Singapore Reefs Protection Plan

Singapore Reefs Protection 2015 Prepared for: National Environmental Agency (NEA) Prepared by: Tropical Marine Science Institute, Yale-NUS College 5 April, 2015

!1Coral Reefs Final ProjectSherlyn Goh Xue Ting

SINGAPORE REEFS PROTECTION 2015

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY !Objective Increase conservation and protection of coral reefs surrounding the southern offshore islands of Singapore.

Rationale Coral reefs provide many crucial services for Singapore as it protects our shoreline from erosion, storms and rising sea level, supports a biodiversity that is crucial to our marine heritage and brings in tourist revenue. Singapore runs the risk of losing all these benefits as our reefs are increasingly threatened by land reclamation, sedimentation, shipping activities, coastal development and recreational activities.

Methodology Conduct a comprehensive marine biodiversity survey to assess the status of reefs in the southern offshore islands of Singapore.

Results Compare results from our marine biodiversity survey with previous studies to chart the status of reefs over time. From this analysis, we will identify areas valuable enough to merit some form of conservation and protection. We will continue monitoring the reefs through regular dive surveys once every 6 months for the next 10 years.

Recommendations • Conduct a comprehensive feasibility study on the protection and management of reefs in specific areas, • Designate certain southern offshore islands as marine protected areas or marine parks if feasible and

necessary, • Review existing laws on the use of coastal and marine resources, and strengthen regulations if needed, and • Create a central organisation to overlook the management and protection of coastal and marine resources.

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INTRODUCTION Coral Reefs Coral reefs are among the most productive and biologically diverse ecosystems on Earth (Moberg and Folke, 1999). Coral reefs sustain an extraordinarily rich marine life, protect coasts from erosion and storms (Smith, 1978), support up to 29% of commercialised local fishery (Salvat, 1992) and supply livelihood for tens of millions of people in more than 100 countries who depend on reef fish (Moberg and Folke, 1999). The total net benefit per year of the world’s coral reefs is estimated to be US$29.8 billion, with tourism and recreation accounting for US$9.6 billion of this amount, coastal protection US$9.0 billion, fisheries US$5.7 billion, and biodiversity US$5.5 billion (Cesar et al., 2003). The coral reefs in the Singapore and Malacca Straits have a total assessed economic value of US$563 million for their varied roles in carbon sequestration, shore protection, ecotourism, fishery resources and research potential (MPP-EAS, 1999).

Huang, Danwei. (Photographer). (2015). Reef slope, Raffles Lighthouse, 8 April 2015 [Photograph].!!!



Value of Coral Reefs in Singapore The collapse of reef systems can be translated directly to loss of goods and services that they generate. We believe that shoreline protection is one of the most vital ecosystems services that coral reefs provide in Singapore. Healthy reefs can reduce the need for expensive seawalls and artificial coastal defences (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009) by preventing the erosion of our highly engineered shoreline. Reefs also protects against the rising sea level and increased storms by dissipating wave energy (Chou, 2008). Sea-level rises will have a magnified impact in Singapore. In December 1999, abnormally high tides and waves caused extensive flooding and erosion of coastal areas in many parts of Southeast Asia. Despite being surrounded by neighbouring countries that absorbed much of the impact, Singapore was not spared. The submergence of coastlines considered well above high tide level resulted in excess nutrient runoff and macroalgal blooms in some coastal lagoons in Singapore (Wilkinson, 2002). Given the vital role coral reefs play as carbon sinks, the estimated carbon storage value of coral reefs is US$240/ha/year, calculated by using the projected future cost of climate change of $20/tonne of carbon. In other words, just the reefs of the Singapore and Malacca Straits spanning over 523ha have an annual value of US$94,151,700 (Wilkinson, 2002).

Additionally, coral reefs in Singapore support a rich biodiversity not found anywhere else in this country. The increasing prevalence and popularity of nature tours for the public to visit Singapore’s offshore islands indicates how crucial the reefs are to our marine heritage (The Straits Times, 2012). Our reefs also have a potential to bring in tourist revenue. If our reefs were thriving, tourists would not be coming to Singapore only to catch one of the many inexpensive flights to Thailand to visit the coral reefs there (McGirk, 2005). Singapore should be working to attract these ecotourists through protecting our reefs (Channel News Asia, 2005).

