Sidney Rigdon

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LINFIELD COLLEGE

SIDNEY RIGDON: A QUEST FOR RELIGIOUS POWER

SENIOR THESIS SUBMITED TO

THE DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES

IN CANDIDACY FOR THE BACHELOR DEGREE

OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF RELIGIOUS STUDIES

BY

MATT DAVIES

MCMINNVILLE, OREGON

DECEMBER 2009


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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

There are several people whom I must thank for their invaluablehelp and support with this project.

I need to thank my family for their love and support over the years.Although we do not agree on everything, and never will, you havealways encouraged me to seek truth. Throughout my maturation, inlife, in faith, and in academics, you have proudly supported me,trusting that I would find my way. Thank you so much for your loveand support.

I would like to thank all my friends down at BYU for their friendship. You all have opened my eyes and heart and have positively changedmy life, for which I will always be indebted. I always think fondly of ourtimes in Vienna and Utah. You welcomed me into your homes,

families, and community with open arms, treating me with nothing butlove. Your testimonies are incredible and I thank you all from thebottom of my heart.

The professors at Linfield have been extremely supportive andcritical in my academic development. Without you, my research wouldhave been stuck in a conservative rut. However, you have taught methat the academic study of religion need not contradict my personalfaith. They can, in fact, compliment each other. You have developedmy thoughts and writings and because of you, I am confident that I cansucceed at any level. From the department of Religious Studies, I

would like to explicitly thank the following professors: Dr. Bill Millar, Dr.Bill Apel, Dr. Stephen Snyder, and Dr. David Massey. I would be remissif I didnt thank Dr. Peter Richardson, professor of German. Throughyour advice and support, I have developed both personally andacademically. You have been a powerful influence in my life and I amforever thankful.

Lastly, but most importantly, I need to thank my roommate, AndrewWebber. Our long walks and discussions have been the most profoundinfluences on my life. We have wrestled with the tough questions andhave struggled to find ourselves. We have attempted to define our

personal credos, matured through different religious traditions, andhave engaged texts together. Your friendship has been invaluable andI sincerely thank you.

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SIDNEY RIGDON: A QUEST FORRELIGIOUS POWER

I. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Thesis: Sidney Rigdons quest for religious power andbelonging caused him to become a forgotten andmisunderstood religious influence.

II. Rigdons EarlyLife. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . 3a. Rigdons upbringing on his family farm gave him a longing

for learning.b. Rigdons apprenticeship under Adamson Bentley allowed

him his first taste of religious power.c. Rigdons credo is not yet clearly refined.

III. Alexander Campbell, Walter Scott, and the Disciples of Christ.. . . . . . 7a. Rigdons first interaction with Campbell gave him a sense

of belonging.b. As Rigdon began to develop his own credo, he began to

exercise religious power, disagreeing with Campbell onseveral issues.

IV. Conversion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . 16a. A brief survey on the founding of Mormonism and

Joseph Smith.b. Rigdons conversion was directly caused by the Book of

Mormon.c. Rigdons renowned rhetoric gave him early power in the

LDS church.

V. Influence on Latter-DaySaints. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27a. Rigdon served as Smiths spokesman.b. As compiler of the Doctrine and Covenants , Rigdon

exercised vast power over the importance of doctrines.c. Rigdon continued to gain and exercise religious power.

VI. Post-1844 Theology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . 41a. After Smiths assassination, Rigdon attempted to lead

Church, quickly being silenced by Brigham Young.b. Rigdon founded his own church, the Church of Jesus Christ

of the Children of Zion, but this church quickly failed afterRigdons death.

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VII.Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . 49

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Sidney Rigdon: A Quest for Religious

Power

Introduction

The story of the origin of the Mormon Church is one that is

vaguely familiar to many Americans, yet may be riddled with myths,

inconsistencies, and misinformation. Joseph Smith, widely

acknowledged by American historians as one of the most influential

Americans in the nineteenth century, received revelations from God

commanding him to found Jesus true church on earth, one that was

lost during the early centuries of Christianity. 1 Joseph Smith did not

found the most successful American religion solely by his own doing,

however. He could not have been successful without a powerful

supporting cast, one of whom was Sidney Rigdon.

Rigdon is unfamiliar to many both outside and inside the Church

of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints (hereafter referred to as the LDS

Church). Beginning his religious career with Alexander Campbell in the

Restoration Movement, Rigdon converted to Mormonism in its early

stages, quickly became Smiths right-hand man, a trusted counselor, a

proven preacher, and a man rich with religious experience. Church

historical records from both the Campbellite movement, known today

as the Disciples of Christ, and the LDS church portray Rigdon

negatively, necessitating that one sift through the biases in order to

determine the influence Rigdon had upon these religions. His

movement through several religious traditions stemmed from a quest

1 Smith is listed in the Britannica Guide to the 100 Most Influential Americans . (Robinson Publishing, 2008.)

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for religious power and belonging. Although he began as a Baptist

preacher, Rigdon found his place in the Mormon Church, shaping

doctrines and preaching the Gospel of this new religion. He positioned

himself to thrive in leadership roles, aiming to be influential in religious

traditions and well regarded by all, both inside and outside thosetraditions. Using rhetoric and charisma, he obtained unique power and

privileges in the LDS Church. Rigdon shaped and created LDS doctrine

until Joseph Smiths untimely death in 1844, when he made a claim for

the Church presidency. Sidney Rigdons quest for religious power and

belonging caused him to become a forgotten and misunderstood

religious influence.

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Sidney Rigdons Early Life

Rigdons Upbringing on his Family Farm

Sidney Rigdon was born in 1793 near Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,

to Baptist parents. Rigdons grandparents were Quakers and

suspected Tories during the American Revolution, causing his parents

to convert to the Baptist church, specifically a Calvinist church,

because of the churchs democratic and patriotic values. 2 Rigdon grew

up on his fathers farm in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, yet rejected

the farming life. In fact, much strife existed between Rigdon and his

father William because of Rigdons desire to read and become

educated. He borrowed many books from neighbors, interested

specifically in history and the Bible. 3 Reading by a small fire at night,

Rigdon educated himself; after reading the Bible and studying history,

he began to interpret the history of the world since New Testament

times in terms of Biblical prophecy, which would later prove beneficial

to Joseph Smith, who believed in modern day revelation and prophecy. 4

William Rigdon died in 1810, when Rigdon was only 17, leaving Sidney

to care for the farm with his mother. They sold the farm 8 years later

and Rigdon decided to become a Baptist preacher.

Rigdons Apprenticeship under Adamson Bentley

2 Richard S. Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon: A Portrait of ReligiousExcess (Salt Lake City: Signature Books, 1994), 6.

3F. Mark McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness: Sidney

Rigdon, Religious Reformer, 1793-1876 (Lawrence, Kansas: Coronade Press,1972), 14.

4Ibid.

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Despite Rigdons upbringing in the Baptist church, he claimed

after his conversion to Mormonism that he had had no religious

experience there. Rigdon was officially baptized as a Baptist at the

age of 24, after fulfilling the rigorous Calvinistic requirements. ABaptist conversion had to demonstrate

. . . an exercise of miraculous power on the part of God, whichthe sinner could neither so control as to bring himself under itsinfluence, nor resist when he was subjected to it. . . . Theexperience had to stand the scrutiny of a validation committeeand a subsequent confirming vote by the congregation . . . forfull membership in the society. 5

The next year, in 1819, Rigdon received his ministerial license and

began his preaching career. A ministerial license differed from an

ordination. A licensed preacher acted much like an apprentice,

studying under an ordained minister, yet was unable to perform the

sacraments such as the Eucharist and baptism. 6 Moving from

Pennsylvania to Ohio in the same year, Rigdon attained his ordination,

giving him the opportunity to become a pastor for his own

congregation. He worked under the authority of Adamson Bentley, a

founder of the Mahoning Baptist Association. 7 It is interesting to notice

the timing of when events took place in Ohio, because it shows

Rigdons first experience with religious power. According to Rigdon

biographer Richard Van Wagoner, Rigdon moved to Western Reserve,

Ohio, in early 1819 and three months later married Phebe Brook, the

daughter of a Baptist preacher. Their wedding took place on June 12,

5Ibid., 7.

