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Journal of Marketing Managem ent 2006, 22, 489-504Simon
Hudson^and D avid Hudson^
HaskayneSchoolof BusinessUn iversity of Calgary eicesterBusiness
SchoolDe Montfort University
Branded Entertainment: A NewAdvertising Technique orProduct
Placement in D isguise?In the last few decades product placement
hasmatured and become more sophisticated.Branded products are no
longer just placed ;they are woven into entertainment contentmaking
a stronger emotional connection withthe consumer. Tlie outcome is a
concept theadvertising industry is calling brandedentertainment a
convergen ce of advertising andentertainment. This article
considers whetlier ornot brand ed entertainment is a nezo
techniqueor just another form of product place men t. Bytracking
the evolution of product placement andfrom an analysis of the tivo
concepts it issuggested that branded entertainment is a newterm to
describe a more contemporarysophisticated use of product placement.
Aconceptual framezvork for understanding thevarious forms of
product placem ent is presentedand this highlights the key
influences on theeffectiveness of this fast-grotving ma
rketingphenomenon. The important managemetit issuesrelated to
product placement are considered;issues related to mea sureme nt
control andethics. The article then concludes withreconunen dations
for further research.
Key words: produ ct placement, brande d entertainment,
advertising
^ Correspondence: Dr Simon Hudson, Associate Professor, Haskayne
School ofBusiness, University of Calgary, 2500 University Drive NW,
Calgary, Alberta,Ca nada , T2N 1N4, Tel: +1 403) 220 8738, Fax: +1
403) 282 0095, E-mail:simon. hudso n@h askayne.u calgarxf.ca^ Dr
David H udso n, Principal Lecturer, Depa rtmen t of Marketing,
Leicester
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5/28/2018 Simon Hudson David Hudson Branded Entertainment
Business School, De Montfort University, Bosworth House, The
Gateway, Leicester,
490 Simon H udson and David H uds onIntroductionSeveral
researchers have indicated the importance of product placement asan
additional element of the promo tional mix, and there is a grow ing
b ody ofresearch concerning its practice. However, academics have
yet toconceptualise branded entertainment and document its impact
on themarketing landscape. This is surprising, given the level of
interest in thesubject area within the industry. In 2005 alone,
there were no less than 251unique articles on the subject of
branded entertainment or branded contentpublished in the ma rketing
and media trade ma gazines Business SourcePremier 2005; Proquest
2005). This article opens the dialogue on brandedentertainment, and
begins by showing how product placement as a practice,and by
definition, has evolved over the years. A conceptual framework
ispresented, with the difference between pure product placement and
brandedentertainment illustrated by using a continuum that
expresses the level ofbrand integration with the storyline or plot.
The key influences on theeffectiveness of product placement and
branded entertainment are thenhighlighted and discussed. The
important management issues related tobranded entertainment are
considered, issues related to measurement,control, and ethics. The
effectiveness of brand ed ente rtainm ent is a prim e sitefor
theoretical development and the conceptual model presented in
thearticle identifies many research opportunities. The article
therefore concludeswith recommendations for further research.The
volution of Product PlacementThe origins of product placement can
be traced back to the start of motionpictures itself in the 1890s
where Lever Brothers secured the placement oftheir branded soaps in
some of the earliest films made. Certainly from the1930s onwards
film producers and brand owners actively engaged inproduct
placement deals. Buick, for example, had a 10 picture deal
withWarner Brothers in the 1930s and US tobacco companies often
paid moviestars to endorse their brands. The advent of television
in the 1950s gavebrand ow ners anothe r avenue for prod uct
placement deals. Early TVprograms were often sponsored by and named
after brands, like Vie olgatComedy Hour and Kraft Television
Vieatre and within these programmespresenters would often promote
the virtues of the brands. From the early1930s until the 1980s,
barter-style arrangements were in operation, wherebythe brand owner
would provide free props to the production set and often
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Branded Entertainment 491and movie makers. The former would
benefit from brand exposure and thelatter would obtain much needed
financial support and gain a level ofauthenticity in the prod
uction.The m ore recent 'wa ve ' of prod uct placement began in
1982, wh en Reese'sPieces were used to lure a lumbering little
alien out of hiding in the film E TThe placement proved profitable
for the candy's manufacturers, Hershey,who saw a 65% rise in sales
following the film's release. Ever since, theplacement of products
in movies and television has become an importantelement of consumer
marketing programs and has seen considerable growthin the last 10
years (Kaikati and Kaikati 2004). Spending on this type ofm arke
ting reached a record 4.25 billion in 2005,an increase of 22.8%
fromthe 3.46 bilUon spent in 2004 (PQ Media 2005). This grow th ha
s be eninfluenced by the growth of the entertainment industry.
