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Enhancing PostharvestTechnology Generation and

Dissemination in Africa

Proceedings of the Workshop on EnhancingPostharvest Technology

Generation and Dissemination in Africa, held at the Sheraton Hotel,

Cotonou, Benin, 26-28 October 1998

Joseph Kwarteng, editor

Sasakawa Africa Association, MexicoCity, 1999

ISBN 2-940200-10-6

Sasakawa Africa Association, c/o CIMMYT, Apdo. 6-641,06600Mexico D.F.,Mexico

Global 2000Program of The Carter Center, 1 Copenhill Road, Atlanta, GA 30307,USA

International Institute of TropicalAgriculture, Oyo Road, PMB5320,Ibadan, Nigeria

The workshop sponsors: The Sasakawa Africa Association and the Global 2000

program of The Carter Center are joint sponsors of the Sasakawa-Global 2000

agricultural projects in sub-Saharan Africa,whose primary aim is to promote more

effective transfer of improved technology to small-scalefarmers. Bothorganizationswere set up in 1986, the former by the Nippon Foundation, Tokyo,and the latter by

The Carter Center,Atlanta, Georgia,USA. The International Institute of Tropical

Agriculture (IITA), located in Ibadan, Nigeria, seeks to increase agricultural

production in a sustainable way, in order to improve the nutritional status and well-

being of people in sub-Saharan Africa. Toachieve this goal, IITAconducts research

and training, provides information, collects and exchanges germplasm, and

encourages transfer of technology, in partnership with African national agricultural

research and development programs.

Abstract: This publication contains papers presented at the Workshop onEnhancing Postharvest Technology Generation and Dissemination in Africa, held at

the Sheraton Hotel, Cotonou, Benin, October 1998.

Correct citation: Kwarteng, Joseph, ed. 1999.Enhancingpostharvest technology

generation and disseminationin Africa. Mexico City: Sasakawa Africa Association.

Contents

V Foreword

vii Glossary

I Meeting Summary

9 Opening AddressCosme Akpodji

II Welcoming Address

Christopher Dowswell

14 Postharvest Management and its Effects on Africa's Food

Security and Livelihoods

Ruth Oniang'o

20 Micro-scale Enterprise Approach to Sweetpotato and Potato

Improvement Systems

Vital Hagenimana

27 Promoting Improvements in Postharvest Systems in Sub-

Saharan Africa: The Role of IITA

Mpoko Bokanga

32 Advances in Postharvest Technologies and Systems Appropriate

for Sub-Saharan Africa: The Ghana Experience

Kwaku Nicol

36 Characterizing the Desirability of Postharvest Technologiesfor African Conditions

Yong Woon Jeon and L. Halos-Kim

47 INPhO - The Information Network on Postharvest Operations

Jose v. Machado and Caroline Bothe

53 Strengthening the Entrepreneurial Capacity of Small-Scale

Palm Oil Millers

Charles Ofori Addo

59 Cassava Chip Processing in Ghana: Participatory Postharvest

Research and Technology TransferAndrew Westby and Stephanie Gallat

66 Collaboration for Agro-Industries Development: An Agro-Processing Project Approach

Toshiro Mado

69 Improving the Development and Delivery of Postharvest

Technologies: Small Groups Summaries

73 Closing Remarks: Bringing the Pieces TogetherChristopher Dowswell

77 Workshop Participants

IV

Foreword

In 25 to 30 years, it is likely that moreAfricans will live in cities than on the

land. This demographic shift must bringmajor changes in smallholder agriculture,if the needs of urban food consumers are

to be served. In the next century, Africanagriculture will be increasingly market-oriented. This requires a commercialagriculture that is more diversified, moreefficient, and assures greater food safety.

Most smallholder farmers have

inadequate grain storage structures, whichadds pressure to sell at harvest, despiteprevailing low prices. Cost-effectivepostharvest storage structures and pestmanagement methods are needed. Increased crop surpluses also givesmallholders new incentives to add

economic value to their produce throughfood processing and sale in the marketplace.

African governments also need topromote the development of agro-industries that can manufacture much of the

equipment and machinery needed insmall-scale postharvest enterprises.Governments need to ensure that steel,

bearings, motors, and other componentsneeded to manufacture agriculturalmachinery and equipment are available ascheaply and easily as possible.

Some important questions andchallenges:

• How do we build financial and techni

cal partnerships—^with donors andclients—to accelerate the development

and dissemination of improvedpostharvest technologies?

• How do we strengthen the entrepreneurial capacity of small-scale foodprocessors and manufacturers to maketheir operations more efficient andprofitable?

• How do we encourage the development of local agro-industrial companies, capable of manufacturing smallmachinery and equipment needed toimprove farm incomes and reduce farmdrudgery?

The objectives of the workshop wereappropriate and helped participants todehberate relevant issues related to these

challenges. 1beheve the informationgenerated, experiences shared, andrecommendations offered will go a longway to improve the postharvest sector.

1would like to acknowledge theInternational Institute of Tropical Agriculture for hosting the 2-week trainingsession at its headquarters m Ibadan andfor agroprocessing field visit, includinglunch, at its Calavi Station, near Cotonou.

A special acknowledgment go to Dr. Y. W.Jeon and Mrs. Leonides Halos-Kim,Postharvest Engineering Unit, IITA,bothfor their leadership in agroprocessingdevelopment and for handling most of thelogistical details associated with thisworkshop.

1would also like to recognize theleadership and contributions of SAAProgram Leader for Agroprocessing

Development, Mr. Toshiro Made, Technical Officer Antoine Aoga, based in Benin,plus the SG 2000 project staff in Cotonou.All contributed to the success of this

meeting.Finally, thanks goes to Dr. Joe Kwarteng

for his assistance as an instructor and

facilitator in the postharvest training

session at IITA, Ibadan, for his assistance

with the small groups discussions duringthe workshop, and last, but not least, forediting these proceedings.

Christopher R. DowswellDirector for Program CoordinationSasakawa Africa Association

VI

Glossary

ADB Agricultural Development Bank

$ Cedl

CIAT Centre Internaclonal de Agrlcultura Tropical

CIP International Potato Center

CIRAD Centre de Cooperation Internationale en Recherche Agronomlque pour le

Developpement

COSCA Collaborative Study of Cassava In Africa

FAO Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations

GTZ German Development Cooperation

IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute

IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture

INPhO information Network on Postharvest Operations

KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute

MOA Ministry of Agriculture

MOFA Ministry of Food and Agriculture

NARO National Agricultural Research Organization

NGO Non-Governmental Organization

NRI Natural Resources Institute

PFIMD Post-Harvest Management Division

PRAPACE Regional Potato and Sweetpotato Improvement Program In Eastern and

Central Africa

RPM Revolutions per minute

SAA Sasakawa Africa Association

8G 2000 Sasakawa-Global 2000

t tonne (1,000 kg)

UNICEF United Nations Children's Fund

USAID United States Agency for International Development

VII

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Meeting Summary

Opening Address

Cosme Akpodji, Directeur de cabinet ofthe Republic of Benin, delivered theopening address on behalf of Saka Saley,the Minister of Rural Development of theRepublic of Benin. In the address, hewelcomed participants to Benin andexpressed his delight that the theme of theworkshop was in consonance with one ofthe objectives of the Govermnent ofBenin's Plan of Action to achieve food

security. The Minister said that foodproduction had been increasing in Beninsince 1990, but noted that the increase was

not sufficient to satisfy domestic needsand meet the increase in external demands

brought about by the goverranent's tradehberahzation policy. This imbalance was achallenge, and the Government haddecided to address it by promoting morefood crops such as maize, cassava, sorghum, rice, and their derived products inthe same way traditional cash crops hadbeen promoted. Akpodji indicated that theGovernment also intended to considerablyreduce the estimated 20-30% postharvestlosses in the country. He emphasized theneed to organize better food supply anddistribution systems in order to maintainreasonable prices for consumers of localagricultural products. The Ministercommended the postharvest mitiatives ofsuch orgaruzations as Sasakawa-Global2000 and the Food Technology Laboratory

in Benin and challenged the Workshopparticipants to come out with recommendations that would improve the livingconditions and income of hardworkingrural populations.