6Ibid., 10.

7 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 18.

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1820, leading one to believe that Rigdon arrived in late February or

early March. He lived with Bentley, a brother-in-law to Phebe, since his

move to Ohio and began his preaching career as a circuit rider. The

Mahoning Baptist Association was officially founded and recognized on

August 30, 1820, about 17 months after Rigdons arrival.8

In fact,Rigdon was asked to write the Corresponding Letter along with

Bentley and Rigdons cousin, Baptist preacher Charles Rigdon; this

letter allowed the different congregations across the states to

communicate doctrine and church news. 9 Because of Bentleys

influence and inclusion of Rigdon, Rigdon recognized the power that

accompanies the founding of a denomination or religious association,

beginning his quest for religious power and belonging.

Rigdons Credo is Not Yet Clearly Defined

The dogma of the Mahoning Baptist Association allowed Rigdon

to begin to more clearly define his personal credo. Although he was

raised in the Baptist church, Rigdon only moderately accepted the

Baptist theology. Like many, he simply accepted what was preached

without actively questioning or shaping his personal theology. His son

later claimed that Rigdon knew the Bible as well as his spelling book,

and, as a child, was always engaged in studying rather than hobbies or

leisure. 10 His apprenticeship not only allowed him to define his beliefs,8Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 18.

9Ibid.

10 John Wickliff Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of theMormon Church, Times: A Souvenir Newspaper Devoted to the FriendshipSesqui-Centennial (July 25-31, 1965),

http://sidneyrigdon.com/RigHist/RigHist2.htm#johnwr (accessed September28, 2009).

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but also allowed him to develop a system through which one may find

truth. He believed that one should constantly search for truth, not

blindly accepting any doctrine based solely on the preachers personal

doctrine or the churchs dogma. Searching the Scriptures and studying

the doctrines of other religions and denominations was important forones personal edification.

Rigdon adopted his credo from several sources. The Mahoning

Baptists, whom he had helped found, followed five essential principles:

baptism by immersion, separation of church and state, conversion

experience, individual responsibility for sins, and congregational

church government. 11 Rigdons travels as a circuit rider also led him

to visit the Shakers, an early American religion founded by Mother Ann

Lee, who claimed herself to be the female incarnate of God. 12 Rigdons

constant quest for truth would eventually cause divisive rifts between

him and his religious communities.

11McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 18-19. These

five principles resound clearly with the modern LDS church, possibly easingRigdons conversion to Mormonism doctrinally.

12

It is highly likely that he adopted some of their doctrines, namely theiremphasis in the gifts of the Spirit and modern day revelations.

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Alexander Campbell, Walter Scott, and the

Disciples of Christ

Rigdons First Interaction with Campbell

Alexander Campbell, the founder of the Disciples of Christ, gave

Rigdon his second taste of religious belonging and power. 13 In 1821

Rigdon and Bentley read a published debate by Campbell about infant

baptism, leading them to seek out Campbell in order to better

ascertain his theology and doctrines. 14 Although the official LDS

historian in the early twentieth century and Rigdons son ignore this

chapter of Rigdons life, his time with Campbell is worth investigating.

Campbell had a profound influence both on Rigdon and on the

American religious frontier in the nineteenth century.

Campbell met Rigdon and Bentley in July of 1821 while preaching

in southern Ohio and Kentucky. 15 Speaking extensively about

everything from

Adam . . . to the final judgment, 16 Campbell attracted the two with

his clear doctrines and extensive knowledge of the Bible. Campbell

was equally impressed with Rigdons rhetoric and charisma, urging him

13 Campbell was also an influential voice inside the Restorationmovement, a movement aimed at restoring the modern church to the originalfirst or second century style and dogma, ridding the modern church of creedsand doctrines created through councils in the later centuries.

14 This famed 1820 debate, commonly known as the Campbell-Walker

debate, thrust Campbell onto the religious scene as a prominent religiousvoice and theologian.

15 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 23.

16Ibid.

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Rigdon began his pastorship in Pittsburgh in early 1822 at the

urging of Campbell. Campbell believed that Rigdon could not only

grow the church and preach the Gospel, but could also advance

personally, refining his orator skills and developing his credo.20

Hischurch quickly became one of the most respectable churches in the

city, gaining new members quickly and propelling Rigdon into fame. 21

Rigdons son claimed that he became the most eloquent preacher in

the city, with fame and fortune within grasp. 22

During a rising reputation, Rigdon began to test his religious

power and influence, causing rifts and factions inside his congregation

and the Baptist church. Several sources simply claim that Rigdon

began to disagree with the doctrines that the Baptist church held and,

after prayer and searching the Scriptures, began to teach his own

theology. The 20 th century Mormon historian John Jaques claimed in his

own words that after awhile he [Rigdon] was greatly perplexed with

the idea that the doctrines taught by the church he was connected

with were not altogether in accordance with Scripture. 23 Rigdon

biographer Mark McKiernan maintains that Rigdon was simply acting as

20McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 22. Rigdon has

much to owe Campbell for the development of his theology, but the study of Alexander Campbells theology and doctrine does not find a place inside thisstudy. Campbell and Walter Scott, another influential voice inside theRestoration movement, undoubtedly influenced Rigdons credo and religiousbeliefs. See Royal Humbert, A Compend of Alexander Campbells Theology orHiram Van Kirk, A History of the Theology of the Disciples of Christ for ananalysis of Campbells and Scotts theology.21

John Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I, Improvement Era III , no. 2-9 (December 1899 July 1900),http://sidneyrigdon.com/RigHist/RigHist1.htm#1899 (accessed September 28,2009).22

Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the History of Early Mormonism. 23 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.

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a spokesman for Campbells theology, and the Baptist church, out of

contempt for Campbell, began to create factions in Rigdons church in

order to discredit both Campbell and Rigdon. He cites explicitly

Campbells and Rigdons rejection of the Old Testament in favor of a

more literal interpretation of the New Testament.24

Another purported cause, advocated by Richard Van Wagoner,

deserves a closer look. Van Wagoner quotes the Pittsburgh churchs

official writings, claiming that Rigdons doctrine of baptismal

regeneration led to his excommunication. 25 He claims that John

Winter, a member of Rigdons congregation, organized a small

opposition group to challenge Rigdon. The following are the teachings

in which Winter claimed Rigdon erred in teaching: 1) Christians are no

longer under obligation to a moral law; 2) the Jewish dispensation

made the Jews children of hell; 3) a change of heart merely consists of

a change of views and baptism; 4) there is no such thing as religious

experience; 5) faith is simply crediting the testimony of evangelists;

and 6) it is wrong to pray the Lords prayer. 26 Some of these

accusations were probably created by a disillusioned and bitter Winter,

angry that members of the congregation chose to follow Rigdon

instead of remaining in the Baptist church.

The first teaching, of which Winter was critical, was a doctrine

that Campbell was accused of teaching, and because of Rigdons

closeness with Campbell, it is a logical conclusion that Rigdon would

24McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 22.

25Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 29.

26Ibid., 31.

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have been accused of the same. 27 The third and fourth teachings are

extremely similar, coming from the paradigm of a strict Baptist church.

Their position held that a change of heart, coming in the form of

conversion, should affect the entire person, including a change in

lifestyle along with a change in paradigm. The fourth teaching camedirectly from Rigdons own personal experience, as Rigdon claimed

that he fabricated his religious experience in the Baptist church in

order to be baptized. Granted, he wrote that while he was in the

Mormon Church and had already been disowned and discredited by the

Baptist church. Still, if Winters claims can be trusted, it shows that

Rigdon truly did make up that experience, choosing to join with the

Baptists mainly for religious power and belonging. Nothing could be

found by this author about the second or sixth claims by Winter in

regard to Rigdons or Campbells theology.