Traditionally,advertising wa s placed adjacent to entertainm ent in
order to capitalise on theaudiences the entertainment attracted.
However, over the last few decades,the entertainment industry has
proliferated and entertainment is nowdistributed and consumed
through a variety of media. These changes haveopened the door to
integrated advertising, with marketers reaUsing thatcommunications
via product placement can be an effective part of thepromotional
mix. This type of integrated product placement has beenlabelled
'branded entertainment' by the industry and can be illustrated as
aconvergence betw een adve rtising and entertainm ent (see Figure
1).
Figure 1 Branded Entertainment: The Convergence of Advertising
andEntertainment
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492 Simon Hu dson and David Hu dsongrowing consumer resistance
to advertising and new technologies that allowpeople to avoid w
atching com mercials. For the entertairunent indus try, a
keyobjective behind using product placement is financial (Russell
and Belciv2005). Production budgets have shrunk to a point where
productioncompanies are increasingly forced to look to alternative
funds for funding.Product placement also offers a level of
authenticity for producers by addingrealism to film or television
programs (Johnstone and Dodd, 2000).Product Placement and randed
Entertainment Defin edDefirutions of product placement, like its
practice, have changed over theyears. An early definition that is
often used is the one by Balasubramanian(1991), who defined it as
the planned entries of products into movies ortelevision shows that
may influence viewers product beliefs and/orbehaviours favourably.
Since then there have been a number of definitionsfrom different
scholars. One key change in these definitions is theacknowledgment
that product placement occurs in media other than tilm
ortelevision. H ow ever , m ore significantly, since d A stou s and
Segun (1999)attempted to classify different types of product
placement, scholars haveused the word integ ratio n in their
definitions. As for definitions of brand edentertainment, in the UK
the Branded Content Marketing Association(BCMA 2005) defines it as
where advertisers createordistribute
entertainmencommunicatewiththeircustomers. In the US it is defined
by the Association oNational Advertisers (ANA 2005) as the
integration of a product within anappropriate context . If the
academ ic definitions of pro du ct placem ent fromthe last five
years or so are compared to these definitions of
brandedentertainment, there is a clear overlap between the two,
with integrationbeing a comm on theme. It wo uld ap pear that the
advertising industry hascreated a new term to define the more
contemporary use of productplacement.
For the purposes of this article, branded entertainment is
defined astheintegration of advertising into entertainment content,
whereb y brands are embedd edinto storylines ofa film, television
program , or other entertainment medium . Thisinvolves co -creation
and collaboration between entertainment, med ia and brands.Examples
of brands creating entertainment are Coca-Cola, BMW, and Ford,who
have adopted the role of program producer (Karrh, McKee and
Pardun2003).Also, specialist agencies like 1^ App roach in
Hollywood have been setup to assist advertisers in creating their
own media productions. Others, likeThe WB, have created special
prog ram s throu gh which ad vertisers can pick a
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Branded Entertainment 493The Institutionalisation of Branded
EntertainmentDespite confusion over terminology, it is clear that
branded entertainment isan estabUshed advertising technique and an
indication of its growingimportance can be seen in the increasing
institutionalisation of brandedentertainment in recent years. In
1991 the Entertainment Resources andMarketing Association (ERMA)
was formed to represent the corporationsand agencies providing
entertainment resources to the filmed entertainmentcommunity. In
2003, the BCMA was launched to provide a forum foradvertising and
entertainment professionals and organisations who areinvolved in
creating branded entertainment. In the last few years all themajor
global marketing communications agency groups have set updedicated
brand entertainment divisions. These include Omnicom's MediaGroup,
IPG's Magna Global, WPP Group's Mindshare, Publicis
Groupe'sStarcom, Interpublic Group's Initiative and Aegis Group's
Carat Americas.Branded entertainment has become a key method for
multinational agenciesto pen etra te certain countrie s like China,
India, the Philippin es, and Africa.