Welcoming Address

The workshop participants werewelcomed by Christopher Dowswell,Director for Program Coordination,Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA). Heemphasized the importance of thepostharvest sector by drawing participants' attention to the projected growth ofthe populations of sub-Saharan Africafrom about 600 million today to nearly 1.2billion by the year 2025. Half of thispopulation, he said, were expected to livein cities and large towns. Dowswell notedthat today 70-80% of all food produced inAfrica was consumed by those whoproduced it. He indicated, however, thatthis state of affairs was expected to changedue to increased rural-to-urban migrationand an expected rise in family incomes.Urban families, in keeping with existingtrends, would eat more processed foods 25years from now.

Dowswell observed that these hugechanges m African food consumptionpatterns would have enormous implications for food industries, agriculturalproduction, and food safety. These werechallenges which, he suggested, could be

met by broadening our thinking to coverresearch systems that satisfied both thewants and needs of farmers and consum

ers. He said that the development of agro-industries could serve as an importantcornerstone for healthy rural economies,but noted that this would be difficultwithout substantially greater inyestmentsin rural infrastructure. Unfortunately hesaid, little—or only fragmented—attentionwas today paid by most governments,donor agencies and research institutes tothe food processing and distributionsystems needed to deliver food from ruralto the urban markets. He encouraged theparticipants to think of dynamic partnerships between farmers and public, privateand NGO organizations that could lowerthe costs of agricultural production andmarketing, help African agriculturecompete more effectively in internationalmarkets and, perhaps, most importantly,help the poor have access to the foodrequired for a healthy and active life.

Postharvest Management andAfrica's Food Security

Ruth Oniang'o regretted the currentstate of affairs where Africa, a continent

well endowed with enormous human

capital and rich natural resources, wasunable to feed itself and continued to be

increasingly dependent on food aid andimports. She bemoaned the fact that thewhole area of postharvest had beenlargely neglected, noting that as weheaded towards the next century, it wasclear the past had yielded little for Africain terms of technological advancementand the ability to feed itself.

While opportunities had been lost,Oniang'o was of the opinion that it wasnot too late to reverse trends and that

Africa could restore its agriculturalproductivity by tackling the food chain atall its key stages and not in a piecemeal

fashion. She contended that there was still

enormous potential on the continent andmany opportunities yet untapped in thearea of food processing.

Oniang'o indicated that strategies toaddress the recurring food securityproblems in Africa must involvepostharvest practices and management.She outlined several issues which she said

had implications for the postharvest sectorin Africa today. These included;

• rapid population growth and theconsequent rural to urban migration

• food quality and food safety• time women spend on food processing• lack of access to profitable markets• the need to put in place value adding

mechanisms to absorb yields that werein excess of immediate family use

Oniang'o noted that value-added foodscould facilitate trade between rural and

urban areas as well as between countries.

She urged all stakeholders in thepostharvest system to play their rightfulroles, if the entire area of postharvestmanagement was going to be promotedand streamlined in sub-Saharan Africa.

Some of the recommendations she made

were:

• Governments should formulate policieswhich support the food industry andaddress consumer needs.

• Governments should promote theestablishment of agro-industries in therural areas.

• Training should be offered in foodquality and control.

• There should be food fortification

programs that address the needs ofpoor people.

• Food should be protected from contamination and packaging practicesthat address consumer appeal shouldbe encouraged.

CIP's Sweetpotato and PotatoImprovement Systems

Vital Hagenimana, a postharvestscientist at the International Potato Centre

(GIF), discussed CIP's postharvest research pertaining to sweetpotato andpotato and said that the overall objectivewas to improve the welfare of the ruralpoor through the diversification andexpansion of the crop. He stated that inAfrica, the fresh root market and on-farm

consumption were still dominant, butnoted that opportunities for incomegeneration existed by adding value to thecrops through processing and by using thevines and other by-products as animalfeed. He said lessons could be learned

from Asia where 85% of globalsweetpotato production was concentratedand where shifts in utilization from fresh

root consumption towards feed andprocessed products such as starch, chipsand flour were in progress.

Hagenimana said studies had shownthat baked products incorporating sweetpotato as an ingredient and productscontaining cooked and mashedsweetpotato were particularly accepted byconsumers. Consumers, he said, were

prepared to pay the same prices for sweetpotato-based products as for similarproducts they had been buying. He saidstudies had shown that sweet potatoimproved the taste, texture, freshness,appearance, sweetness and color of localfoods such as buns, "chapatis," and"mandazis."

Hagenimana outlined the strategicprinciples guiding CIP's postharvestresearch activities on sweetpotato andpotato as including:

• Focus on primary processing of potatoand sweetpotato into value-addedproducts such as chips, crisps, starchand flour.

• Focus on uses of potato andsweetpotato (including vines) asanimal feed, especially for high producing animals such as pigs and dairycattle.

• Use of the product developmentmethodology developed by CIP,CIATand IITA. This methodology comprisesopportunity identification, market andtechnical research, pilot enterprisefeasibility and commercial expansionor replication of enterprises.

• Placing emphasis on small-scaletechnologies that are both efficient andproduce quality products, or linksmall-scale producers to industrial-scale processors.

• Paying attention to basic researchwhere necessary, to resolve problems orreahze opportunities identified asimportant for target beneficiaries (e.g.,starch functional properties as relatedto baking quality).

• Linking up with centers of expertisenot available locally.

• Collaborating with the private sector,NGOs, national agricultural researchsystems and other internationalagricultural research centers involvedwith work in roots and tubers, where

necessary, to achieve project objectives.

IITA's Role in Promotingimprovements in PostharvestSystems

Mpoko Bokanga, a biochemist andfood technologist at the InternationalInstitute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA),discussed IITA's role in improvingpostharvest systems in Africa.He indicated that IITA's postharvest projectconsisted of a program to develop simpleand low-cost machinery for harvesting,processing and transportation, and alsoinvolved efforts to expand the utilizationof crops by developing and promoting

new products for household and commercial use. To achieve the goals of theproject, Bokanga said IITA used resultsfrom characterization studies of existingtechnologies and mode of utilization ofcrops to identify existing constraints andselect priority areas for research andinterventions.

According to Bokanga the development of postharvest technological solutions at IITAfell into four categories:quahty improvement in new varietydevelopment; product and processdevelopment; postharvest equipmentdevelopment; and improvement in storagesystems. In addition to technologicalsolutions, Bokanga said IITAxmdertookactivities that aided the transfer of

postharvest technologies. Such activitiesincluded conducting degree and non-degree training programs, demonstrationof technologies and participation inexhibits and agricultural trade fairs.

Using IITA's experience with soybeanand cassava as examples, Bokanga emphasized that the improvement and use ofpostharvest technologies could increasethe utilization of crops and thus stimulatetheir production. Postharvest technologies, he said, provided the tools needed byfarmers to convert their harvest into

commodities that would attract the

income farmers deserved.

Ghana's Experience withPostharvest Technoiogies

Kwaku Nicol, head of the FostHarvest

Management Division (FHMD) ofGhana's Ministry of Food and Agriculture(MOFA), presented a paper addressingadvances in the development ofpostharvest technologies in Ghana. Henoted that, in the past, the Ghana Government, as well as donors, had focused their

attention on increasing food productionwithout giving much thought to storage

and preservation. This, he said, created asituation where whatever benefits new

technologies in production offered wereeroded by postharvest losses due to lackof storage facilities, insufficient processingfacilities and underdeveloped marketinginfrastructure.

Nicol discussed the efforts being madeby the Ghana Government to tackle theproblem of postharvest losses and saidthat, at the national level, the MOFA, witha three-phased installation program, hadprovided grain storage and handlingfacilities in strategic locations for efficientpostharvest management of grain surpluses. He added, however, that anylasting improvement in the areas ofpostharvest losses must involve educationand subsequent adoption, by the smallscale farmer, of affordable, technologicallyand culturally appropriate storage,preservation and processing practices.Nicol explained that the postharvestsystem instituted by the Government ofGhana through the FHMD of MOFA wascentered mainly on storage and processingto reduce losses, increase storage life,refine crop quality and add value toprimary produce. He listed some improved postharvest technologies that hadbeen introduced in the country andidentified some of the problems encountered in Ghana as lack of coordination,duplication of efforts, poor markets andweak linkages between research, extension and farmers.

