer. a. A lot

187

b. Somewhat c. A little d. Not relevant at all

22. How would you rate your knowledge of English after you graduated from college? Please circle one answer. a. very good b. satisfactory c. poor d. very poor

Developed by Majid Alharby, ESP target situation needs analysis: the English language communicative needs as perceived by health professionals in the Riyadh area Dissertation.1997.

188

Appendix 2: Questionnaire Items for Need Analysis The Asian ESP Journal.Volume 7 Issue 4. December 2011 (182)

1- Needs analysis (NA) was carried out at the commencement of the semester to determine students' needs.

2- A placement test was given to new undergraduate students at the beginning of the course to determine their language needs.

3- The course objectives and students' goals are identical and compatible.

4- Students have clear idea of their present and future language needs.

5- The EGP course can help students to discover their own language needs.

6- The EGP course can improve students' four language skills.

7- Students can tackle their educational and occupational needs after graduation.

8-The EGP course can help students to develop their English communication skills.

9- Using subject-specific topics would be useful in the EGP classes in order to fulfill students' needs.

10- Students' reading skills and strategies have improved as a result of the EGP course.

11- Students mostly read content materials in English. 12- The activities and exercises carried out in the EGP classes

are useful and can fulfill students' needs. 13- The EGP classes provide students with authentic

language experience. 14- The EGP course can increase students' vocabulary

knowledge.

189

15- The classroom activities and exercises are carried out based on students' discipline.

16- The study skills are taught to students in the EGP classes. 17- NA was conducted at the commencement of the semester

to determine materials based on students' discipline and needs.

18- The EGP classes are equipped with different types of teaching aids.

19- There is a connection between the EGP course and the wider educational and occupational world.

20- Students are aware of their future needs. 21- The 3-hour-per-week EGP course during one semester is

enough to satisfy students' needs.

190

Appendix 3 Sample material

� �-- Pm wort. Tam � time co tNWt a slmlar w,aae uslfV lhe � below, then. deua1be tta voyage to JOLI' pmtoor who wll falJow ii on ll'IO M9P pnwlded. Onoe YN" pennefo ....es.set nas anMld safely IO her delllnallon port, • Is time to mtam and ycur pllf1ncr Wiii doaorl)e the voyage bact. Exdlanoe rc!as an11 ·- � ,ourw,aae1

1Mll8tl - IID!y • psssonaer Iner - MV Or'8ftt - &oulhamptcn - UK • NulJ(el • ftliOW • � Channell - Bay of 8lsmy • west c:om;a Gf�.U\lbon. &lralt cl Gibtallar • Medllam:mean Sea �

�.1 » What do you know � the Titanic? Choose the best P'IIOOSllions fn 1ha foltawlna pasaaoo.

• Vessel nanic, a l!ner Cl/AT .CS.S28 cons, was Iha Ca,gost Ghlp orllN thO WCNfd v.Mn altO was bull. Shit struck an klcbocg NON the Hllltla Allanl.k: li.'ON her maiden V'O'J8D8 tNION 1912 and &allk Wllb t!le lam Gf 1.490 IMl8. 6hQ WOS 6UlilV OflfROU Soutt,runplon TOI\INTII. New York ONtlN 10 Apa 1912.

Haw read the � of a W'J8QG made bw UV Dlam8d8 paylftQ P811leufar auo� co Ille prapo&llons of plaoD. t.blerllne them. cor....-u wllh JIIUI' Bn8WBf9 for DIS text aboYG aid Cl$cU$S. • on 6 Apl11, tm 1IIO French gononil mngo vassat, MV Dbnudet, MD fully loaded

when w 11n lhe por1 or New 0r1eans kl Che uaA 10t ttawa111n lhO HeiwiiQn land" Sho Slaamod 001009 1ho Oi4M ol Me,doo, lhrough tlB Vucutan Channel and alo11J th9 nadh C08EI cf Jmnaflca, � al t<lngllon. T110n She salllld lhRIUgh the Panama QKm and aaUSI Ibo Padllc Oceania Hawaii.