These changes in agency structures and the services they offer
have comeat a time when some of the worlds leading advertisers are
questioning thefuture of the traditional advertising model. In the
last few years some of thew orld 's leading brand advertisers, such
as Procter Gam ble and Coca-Colahave called on agency and media
owners to think differently about howbrands might connect with
consumers in the future. Steven Heyer, Coca-Cola's president and
chief operating officer, said in 2003 that he was movingaway from
advertising spots and traditional product placement towards ideas
tliat bring entertainment value to our bra nds, and ideas tliat
integrate ourbrands into entertainment (Aitchison 2004).The Product
Placement Branded Entertainment ContinuumThe difference between
pure product placement and branded entertainmentcan be illustrated
by way of a continuum that expresses the level of brandintegration
with the storyline or plot. Figure 2 is an illustration of
thiscontinu um along with the key influences on pr odu ct placem
ent effectiveness(discussed in the next section). At one end of the
continuum with no brandintegration, there is passive product
placement, such as the prominentdepiction of the Coca Cola name in
the program American Idol. Suchplacements are less effective than
other types of placement (Gupta and Lord1998). At the other end of
the continuum, the product is integrated into thestoryline for the
progr am or film. An episode of the CTC dram a The leventh
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494 Simon H udso n and David H uds onplacement. In the past,
advertisers sough t to place prod ucts in shows as soonas they
became hits. Now, advertising deals are happening alongside
thecreative development. Programming sponsored by and produced for
singleadvertisers offers them benefits like exclusivity, reduced
clutter and theability to incorporate products into scenes in ways
that do not seem blatantor contrived (Elliott 2006).Branded
entertainment coincides with the rise of reality television, wherea
lack of scripts and a focus on real w orld situation s lend them
selves to theintegration of products and brand names.
Colgate-Palmolive for example,provided a $50,000 budget for each
team on the reality show Vie pprenticewhose task it was to launch
Crest's latest flavoured toothpaste. Brandedentertainment is now
commonplace in reality shows and is seeping intoscripted shows,
where products are woven in during series development(Romano 2004).
Branded entertainment in video games is also becomingmore
prevalent. It is predicted that more than one-third of
productplacement in video games by 2009 will be in the form of
'advergaming,'where advertisers create a game around a product
rather than place theirbrands within a well-known title (Financial
Post 2005).Key Influences on Product Placement EffectivenessA
review of the academic and practitioner literature related to the
variousforms of product placement suggests that there are certain
key factors thatinfluence the effectiveness of these marketing
initiatives (see Figure 2).Media UsedThe product placement
phenomenon is penetrating every form of media.Friedman (1991), for
example, has documented the wide use of brand namesto create hum
our in pop ular w ritings such as novels, plays, songs,and
mass-circulation newspapers and magazines. Marketers are also using
the Internetto place products. Many websites have branded computer
games, cartoons,and free graphics or offer branded animations
available to download.Similarly, BMW has expanded the boundaries of
advertising formats on theweb where their short films featuring BMW
automobiles are the attraction,not an advertising distraction
(Urbach et al. 2004). Movies are now litteredwith product
placement. Will Smith's recent film itch contained no fewerthan 52
featured brands including Altoids, Fritos, Citibank and
Yogamagazine. But nowhere has this practice become more prevalent
orcontrove rsial than on television. A recent ANA su rvey revealed
that 85% ofmarketers who participated in branded entertainment used
commercial TV
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randed Entertainment 95
S5
SC13CoU
c
1.s
T
SiS m
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496 Simon H udson and David H udso nHowever, several differences
among the types of media must beconsidered. For exam ple, the adv
antag es of brand placement in video gam esover other media include
its capacity to increase involvement due to thereception context
(active versus passive), its ability to target specificconsumer
markets, and its longer shelf-life (Nelson 2002).