Postharvest Technologies forAfrican Conditions

Leonides Halos-Kim, research specialist, IITA Fostharvest Engineering Unit,presented a paper co-authored with Y. W.Jeon, postharvest technologist, IITA, oncharacterizing the desirability ofpostharvest technologies for Africanconditions. In the presentation, Halos-Kim

noted that a number of innovations and

technologies introduced into Africa sincethe 1970s had met with httle success

because the technologies often did not fitusers' needs. To overcome this, the

authors suggested that technology development approaches should be re-orientedto fully integrate social, economic andtechnical considerations. Such strategies,they believed, would lead to the propertargeting of technology users and alsocontribute to the full understanding of theconstraints and opportunities for developing appropriate technologies.

In designing and manufacturingpostharvest technologies for Africanconditions, Halos-Kim said it was important to pay attention to such factors as thepattern of crop production, the type andnature of food processing and consumption, the available resources, the technical

and economic capability of the farmers,the marketing opportrmities available,special requirements for specific foodpreparations and taste preferences ofconsumers.

Halos-Kim discussed the features of

IITA postharvest technologies that weredeveloped after careful analysis of theAfrican condition. These pieces of equipment, she said, were being disseminatedby the Sasakawa African Association(SAA) m some West African cotmtriessuch as Ghana, Benin and Nigeria.

Information Network on

Postharvest Operations

In her presentation, Carolin Bothe,visiting scientist from GTZ to FAO,addressed the issue of postharvest information. She drew attention to the importance of postharvest by mdicating thatworld food security was largely dependent on the efficiency of the post-production systems. While alluding to the factthat information had a vital role to play in

the management of the post-productionsector, she noted that such information

was not always available. The reason, shesaid, was that a large amoimt of literatureaccumulated by projects developed byresearch institutes and developmentinstitutions remained inaccessible or

unknown to those who needed it. Also,

post-production information tended to beplaced under the general heading ofagriculture or farming, or rural development and, therefore, got easily immersedand dispersed in a sea of literatiure. It wasto address this issue and make

postharvest information more easilyavailable and accessible that the FAO, in

collaboration with a small group oforganizations (GTZ, CIRAD, and USAID)started INPhO - the Information Network

on Postharvest Operations.Bothe described INPhO as an interna

tional reference facility and a network forthe exchange of information and experiences in the post-production sector. Shesaid the basic purpose of INPhO was thecollection, collation, development anddissemination of useful information

regarding various elements of post-production systems, giving particularemphasis to products and technologiesrelevant to developing coimtries. According to Bothe, INPhO comprised threemajor components: (1) a database—acomprehensive collection of informationon the post-production sector (including,for instance, the full text of selected

documents, decision support tools forentrepreneurs and a list of research andtraining organizations); (2) an interactivecommunication service for expert consultation and exchange of information and(3) linkage with other databases andlibraries. She said information from

INPhO was accessible through theInternet, as well as on CD-ROM for wider

dissemination.

Capacity Building

Charles Ofori Addo, a business advisor

for TechnoServe, threw some light on thecapacity building activities otTechnoServe, a private, non-profit, non-sectarian international developmentagency founded in 1968 and operating inGhana since 1971. TechnoServe's mission,

he said, was to improve the economic andsocial well-being ot low-income ruralpeople in developing countries throughenterprise development. He explainedthat TechnoServe used an integratedapproach that provided technical andmanagerial assistance as well as trainingto foster the establishment and growth otsmaU to medium-scale community basedagricultural enterprises.

On TechnoServe's operations in Ghana,Addo explained that the agency wasmainly assisting organized groups ot ruralfarmers and food processors to add valueto agricultural products. He saidTechnoServe believed that the key topromoting dynamic growth in the agricultural sector in Ghana is to develop small-scale and medium-scale rural enterprisesbased on a thorough understanding otinternational and domestic market reali

ties. In many instances these small-scaleand medium-scale businesses would be

best positioned to grow and prosper itthey were able to establish marketingagreements with larger, more dependablebuyers and firms. Thus, TechnoServeacted as an honest broker to nurture such

linkages. He emphasized TechnoServe'sbelief in commitment and said potentialbusiness owners working with the agencywere required to demonstrate a strongsense ot commitment to the process otenterprise development by making "upfront" contributions in cash or "in kind"

payments such as land, labor, materials oragricultural produce.

Addo said TechnoServe was currently

assisting 180 community-based ruralenterprises throughout Ghana with acombined total membership ot 8,334, otwhom 48% were women. He added that

in implementing its activities,TechnoServe collaborated with institutions

and organizations such as the International Institute ot Tropical Agriculture(IITA). As part ot the presentation, hediscussed an organizational model tor asmall-scale palm oil processing andassessed its impact and cost effectiveness.

Participatory PostharvestTechnology Development andTransfer

Stephanie Gallat, In-Country Coordinator tor the NRI-Ghana Postharvest

Development Program, presented a paper,co-authored with Andrew Westby ot theNRI, on the development ot cassava chipprocessing m Ghana. The paper highlighted the use ot a participatory systemsapproach in postharvest research anddevelopment on roots and tuber crops inGhana. The authors noted that

postharvest systems were highly complexm nature because ot the interaction ot

technical and economic constraints faced

by small-scale farmers and cautionedagainst seeing postharvest problems aswholly technical phenomena requiringonly technical solutions. They described asystems approach which covered production to consumption and included needsassessment to determine farmers' needs,

market analysis to understand whichmarkets farmers could access and systemsanalysis with all stakeholders to identitysolutions to bottlenecks. The advantagesot the system, according to Westby andGallat, were that it involved a close

interface with beneficiaries; it made

technology transfer a part ot the researchand development process; it was tasterthan some alternatives; it allowed tor the

fact that not all constraints were technical

in nature; and it was multidisciplinary inapproach. The disadvantages of thesystem included difficulty in predictingthe final product or technology since thesystem used a process approach. Also, theresults could be location specific andexpectations could be raised if the processwas not followed through to an end point.

Collaboration for Agro-industriesDeveiopment

In his presentation, Toshiro Mado, theprogram officer for SAA in Ghana, emphasized fhe important role of postharvestprocessing in ensuring food security in anera of growing populations in Africa. Henoted that farmers, especially thoseproducing surplus food, requiredpostharvest technologies to derive maximum benefits from their efforts.

Postharvest technologies for agro-processing, he said, provided a major avenue forgenerating income for rural farmers,especially women in African countries.

Mado highlighted the weak linkagesbetween agriculture and industry, pointing out that metal workshops were locatedin urban areas while rural farmers had

little information about available technolo

gies and equipment. He described theeffort being made by an SAA project todisseminate available postharvest agro-processing technologies to farmers,manufacturers and operators. He indicated that the effort had been collabora

tive, involving SAA, IITA, NationalAgricultural Extension Agents, metalworkshops, NGOs and farmers. Madodescribed the role of the collaborators and

indicated that the major activities in thecollaboration were in the areas of Research

and Development, agro-industries extension and training of manufacturers.

Mado said collaboration with Research

and Development was necessary to ensure

that equipment design took into consideration crop characteristics, as well asagricultural and human engineeringfactors. Such considerations, he believed,

yielded good designs which were easy tofabricate, easy to use and were durable.He said the purpose of agro-industriesextension was to demonstrate agro-processing equipment to farmers andother potential users and to conveyfarmers' comments to engineers forsubsequent modification and improvement of designs. Manufacturers' training,he said, was aimed at introducing newdesigns to manufacturers and to improvethe fabrication skills of technicians. He

concluded by calling for greater participation and better co-ordination amongstakeholders to improve and expand theagro-industries sector.

Bringing the Pieces Together

In his closing remarks, Chris Dowswellreminded participants that increasingurbanization in Africa would bring aboutchanging patterns of food consumption.He wondered whether urban dwellers

who would be eating more processedfoods, would obtain their food from

domestic producers and food processorsor from imports from abroad. His opinionwas that the final decision would be

influenced by quality and quantityconsiderations.