No matter the cause, Rigdon resigned from the Baptist church in

1824, choosing to remain aligned with Alexander Campbell. The

Baptists declared that he was excommunicated. However, Rigdon did

not return to preaching for Campbells new religious movement, known

then as the Campbellites and now as the Disciples of Christ,

immediately after Pittsburgh. Struggling to support his wife and three

children, Rigdon began work as a tanner in Pittsburgh. Very little is

known about Rigdon during this time. I presume that he continued to

follow and communicate with Campbell. In 1825 Campbell published a

series of lectures titled A Restoration of the Ancient Order of Things,

toward which Rigdon immediately gravitated, believing in the ancient

27 Campbell was accused of being an Antinomianist, someone who

believes that members of a certain religion are not under any legal or moralobligation.

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creeds and orders under which the first and second century church

operated. 28 Owing to the fact that Rigdon still had followers from his

Baptist congregation, he probably continued to operate as a circuit

rider, traveling to various members houses and exercising his

renowned rhetorical skills.In 1826, Rigdon gave a funeral eulogy in Mentor, Ohio, for a

respected Baptist preacher. He so impressed the congregation that

they offered him the pastorship, allowing him to preach Campbells

and his doctrines. 29 If Rigdon was renowned before, he became even

more so while in Mentor. Preaching baptism for the remission of sins,

gifts of the Holy Spirit, and a restoration of the Ancient Order, he

thrived, becoming famous and desired in churches. Rejecting creeds

and rituals, Rigdon used the Bible alone for doctrines. His success

caused some citizens to produce slanderous reports about him, yet

Rigdon continued to preach, emphasizing the literal fulfillment of

prophecy, the gathering of Israel in the last days, the second coming of

Jesus, and the forthcoming millennial reign of Jesus on earth. 30 He

strengthened his association with Campbell and Walter Scott, starting

revivals across the Western Reserve, a territory in northeastern Ohio.

A Campbellite historian said that Rigdons preaching was the great

religious awakening in Mentor. 31

During his years in Mentor, Rigdon was bold enough to abandon

some of the Baptists and Campbells teachings and actively pursue his28Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 40.

29McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 25.

30Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.

31

McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 26. Emphasisadded.

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own. Becoming confident in his theology and fame across Ohio, he

first became irritated that he received little credit for the origin of the

Campbellite movement. Although recognized as an important

spokesman and preacher, Rigdon wrote in 1843 that he was as much

the originator as Campbell.32

Despite the fact Rigdon wrote thatchallenging statement thirteen years after leaving the Campbellites, it

accurately demonstrates his mindset. He wanted recognition not

merely as an influential preacher, but also as an originator and

founder. The deciding factor took place in late 1827 or early 1828,

when Campbell chose Walter Scott over Rigdon as traveling evangelist

for the movement. 33 Forcing Rigdon to remain in his Mentor

congregation instead of traveling across Ohio, Campbell made a crucial

mistake. As a result, Rigdon decided to exercise his own religious

power.

He began to develop his own theology distinct from Campbells.

He challenged some of Campbells reasonings and apologies before

developing doctrines contradictory to the Campbellites. One of the

major differences manifested itself after an 1829 debate between

Campbell and Robert Owen, a proponent of a commune style

community for believers. Owen was a Scottish reformer who sought to

end poverty through family commonwealths. 34 Campbell opposed

this belief, challenging Owen to an eight day, sixteen-session debate.

Campbell was so persuasive in his debate that Owen surrendered the

last three days of the debate, leaving Campbell to preach in his


33Ibid.

34 Ibid., 50.

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stead. 35 Rigdon, however, supported the idea of a commune society,

drawing from Acts 2:44-45, from which Rigdon inferred a commune

within the early church. In February of 1830, he convinced two

farmers to implement a common-stock community, gaining more than

100 families by October.36

Becoming bold due to the acceptance of this doctrine, Rigdon openly challenged Campbell from the pulpit,

outlining differences in eschatology, church creeds, and gifts of the

Spirit, including prophecy and speaking in tongues. 37 This angered

Campbell, openly challenging him, in turn, at meetings and becoming

an aggressive persecutor of Rigdons beliefs. 38 Therefore, in the fall

of 1830, Rigdon decided to disassociate his congregation from

Campbell. As a culmination of frustration from a lack of recognition,

respect, and power, Rigdon began to search for his next religious

move, a move that would further his quest for religious power.

Conversion

A Brief Survey on the Founding of Mormonism and Joseph

Smith

Joseph Smith was born on December 23, 1805, in Vermont, but

his family soon moved to New Hampshire. In 1816, the Smith family

35Ibid.

36Ibid.

37McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness, 27.

38 Ibid., 28.

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moved to Palmyra, New York, where the Mormon faith began. Smiths

first religious vision occurred at the young age of fourteen, when he

prayed aloud for the first time and received a vision of God and Jesus

appearing to him. 39 In the minds of Mormons today, the events of

that morning marked the beginning of the restoration of the Gospeland the commencement of a new dispensation. The vision is called the

First Vision because it began a series of revelations. 40 Smith was

praying to God concerning the truth of the various Christian

denominations. Not knowing which was true, he took the advice found

in James 1:5, instructing the believer to ask God for wisdom when

lacking it. Three years later, in 1823, the angel Moroni visited him,

giving him the location of gold plates, on which the Book of Mormon

was written. On the night of September 21, Moroni visited three times,

telling Smith about gold plates, giving an account of the former

inhabitants of this continent and the source from whence they sprang.

. . . There were [also] two stones in silver bows . . . called the Urim

and Thummim . . . and the possession and use of these stones was

what constituted seers in ancient or former times and that God had

prepared them for the purpose of translating that book. 41 These

former inhabitants were a lost tribe of Israel, led to America

immediately before the Babylonian exile. Jesus visited this Jewish tribe

after His resurrection and subsequent 40 days on earth; Jesus

preached the Gospel to them and baptized them. After being revealed

the location of these tablets, Smith went to obtain them, yet was39 Fawn Brodie, No Man Knows my History, 2 nd ed. (New York: Vintage

Books, 1971), 22.40

Richard Lyman Bushman, Joseph Smith: Rough Stone Rolling (New York: Vintage Books, 2005), 39.

41Ibid., 44.

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turned away because of greed. 42 He returned annually for four years,

finally obtaining the plates on September 21, 1827. 43

He tried to keep the existence of these plates a secret,

presumably because of the expected negative reactions from

neighbors and the intrinsic monetary value.44

However, Smith neededhelp with the translation. These gold plates were written in an ancient

Egyptian language, only able to be translated with the seer stones.

Martin Harris, a respected farmer in Palmyra, assisted Smith with the

translations. With a curtain dividing Smith and Harris, Smith dictated

the translated plates to Harris, who acted as scribe. Harris never saw

the gold plates for himself. The translation began in April 1828, and by

mid June, 116 pages had been transcribed. 45 These pages were lost or

stolen, however, when Harris brought them home for his wife to

examine. Fawn Brodie contends that Harris wife stole them, in order

to test the authenticity Smiths translations. If this be a divine

communication, the same being who revealed it to you can easily

replace it. 46 Smith was instructed by God not to retranslate the 11642

It is widely speculated among many Mormon scholars that Smithengaged in treasure hunts with his father, searching for hidden gold andtreasure around the region. When Smith first saw the plates, it is presumedthat he thought solely about the monetary value or worth of the plates. Godrecognized this greed and, wanting Smith to have a pure heart, denied himaccess to the plates until a time when he was pure in heart. Both the secularFawn Brodie and the LDS Richard Bushman write about Smiths treasurehunting past.43

Brodie, No Man Knows My History , 40. For a more detailed account of the time between the revelation and the obtainment of the plates, seeBushman, Joseph Smith: A Rough Stone Rolling, 41-52.44

The fear was perhaps fueled by negative perceptions by Smithsneighbors concerning their treasure hunting. Revelations and communicationwith the Divine were common during this time, with many people, both clergyand lay, claiming these communications. For the most extensive research,see D. Michael Quinn, Early Mormonism and the Magic World View .

45 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 66.

46Brodie, No Man Knows My History , 54.

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pages, but instead to continue on with the rest of the plates. Oliver

Cowdery, a friend of the Smith family, replaced Harris as translator.