Given that the southern coral reefs are among the only natural habitats left in Singapore, we strongly recommend that Singapore step up its conservation and protection of these reefs through an integrated coastal and marine conservation and management plan. A comprehensive approach to conserving our marine heritage will enhance our standing as a country that is able to balance economic development with conservation of natural heritage (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009).

!Status of Coral Reefs in Singapore Long-term monitoring since 1986 indicates that coral reefs in Singapore have lost up to 60-65% of their coral cover and abundance of reef-associated invertebrates has declined, although a few reef sites showed improvement (Chou, 2006). Despite an expansion of activities impacting the marine environment since the late 1960s, leading to habitat loss and degradation, the reduction in species diversity in the reefs appears to be less than expected, although frequency occurrence and abundance of many species have declined (Chou, 2006). Coral reefs in Singapore compare favourably with coral species richness in the more extensive reefs of the region. As of 2009, the remaining coral reefs in Singapore contain more than 250 species of hard corals from 55 genera, more than 120 reef fish species from 30 families, and still counting, 12 out of the 23 seagrass species that can be found in the Indo-Pacific region (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009). The rich species diversity can be attributed to the location of Singapore within a global marine biodiversity hotspot, the interconnectivity of the marine environment, and successful conservation efforts (Chou, 2008).

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Threats to Coral Reefs in Singapore Reclamation

Most of Singapore’s offshore southern islands have been reclaimed since the mid 1970s, adding 1695 ha to the country’s total land area. Many coral reefs along the southwest coast of the mainland and on some of the offshore southern islands were lost to land reclamation. The reef flats of many islands such as Kusu Island and Pulau Hantu were reclaimed right up to the reef slope (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009). The most apparent impact of reclamation is habitat loss. Singapore’s coral reefs, estimated to cover an area of over 100km2 prior to the land reclamation programme, decreased to 54 km2 (Burke et al., 2002). The relative loss of 60% of the habitat is considered unsustainable (Hilton and Manning, 1995). Reef habitat degradation is seen from an overall decline in live coral cover since the late 1980s when coral reef monitoring was first initiated, and a reduction in depth at which corals thrive (Chou and Tun, 2005).

Sedimentation

Approximately 40% of Singapore reefs are affected by sediment impact (Chou 2006). Land reclamation, dredging of shipping channels and dumping of earth spoils, have increased the sedimentation and sediment load. Sedimentation rates ranged from 3-6mg/cm2/day in 1979. In 1994, these increased to 5-45mg/cm2/day due to reclamation projects (Lou and Chou, 1994). Sedimentation smothers live corals, thereby increasing their energy expenditure to remove overlying sediments (Chou, 2008). Suspended sediments in the water increases turbidity and thus reduces light penetration (Chou, 2008). Rapid light attenuation of the water column threatens corals, effectively reducing the biological productivity of the marine environment (Chou, 2008). Visibility has reduced from 10m in the 1960s to 2m or less today, resulting in a very compact reef (Lou and Chou, 1994). In the 1970s, coral growth extended to 10m down the reef slope (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009). Today, coral life ends at a depth of only 6-8m below the water surface. Growth is now restricted to the upper reef slope at shallow depths while reef crests at the lower depth support the best reef development (Chou, 2006). Additionally, sedimentation reduces the amount of hard surface available for coral larvae to settle on and reduces the strength of coral reef framework (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009). While there is evidence of morphological change in some coral species in response to sedimentation (Todd et al., 2001, 2004), reef processes are not totally interrupted (Chou, 2006).

Shipping

Threats from shipping include vessel movement, grounding, accidental spillage of hazardous materials (Chou ,2006) and indiscriminate and improper deployment of anchors (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009). Other activities such as land reclamation, seabed dredging and the dumping of dredged spoils offshore contribute to increased suspended sediment, modification of hydrodynamic patterns and changed tidal speeds at different locations. Direct shipping impacts come from high energy waves generated by fast-going vessels such as high-speed passenger ferries that have increased in number and operating frequency. Reefs crests and flats in the path of these routes are exposed to increase wave energy, which affects benthic stability (Chou, 2006). Groundings by flat-bottom barges on reefs smash huge tracts of reefs into unstable rubble fields devoid of life (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009), and are often connected with a nearby development activity (Chou, 2006).