Placementdecisions ultimately depend on the advertiser's marketing
goals. For anadvertiser trying to reach an international market,
films may be the bestoption. A typical movie with international
distribution can now reach overone hundred million consumers as it
moves from box office, to video/DVDto TV. Advertisers with more
tactical objectives prefer television. TV offers avariety of
options for placement: daytime or primetime, broadcast, cable,
or
syndication; comedy, drama, reality or game shows.Brand
CharacteristicsSome brands lend themselves more to placement than
others. In a surveyof marketers' attitudes toward branded
entertainment half of therespondents who did not participate said
it was because their brands did notlend themselves to meaningful
integration (ANA 2004). Many traditionalbusiness-to-business
marketers express littie interest in brand placement inTV or films,
whereas fast-moving -consum er-good m anufacturers like Coca-Cola,
Pepsi, Procter Gam ble, Nike Inc. and Motorola Inc. are m uch mo
reactive. It has also been suggested that brand placement only
works forestablished brand names that are easily identifiable
(Ephron 2003). However,some research suggests that novel or
atypical brands will get more noticefrom viewers (Karrh 1998), a
theory supported by the number of new brandslike 'Junior Mints' and
'Snickers' launched as a result of placements in the TVsitcom
Seinfeld O ther research suggests that ethically-charged prod ucts,
suchas alcohol, cigarettes, and guns, are perceived by consumers as
lessacceptable than others (Gupta and Gou ld 1997).Supporting Prom
otional ctivitySome believe that it is impossible to achieve a call
to action unless there isa promotional campaign around the brand
integration (Sauer, 2005). Firmsthat buy advertising time are
increasingly including product placements intheir advertising deals
with networks. For example, Havas SA's MPG media-buying arm placed
Tyson Foods Inc's chicken nuggets on an episode ofStillStatuiingon
CBS, as part of an airtime p ackage that included tradition
alcommercials as well as a sponsorship deal (Vranica 2004a).
According toNo rm M arshall, President of NM A Entertainmen t M
arketing, you canachieve reach and aw areness w ith brand ed
integration, but it is impossible to
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Branded Entertainmen t 497Successful placement and marketing
campaigns include the James Bondlaunch of BMW s Z3, Jeep s sup po
rt of the movie Sahara and Mattel spartnership w ith the Cartoon N
etwork.Consum er Attitudes to Product Placem entPrior research in
this area indicates that consumers have a positive viewtowards
product placement and it seems to increase brand loyalty
byvalidating the purchase decisions of the consumer (Nebenzahl and
Secunda1993). Research also suggests that brand placement can have
greater impactwith consumers than is typically found with
comparable advertisingexposures (Karrh et a l 2003). Ho w ever the
re are demogra phic a nd cross-cultural differences in consum er
respo nses to brand placement. For examp le,studies show that
viewers aged 15-34 exhibit a high tolerance for thecommunication
method, and are more likely to notice it than other agegro up s
(Hall 2004). There are also geographical differences in respon ses
tobrand placement. European movie watchers object more than
NorthAmericans to brand placement (Hall 2004), but there is a
general acceptanceof brand placement in Asia-Pacific (McKechnie and
Zhou 2003).Placement CharacteristicsSome researchers have examined
the different types of brand placementsand how audiences process
them. They agree on a hierarchy of memoryeffects according to
placement modality of a visual-verbal combination,followed by a
verbal only and then visual-only placements (Russell 2002;Karrh et
al. 2003). When and how products are woven into the story line
canbe more important for effectiveness than the number of viewers
(Friedman2003). Research suggests that memory of the placement is
likely to be higherif the placement is meaningful and that there is
a connection with the plot(Russell 2002). Many product placement
professionals believe that the bestplacem ents are subtle ones, and
the seamiessness of the produ ct placemen t isan important factor
in judging its success (Cowlett 2000). Other researchershave found
that recaU and recognition are better for prominently
placedproducts rather than those simply appearing in the background
(Gupta andLord 1998). For television, the link between sponsor and
program is veryimportant for brand recall. The stronger the Unk,
the greater the impact willbe on the sponso r s image and the
attitudes tow ards the sponsor itself(Tiwsakul et al. 2005; d Astou
s a nd Segu n 1999). In add ition, how a pro du ctis used a nd by w
hom is imp ortant (Morton and Friedm an 2002). Characterson the
screen that share brand use with viewers can contribute to
therelationship between audiences and characters (DeLorme et al.