The translation process with Cowdery never mentioned a dividing

curtain. Rather, Smith

. . . would put the seer stone into a hat, and put his face in thehat, drawing it closely around his face to exclude the light; and inthe darkness the spiritual light would shine. A piece of something resembling parchment would appear, and on thatappeared the writing. One character at a time would appear,and under it was the interpretation in English. Brother Josephwould read off the English to Oliver Cowdery who was hisprinciple scribe, and when it was written down and repeated toBrother Joseph to see if it was correct, then it would disappear,and another character with the interpretation would appear.

Thus the Book of Mormon was translated by the gift and power of

God, and not by any power of man.47

Richard Bushman, a former BYU professor and practicing Mormon,

maintains that the plates were covered next to Smith during the

process. 48 Although none of the scribes was ever shown the plates

during the translation process, eleven witness later claimed to view the

plates.49

Their testimonies are published at the beginning of the Book

of Mormon . Oliver Cowdery and Marin Harris were two of the first

three to view the plates as a reward for their obedience in the

translation. The translation was finished by June 11, 1829, when Smith

received a copyright for the Book of Mormon .50 The entire Book of

Mormon was published on March 26, 1830, and the Church of Christ, as

it was formerly known, was officially organized on April 6, 1830. 51

47Ibid., 61.

48Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 71-72.

49 Three of the witnesses were family members: Joseph Smith Sr. andSmiths brothers Hyrum and Samuel.

50Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 80.

51 Brodie, No Man Knows My History , 82, 87.

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Rigdons Conversion

While Rigdon was contemplating his next move after his decision

to formerly split from Campbell, he was visited in the fall of 1830 byParley Pratt, a former Campbellite and recent Mormon convert. Pratt,

on a mission to the Indians in Missouri, brought the Book of Mormon for

Rigdon to read, urging him to read it and pray if it were a revelation

from God. 52 Rigdon had most likely already heard of Smith and the

Book of Mormon through local newspapers. 53 However, Rigdon was not

familiar with the circumstances surrounding its revelation to Smith.

His first reaction was skepticism. He ordered Pratt and his companions

to neither argue nor debate with him concerning the book, instead

agreeing to read it on his own, insisting he would come to his own

conclusion.

Rigdon read and studied the Book of Mormon for several days,

intent on determining its accuracy and truth. He openly told Pratt, I

have one Bible which I claim to have some knowledge [of] and which I

believe to be a revelation of God. As to this book I have some doubts

but you can leave it with me when you go away and I will read it. 54

This skepticism about a new revelation most likely originated from

Alexander Campbell, who believed that revelations ended with the

apostolic age of the first apostles. He argued, . . . [N]o new

revelation, not a single idea has, in answer to prayer, been52

Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.53

Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 55.54

Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Early MormonChurch.

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communicated to any man since the apostolic age has passed away.

The testimony is complete. 55 Rigdon also inquired intently about

Joseph Smith as a prophet of God. Doubt most likely took place in his

mind after hearing that Smith was hardly educated and very young.

The answers must have been satisfying, for Rigdon later said about hisown conversion to the Church,

55Humbert, Alexander Campbells Theology, 90. This passage was

written in 1833, three years after Rigdon left. Campbell most likely wrote itto combat the Mormon faith, yet believed it before Rigdons conversion.

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I saw the different orders of professing Christians passing beforemy eyes, with their hearts, exposed to view, and they were ascorrupt as corruption itself. That society to which I belonged [theReformed Baptists] also passed before my eyes, and to myastonishment it was as corrupt as the others. Last of all . . .the Book of Mormon passed before my eyes . . . and it was aspure as an angel; and this was a testimony of God; that the Bookof Mormon, was a Divine Revelation. 56

This vision convinced Rigdon and he was baptized shortly thereafter.

In fact, Rigdon immediately became an LDS preacher, leading his

current congregation in Mentor into the Mormon faith. This naturally

caused more division between Rigdon and the local Protestant

denominations and churches, leading to rumors in 1834 about the

plagarization of a manuscript by Solomon Spaulding. 57 Rigdon

persevered, however, preaching the new Gospel of Mormonism in Ohio.

Rigdons Early Power in the LDS Church

Sidney Rigdon traveled to Palmyra, New York, in December 1830

to visit Joseph Smith, beginning Rigdons career as Smiths spokesman.

While there, Smith had a revelation concerning Rigdon: I say unto my

servant Sidney, I have looked upon thee and thy works . . . and

prepared thee for a greater work. Thou art blessed, for thou shalt do

great things. . . . [T]hou shalt write for him [Joseph Smith] . . . and


57Solomon Spaulding was a Presbyterian minister who purportedly wrote

a manuscript concerning aboriginal America and the origins of the NativeAmericans. The Spaulding Theory states that Rigdon copied a manuscriptfrom Spaulding concerning the Jewish origins of American Indians. Thetheory claims that Rigdon then gave the manuscript and story to JosephSmith, who published it under his own name; thus the Book of Mormon andthe LDS church were fraudulent. This theory has since been overwhelmingly

debunked, used only by extreme anti-Mormons or Christian apologistsignorant of historical fact.

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thou shalt preach my Gospel. 58 Rigdon must have been rejuvenated

and motivated through these words, believing that he had finally found

his religious belonging. God called him to preach this new Gospel,

working directly with the Prophet. At this time, Smith was working on

a new translation of the Bible, with Oliver Cowdery again assisting asscribe. Yet this new revelation passed that responsibility on to Rigdon;

a few days after meeting the Prophet, Rigdon was deemed worthy

enough to act as scribe in the eyes of both God and Prophet Smith.

The very next month, January 1831, Rigdon began traveling with

Smith, acting as preacher, spokesman, and counselor. It was around

this time that Rigdon, according to LDS scholar Richard Bushman,

worked himself deep into Brother Josephs affections, and had more

influence over him than any other man living. 59 Smith enjoyed having

Rigdon as a powerful advisor. Rigdon was twelve years Smiths senior

and Smith gleaned from Rigdons wisdom and various religious

experiences.

At the urging of Rigdon, followed by a revelation from God, Smith

decided to move from Palmyra to Western Reserve, Ohio, where the

converts in Kirtland and Mentor could benefit from his presence. 60

This move greatly benefited Rigdon, as well. By moving the Church to

Ohio, Rigdon was able to operate and preach in his homeland, the

place in which he felt most comfortable. His congregation still followed

and revered him, giving Rigdon confidence to display his rhetorical

abilities. Smith had been lacking the crucial element of an influential58 Doctrine and Covenants 35:3-6, 17-23.59Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 124.

60

McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 45; Doctrineand Covenants 37.

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preacher. However, Smith believed in Rigdon, realizing that he had

finally found the preacher he had desperately needed. Rigdon, in

return, found a new faith grateful for his rhetoric and skill. Smith relied

on Rigdon, giving Rigdon the sense of belonging and power he felt he

deserved. Rigdon gladly accepted the role of Smiths counselor, arecognition that Campbell had withheld from him. He quickly became

as synonymous with Mormonism as Smith.

Drawing on his previous missions with Campbell, Smith sent

Rigdon in March of 1831, along with two others, to the Shakers. 61

Smith received a revelation instructing Rigdon to consecrate and

dedicate land for the new Zion, where the literal gathering of Israel

would take place. Incorporated with this was the writing of an epistle

describing Zion, which would go out to all the congregations of the

Church. 62 This served as the second time Rigdon helped draft a broad-

reaching religious letter, preceded by the letter he wrote with

Adamson Bentley to the churches associated with the Mahoning

Baptist Association.

Due to Rigdons and Smiths other activities, the translation of

the New Testament was put on hold. There were missions to other

states, the quest to find Zion, and the move to Ohio. It was also during

this time that Joseph Smith had numerous revelations. In 1831, he

received three times as many revelations as the previous ten years. 63

Perhaps God was affirming to Smith that it was time to advance the

church. Most were orders to the missionaries, with whom Rigdon

worked. In January 1832, Smith received another revelation

61 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.62

Ibid. 63 Brodie, No Man Knows My History , 117.