Accidental oil spills remain as an ever-present threat. The spillage of 28,500 tonnes of heavy marine fuel oil into the sea resulting from the collision of two oil tankers, the “Evoikos” and the “Orapin Global” in October 1997,



the largest in Singapore’s history, firmly emphasised that this threat can happen anytime even under fine weather conditions and with sufficient warning given to the approaching vessels. The 1997 oil spill contaminated the upper parts of some reef flats. In August 2000 and July 2001, two separate incidents of phenol spills occurred in the Malaysian waters of the east Johor Straits, killing fish and mussels in Singapore waters as well. Both resulted from capsized cargo vessels transporting the toxic chemical from the Malaysian port of Pasir Gudang (Chou, 2006). Beyond this, everyday marine operations deposit a lot of pollutants into the water, significantly damaging the reefs over time.

Coastal Development

Danger may also stem from marine or land based activities, particularly coastal development, which causes the run-off of fresh water and mud (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009). Over the past few decades, protected swimming lagoons were constructed at a number of the southern islands, replacing existing reef flats. Reef flats were excavated and buried by sand to form the lagoon bottom, eliminating the original reef community and creating conditions for sandy bottom organisms. In many of these lagoons, the sand bottom is changing to a mud bottom with the accumulation of trapped sediment (Chou, 2006). This modification of organisms living in the reefs tips the equilibrium in the reef ecosystem, and may thus affect the growth of coral reefs.

Recreational Activities

Negligent or inexperienced divers without proper buoyancy control leave a trail of broken corals. Indiscriminate reef gleaning and collection of marine life on our shores depletes already strained plant and animal stocks. Destructive fishing techniques such as overfishing, drift nets and abandoned fish cages such as the bubu kill reef fish needlessly with their continued 'ghost fishing’ (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009). If the fish traps have been abandoned or not checked on a regular basis, the fish inside could starve and die.

Jani Thuaibah Isa Tanzil. (Photographer). (2004). Copperbanded butterflyfish in bubu, Chaetodontidae: Chelmon rostratus, Kusu Island, 2004. [Photograph].!



Past Conservation Efforts Conservation, habitat protection and restoration is not foreign to the country’s history of maritime development (Chou, 2008). In recent years, Singapore has been increasingly receptive to environmental conservation and has made efforts to protect the environment while simultaneously pushing forth development.

Chek Jawa

Governmental efforts to conserve the marine environment include the deferment of land reclamation at Chek Jawa, a species-rich intertidal location at the eastern end of Pulau Ubin in 2001 (Chou, 2008). The decision for ‘Chek Jawa to be retained and preserved in its natural state for as long as possible’ came after reports that document the wealth of diversity of marine life were submitted by the Nature Society, National Institute of Education, the Raffles Museum of Biodiversity Research and other individuals (Channelnewsasia, 2002).

Semakau Landfill

When Semakau Landfill was commissioned in 1999, an area of 350ha of the sea was demarcated by a 7km perimeter rock bund (Chou and Tun, 2007). As the environmental risks were high and loss of the marine environment substantial, a comprehensive Environmental Impact Assessment was carried out. Predevelopment plans included minimising damage to the island’s coral reefs and mangroves. Sediment screens were deployed to prevent silt generated from the containment bund construction on the eastern shore from reaching the reef on the western shore. This was the first instance of the use of sediment screens to protect coral reefs in the country (Chou, 2008). The Semakau Landfill has been developed and operated in such a way that half of the original Pulau Semakau remained relatively undisturbed (Chou & Tun, 2007). Today, the extensive reef flat supports an average live coral cover of 30% and 24 coral genera (Goh, 2007) and a good diversity of other reef invertebrates together with large beds of seagrass (Chou and Tun, 2007). There is also evidence of natural coral recovery in some parts where rocks not used for the bund were abandoned (Goh, 2007). The fact that coastal habitats are still intact demonstrates that such habitats can coexist with a marine landfill (Chou, 2008). Effective environmental planning can go a long way to minimise unnecessary loss or damage to reef habitats and meeting sustainable development objectives. If mitigation was not adopted from the beginning, it is unlikely that there would be a coral reef beside the marine landfill today (Chou and Tun, 2007).