Dowswell shared the opinion thatgovernmental and non-governmentalorganizations should be involved insupporting and strengthening emergentprivate sector micro-enterprises. Hesuggested they could do this by taking theleadership role to help organize and trainthem. Dowswell, however, believed that

not-for-profit development organizationswhich would be involved in this effort

should adopt a clear businesslike orientation in their advisory services and iater-

ventions. He said the goal must be to offerservices arrd interventions that allowed

farmers and small-scale entrepreneurs tomake significant profits. In this direction,he emphasized the need for marketinformation through the development of amore robust market intelligent systems.

On the need to influence pohcy topromote the development of modernagricultural systems and, especially, small-scale agribusiness, Dowswell encouragedNGOs and participants to become activistsfor change by lobbying parliamentariansand the executive branch of governmentfor a favorable environment for the

development of rural industries andenterprises.

Dowswell advised ministries of

agriculture and NGOs to plan carefulstrategies to engage the private sectoragribusiness in development partnerships

that would be mutually beneficial. Onstrategic and adaptive research, he saidwe should be focusing more effort on thediffusion of what was already available,perhaps with some adaptive research forsmaU design changes, where necessary.Finally, Dowswell encouraged participantsto implement recommendations thatemerged from small group discussions tohelp improve the development anddelivery of postharvest technologies.These included: recommendations for

strengthening the entrepreneurial capacityof small-scale agro-processors and manufacturers; recommendations for buildingsustainable partnerships for postharvesttechnology development and dissemination and recommendations for financingpostharvest technology development,manufacturing and agro-processingenterprises.

opening AddressCosme Akpodji

I wish, first of all, onbehalf of the Government

to welcome you to theRepublic of Benin. It is areal pleasure for me to bewith you for the opening ofthis workshop on "Enhancing Postharvest TechnologyGeneration and Dissemina

tion in Africa."

Youwill agree with me that for Africancountries in general and for Benin inparticular, a sound economic policy mustbe based on agricultural development.Youwill also agree with me that foodsecurity will assure lasting social peace.

The choice of Benin as host for this

workshop is evidence of your confidencein our coxmtry and I am delighted that thetheme of this workshop is in consonancewith the objectives of the Govermnent'sPlan of Action to achieve food security.Indeed, food security is one of the keycomponents of the Government's programof development.

In its Statement of Rural Policy{declaration de la Politique de DeveloppementRural, LPDR), Benin has set itself thefollowing priorities among other objectives:

• to control food and nutritional insecu

rity through specific actions targeted at

/iiSlm

the most vulnerable areas

and periods• to seek profitablemarkets and thus promoteagricultural diversification• to increase exportearnings in order tocompensate for the weakness of the domestic

market by diversifying and improvingagricultural production both in qualityand quantityBenin's food production was over the

set target in 1990. Thereafter, the trend inannual food production (5% in 1990)compared with the population growth of3% showed an increase in net food production. Unfortunately, this increase hasnot been enough to satisfy both domesticdemands and an expanded externaldemand brought about by the almost totalliberalization of our economy. This hascreated a structural imbalance between the

current levels of supply and demandwhich is likely to continue to maintainpressure on domestic markets. In order tosomehow lessen this imbalance, theGovernment of Benin, through the Ministry of Rural Development, has decided topromote food crops such as maize,cassava, sorghum and rice and theirproducts in the same way as cash crops.

Cosme Akpodji is Directeur du cabinet of the Ministry of Rural Development in

the Republic of Benin.

9

and to considerably reduce postharvestlosses which are reported to be close to 20- 30%.

In the light of demographic projections which estimate the population ofBenin to increase from 5.9 million in 1998

to 12.6 million in 2019, there is an urgentneed for improved postharvest technologies that will make it possible to improveproductivity and increase the availabilityof food stocks by reducing postharvestlosses. Postharvest technologies will alsoencourage the processing of some of ourcrops in order to add value and consequently improve the income of ourfarmers.

We also need to better organize foodsupply and distribution systems in urbanand peri-urban areas in order to reduce,as much as possible, the number ofintermediaries so as to maintain reason

able prices and quality for the consumersof local agricultural products. As weenter the 21st century which will becharacterized by globalization, the

prospects for the development of Agriculture in Africa are bright.

The objectives for this workshopconstitute a covert agro-industrialrevolution for Africa, especially ruralAfrica, and you have the support of myMinistry. I am aware of postharvestinitiatives in this country by organizations such as Sasakawa-Global 2000 and

the Food Technology Laboratory. Theseinitiatives are commendable. Over the

next three days you will discuss issuesrelated to food security for the entireAfrican continent. I am confident that

your deliberations will yield pertinentrecommendations towards the improvement of the living conditions and incomeof our hard-working rural populations.These recommendations, 1 am sure, will

be endorsed by the representatives ofour development partners for theireffective implementation by researchers,experts and extensionists. 1declare thisworkshop open and wish you a successful meeting.

10

Welcoming AddressChristopher Dowswell

I am honored to wel

come participants to thefirst session of the SAA/

IITAWorkshop on Enhancing Postharvest TechnologyGeneration and Dissemina

tion in Africa. Our meetingtoday has been preceded bya two-week in-service

technical training course conducted atIITA, Ibadan, Nigeria, which was attendedby 14 postharvest practitioners from sevencormtries of sub-Saharan Africa. I will like

to congratulate them on a job well done inthe classroom, machine shop, and agro-processing enterprises where they haveworked these past two weeks.

In our discussion over the next three

days I would like us to consider thefollowing facts and figures. First, thepopulation of sub-Saharan Africa isprojected to double within the next 20-25years, from roughly 600 million today tonearly 1.2 billion in 2025. Perhaps surprising, at least it was to me, is the projectionthat most of this population growth willbe in urban rather than rural areas.

Indeed, the United Nations PopulationAgency anticipates that by 2025, morethan 50% of the SSApopulation will residein cities and large towns, twice the proportion now.

While today in Africa70-80% of all food is still

consumed by those whoproduce it, in 25 yearsmore than half will be

consumed by urbandwellers or exportedabroad to commercial

markets far away fromproduction centers. As African cities grow,both through natural increase and rural-to-urban migration, and as family incomesrise, patterns of food consumption willchange. Urban families will eat moreprocessed foods such as bread and pastas,and less hand-ground or pounded cerealsand starches. FAO forecasts that 20-25

years from now sub-Saharan Africans willeaf three times more meat and seven times

more poultry than they do today.These huge changes in African food

consumption patterns have enormousimplications for food industries, agricultural production, and food safety. To meetthese challenges, we must broaden ourthinking from research systems that onlyconcern themselves with identifying andsatisfying the wants and needs of farmers,to those that also consider the needs,

wants, and requirements of consumers.Unfortunately today, little, and only

fragmented, attention is paid by most

Christopher Dowswell is Director for Program Coordination, SasakawaAfrica Association.

11

governments, donor agencies and researchinstitutes to the food processing anddistribution systems needed to dehverfood from rural producers to the urbanmarkets. For example, the ConsultativeGroup for International AgriculturalResearch invests less than 1% of its total

budget (now more than US$300 millionarmually) in post-production systems andtechnologies.

And yet, in the developed nations ofNorth America, Europe, and Asia it is theagro-industries that add 75% of the valueto food products and employ the mostpeople. In the United States, only about2%of the population is directly engagedin farming and ranching, while more than20%earn their livelihoods in food processing, distribution, marketing, catering, andrelated services.

Professor G. Edward Schuh, SG 2000'ssenior economic policy advisor, is constantly reminding us that the most important contribution of agriculture over thepast 50 years in the industrialized coim-tries, and in parts of Asia and LatinAmerica, has been in lowering the realprice of food. This benefits everyone insociety, because we all consume food, butespecially the poor since they spend alarger portion of their income on feedingthemselves.