1994), and
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498 Simon Hu dson and David H uds onegulationsAlthough brand
placement is prevalent in the US, stricter regulationsmake it less
common in other parts of the world. All broadcasters in theEuropean
Union are forced to adhere to the European Commission's TVWithout
Frontiers Legislation. This is only the minimum requirement
-nations can also impose additional restrictions. In France, for
example, brandplacement on television is illegal. In the UK,
producers and broadcasterscannot take inducements as regulators
attempt to enforce clear distinctionsbetween programming and
advertising. And in Italy, laws that ban'surreptitious advertising'
look unkindly on product placement. In Asiahowever, less rigid
regulations have allowed branded entertainment todevelop rapidly,
with India, China, New Zealand, Australia, and thePhilippines
leading the pack. There is the possibility that regulations
willeffect the future growth of branded entertainment. However,
such laws arem ore likely to be relaxed than get stricter.Key
Management Issues Related To Product Placement And
BrandedEntertainmenteasurement
The measurement of brand placement has been the subject of
muchdiscussion. Just like advertising, the effectiveness of brand
placement as acommunications strategy must be gauged against the
specific objectives ofdecision-makers (d'Astous and Chartier 2000).
Academics suggest thatmessage impact should be assessed at recall,
persuasion, and behaviourallevels (Balasubramanian 1994). Amongst
brand placement practitioners,measuring placement's effectiveness
is still a rough-and-ready art, butunaided recall and brand
recognition are the two most popular means ofassessing placem ents
(Karrh et al. 2003). Nielson M edia Research has recen
tlyestablished a product placement measurement service and tracking
system.In its first full season, the system ranked Coca-Cola as the
champion ofproduct inclusions, with products or mentions appearing
2,260 times,followed by Nike apparel products which appeared 1,048
times (Atkinson2004). Two New York-based companies. Intermedia
Advertising Group andItvx, have also developed product placement
measuring tools to measurerecall and strategic fit.
How ever, there are still some critics that question the h igh
investm ent thatbranded entertainment requires. Certainly,
entertainment costs areescalating. Even the cheapest channel on
multi-charmel TV demands apro gra m m ing b ud ge t of 30,000 an
hou r (Reid, 2004). BMW recently
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Branded Entertainment 499larger communications budgets, it is
critical that a more formalised model beestabUshed to allow
accountability.ControlMarketers have far less control over most
brand placement efforts thanthey have with traditional advertising
(Kaikati and Kaikati 2004).Advertisers' representatives, accustomed
to buying time in specific slots andfilling them with commercials
over which they had complete control, arenow faced with dealing
directly with HoUywood's creative talent. Controlover content is
not something Hollywood will surrender lightly, even if it isable
to. If the plot takes a wrong turn, or the subject matter is
inappropriate,the brand exposure can backfire. Reebok, for example,
filed a breach ofcontract suit in 1996 against TriStar Pictures in
connection with the movieJerry M aguire Under an agreement, Reebok
asked for a full-length TVcommercial for the brand to be part of
the movie. The commercial waseventually cut from the final film,
but a scene in which a character shoutedobscenities at Reebok
remained. The two sides eventually settled out ofcourt.
In order to have more control over placements, an increasing
number ofmarketers are creating entertainment themselves. Already,
Coca-Cola,General M otors, JetBlue Airw ays, Meow Mix, Pepsi-Cola,
Procter Gam ble,Unilever, BMW, and Ford, have adopted the role of
program producer(EUiott, 2006). Others, like The WB, have created
special programs throughwhich advertisers can pick a scripted show
and become the exclusiveproduct-integration partner of that show.
And recently, Sony Pictures re-edited an existing series episode of
The King of ueensto add a productplacement, incorporating a plug
for Dr. SchoU's Massaging Gel Insoles(Lafayette 2004). This means
that any cu rren t or p ast series could in theory bere-edited to
add other placem ents in the future.Ethical IssuesFinally, brand
managers have to consider emerging ethical and legalissues (Karrh
et al. 2001). Research has confirmed that consumers areconcerned
about the 'subliminal' effects of brand placement (Tiwsakul et
al.2005). Others fear that brand placement's influence on the
content of moviesand television will seep into news magazines,
where editorial content is seenby many as inviolate. Critics also
claim that the trend of emb edd ing prod uctsinto songs is an
invasion of music lovers' privacy, and some have expressedconcerns
over the loss of artistic freedom resulting from the increased use
ofbrands in video games (Nelson 2002). Concern has been cited for
product
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500 Simon Hu dson and David Hu dsonDespite these concerns, the
future for branded entertainment lookspositive, and spending on
brand placements is expected to continue tooutpace that of
traditional advertising (PQMedia 2005). Some marketingexecutives
predict that within three to four TV seasons, up to 75% of
allscripted, prime-time network shows in the US will include
products orservices paid for by advertisers (George 2005). Brand
placement in videogam es will contin ue to grow , rising to abou t
800-million in 2009 from nearly 120-million in 2004 (Financial Post
2005). Placement in magazines is alsolikely to become more
prevalent. Business-to-business marketers will havethe most desire
for product placements in print, specifically in tradepublications,
whe re m ost of their marketing com mun ication is focused.
uture ResearchThe effectiveness of branded entertainment is a
prime site for theoreticaldevelopment, and the conceptual model
presented in this article identifiesmany research opportunities.