Anti-Pollution Measures

Stringent anti-pollution measures have helped to maintain an adequate water quality that meets recreational water guidelines, enabling the marine environment to sustain life (Chou, 2008). Despite being located in the middle of Singapore’s port and petrochemical industries, Cyrene Reef continues to be a haven of biodiversity due to favourable water conditions owing to effective anti-pollution regulations (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009) that effectively manage pollution from land and ship-based sources (Chou, 2006). The preservation of Cyrene Reef is a strong example of sustainable conservation and development. Pollution management however, has yet to address the issue of sedimentation, which poses a serious threat to marine life (Chou, 2008).

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Marine Protected Areas

In 1996, the URA announced that five southern islands have been designated as a Marine Nature Area (The Straits Times, 1996). This indicates that all development proposals for the islands will be assessed and subjected to detailed controls by the National Parks Board, the body which manages national parks and nature reserves. However, no administrative structure presently exists to support the management of the Marine Nature Area.

The Sister’s Island Marine Park is an excellent example of a successful marine protected area. The Sisters’ Island Marine Park spans about 40 hectares around Sisters' Islands and along the western reefs of both St John's Island and Pulau Tekukor. It is a platform for outreach, educational, conservation and research activities related to Singapore’s native marine biodiversity. The location was chosen due to its variety of habitats including coral reefs, sandy shores and seagrass areas (NParks website). The marine park is extremely popular among Singapore residents and tourists.

Reef Relocation

In the 2000s, major development projects cutting across coral reefs have in place strong management measures to localise the impact and relocate corals. Measures now include moving corals from the impacted site to a temporary holding site and then restoring them back to the impacted site after completion of the development (Chou, 2008). Between September 2014 to January 2015, more than 700 coral colonies have been moved from Pulau Semakau to the Sisters' Islands Marine Park in a bid to conserve the corals amid works to expand the Semakau Landfill (The Straits Times, 2015).

Human-Engineered Habitats

Human-modified habitats, if suitably constructed can support a comparatively richer biodiversity than the surroundings (Chou, 2008). A study of marine biodiversity at Raffles Marina, located along the northwest reclaimed coast, showed that the biological community was greater in abundance and diversity within the marina than the surrounding environment (Chou and Jaafar, 2002).

Between 1989 and 1996, a project using tyre-pyramids and hollow concrete frames as artificial reef modules was carried out. These structures were deployed on the seabed at a 12 m depth close to a reef system in the southern islands, facing a shipping lane. Observations revealed rapid colonisation of the structures by encrusting communities, with the concrete frames supporting a greater diversity. Fish communities established quickly at the concrete frames and increased in species richness and abundance before levelling off after the seventh year. The tyre reef was used as a nursery and colonised by larvae and juveniles, while the concrete reef favoured adults. It was concluded that the artificial reefs did not greatly affect the fish populations on the adjacent reef (Chou, 2006). A recently concluded three-year project using fiberglass structures coated with calcium carbonate on the exterior surface showed that corals recruited on them and coral transplants attached to these structures established basal plates and grew well (Loh et al., in press).

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Recommendations To counter the dire threats faced by coral reefs so that Singapore can continue to reap the benefits and services provided by our reefs, we strongly recommend the following measures be implemented:

• Conduct a comprehensive feasibility study on the protection and management of reefs in specific areas, • Designate various southern offshore islands as marine protected areas or marine parks if feasible and

necessary, • Review existing laws on the use of coastal and marine resources, and strengthen regulations if needed, and • Create a central organisation to overlook the management and protection of coastal and marine resources. !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!