There have been two main forces

driving lower real prices for farm goods.The first is technology, and the second ismarketing (Donovan 1996). Improvedtechnology allows farmers to receive moreincome even when real prices are falling,because they produce more for each unitof land and labor. More efficient market

ing—defined here as what happens toproducts between farmers and consumers—including transport, storage, processing, buying and selling, is actually doublyimportant, since it affects the pricesfarmers pay for inputs as well as what

they receive from their crops.In sub-Saharan Africa, the poor organi

zation and performance of the transportsector has affected all aspects of the ruraleconomy, including access to markets, useof inputs and improved technology, farmproductivity, access to social services andmobility (Doyen 1996). This has led to adecline in sub-Saharan Africa's participation in world trade, held back progress inthe development of domestic food markets, and increased overall food insecurity.

Poor transport systems have especiallyaffected women, who bear an overwhelming share, often more than 80%, of thetransport activities of rural households.For example head loading by womenoccupies 20-30hours per week (Doyen1996).

Many agro-industries are most efficiently located near the source of rawmaterials needed to process crops andlivestock into various types of consumerfood products. Thus, their developmentcall becomes a cornerstone of healthy ruraleconomies. Flowever, without substan

tially greater investments in rural infrastructure it is difficult to see how urban

consumers will have access to safe and

nutritious food at affordable prices.Similarly, it is difficult to see how healthyrural economies can develop, especiallyexpanded off-farm employment opportunities, or how the natural resource base

can be protected.As we explore the ways and means to

enhance postharvest technology generation and dissemination in Africa, I ask

workshop participants to keep the word"partnership" in the forefront of theirminds. How can dynamic partnershipsbetween farmers and public, private andNGO organizations lower the cost ofagricultural production and marketing?How can such partnerships help Africanagriculture compete more effectively in

12

international markets? And perhaps mostimportant, how can more effective partnerships help the poor have access to thefood required for a healthy and active life?

References

Donovan, W. G. 1996.The role of inputs andmarketing systems in modemizing agriculture.In: Achievinggreater impactfrom research investments in Africa,ed. S.A. Breth. pp. 178-194.Sasakawa Africa Association, Mexico City.

Doyen, J. H. 1996.Transport and agriculturaldevelopment in Africa. In: Achieving greater impactfrom research investments in Africa, ed. S. A. Breth.pp. 167-177. Sasakawa Africa Association, Mexico

City.

13

Postharvest Management and Its Effecton Africa's Food Security andLivelihoods

Ruth K. Oniang'o

Most economies in sub-

Saharan Africa depend onagriculture. However,agriculture has not receivedthe necessary attention, interms of developmentexpenditure, to reflect thisimportant role the sectorplays. Within the last twodecades, this region of the world hasmoved from being a net exporter of foodto a net importer of food. In addition, theregion has increasingly become dependenton food aid.

Currently, a greater proportion of ruralAfrica faces major economic, generalwelfare and survival challenges. Structuraladjustment policies, which were meant topositively reform the economy, have dealta heavy blow to the agricultural sector asthese policies have, to a large extent, notworked. Although the extreme poverty inthe region cannot be entirely attributed tostructural adjustment policies, consumerscontinue to blame their economic woes on

their respective governments for adoptinginsensitive macro economic policies.

Poverty and Food SecurityChallenges

The food insecurity, hunger andmalnutrition which can be seen in many

/

African countries are

clearly linked to poverty.For example, most of therural population in Southern African countries live

in poverty, with up to 80%in Zambia and 85% in

Malawi. Rural poverty hasfueled a migration to urban

areas and it is estimated that the urban

population is likely to more than triplebetween 1995 and 2020 (IFPRI1997). Bythe year 2020it is expected that more thanhalf the region's population will be livingin urban areas. New strategies are neededto both revitalize the African economies

and address problems such as foodsecurity, hunger and malnutrition. Mostcountries, including the so-called economic tigers of Asia, have industrializedthrough the development of agriculture.Africa can learn from the experiences ofthese countries.

Post-Production Dilemma

Even as sub-Saharan African countries

continue to experience worsening fooddeficits, the sad fact is that a considerableproportion of currently produced foods iswasted. The reasons for this wastage arenot difficult to find and include: inappropriate policies that fail to address the

Ruth Oniang'o is a Professor of Food Science and Nutrition at the Jomo

Kenyatta University of Agriculture and Technology, Nairobi, Kenya.

14

changing socio-political and economicenvironment; failure to develop policies topromote marketing and distribution ofagricultural produce; failure of ruraldevelopment policies which have resultedin accelerated rural to urban migrationand the inability of governments tostimulate rural economies.

An estimated 25% of all food producedin Africa is losf through rotting as well asinsects, rats and other pest damage(Latham 1997). Some observers argue thatif most of what is lost was saved or

preserved, Africa's food crises that are somuch publicized would assume a different face. With traditional granaries gone insome areas, the capacity to store cereals atthe farm level is substantially reduced.Information on how to store new tjrpes ofgrams is not consistently relayed to thefarmers so many fruits and vegetables rotwhen in season for lack of adequatetransportation and food processingfacilities.

Postharvest Practices and

Management

Strategies to address the recurring foodsecurity problems such as poverty, hungerand malnutrition in Africa must involve

postharvest practices and management.The postharvest sector is supposed tofulfil a number of objectives including to:

• reduce food losses

• enhance food security at household,commxmity and national levels byproviding affordable preserved food,especially during the off-season

• promote economic growth for thenation especially through exports

• serve as a generator of income especially for households

• stimulate local production• encourage and stimulate the industrial

sector

• facilitate participation in internationaltrade

Indigenous Technologies

Africa has had indigenous technologiesto preserve food at the household level.Some of these technologies continue tothrive to date, especially in West Africa.The primary aim of traditional foodprocessing was mostly to preserve theexcess food for household use and not

necessarily for economic reasons. In somecases grains were preserved to provideseed for the next season's planting.

There are two main traditional meth

ods of food preservation and processingfor specific food products in Africa. Theseare drying (using solar energy and woodor charcoal smoke) and fermentation.Drying is used for foods such as grains,meat, fish, insects, fruits, roots and tubers,

and green leafy vegetables, while fermentation is used mainly for cereal flour androots and tubers. Some examples of foodspreserved through traditional methodsinclude:

• Preservation of ensete (false banana) byfermentation in Ethiopia. The productis usually kept for 3-4 months but canbe kept for up to one year or more(FAO 1989).

• Traditional preservation of dairyproducts such as ghee, fermented milkand yoghurt.

• Preservation of green leafy vegetablesby sun drying. This process minimizesthe loss of vitamins A and C which

occurs when other processing methodsare used. (FAO 1990a).

• Preservation of meat by smoking anddrying. Biltong, a traditional driedmeat product of Southern Africa andother game meat are particularly wellsuited for preservation by this process(FAO 1990b).

15

Few cassava roots

Clean, peel, grate

Put In cloth, hang for hours to fermentand drain after 3-4 days

(Process aided by pressing with stones)

Fermented and soured product is placed onwide metal pans and dried over wood fire

(continuously turned and stirred; a little paim oilmay be added to prevent burning)

Cream-white colored garl product(willkeep for weeks or months if prepared

and packaged properiy)

Fig. 1. Stages In gari preparation at househoidand community levels using traditionaltechnologies.

With regard to packaging, traditionallypreserved foods such as milk were storedin local containers such as gourds andmeat was wrapped in leaves such asbanana leaves. Therefore, the whole aspectof the modern food chain that involves

large scale processing, packaging, labeling, marketing and distribution is fairlynew. Even more new and challenging, isthe whole idea of quality control andassurance.

Despite the important role traditionalfood processing methods play in foodsecurity, these methods are time consuming and labor intensive. While the drudgery and time spent can be reduced withimproved technologies, care must betaken to ensure that the desired character

istics associated with the product aremaintained. Illustrations of home and

commercial production of gari, a popularcassava product (figs. 1 and 2), reveal theextent to which drudgery and timeassociated with traditional processing canbe reduced. They also show how the endproduct can be altered in terms of desirable characteristics if great care is not

Cassava roots

Cleaning,peeling,grating

Drying

Whitegari withoutsour or acid flavor

(Culturally notacceptable even byurban consumers)

Rapid fermentationby use of

starter culture and

mechanical drying

White garl,fermented

(Mostacceptable)

Fig. 2. Stages In commercial production of gari.

taken when replacing traditional processing technologies with modern ones.