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commanding them to continue the translation until it was finished. 64

They finished on February 2, 1833, after preaching trips and mob

attacks. In fact, both Rigdon and Smith were attacked by a mob on

March 25, 1832; they were dragged out of their houses, tarred, and

feathered. Mormon sources, including Jaques, the official LDS historianin the early twentieth century, and Richard Bushman, blame

Campbellite preacher Symonds Ryder (or Simonds Rider) for the mob

and attack. 65 Fawn Brodie ignores the identity of the attacker in her

biography of Joseph Smith. It is wholly likely that the Campbellites

would have attacked Smith and Rigdon. Rigdon had drawn a

congregation away from Alexander Campbell and had a growing

reputation in the Western Reserve. Bushman also claims that Ryder

was a former Mormon who became disillusioned with Smith and the

Church. 66 The attack never stopped, or even slowed, the work of Smith

and Rigdon. Smith was in church the next day, preaching and

baptizing.67

Soon after, Smith and Rigdon moved to Independence,

Missouri. 68

Despite Rigdons growing reputation, he tried to test his power

inside the LDS Church too early, earning him a strong rebuttal from

Smith. While Rigdon and Smith were in Independence, identified by

this time as the location of Zion and the place where Jesus would

64 Doctrine and Covenants 73.65Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I; Bushman, Rough

Stone Rolling , 178. There is some speculation that Rigdon suffered seriousmental trauma during this attack, causing severe depression and bipolarity.66

Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 178.67

Ibid., 179.68

Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon I.

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return, Rigdons family was homeless, moving from house to house to

stay with friends. Part of Rigdons theology was the firm belief that

ministers and preachers ought not be paid for their services, relying

instead on God and the generosity of the congregations. When Rigdon

had preached in Mentor, Ohio, he was asked how much he wouldcharge the congregation for his preaching services. He had replied,

Nothing, the Apostles asked nothing for their preaching and I am not

agoing [sic] to charge anything. 69 As a result, the congregation had

decided to buy Rigdons family a farm and build a house on the land. 70

However, before the house could be finished, Rigdon had converted to

Mormonism and the house was never finished. Rigdon and his family

operated several years without a home, living with friends and

neighbors. When his daughter fell ill in May of 1832, Rigdon became

furious that his family did not have a home where they could care for

her. After several months of uncertainty, Rigdon came into a prayer

meeting agitated, stating that The keys of the kingdom are rent from

the Church, and there shall not be a prayer put up in this house this

day. 71 He threatened that these keys would not be returned to the

Church until they built his family a house. 72 Smith responded by

denouncing Rigdon, accusing him of having lied in the Lord,

assembling a council to try him. 73 The dissatisfaction with Rigdon must

69Rigdon, Sidney Rigdon and the Early History of the Mormon Church.

70Ibid.


72 The keys of the kingdom are, according to former LDS ApostleBruce McConkie, the right of presidency, directing, controlling, [and]governing power. The keys of the kingdom are the power, right, andauthority to preside over the kingdom of God on earth . . . and to direct allits affairs. See his book, Mormon Doctrine .

73 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 126.

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not have lasted long, because the Church not only built him a house,

but also ordained Rigdon as Smiths most trusted counselor.

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manager in April 1834, overseeing the arrangement of the covenants

and revelations into the new Doctrine and Covenants . The idea behind

the Book of Commandments was the desire to publish a compilation of

Smiths revelations. Yet the Doctrine and Covenants became a

systematic presentation of Church doctrine.79

The First Presidencyand Cowdery were tasked with correcting the revelations, leading to

controversies about the contents. 80 The editing was not readily

apparent to Church members, yet the First Presidency, charged by God

to determine all theological matters for the Church, approved of these

changes.

Some of the changes were due to scribal and printing errors, but

some of the changes angered the Apostles, members of the Quorum of

the Twelve responsible only to the First Presidency. One of the

witnesses to the Book of Mormon , David Whitmer, claimed that Some

of the revelations in the Book of Commandments had to be changed

because the heads of the church had gone too far, and had done

things in which they had already gone ahead of some of the former

revelations. 81 Another apostle described the Doctrine and Covenants

as telestial compared to the celestial Book of Commandments .82

Whitmer credits, or blames in his mind, Rigdon for most of the

changes:

Some of the revelations as they are now in the Book of Doctrineand Covenants have been changed and added to. Some of thechanges being of the greatest importance as the meaning isentirely changed on some very important matters; as if the Lord

79Ibid.

80Ibid.

81Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 162. Emphasis is original.

82 Ibid. Telestial was coined by Joseph Smith to describe carnalityand worldliness. See McConkie, Mormon Doctrine .

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had changed his mind a few years after he gave therevelations . . . through the influence of Sidney Rigdon,Brother Joseph was led on and on into receiving revelationsevery year, to establish offices and doctrines which are not evenmentioned in the teachings of Christ in the written word. In afew years they had gone away ahead of the written word, so thatthey had to change these revelations. 83

Nevertheless, the new Doctrine and Covenants was unanimously

approved by the Church membership on August 17, 1835. Smith was

absent from this meeting, leaving Rigdon and Cowdery to act in his

place. It is interesting to note that during the compilation process,

Alexander Campbell also published The Christian System , a summary

of the Disciples of Christ theology and beliefs, publishing it sevenmonths before the approval of the Doctrine and Covenants .84 It is

likely that Rigdon and Smith were aware of Campbells publication,

leading them to quickly compile and print their own doctrines.

The Doctrine and Covenants , when published in 1835, appeared

and was organized differently from the present edition. The first seven

revelations were organized by importance and prevalence, rather than

chronologically, which roughly organizes them today. After a Lords

Preface, church governance was placed as the second section, a

revelation given in April 1830. 85 The third and fourth sections dealt

with the priesthood, with the third section revealed only months before

publication.86

The fifth section contained the minutes of the first high83

Ibid., 162-163. Van Wagoner cites Whitmers speech in 1887 for thisquote; the speech was given almost 50 years after Whitmer wasexcommunicated from the Church.

84Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 283.

85 Doctrine and Covenants 20. This revelation moves through the

doctrines of creation, fall, atonement, baptism, repentance, justification, andsanctification. It then begins to describe church structure, including the

duties of elders, priests, teachers, deacons, and members.86

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council of the Church, taking place in Kirtland, Ohio, on February 17,

1834. 87 Section six was a revelation giving Smith the meaning of the

parable of the weeds, found in Matthew 13. The final section pulled

out of chronological order is currently Section 88, known as the Olive

Leaf revelation.88

Along with the creation of the School of Prophets, commanded in

the Olive Leaf revelation, came seven theological lectures on the

doctrine of the Church of the Latter Day Saints. They are now simply

known as the Lectures on Faith and are not included in the current

Doctrine and Covenants , removed in 1921 because they were not

direct revelations to Smith. Rigdon gave these lectures most likely

around May of 1834, when Rigdon served as a trustee and conductor

of the School of Prophets, in order to explain, develop, and defend LDS

doctrine. 89

Doctrine and Covenants 107. It describes the Melchizedek andAaronic priesthoods; all male members of the Church are ordained into theAaronic priesthood, whereas the Melchizedek priesthood is reserved for theFirst Presidency, the Quorum of the Twelve, and the Seventy, holding thekeys to the Church and able to receive revelations and mysteries fromheaven.

Doctrine and Covenants 84. This claims that the New Jerusalem will bebuilt in Missouri, that men can gain eternal life through the priesthood, andthat elders ought not be paid for their services.87

Doctrine and Covenants 102. Three of the verses were added to thissection when it was being readied for publishing, dealing with the role andpowers of the high council.

88It deals with many issues, including resurrection through redemption,

obedience to Gods law, sanctification, signs of the end times, and the chargeto create of a School of Prophets.

89 Lecture First dealt with the importance of faith. Lecture Secondexplained the existence of God, tracing the chronology of the world fromAdam to Abraham using Genesis and revealed LDS sacred texts. This lectureeven states the years in which the patriarchs from Adam to Abraham died.Lecture Third states that in order for a rational person to exercise faith inGod, they must believe He exists, must have a correct idea of his characterand attributes, and a knowledge that the believer is operating within Godswill. Lecture Fourth expounds on the previous lecture. Lecture Sixth explainswhich knowledge people must possess in order to obtain salvation. Lecture

Seventh explains the effects of faith. These lectures are found in everyDoctrines and Covenants published before 1921.