METHODOLOGY !As part of The Reef Survey and Conservation Project undertaken by the Republic of Singapore Yacht Club, Singapore Institute of Biology and Singapore Underwater Federation from 1987-1991, 150 trained volunteer divers conducted reef surveys using the 100m line transect method to survey >65 sites at 41 coral reefs in Singapore (Reef Ecology Lab, 2015). They identified 4 reef areas that are valuable enough to merit some form of conservation: the St John's group of islands, Pulau Hantu and patch reefs, Pulau Semakau and patch reefs as well as the live firing islands including Raffles Lighthouse. In the 1993 Singapore Green Plan, these reefs were labelled as marine nature areas, meaning any proposed development had to be assessed. The URA's 2003 Master Plan, however, dropped them as nature areas, allowing the option of development (The Straits Times, 2014).

Subsequently, the following areas were identified and proposed as areas for protection, conservation and rehabilitation in the 2009 Singapore Blue Plan based on their high biodiversity marine status: Pulau Hantu and adjacent submerged reefs, Pulau Subar Darat and Sisters’ Island, Raffles Lighthouse, Pulau Semakau, Pulau Biola, Cyrene Reef, Chek Jawa, Pulau Tekong, Kusu Island, Pulau Jong (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009). Out of all these areas, only Sister’s Island was opened as a marine park in 2014.

!Marine Biodiversity Survey As updated collections of many reef groups studied in the past repeatedly revealed species missed earlier, more exhaustive field surveys are required (Chou, 2006). We will carry out a comprehensive biodiversity survey at the aforementioned proposed areas to assess the status of the reefs. While the survey is being conducted, we recommend that development or land-use plans surrounding the areas by temporarily put on hold.

We will carry out the marine biodiversity survey via the line-transect method as outlined in the Australia coral reef survey methodology in the Coastal Zone Management Handbook (Clark, 1995). Fibreglass tape is laid along the substratum, and edges of the coral colony are recorded for a predetermined distance. The number of species, their abundances and relative percent cover can be determined from replicates of these transects. To reduce parallax error when recording with more than one person, all recorders should collect information from one line. Multiple intercepts from the same colony should also be indicated on the recording paper.

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RESULTS !We will analyse the results obtained from our marine biodiversity survey, and compare them with previous studies to chart the status of reefs over time. From this analysis, we will identify areas valuable enough to merit some form of conservation and protection. These areas could either be doing relatively well or under significant threat yet still salvageable. The targeted areas will be selected based on the following two factors:

1. Whether the reefs in that area provide a significant amount of ecological services (e.g. protection against shore erosion and rising sea levels, potential to be an ecotourist hotspot, value as carbon sinks) and

2. Whether the reefs in that area support a high biodiversity areas.

For these areas, we recommend that NEA conduct a feasibility study on the protection and management of coral reefs with a view to creating marine protected areas. Through this study, the value of services provided by the reefs will be assessed to determine whether conservation and protection plans are cost-effective. The relevant islands will be fully mapped out and various factors that affect the conservation of the reefs will be considered in a cost-benefit analysis.

Regardless of whether or not an area merits some form of conservation or protection, we will continue monitoring the reefs through regular dive surveys once every 6 months for the next 10 years.

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RECOMMENDATIONS !Marine Protected Areas Due to the tremendous biodiversity of reefs, many governments worldwide take measures to protect their coral reefs through the creation of marine protected areas. In Australia for instance, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority and is the subject of many plans and pieces of legislation such as the Biodiversity Action Plan (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009). We recommend NEA leverage on the success of Sisters’ Island Marine Park and determine the feasibility and necessity of designating the identified reefs as marine nature areas or marine parks through a feasibility study and an economic analysis.

The creation of a marine protected area should protect it from unmanaged development, such that any proposed development has to first be assessed by NEA and the relevant governmental bodies.

If the creation of a marine protected area is feasible and necessary, we recommend NEA to conduct an analysis to determine how best to manage the number of people visiting the area to strike a balance between conservation and visitor-ship such that wildlife would not be harmed. Since NEA manages its tour bookings online, it is easy to control the numbers through the guided tours. For areas that are open to visitors, NEA could also push forth efforts to ensure that visitors are respectful to the biodiversity and fragile ecosystem by putting up reminder signs over the island and deploying officers to the island everyday.