Issues and Concerns

There are several issues which have

implications for the postharvest sector inAfrica today. First, populations haveincreased several fold, and it is no longerlike the historical past when most Africansremained in their traditional rural com

munities and derived livelihood support,including food, from community groupings to which they belonged. Today, thereis an active rural to urban migration duemainly to the youth fleeing rural poverty.This urban population have acquiredurban tastes and are eating more processed foods instead of consumingtraditional staples in their raw forms.

Secondly, food quality and food safetyare real concerns within food systems atall levels including households, community, national and international levels.Some of the factors that affect food qualityand safety in African markets, shops, andhomes include: poor physical quality,chemical contamination, bacterial and

16

parasitic contamination, mycotoxincontamination, rapid rotting and contamination by other biological agents such asrodents and insects (Latham 1997).

Thirdly, m the development arena,there has been a great concern for theamount of time women spend on variouschores including food processing. Although numerous attempts that have beenmade to introduce improved technologiesto reduce the labor drudgery on women,the benefits have not always been fuUyrealized by women because men tend tobe more inclined towards mechanization

than women and usually seize the money-making opporhmities mechanizationpresents. Extension efforts aimed ataddressing this problem and reachingwomen with simple, affordable, improvedpostharvest processing equipment havebeen limited.

Fourthly, lack and access to profitablemarkets have limited production incertain cases. Roots, tubers, bananas and

plantains accormt for some 40% of totalfood supplies in terms of food energy forabout one half of the population of sub-Saharan Africa. Although production ofthese staples could be increased to meetfuture needs, farmers tend to limit production in order to minimize the risk and

uncertainties associated with farming. Forexample, when farmers in the North Westprovince of Cameroon produced potatoesas a cash crop, they limited their production to the estimated quantity that wouldbe marketed before the roads were closed

by floods from the rain (FAO 1987).Farmers would increase production if theyhad access to improved postharvestprocessing technologies and guaranteedmarkets for their produce.

Finally, with the use of improvedtechnology to increase production jdelds,it is important to put in place viable valueadding mechanisms to absorb the yields

that are in excess of immediate family use.The new products would stabilize foodsupplies, minimize losses and increasefamily incomes.

Adding Value to Foods

Value adding in the food sector refersto the conversion of commodities into

processed goods which are usually morestable and more marketable than the raw

unprocessed commodity. Raw foods areprocessed to:

• improve their digestibility• enhance availability of foods beyond

the area and season of production, thusstabilizing supplies and increasingfood security at various levels

• permit diet diversity• provide opportunity for nutritional

improvement e.g., through fortificationand enrichment

For a nation, value adding can servethe following functions:

• enhance household food security• put food in a form which can ensure

regular and sustained supply of food• facilitate easy movement of foods from

production points to non-producingareas and market

• facilitate regional and internationaltrade

Value-added foods can facilitate

formation of trade links between rural and

urban areas. The growth in urban populations and the likelihood that urban

incomes will improve serve as indicatorsthat there will be a rapid demand forvalue added foods for non-food producing urban populations. As standards ofhving increase and awareness about foodquality is created, so will there be need forfood producers to enforce the highest foodquality standards possible.

There is also the need for efficient

17

urban-rural food distribution linkages.An area of entry could be the street foodsector, which is expanding in response toincreasing rural to urban migration.Street food vendors could be used as a

means of introducing new food productsto consumers. The FAO estimates that

there are 100,000vendors in Malaysiawhose collective total and sales amount

to over US$2 billion! (Dawson and Canet1991).

Value-added food products could alsobe used to promote trade betweencountries. There is clearly a need topromote regional trade by harmonizingand implementing existing regional tradeagreements on taxation, pricing, andcross-border regulations, hafrastmcturaland institutional barriers should be eased

or removed to facilitate easier movement

of food.

An example of value adding is aproject in Kenya by the Kenya Agricultural Research Institute (KARI) which isfunded by the International Centre forResearch on Women. This project introduced orange fleshed sweetpotatoes richin a-carotenes in a Kenyan commimity asa way of combating vitamin A deficiency.The project has been so successful thatsweetpotato is now being used as a blendin a number of marketed already prepared food products (Low et al. 1997).

Value adding has implications forconsumers. In most situations value

added products cost more than the rawproducts. These extra costs, which arepassed on to consumers, arise fromprocessing costs, taxes and expectedprofit margins. With increasing urbanpoverty in sub-Saharan Africa, themajority of the urban population canonly afford the very basic of value addedfood products such as refined cerealflour, cooking fats and oils, tea leaves,bread and tomato paste.

Certain conditions such as cost-

effective energy sources and potablewater are pre-requisites to value addingactivities. For example, a reliable sourceof potable water is required to clean theproduce and maintain cleanliness andsanitation of the workers and premises.Potable water is also needed for processing activities and refuse disposal.

Recommendations

There are a number of key players orstakeholders who need to assume their

rightful roles if the whole area ofpostharvest management is going to bepromoted and streamlined in sub-Saharan Africa. Several things can bedone:

As a necessary first step, governments,who are the custodians of food systems inmany countries, should work to formulate policies that support the food industry while addressing consumer concerns.Issues such as taxation and pricing whichultimately affect the ability of consumersto afford value added products must betaken into consideration in the formula

tion of policies.Second, Governments should pursue

policies which promote the establishmentof agro-industries in the rural areas. Theprivate sector as a whole needs government support to respond to such policies.Such a move is likely to not only improverural incomes, but to also provideaffordable foods for the rural poor. It isclearly an important route to industrialization for any agricultural country insub-Saharan Africa.

Third, training in food quality controland handling is required in the form ofpre-service training or as in-servicetraining courses on the job. It is thefailure to observe the simplest foodhandling rules that leads to extremelyserious episodes of food contamination

18

and poisoning. It is essential to establisha culture of the highest sanitation andhygienic standards possible.

Fourth, food fortification programsshould address the needs of poor people.A challenging undertaking is the identifi-cahon of appropriate food vehicles thatare affordable by and culturally acceptable to the majority of people in developing countries who continue to be at riskof micronutrient deficiencies.

Fifth, food needs to be protectedagainst contamination at the home level,community, country and within international trade. The media should play apositive role in informing and educatingthe public and in promoting the image ofthe agro-industry sector in general andthe food industry in particular.

Sixth, packaging practices that address consumer appeal need to be put inplace.

References

Booth, R. H., Toet, A. J., and Bevan, L. 1987. Investingin sustainable post-harvestprogrammes. Guidelinesfor thedevelopment ofpost-harvestefforts to improvefood supply basedin 10 years experience of the FAOSpecial Action Programme. FAO, Rome.

Dawson, R. J., and Canet, C. 1991, International

activities in street foods. Food Control 2:135 -139.

FAO. 1987.Agriculture,food and nutrition in Africa:Aresource hookfor teachers ofagriculture. Rome.

FAO. 1989. Utilisation of tropicalfoods: Trees. FAO Foodand Nutrition Paper No. 47/3, Rome.

FAO. 1990a. Utilisation of tropicalfoods: Fruits andleaves. FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 47/7.Rome.

FAO. 1990b. Utilisation of tropicalfoods: Animalproducts.FAO Food and Nutrition Paper No. 47/8. Rome.

IFPRI. 1997. Achievingfood security in southern Africa.Huddad, L., ed. IFPRI, Washington D.C.

Latham, M. C. 1997. Human nutrition in the developingworld. FAO, Rome.

Low, J., Kinyae, P.,Gichuki, S., Oyunga, M. A.,Hagenimana, V., and Kabira, J. 1997.Combatingvitamin A deficiency through the use ofsweetpotato.KARI, Nairobi.

19

Micro-Scale Enterprise Approach toSweetpotato and Potato ImprovementSystemsVital Hagenimana

SweetpotatoProduction and

Harvesting

Sweetpotato (Ipomoeabatatas) is an importantsubsistence food securitycrop grown on a small-scale in the densely populated, mid-elevation areas

(1,200-2,000 m) of East Africa. It is amajor staple food in Uganda, Rwanda,Burundi, and Eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, and a secondary foodcrop in the grain-based food systems ofEastern and Central Africa. The crop isvegetatively propagated, requires lowinputs for cultivation and producesmodest yields of storage roots (Ewell1993). The storage roots have a low drymatter content (30% of the root), withstarch being the major component(Hagenimana 1994) (table 1). Like otherroot and tuber crops, fresh sweetpotatodoes not store well because of its highmoisture content. The high moisturecontent also makes the crop bulky andtherefore costly to transport over longdistances. These attributes have made

sweetpotato and other root and tubercrops essentially crops for rural consumption, in settings where the chainfrom the producer to consumer is short.