�- \M1l8 a Elmltaf dericrfpbl for ht llOJllgO otdtlod bolow and follow Iha '110S,t81 by pm111rv her nuo en th8 map. Usu u. app11prte1e prepositions and 1he dd'IRle anlcle (tllo) where necosaatr:

1CJ181BO • bUII: all conter • SS Edctpise - partial toad • Nagaaeld -Japen - Bambey • lndf8 • eas1 coas1 al China • Taiwan Simi - S!Mh China sea - SlqJ8par9 - 811'811 at MalDcc8 • lndlan Ocoen • Qt Lanka • wost coast Of India • Bomllay.

191

Appendix 4Reading Course Evaluation Form Student Evaluation Form for ELI 72 (ELI 1991)

Evaluation Form

Teacher's name

(Family Name) (Other name)

To the students: As you complete the evaluation below, please remember that your HONEST and THOUGHTFUL answer will be used to improve ELI courses and teaching for the benefit of future students.

1. How much do you feel that your OVERALL ABILITY as an English reader has improved as a result of taking this course? Very positive 1 2 345 6 7 Not very positive

2. How much has your ability to read in your UNIVERSITY CONTENT COURSES improved as a result of taking this course? Very positive 1 2 3 45 6 7 Not very positive

3. How much do you think your VOCABULARY has increased as a result of taking this course? Very positive 1 2 3 45 6 7 Not very positive

4. How much do you think your SKIMMING and SCANNING ABILITIES have increased as a result of taking this course? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

5. How much has your speed in reading increased as a result of taking this course? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

6. How much has your ability to UNDERSTAND THE MAIN IDEAS as a result of taking this course? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

192

7. How much has your ability to STUDY MORE EFFICIENTLY improved as a result of taking this course? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

8. How helpful was the VOCABULARY TEXTBOOK used in this course? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

9. How helpful was the COURSE TEXTBOOK used in this course? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

10. How helpful was the SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS used in this course? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

11. How effective were the SKIMMING exercises in improving your reading ability? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

12. How effective were the SCANNING exercises in improving your reading ability? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

13. How effective were the SPEED READING exercises in improving your reading ability? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

14. How useful was the GROUP DISCUSSION of reading materials and exercises? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

15. How successful were the WRITTEN EXERCISES on reading materials in helping you understand the main ideas or organizational of reading passages? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

15. Were written exercises used in this class? [ ] Yes [ ] No If Yes, then answer question 16

16. How successful were the WRITTEN EXERCISES on reading materials in helping you understand the main ideas or organizational of reading passages? Very useful 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Not very useful

193

17. How much effort did you put into this course? Did you put a lot of effort into it did you just do enough work to pass the course? WHY? (List any reasons - too many other courses, working at a job, laziness, disinterest, etc.)

18. Write a short paragraph to explain your overall evaluation of the strengths and of the instructor.

194

Appendix 4 Checklist For Adopting Textbooks

(Brown 1995:161) A. Material background

1. Authors credentials (education and experience)

2. Publisher's reputation B. Fit to curriculum

1. Approach 2. Syllabus 3. Needs

a. General language needs b. Situation needs

4. Goals and objectives a. Percentage of much b. Order

5. Content a. Consistent with techniques used in

program b. Consistent with exercises used in

program C. Physical characteristics 1. Layout

a. Space b. Pictures and text c. Highlighting

2. Organization a. Table of contents b. Index c. Answer keys d. Glossary e. Reference potential

3. Editorial qualities

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a. Content is accurate and edited in a manner consistent with your style

b. Directions clear and easy to follow c. Examples clear

4. Material quality a. Paper b. Binding c. Tear-out pages

D. Logistical characteristics 1. Price 2. Auxiliary parts

a. Audio visual aids b. Workbooks c. Software d. Unit test

3. Availability E. Teach ability 1. Teachers edition

a. Answer key b. Annotation to help teachers explain, plan activities,

and the like. 2. Reviews 3.. Acceptability among teachers

196

Appendix 5 Check List For Evaluation Of Materials

(Rajan 1994)

Who is the material intended for?

What are the stated apparent aims of the materials?

What methodology is it based on?

What language points do the materials cover?

What is the proportion of work for each skill?

Does it use integrated approach to skill work?

Are any tests included and in what form?

What is/ are subject matter/ areas covered in the material and what is the assumed level of knowledge?