At some islands, fishers use drift nets which entangle horseshoe crabs and other marine life. The creation of a marine protected area may aversely affect their livelihood. As such, we recommend that NEA work with the Agri-Food and Veterinary Authority to engage fishers on the issue.

Alternatively, a network of marine areas under some form of management could be a practical alternative to a large marine protected area. Pulau Senang, Pulau Pawai, Pulau Sudong and Pulau Salu are currently restricted to visitors. Free of visitors and major development, their coral reefs are known to be in good condition. Similarly, the reefs of Pulau Satamu and Pulau Bukom, which holds the Shell oil refinery, are healthy and support good live coral cover because of restricted access. These reefs are effectively already under some form of management, although the management is not focused on conserving marine habitats (Chou, 2008). We recommend that NEA connect these reefs into a network and convince operators of these islands to participate in habitat protection. This effectively creates a large protected area.

As is the case of Semakau, conservation and management of marine habitats do not stand in the way of development and will enhance the environmental value of the area after the development is completed (Chou ,2008).

!Laws and Regulations We recommend NEA to review existing laws and regulations that affect the reefs such as those governing pollution, land reclamation, shipping practices, fishing and diving in the southern offshore islands. After the review is carried out, we recommend NEA to assess if areas of legislation can be improved. As seen from the thriving corals at Cyrene Reef, effective laws are vital for the protection of Singapore’s reefs.



Central Governing Organisation We recommend that NEA create a central governing organisation that overlooks the protection of marine and coastal resources. Currently, such an organisation does not exist, and this weakness exposes marine biodiversity to impacts much more than is necessary (Chou, 2006). Rather, there are many organisations overseeing various aspects of marine and coastal resources. For instance, some islands are under the jurisdiction of the Sentosa Development Corporation, underwater seabed under the Land Office, surface water under the Maritime and Port Authority (The Singapore Blue Plan, 2009) that manages almost all the marine environment to ensure navigational safety, facilitate marine traffic and prevent oil pollution (Chou, 2006). The lack of an integrated coastal management mechanism has resulted in the low priority given to the protection of marine habitats. Additionally, a systemic plan for marine conservation instead of the existing ad-hoc conservation of individual areas is more effective. Project-based environmental impact assessment currently in practice does not take into account cumulative impacts, which commonly lead to an otherwise avoidable reduction of biodiversity (Chou, 2006).

Case studies of marine parks in other regions such as Mafia Island in Tanzania show that a major flaw in the implementation is the lack of a central organisation overseeing resource management (Clark, 1995). This gives rise to internal politics, strife and competition for resources amongst the various organisations. Another challenge is that of management; it is difficult to have all stakeholders agree on the terms in which a marine protected area is managed. These disagreements lead to mismanagement or lack of management in order to please certain stakeholders (Knoell, 2008). Having a single, central organisation will streamline conservation processes.

Rapid coastal and marine development has not only destroyed coral reefs. It has also resulted in the loss of 95 percent of mangroves as well as other coastal and marine habitats such as seagrass, seabed and seashores (Chou, 2008). As such, coral reefs should not be considered in isolation as they are heavily integrated into a much larger ecosystem that includes mangroves, wetlands and mudflats. An organisation that simply overlooks reef protection is not enough. It needs to take into account all the entire ecosystem and all marine and coastal resources.

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SYNTHESIS !We highly recommend for conservation and protection efforts to be stepped up. Even though a significant percentage of reefs have been lost to threats such as reclamation, sedimentation and shipping-related activities, the situation is still salvageable. Species extinction from Singapore waters is not high, ecosystem processes have not been completely overwhelmed and biological processes are still intact (Chou, 2008). In order to prevent minimise any further damage and loss, it is extremely crucial that Singapore develops sustainably despite limited land without destroying our marine heritage at the same time. In return, the environmental services provided by a high biodiversity will help to reduce environmental renewal costs. Sustainability of the marine environment can be realised and should be pursued. Otherwise, we will have to be content with seeing marine life only in oceanariums and be prepared to lose all the goods and services that natural habitats offer without any economic cost (Chou, 2008).

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Singapore Reefs Protection Plan

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