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Lecture Fifth will be expounded upon, due to its importance

and the clear evidence of Rigdons impact on LDS doctrine. This

lecture speaks about the Godhead and the relationship between God

the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit. This lecture states that

both the Father and the Son created and have supreme power over allthings. The Son has a body like man, was begotten of God, and was

ordained as Savior before the creation of the world. When He came to

earth, he maintained a sinless life, following perfectly Gods law and

commands. The Holy Spirit constitutes the mind of God, an entity that

bears record of the Father and the Son. In that sense, they are three-

in-one, exhibiting together great and matchless power over all

things. 90 The Father and Son share the same mind, wisdom, glory,

power, and fullness. The Holy Spirit is endowed on all believers, in

order that the faithful may become joint heirs with Jesus. This would

include them becoming deified, possessing the same mind as Jesus

and becoming one with Him, as He is one with the Father and Spirit.

Absent from this lecture is the belief that God the Father has a body of

flesh and bone like Jesus, as stated in Doctrine and Covenants 130.

Verse 22 states, The Father has a body of flesh and bones as tangible

as mans; the Son also. There are three possibilities for this absence.

Since this section was revealed in 1843, it is likely that Smith simply

had yet to clearly define the Churchs doctrine on the Fathers physical

attributes when the lecture was presented. If he had already explained

this belief, Rigdon possibly chose to ignore it while delivering these

lectures, in order for the Godhead to sound more orthodox. It is also

likely, however, that Rigdon did not believe in this doctrine and,

90 Found in every Doctrine and Covenants until 1921.

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therefore, did not include it in the lectures. Nothing that Rigdon

preached while with the Campbellites hinted at a belief that God the

Father has a physical body. Smith gave Rigdon tremendous authority

to explain and define Church doctrine without much oversight.

Regardless of the fact that Smith may have expounded on this doctrineseveral years later, Rigdon was placed in a unique and powerful

position.

Rigdon Continued to Gain and Exercise Religious Power

After exercising enormous power with the compilation and

printing of the Doctrine and Covenants , Rigdon continued his duties as

First Counselor to Joseph Smith. In 1836 he dedicated the first temple,

located in Kirtland, Ohio. He began taking Hebrew lessons with Smith

and in March was elected as chairman pro tem of the conference to

sign licenses, acting as chairman whenever Smith was absent.91

The

term license is not used in the Church today, but LDS scholar D.

Michael Quinn claims that these were apostolic licenses, signifying

and proveing [sic] that he [the male recipient] is an Apostle of Jesus

Christ an Elder of this Church. 92 He preached at the funeral service of

Smiths grandmother and gave a lecture about Christianity in Salem,

Massachusetts. In early January 1837, Rigdon was the chairman at the

Kirtland Safety Society, which dealt with establishing the Kirtland Bank

in order to help the Church rid herself of debt. 93 The bank failed

91 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon II.92 D. Michael Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy: Origins of Power (Salt

Lake City: Signature Books, 1994), 12.

93Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 329-330.

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miserably, with Smith disowning it in August of the same year. John

Rigdon claimed that his father was opposed to the bank since its

creation, but that Smith convinced him to sign the bills as president of

the bank. 94 As a result of the banks failure, several prominent

members of the Church apostatized, including Parley Pratt, whoconverted Rigdon, and F.G. William, Smiths Second Counselor. 95

On September 3, 1837, Rigdon was reconfirmed as First

Counselor to Smith, ensuring that he would continue to work closely

with Smith. 96 He preached extensively throughout the year,

accompanying Smith to Indiana, Missouri, Illinois, and Ohio. Smith and

Rigdon began to write a Church history to combat what they believed

to be misperceptions and lies that were circulating in the Midwest.

Part of this was an attempt to maintain their power from disgruntled

members inside the Church. Owing to distrust by some of the leaders

in the Missouri branch of the Church, Smith was forced to

excommunicate Oliver Cowdery, David Whitmer, and half of the

Quorum of the Twelve. 97 They were charged with accusing the

Prophet of dishonesty and immorality; not attending Church meetings;

using tea, coffee, and tobacco; failing to account for $2,000 in Church

funds; and selling their personal property in Jackson [County, Missouri]

against Smiths orders. 98 By 1838, Of the eleven witnesses to the

Book of Mormon only Josephs father and brothers were left in the


95Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 332. Pratt returned to the Church

months later, however, and died in full membership.96

Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon II.97 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 84.

98 Ibid.

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church. 99 This was the only serious schism against Smiths power and

Rigdon stood by Smiths side, vigorously defending him against all

accusations through speeches and sermons, including a fiery July 4 th

speech against the Missourian citizens, which began a quasi-war

between the Church and the state of Missouri.Rigdon remained in good grace with Smith, being appointed as

delegate to Washington D.C., in order to present crimes and

constitutional violations that occurred against the Mormons while in

Missouri. 100 Rigdon, Smith, and two others traveled to Washington

D.C., but Rigdon was not able to accompany them into the meeting

with President Martin Van Buren because of health reasons. 101 In 1841,

the Church began to develop and inhabit Nauvoo, Illinois. Rigdon was

elected to the city council and named trustee of the University of the

City of Nauvoo. 102

On January 19, 1841, Rigdon was confirmed as First Counselor

for the third time, reaffirming Smiths confidence in Rigdon. More

notably, however, is the title given to Rigdon on June 1 by Smith. He

ordained Rigdon prophet, seer, and revelator, a title very similar to

Smiths. This monumental title was overshadowed by a conflict

between Smith and Rigdon one year later. In 1842, Rigdon accused

Smith of seducing his daughter, with the goal of making her one of his

plural wives. During a period of two and a half years, starting in April

of 1841, Smith had married thirty women, ten of whom were already

99Brodie, No Man Knows My History , 217.

100Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon III.

101Ibid.

102 Ibid.

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married. 103 Smith desired to make Nancy Rigdon one of his several

wives. He dictated a letter to her, which later came into Rigdons

possession. Rigdon, understandably furious with Smith, immediately

confronted Smith. Rigdon was uninformed about the doctrine of plural

marriage and, once informed, was immediately appalled by it. Hisbrother-in-law reported, Smith attempted to deny it at first, and face

her [Nancy] down with the lie; but she told the facts with so much

earnestness, and the fact of a letter being present

. . . on the same subject, the day after the attempt made on her

virtue. . . . [H]e then and there acknowledged that every word of

Miss Rigdons testimony was true. 104 Smith attempted to explain it

away, claiming that he had simply been testing her virtue. This began

a split between Rigdon and Smith. A newspaper article came out

defending the moral character of Smith, signed by every leader of the

Mormon Church besides Rigdon, George Robinson, who was Rigdons

brother-in-law, and Orson Pratt, brother of the formerly

excommunicated Parley Pratt. 105

Rigdon and Smith maintained distant from each other and hardly

trusted one other after this confrontation. Rigdon no longer believed

that all the words of Joseph Smith were the exact duplicates of the

Almighty, but he kept his faith in the Church. 106 Smith became

paranoid about a kidnapping attempt and accused Rigdon of

supporting John C. Bennett, an apostate and anti-Mormon activist. 107 103Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 437.

104 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 118-119.105Ibid., 119. Orson Pratts wife was also propositioned by Smith to

become a plural wife.106

Ibid., 121.107

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Bennett had sent a letter addressed to Rigdon and Orson Pratt,

explaining that he wanted to have Smith arrested for alleged crimes

committed in Missouri. Pratt, but not Rigdon, immediately gave the

letter to Smith; consequently, Smith accused Rigdon of trying to hide

the letter from him.108

On March 27, 1843, Smith sent a scathing letterto Rigdon:

Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 510.

108Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon IV.

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It is with sensations of deep regret and poignant grief that Idictate a few lines to you this morning. . . . I have tried tosmother my feelings and not let you know that I thought youwere secretly and underhandedly doing all you could to takeadvantage of and injure meI am, sir, honest, when I say that Ibelieve and am laboring under the fullest convictions that youare actually practicing deception and wickedness against me andthe Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints . . . seeking to

destroy me and this people. . . . I do not write this with theintention of insulting you, or of bearing down upon you or with adesire to take advantage of you, or with the intention of layingone straw in your way detrimental to your character or influence.. . . I now notify you that unless something should take place torestore my mind to its former confidence in you . . . must, as aconscientious man, publish my withdrawal of my fellowship fromyou to the Church 109

Rigdon immediately responded with a letter expressing shock at the

accusations placed against him. Smith did not believe his denials,

however, and aimed to have him excommunicated from the Church.