Both qualitative and quantitative studies havea role to play in
such research. To begin with, much empirical research in thisarea
fails to distinguish between the various brand placement
techniques,such as those proposed by d'Astous and Segun (1999).
Previous studies havegenerally ignored how the characteristics of
brand placements impact
differently on consu me r reactions and m em ory. Such research
w ould be ofgreat benetit to a firm wishing to invest in branded
entertainment whendeciding how its product or brand is going to be
presented. There is also ageneral failure to differentiate between
media vehicles. Future researchshould explore and compare
consumers' reactions to product placementacross different types of
media. For example, how consumers will react to theincreased use of
branded entertainment in magazines is unknown (Fine2004).Another
area that should be investigated is consumers' degree ofacceptance
and attitude toward branded entertainment in different
productcategories. Such research should be conducted using larger,
more diversesamples (rather than just students) and could measure
important variablessuch as the impact of prior familiarity with the
brand or the effectiveness ofsupporting promotional activity. The
interest in the implementation ofglobally integrated marketing
communications strategy has raised the issueof how consumers in
different cultures perceive, and form attitudes towards,branded
entertainment. More cross-cultural research is needed therefore
togenerate deeper knowledge of the diverse factors that might
impact theeffectiveness of branded entertainment.
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Branded Entertainm ent 501Nebenzahl and Jaffe (1998) propose
that product placement is the leastethical of all forms of
advertising since it is both high on source concealmentand
obtrusiveness. Future research should include the influence of
brandedentertainment on vulnerable groups, as well as consumer
responses to theplacement of ethically charged products. In
particular there have been callsfor more research that focuses on
the influence of product placement onchildren (Tiwsakul et al.,
2005).
Finally, as mentioned previously, there is a need to determine
whetherconsumer response to branded placements will change over
time. Asbranded entertainment becomes an increasingly pervasive
form of marketingcommunication, it may lose its novelty and become
subject to the clutter thathas characterised advertising over the
last few decades. It will require themonitoring of the
effectiveness of the strategy over time to determinewhether and how
such developments come to affect viewer attention, recalland
attitude. As one critic has observed, tlie infuriatingparadox
ofproductplacement is that if you notice it, it is bad. But if you
don't notice it, it is worthless.It is such a narroio line thai
either the vieioer or the advertiser feels betrayed(Ephron2003,p.
20).ReferencesAitchison, Jim (2004), M aking The Move From Com
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About the AuthorsSimon Hu dson Ph.D. M .B.A. B.A. D ip.M. is an
associate professor in theHaskayne School of Business at tiie
University of Calgary in Canada. He hasheld previous academic
positions at Universities in the U.K., and has alsoworked as a
visiting professor in Austria, Switzerland, Fiji, New
Zealand,Spain, the U.S., and Australia. Prior to wo rking in academ
ia. Dr. H udso nspent several years working in the tourism industry
in Europe, and nowconsults for the industry in Alberta and British
Columbia. The marketing oftourism is the focus of his research, and
his work has resulted in over 30refereed joumal articles and three
books: Marketing for Tourism andHospitality: A C anadian
Perspective Snow Business a n d Sport and AdventureTourism.David
Hudson Ph.D. M.B.A. B.A. Dip.M. is a principal lecturer inm ark
eting at De Montfort Un iversity in England. Prior to joining
academiahe worked as a marketing practitioner for several companies
in the traveland tourism industry. David's main teaching area is in
advertising andmarketing communications at both postgraduate and
undergraduate level,and he has taught at universities in the UK,
Europe, the USA and south-eastAsia. His main focus of research has
been in the areas of sports marketingand marketing communications,
and has worked with governing bodies suchas FIFA, The Premier
League and The Football League. He has made severalcontributions to
academic texts and has presented at a number of
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