The sweetpotato storageroots are usually harvesteda little at a time as needed

over an extended period.Harvesting this wayprovides a flexible source offood for households (Smitand Ocitti p'Obwoya 1994).

Storage

In the fresh form, there is no long-termor even intermediate-term postharveststorage of sweetpotato roots in East Africa.The only kind of storage regularly practiced in the region is in-ground storagewhereby farmers keep unharvestedmature sweetpotatoes in the field untilthey are needed for consumption or sale.This practice, however, has problemsbecause after maturation, pest infestationsby sweetpotato weevils {Cylas spp.)become severe and cause productionlosses up to 50% (Ndamage 1988).

Sporadic use of rudimentary storagesystems in traditional Kenyan communities (Karuri and Ojijo 1994) and storageconsisting of underground pits in Uganda(Devereau and Bockett 1994), Malawi, andelsewhere in southern Africa (Woolfe1992), and covering with grass, on platforms or in baskets (Onwueme 1982), have

Vital Hagenimana is a Postharvest Scientist at the Internationai Potato

Center, 8SA, Nairobi, Kenya.

20

Table 1. Chemical characteristics of fresh

sweetpotato roots (variety Tanzania).

Moisture content (%) 67

Dry matter content (%) 33

Starch content (%) 23.5

Dry starch extracted (g/100 g fresh root) 17.0Total sugars content (%) 3.3

Total protein content (%) 1.65

LIpIdcontent (%) 0.3

Ash content (%) 1.0

Total fiber (NSP= + llgnin) (%) 3.0

Vitamins & other components (%) 0.3

a/ Non-starch polysaccharldes.

been reported. Sprouting and spoilage are,however, common with these storagemethods and the roots carmot be preserved well for a long time (Onwueme1982).

Improvement Efforts

Sweetpotato has a broad genetic base,with tremendous variability (Woolfe1992), and many characteristics, such asstorability, processing quality, andpostharvest resistance to pests anddiseases differ from variety to variety(Scott et al. 1992; Gatumbi et al. 1992).However, most of the characteristics listed

are still unknown for many varieties andtherefore calls for continuous screening.Collaborators and CIP's breeding programs have been developing recommendations for appropriate cultivars andpractices which improve root quality andextend fresh shelf-life, in the relative

short-term. Efforts also include developing an understanding of the physiologicalmechanisms involved in the deterioration

process to enable the development ofimproved cultivars in the long-term forEast and Central Africa and other areas of

the world. Since 1993, research on inte

grated pest management for sweetpotatoweevils has been undertaken in Uganda asa collaboration between the National

Agricultural Research Organization(NARO) sweetpotato program and CIF.

An integrated crop management programwhich includes integrated pest management, variety improvement, fresh storage,management of storage pests in driedchips, and broadening the market base ofthe crop through processing into flour andother products would help farmersimprove marketing and utilization ofsweetpotato.

Potato Production

Forty percent of the total potato(Solanum tuberosum) production in sub-Saharan Africa is produced by countriesbelonging to the Regional Potato andSweetpotato Improvement Program inEastern and Central Africa (PRAPACE)(see table 2). The production is concentrated in densely populated highlandareas. The reported average yields arevery low, about 5.4 t/ha. As food, potatohas less postharvest constraints comparedwith sweetpotato. The major problem lieswith its production. However, acceleratedadoption of production technology isoften contingent on market outlets,consumer acceptabihty and storagecapacity.

Current Utilization of

Sweetpotato

Sweetpotato uhhzation is remarkablynarrow in East Africa. In the fresh form,

the crop is most often consumed boiled orroasted. Vines are fed to livestock, particularly in areas like central Kenya wheresmall-scale dairying m zero grazingmanagement systems, is well developed.The crop is also being used as starter feedand partial miUc replacer for young calves(Orodho et al. 1995). The limited range ofways in which sweetpotato is utilized inthe region seriously undermines thepotential benefits of the crop to farmersand consumers. However, there are manyproducts that can be made with

21

Potato SweetpotatoPopuiation Area Production Yieid Area Production Yieid

Country (miliions) (000 ha) (000 t) (t/ha) (000 ha) (0001) (t/ha)

Burundi 6.2 14 42 3 111 673 6.1

D.R. Congo 46.8 7 40 5.9 109 409 3.8

Eritrea 3.3 5 40 8.2 0 0 -

Ettiiopia 58.2 45 358 8 20 158 7.9

Kenya 27.8 75 205 2.7 74 633 8.5

Madagascar 15.4 49 278 5.7 84 469 5.6

Rwanda 5.4 25 98 3.9 150 1,050 7

Tanzania 30.8 36 242 6.8 250 386 1.5

Uganda 20.3 53 367 6.9 513 1,927 3.8

PRAPACE 214.2 308 1,669 5.4 1,311 5,706 4.4

SSA(1995) n.a. 483 3,722 7.7 1,322 5,942 4.5

Source: FAO.

sweetpotato as a major ingredient. Forexample, Collins and Abdul-Aziz (1982)testing the effect of sweetpotato flour asan ingredient on quality of yeast-raiseddoughnuts, foimd the overall quality notsignificantly lowered by the addition ofsweetpotato. Gakonyo (1993) and Omosa(1997)have shown that sweetpotato could,with a high degree of success, partiallyreplace wheat flour in processing of bakedand fried products. Odaga (1992) hasshown that sweeter varieties of

sweetpotato can save on sugar and wheatflour in baking.

In some parts of Uganda, farmers alsoharvest, chip, and sun dry the roots as away to preserve and store the crop. Thedried sweetpotatoes have become a veryimportant staple during the long dryseason due to the emergence and increasing severity of the African cassava mosaicvirus (ACMV) (Hall 1995).

Current Utilization of Potato

Potato is a staple food and a cash cropin highland producing areas and a highlypreferred food in fast growing urbanareas. It provides on-farm and off-farmemployment and critical income to poorhouseholds as most of the potatoes for theurban market are produced by small-scalefarmers. Marketing channels have been

developed between producing areas andurban areas primarily by small, independent traders and shippers.

The processing of potato into Frenchfries and crisps, particularly for urbanmarkets has provided employmentopportunities in cities as chips are in highdemand in restaurants and snack bars

(Walingo et al. 1997). Processing reducesthe bulkiness and perishability of thepotato crop and consequently contributesto reducing marketing costs and consumerprices. However, the low processingquality of fresh potatoes is still a majorconstraint to processors. Other problemsfacing processors include the high capitalinvestment required to purchase modernprocessing equipment, constant electricalpower failures and water shortages thatresult in high losses.

Priority for interdisciplinaryResearch

Few farmers in East Africa currentlymanage sweetpotato and potato formaximum yields. Research designed toincrease productivity must be accompanied by research designed to increasemarket demand. In most parts of Africa,this means identifying opportunities fortotally new uses for sweetpotato andpotato, while enhancing traditional uses

22

Table 3. Major constraints to increasing production and productivity of potato and sweetpotato inPRAPACE countries.

Type Constraint Strategy

Socioeconomic Lack of policy for the production and supply of seed or Policy and market studies& policy planting material Widening partnership

Lack of market studies and weak distribution systems Loan and credit policy

Poor linkage between research, extension and

private sector

Lack of credit system and Inability to purchase Inputs

Seed/planting Lack of good quality seed/planting material of Improved Informal farmer-based seed

material varieties and timely available systems

Postharvest Lack of storage & processing technology Selection of better varieties for

Opportunity for utilization & marketing not well postharvest characteristics

developed Transfer of storage/processing

Qualified human resource not available (ail levels) technologies

Product development, process

ing techniques and market

studies

Training

Blotic Late blight, Bacterial wilt Integrated management

Viruses

Weevils

Abiotic Declining soil fertility and natural resource base Varietal development

Lack of early maturing, drought resistant, high dry Integrated nutrient managementmatter & beta carotene contents materials

and transferring proven technologies fromone place to another, where conditions aresimilar. It also means dealing with production and post-production constraints,including marketing opportunities (seetable 3). As a starting point appropriateproduct and processing technologies fromAsia and Latin America can be tried and

adapted to African conditions. Thetheoretical potential of sweetpotato andpotato as a raw material can, however, berealized only through creative and flexibleinterdisciplinary research.