What is the treatment of topics like?

How is the content organized?

How is it sequenced?

Is there a model for the organization of materials within each unit?

What is the type/ nature of exercises?

What aids do the materials require?

What guidance is provided for the exploitation of the materials?

How flexible are the materials?

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How reasonably priced are they?

What is the role of the teacher?

What is the role of the student?

198

Appendix6

EVALUATION OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS

(Rajan 1994)

Name of the book

Author

Publisher

Audience

1. Who is the material intended for?

Aims

2. What are the aims of the materials?

Content

3. What type(s) of linguistic description is/ are used in the materials?

4. What language points do the material cover? 5. What is the proportion of work on each skill? Is there

skills-integrated work? 6. What micro-skills are covered in the materials? 7. What kinds of texts are in the materials? 8. What is/are the subject matter area(s). Assumed level of

knowledge. Types of 9. Topics in the materials? 10.How is the content organized within the units? 11. How is the content sequenced throughout the book? 12. How is the content organized throughout the materials? 13. How is the content sequenced within a unit?

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Methodology

14. What theory/ ies of learning are the materials based on? 15. What attitudes to/ expectations about learning English

are the materials based on? 16. What kinds of exercises/ tasks are included in the

materials? 17. What teaching-learning techniques can be used with the

materials? 18. What aids do the materials require? 19. What guidance do the materials provide? 20. In what ways are the materials flexible?

e.g. - can they be begun at different points? - can the units be used in a different order? - can they be linked to other materials? - can they be used without some of their

components (e.g.cassettes)?

Other Criteria

21. What is the price? 22. When and how readily the materials be obtained? Etc.

200

Appendix 7

Checklist for Evaluation of Instructional Materials (Rajan 1994)

5. Very much

4. Largely

3. Moderately

2. Slightly

1. Not at all

Check the appropriate column!

1 2 3 4 5 Comm en t

1. Content 1.1. Do the materials cover a

variety of topics and situations appropriate to the learners' level, experience and interest?

1.2. Are they arranged in a logical sequence on the basis of topic or theme?

1.3. Are the theme and topics relevant to the syllabus aims?

1.4. Are the themes and topics relevant to the students' main courses of study?

1.5. Do the materials use

201

authentic texts or dialogues?

1.6. Do the materials provide scope for the teacher to use this originality?

1.7. Do the units follow a model?

2. Vocabulary & Structure 2.1. Is the average number of

new words in every lesson appropriate to the student level and needs?

2.2. Is there an attempt to bring in vocabulary relevant to the students' needs in other subjects?

2.3. Is there a gradation in the vocabulary introduced?

2.4. Do the materials provide for practice in word- formation and vocabulary development?

2.5. Is the vocabulary introduced in one lesson reinforced in later lessons?

2.6. Is there a vocabulary list at the end of the unit/books?

2.7. Are the grammatical structures and their sequence appropriate to student level and needs?

2.8. Do the sentences sound authentic?

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2.9. Are grammatical structures used in current everyday language introduced?

3. ActivitiesfExercises/f asks 3.1. Are the activities.

Exercises and tasks interesting to the students?

3.2. Do they have variety and purpose?

3.3. Do the activities. Exercises and tasks aim at developing both fluency and accuracy?

3.4. Do they provide opportunities for a natural use of language?

3.5. Are the situations

activities, and tasks exercises,

appropriate to the learners' level. Experience and interest?

3.6. Do the activities exercises and tasks allow for a. Student choice? b. a creative use of

language c. an integration of

skills? d. teacher's initiative to

modify the activities. Etc.?

3.7. Do the

203

provide for varying learning arrangements like group, triad and pairwork?

3.8. Are some or all of the activities, exercises, and tasks based on com-muni­ cative principles like infor­ mation transfer, jigsaw and task dependency?

3.9. Do the activities, exercises, and tasks give the students enough practice in all the skill?

3.10. Are there also periodic review activities/ exer-cises/ tasks built-in?

3.11. Are the instructions for the activities, exercises, and tasks simple and clear?

4. Supplementary/ Supportive Materials

4.1. Are additional workbooks or worksheets provided with the materials/ textbook?

4.2. Are there tapes for pronunciation practice or listening comprehension available?

4.3. Are there any appropriate enrichment/ remedial supplementary materials

204

available? 4.4. Are there any other

supplementary materials like films, tapes, books, sources of authentic materials,etc. available or recommended?