On April 6, Rigdon was nevertheless confirmed for a fourth time as

First Counselor to Smith by unanimous vote, 110 but Smith was never

happy with this outcome. He promised peace within the First

Presidency, but peace did not last long. On August 13, Smith publicly

accused Rigdon of attempting to betray and give [him] up to the

Missourians. 111 Smith attempted to remove Rigdon as First Counselor

and brought the case before the Church membership during the

October conference. Rigdon defended himself, using his powerful

rhetoric and a letter from the Governor of Illinois claiming that Rigdon

was innocent from all conspiracy charges. 112 Several members also

spoke on behalf of Rigdon, who was acquitted of all charges and

109 Dean C. Jessee, ed., The Personal Writings of Joseph Smith (SaltLake City: Deseret Books, 1984), 555-556.

110Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon IV.


112Ibid., 321.

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reinstated as First Counselor. 113 Hyrum Smith, Josephs brother,

preached for mercy on Rigdons behalf, as well. Joseph Smith rose,

however, and said, I have thrown him off my shoulders, and you have

again put him on me; you may carry him, but I will not. 114

After Rigdon had accused Smith of seducing his daughter, Smithnever fully trusted Rigdon again with religious matters. Rigdon was

not going to let his quest for power overtake the protection of his

family. Rigdon had already garnered enough approval and satisfaction

among the leadership, however, that his reputation and religious

power were protected. Rigdon was still sustained as First Counselor

against Smiths wishes. Despite the distrust, Smith chose Rigdon as

his Vice-President when Smith ran for President of the United States in

1844, perhaps in an attempt to appease Rigdon. Rigdon had been

elected city attorney of Nauvoo the year before, served on Nauvoo city

council, and was well respected among non-Mormons. Establishing the

Mormon Reform Party, the leadership of the Church embarked on the

campaign trail and Rigdon traveled to Pittsburgh to establish

residency, in order to be eligible as vice-president. 115 Despite being a

candidate for President, Smith was arrested on June 25 on a treason

charge against the state of Illinois. There also were indictments out for

his arrest on the charges of false swearing and polygamy. 116 Van

Wagoner claims that Smith was arrested for destroying a printing press

that printed inflammatory material against him regarding plural

113 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying In the Wilderness , 124.114

Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon IV.115Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 336. A misconception existed during

this time that the President and Vice-President could not hail from the samestate, but the Constitution never mentions this.

116 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon V.

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Post-1844 Theology

Rigdon Attempted to Lead the Church

Rigdon was in Pittsburgh for the presidential campaign when

Joseph Smith was murdered, arriving the same day as Smiths death.

The Quorum of the Twelve was spread across Boston, Philadelphia,

New York state, Michigan, and Cincinnati, campaigning for Smith and

Rigdon and preaching the Gospel. 121 Rigdon arrived back in Nauvoo on

August 3, more than a month after Smith died. 122 He tried to call

together a meeting to determine the guardian of the church on August

8, before all the members of the Quorum could be present. The

Quorum had a majority, however, with nine of the twelve members

were present in Nauvoo by evening of the August 5. 123

The battle for succession was between four people: William

Marks, the Nauvoo stake president, Sidney Rigdon, Brigham Young, the

president of the Quorum of the Twelve, and Joseph Smith III, eleven

years old and Smiths eldest son. Marks was opposed to the doctrine

of plural marriage, claiming that Smith told him just weeks before his

death that unless plural marriage was abandoned, it would prove our

destruction and overthrow. 124 Smiths wife, Emma, also believed that

Smith was beginning to abandon his doctrine on plural marriage,

stating that Smith commanded her to destroy the revelation in 1843, a

121 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon V.122

Ibid.123

Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 338.

124Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy , 148.

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year before Smith died. 125 Even Brigham Young in 1866 declared that

Smith had been worn out with the doctrine. 126 Marks was supported

by Smiths wife, who was also vehemently opposed to plural

marriage. 127 Marks, however, decided to throw his support behind

Rigdon for two reasons. Marks did not want the power for himself, and,more importantly, Rigdon was also opposed to plural marriage.

On August 7, Young and Rigdon presented their cases in front of

a general council, consisting of all the present church leadership.

Rigdon claimed that while in Pittsburgh he had received a vision. This

vision, taking place the day Smith died, instructed Rigdon to return to

Nauvoo to ensure the Church was properly run. 128 Smith had already

endowed Rigdon with the title prophet, seer and revelator. Rigdon

declared, I have been consecrated a spokesman to Joseph, and I was

commanded to speak for him. . . . I propose to be a guardian to the

people; in this I have discharged my duty and done what God has

commanded me, and the people can please themselves whether they

accept me or not. 129 Rigdon realized that Smith was dead, but wanted

to continue to speak on Smiths behalf from the grave. He believed

that, despite the recent controversies and disagreements between him

and the Prophet, he was in line for the Presidency of the Church,

having served as Smiths First Counselor for the vast majority of the

Churchs existence.

125Ibid., 147

126Ibid.

127Ibid., 233.

128Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon VI.

129Ibid.

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Brigham Young then stood and argued on behalf of leadership by

the Quorum of the Twelve. He directly attacked Rigdon, stating, Here

is President Rigdon, who was counselor to Joseph. I ask, where are

Joseph and Hyrum? They are gone behind the vail [sic]; and if Elder

Rigdon wants to act as his counselor; he must go beyond the vail [sic]where he is. . . . [I]f the people want President Rigdon to lead them

they may have him; but I say unto you that the Quorum of the Twelve

have the keys of the kingdom of God in all the world. 130 Rigdon relied

on rhetoric and Young used politics to further his cause. According to

Rigdon biographer F. Mark McKiernan,

Young made every effort to remind the Saints that Smith hadrejected Rigdon in 1843 and had no intention that Rigdon shouldsucceed him as leader of the Church. Young also took greatpains to create the image among the masses of the Church thathe was the Prophets chosen successor. He borrowed Smithsfavorite hours Joe Duncan and rose through the streets of Nauvoo on the Prophets well known mount to show the entirepopulation that he had replaced the martyr. 131

Youngs political ploys worked, winning over the general assembly and

making the Quorum of the Twelve the governing body of the Church.

Young also alienated Emma Smith, Josephs wife, and five children,

fearful that Joseph III would take over the church. Despite the fact

Joseph III was only eleven at the time, several members of the Church

believed that he was chosen for succession. Emma was alienated from

the Church almost immediately after Smiths death. 132 Joseph III

eventually founded the Reorganized Church of Jesus Christ of Latter

Day Saints, consisting mostly of members who did not immigrate to

130 Ibid.131McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 128.

132 Bushman, Rough Stone Rolling , 554.

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Utah with Young in 1846-47. The RLDS Church was officially organized

in 1860.

Young, in a genius political move, announced to the assembly,

after defeating Rigdons quest for leadership, Rigdon is . . . one

with us we want such men as Brother Rigdon. He has been sentaway to build a Kingdom; let him keep the instruction and calling, let

him raise up a kingdom in Pittsburgh and we will lift up his hand. 133

This was patronizing to Rigdon, demoting him to a preacher in

Pittsburgh and stripping him of his leadership position, almost giving

Young complete victory in the quest to succeed Joseph Smith. The

Quorum of the Twelve assumed leadership, with Young as the

President of the Quorum. Rigdon could not accept his demoted role or

the abomination of plural marriage. 134 He had been the First Counselor

to the Prophet, a seer and revelator, preacher, missionary, presided

over meetings and councils in Smiths absence, Vice-Presidential

candidate, and a key architect in the quest to build Zion and the New

Jerusalem in America. Rigdon felt like Smith had finally recognized his

religious power, his role as both originator and preacher. Yet Young

forced Rigdon out of the Church because of their disagreement over

plural marriage. On September 8, 1844, Rigdon was officially

excommunicated from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints.