5. Evaluation 5.1. Are there built-in tests

available with the materials?

5.2. If there are, are the tests a. appropriate to the

level and content? b. adequate in coverage? c. both oral and written

5.3. Do the tests test all the skills?

5.4. Are the test integrative? 6. Illustrations 6.1. Do the materials have

illustrations? 6.2. If they do, are the

materials a. attractive b. motivating c. exploitable for a

variety of language activities?

7. The Teacher's GuidefMannual If there is a Teacher's Guide or Manual

205

available, does it. 7.1.give enough guidance to

the teacher generally? 7.2. give enough information

about the methodology and techniques used?

7.3. explain the rationale behind the activities and exercises?

7.4. tell the teacher how to plan each lesson?

7.5. provide practical tips on teaching the various skills and subskills?

7.6. encourage teachers to use their own ideas/ techniques?

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Appendix8

FEEDBACK INSTRUMENT FOR GROUP INTERACTIONS

(Mendelsohn, 1992)

Relationship between speakers: -------------------­ Place where discussion take place: ------------ Other : -------------------------------------

Appropriateness of Language Level of formality of speakers: ------------­ Choice of language, given the setting: ---------------­ Directness, Indirectness, tact:--------------------------­ Use of 'softeners' : ----------------------------------­ Level of politeness : --- How well did the participant "attend" when not speaking?----------- a. Let speaker finish: ---------------------- b. Response shows he/ she was attending : ------------- c. Behavior shows he/ she was attending : --------------

7. Other : -------------------------------------

I. Background Information 1. Students names : ---------------------------- 2. Date ------------------ 3. Task . ------------------------------------------ 4. 5. 6. II. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

III. Conversation Management 1. Interrupting

a. How did the speaker interrupt?:-----------------

b. When did the speaker interrupt?:----------------------

c. How often did speaker interrupt?:----------------

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d. How effectively did the speaker interrupt?:---------

2. Preventing interrupters from taking over; a. How did the speaker do this? :

b. How effective was he/she?:------------------------

3. Signaling that they want to speak: a. How did the speaker do this?:---------------------

b. How effective was he/ she? : ----------------

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AUTHOR'S CURRICULUM VITAE

The writer's name is Sitti Nurpahmi. She was born on March 8th 1974 in Boarengnge, Bone Regency, South Sulawesi. She is second daughter from four sisters and two brothers, her Father is Drs. Marzuki and her mother is Sitti Arninah.

She began enrolled at elementary school in 1980 and graduated in 1986. Then she continued her study at Islamic junior high school in Watampone and graduated in 1989. In 1992, she graduated from senior high school and graduated from STKIP Muhammadiyah Bone and she continued her study at Graduate State University of Makassar of Language Department of English Education concentration and graduated 2008.

Since 1997 she has been an English instructor. In 2004, she has become a lecturer at STKIP Muhammadiyah Bone. She has been an English teacher at Man 2 Watampone since 2006. She also teaches English at STIH Pengayoman Watampone. She started teaching at Faculty teachers and education of UIN Alauddin Makassar 2009.

The writer has written paper, article published in journal. She also has joined international seminar as a speaker. The title of their writing as follows:

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1. Difficulties Encountered by the Buginese Learners in Phonology(Paper,2010)

2. Mengoptomalkan Interaksi siswa dalam Belajar Bahasa Inggris Melalui Pendekatan Contektual Teaching and Learning (CTL dengan setting Cooperaif Think-Pair -Share (Paper, 2010)

3. Approaches used in teaching Listening (paper, 2011)

4. Difficulties encounterd by the students in Learning Listening

5. The contribution of self concept toward writing ability (Proceedings of International Seminar diterbitkan oleh Universitas Negeri Makassar ISBN:978-602-9072-37-3)

6. Teaching English to young learners (journal, 2013)

7. Difficulties encounterd by the students in producing English sound Gournal)

8. An Introduction to English for Specific Purposes (2013)

210