In Youngs final move to solidify victory, the High Council, immediately

after Rigdons excommunication, voted to excommunicate all of his

followers inside the Church. 135


134Ibid., 352.

135 Jaques, The Life and Labors of Sidney Rigdon VII.

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If Smith had been contemplating the revocation of plural

marriage, it is plausible that he would have supported William Marks or

Rigdon as his replacement, two trusted members who were opposed to

the doctrine. Rigdon would have been the logical choice, serving

beside Smith for fourteen years and often standing in his stead duringSmiths absences. This, however, would have most likely been as a

placeholder for Joseph Smith III, as Smith spoke often about patriarchal

blessings and ordinations. Smith gave his son a secret blessing,

endowed on January 17, 1844. He blessed Smith III, declaring, he

shall be my successor to the Presidency of the High Priesthood: a Seer,

and a Revelator, and a Prophet, unto the Church; which appointment

belongeth to him by blessing, and also by right. 136 Nevertheless,

Smith never publically named a clear successor. D. Michael Quinn, an

LDS scholar and BYU professor before his 1993 excommunication,

claims that Smith blessed, ordained, or designated six individuals as

successors and laid a foundation for the succession claims of seven

others, including the entire Quorum of Twelve Apostles. 137 Of all these

possible successors, only Brigham Young succeeded in his succession

claim, retaining all but four members of the entire Mormon hierarchy at

Smiths death. 138

136Jessee, The Personal Writings of Joseph Smith , 566.

137Quinn, The Mormon Hierarchy , 241.

138Ibid., 243. The hierarchy numbered slightly fewer than 100, including

the Twelve Apostles, the First Council of the Seventy, the First Presidency(consisting of two counselors alongside the President and Prophet of theChurch), the Presiding Patriarch (Smiths brother, Hyrum, at the time theirdeath), and the Presiding Bishopric. Doctrine and Covenants 124:123-143

lists several members, many of whom possibly served in a hierarchicalcapacity. See also Quinn, 40-77.

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Rigdon Founded the Church of Jesus Christ of the Children

of Zion

Rigdon was effectively silenced from the LDS Church through the

political maneuverings of Brigham Young. He left Nauvoo forPittsburgh, the origins of his religious power. Rigdons son stated, . .

. [T]he Quorum of the 12 placed the leadership of the church on

Brigham Young. This hurt Fathers feelings. He claimed he was the

man for the leadership. He said he had done more to establish the

church than any man in it, outside the prophet. 139 Interestingly, he

added that the Church did not make a mistake by giving the leadership

to Young because Rigdon had no executive experience, was broken

down with sickness and could not have taken charge of the church at

that time. 140 Rigdons own son, baptized into the Church in 1898, did

not believe that Rigdon should have led the Church.

Rigdon began his own new church, assembling his own Quorum

of the Twelve and establishing a Pittsburgh newspaper entitled The

Latter Day Saints Messenger and Advocate , aiming to attack the LDS

leadership and expose the doctrine of plural marriage. 141 He would

reestablish the pure Mormon Church, with an emphasis in revelation

and the Ancient Order and with a firm rejection of plural marriage. He

even went as far as calling Joseph Smith a fallen prophet during

Smiths later years. This allowed Rigdon to reject some of Smiths

doctrines but maintain the validity and sacrality of The Book of


140Ibid.

141Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 367, 369.

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Mormon and the Doctrine and Covenants .142 On the fifteenth

anniversary of the Mormon Church, Rigdon re-established the Church

of Christ, the original name of the LDS Church, being ordained as first

president of this kingdom and church, and . . . as prophet, seer,

revelator and translator, to this church and kingdom of Christ of thelast days. 143 This allowed Rigdon to further his claim that God called

him to lead the Church on earth. Rigdon only had about 150 followers,

however, and his sect never grew. 144

Not much has been written about Rigdon after 1846. His church

never expanded, leaving Rigdon ultimately without power and

belonging. He moved to Friendship, New York, where he spent the

remainder of his days. In 1863, Brigham Young asked Rigdon to come

to Utah in order for Young to take care of him, but Rigdon refused. 145

Throughout his days Rigdon maintained that the Book of Mormon was

true, that the end of time was near, and that Joseph Smith was truly a

prophet of God. Sidney Rigdon died on July 14, 1876, a man without

religious power, belonging, or respect. Without his leadership, the

Church of Christ completely disbanded by 1884.

142 McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 135.143

Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 377.144

McKiernan, The Voice of One Crying in the Wilderness , 142.

145 Ibid., 143.

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Conclusion

Rigdons quest for religious power took him from the Mahoning

Baptist Association, under the tutelage of Adamson Bentley, to the

Campbellite movement, becoming an unrecognized founder under

Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott, and finally to the Church of

Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, where he served for almost fourteen

years as Joseph Smiths First Counselor and trusted confidant. He was

excommunicated from the Baptist association for preaching liberal, i.e.

non-official, doctrines not befitting the Baptist creeds. He officially

joined Alexander Campbell and Walter Scott, but left because of the

lack of recognition and power they gave him. He felt particularly

scorned when Scott was chosen as the official traveling preacher

instead of himself. When one of his former disciples and recent

Mormon convert came to visit, Rigdon recognized another opportunity

for belonging and power. The LDS doctrines found in the Book of

Mormon were similar enough to what he was preaching and Joseph

Smith needed a powerful and influential preacher. He immediately

found belonging and power with Smith, prophet, seer, and revelator of

God.

Rigdon was able to quickly exercise the religious power he so

desperately craved; he was immediately sent as a missionary and was

officially named in a revelation from God as spokesman for Joseph

Smith. Smith trusted Rigdon, listening to his council and advice.

Rigdon stood by Smiths side as he rid the Church of dissenters and

apostates. Non-Mormons recognized him as almost equal to Smith and

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the LDS leadership expressed trust in him. Rigdon was content with

being Smiths right-hand man, speaking for the Prophet and standing

in his place during any absence. However, Smith quickly distrusted

him when Rigdon expressed disbelief and shock over the doctrine of

plural marriage and after the failed attempt of Smith to receiveRigdons daughter as a plural wife. He still firmly believed in Mormon

doctrine and the divine origins of the Book of Mormon but, in an

attempt to protect his daughter, began losing his leadership. When

Joseph Smith was assassinated, Rigdon viewed it as an opportunity to

assume leadership and return the Church to its original roots, ridding

the Church of plural marriage and retaining the Ancient Order. He

made an impassioned speech claiming leadership for the Church, but

Brigham Young discredited him, using his controversies and disputes

with Smith against him. This led to Rigdon being excommunicated yet

again from his religious community.

The excommunication from the Mormon Church devastated

Rigdon and he was never able to fully recuperate. He spent the next

several years attacking the LDS Church, trying futilely to reestablish

himself inside the Church. He lost his fame, reputation, and success.

He diminished into obscurity, refusing to speak about Mormonism or

Joseph Smith. Rigdons obituary in the Friendship Register read,

Since his excision from the ruling body of the church, at Nauvoo,he has been living in our village, in the main very quiet, repellingrather than courting the curiosity which his prominence in one of the most extraordinary social phenomena of times, drew uponhim. He has often been interviewed by those intent uponclearing up some of the mysteries and delusions that attendedthe origin of Mormonism, but invariably without success. Onthese occasions he would defend the Mormon account of theorigin [of] the Book of Mormon, and also the chief doctrines of the early Mormon church. . . . [I]n his prime he took an active

part in the theological controversies that raged so fiercely in this

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and western states and was then and always familiar with theBible . . . and his whole conduct held naturally to the inferencethat his religious ambitions were buried at the time he wassuperseded by Young, or perhaps at the time when thepolygamous doctrines of Joseph Smith were promulgated. 146

His last vain attempt to establish religious power failed miserably,

never garnering more than a decent size congregation.

Despite the many contributions to both the Disciples of Christ

and the Latter Day Saints, Rigdon has been condemned by both faiths,

painting him as a religious apostate and fanatic. Their histories are

riddled with negative biases, diminishing his accomplishments or

crediting them to others. In his quest for religious power, SidneyRigdon became a misunderstood and forgotten man.

146 Van Wagoner, Sidney Rigdon , 449-450.

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