Objectives of PostharvestResearch

The overall objective of CIP'spostharvest research is to improve thewelfare of the rural poor by diversificationand expansion of sweetpotato and potatoutilization. Working to attain this goalinvolves reducing processing costs.

making more effective use of potato tubersand sweetpotato vines and roots, identifying new uses and markets, and facilitatingthe adoption of improved germplasm byidentifying materials with superiorpostharvest traits. Specifically, CIP'spostharvest research efforts aim to:• Increase incomes and provide greater

opportunities for women through theaddition of value to the raw produceduring primary processing. For example, obtaining desirable flour fromsweetpotato roots and chips frompotato, through technical and socioeconomic research.

• Enhance food security by takingadvantage of the nutritional qualities ofsweetpotatoes in fresh form.

• Analyze CIP's germplasm collection toidentify clones with the most promising postharvest traits for starch, flour,and feed.

23

• Reduce rural poverty and improvefood security by promoting a moreefficient use of potato tubers andsweetpotato roots, and by using thevines and other by-products as animalfeed.

• Strengthen and develop capabilities inpotato and sweetpotato postharvestutilization through training.

• Build linkages with the private sector,policy makers, and other interestedparties (e.g., rural developmentprojects) for the purpose of generatingpolicies and programs that support thediversification and expansion ofsweetpotato utilization.

Strategy

In Africa, the fresh root market and on-

farm consumption is still dominant.However, small-scale processing enterprises have been emerging in recent yearsthat offer lessons for the future. Addingvalue to sweetpotatoes through processing, and using the vines and other byproducts as animal feed, offeropportunities for income generationwhich can improve development for poorcommunities in many areas. Lessons canbe learned from Asia where 85% of globalsweetpotato production is concentratedand where shifts in utilization from fresh

root consumption towards feed andprocessed products such as starch, chipsand flour are in progress. It is importantto focus postharvest utilization researchon processed products like chips, crisps,starch and flour (see fig. 1) as well asanimal feed from vines and roots. There

must also be a continuous effort to

develop new uses for the crop in the freshform (Hagenimana et al. 1998a;Hagenimana et al. 1998b).

Ex-ante analyses of the potentialmarkets for baked products (bread orbims, chapatis, and mandazis) with

Water •

Bags-

Sweetpotato Storage Roots

iI Cleaning &Trimming —>-Waste

IWashing

I Slicing

I Drying

Dried chips

II Milling

Packing

Used water

Sweetpotato fiour

Fig. 1. Process flow diagram for producing driedsweetpotato chips and flour.

sweetpotato as an ingredient in Kampalaand Lira, Uganda, indicated high acceptability and good competitiveness of theproducts, especially in small urbantrading centers close to the sweetpotatoproduction centers. Products containingcooked and mashed sweetpotato wereexceptionally accepted by consumerswho expressed a high level of willingnessto pay the same prices for sweetpotato-based products as for similar productsthey have been buying. It was foimd thatsweetpotato improves the taste, texture,freshness, appearance, sweetness andcolor of local foods such as brms,

chapatis, and mandazis (Hagenimanaand Owori 1996).

The nutritional value of sweetpotatoes(especially high levels of vitamin A) offeran added benefit to processed products.For example, studies have been conducted to assess the potential for improvement of the vitamin A status ofpeople in western Kenya through thedissemination and promotion of the useof orange-fleshed sweetpotato varieties.The results of these studies suggest thatthe introduction of orange-fleshedsweetpotato varieties along with training

24

on processing, marketing and nutrition,could significantly contribute to alleviation ot vitamin A deficiency in parts ofAfrica where sweetpotato is grown (Lowet al. 1997; Hagenimana et al. 1998b;K'osambo et al. 1998).

Taking the above into consideration,CIP's postharvest research activities areguided by the following strategic principles:

• Focus on primary processing ot potatoand sweetpotato into value-addedproducts such as chips, crisps, starchand flour.

• Focus on uses ot potato andsweetpotato (including vines) asanimal teed, especially tor high producing animals such as pigs and dairycattle.

• Use ot product development methodology developed by GIF, CIAT and IITA.This methodology comprises opportunity identification, market and technical research, pilot enterprise feasibilityand commercial expansion or replication ot enterprises.

• Placing emphasis on small-scaletechnologies that are both efficient andproduce quality products, or linksmall-scale producers to industrial-scale processors.

• Paying attention to basic researchwhere necessary, to resolve problems orrealize opportunities identified asimportant tor target beneficiaries (e.g.,starch functional properties as relatedto baking quality).

• Linking up with centers ot expertisenot available locally.

• Collaborating with the private sector,NGOs, national agricultural researchsystems and other internationalagricultural research centers involvedwith work in roots and tubers, where

necessary, to achieve project objectives.

Technology Transfer

With respect to technology transfer,studies in Lira, Uganda, have shown thatat least tour steps are required to transferan identified technology to users in foodproduct and rural-based enterprises:market and consumer evaluation ot the

product, technical evaluation at thepiloting scale, adjustment ot the technology to the users' need, and invitation otenterprises to use the developed technologies through technical and financialtraining. The technical training shouldrelate to potato and sweetpotato while thefinancial training should relate to loansand book keeping.

References

Collins, J. L., and Abdul Aziz, N. A. 1982,

Sweetpotato as an ingredient of yeast raiseddoughnuts, journal ofFoodScience 47:1133-1139.

Devereau, A. D., and Bockett, G, N. A. 1994.

Sweetpotato storage—Is there a need to improvetraditional practices? Paper presented at thePRAPACE workshop on sweet potato germplasmmanagement held in Mukono, Uganda, August31-September 02,1994.

Ewell, P.T. 1993. Sweetpotato in Africa: Researchpriorities to stimulate increased marketing. Paperpresented at The International Workshop onMethods for Agricultural Marketing Research,March 16-20,1993, lARI Campus, New Delhi,India.

Gakonyo, N. 1993.Processed sweetpotato: Responding toKenya'surbanfood needs. Working papers inAgricultural Economics. Cornell Uruversity,Ithaca, New York.

Gatumbi, R. W., Kihurani, A. W., and Skoglund, L. G.1992. Postharvest losses during hansportationand handling of sweetpotato in Kenya. Paperpresented at the 5th Triennial Symposium of theISTRC-African Branch, 22-28 November 1992,

Kampala, Uganda.Hagenimana, V.1994.Determination des conditions

de pretraitement des tubercules frais de patatedouce en vue de Thydrolyse enzymatique directede leur amidon. Ph.D. Dissertation, Laval

University, Quebec, Canada.Hagenimana, V., and Owori, C. 1996.Feasibility,

acceptability, and productioncostsofsweetpotatobaked productsin LiraMunicipality, Uganda. CIP/

25

NRI and NARO, Uganda.Hagenimana, V., Carey,E.,Gichuki, S.T.,Oyrmga,M.

A., and Imungi, J. K. 1998b. Carotenoid contentsin fresh, dried and processed sweetpotatoproducts. Ecology ofFoodand Nutrition. (In press)

Hagenimana, V.,Karuri, E. G., and Oyunga, M. A.1998a. Oil content in fried sweetpotato processedproducts. Journal of FoodProcessing and Preservation 22:123-137.

Hall, A. J. 1995. An overviewof sweetpotatopostharvestsystems and constraints-Policy optionsfor research.NRI, UK.

K'osambo, L. M., Carey, E., Misra, A. K., Wilkes, J.,and Hagenimana, V.1998. Influence of age,farming site, and boiling on pro-vitamin Acontent in sweetpotato (Ipomoeabatatas (L.) Lam.)

storage roots. Journal of FoodCompositionandAnalysis 11: 305-321

Karuri, E. G., and Ojijo, N. K. O. 1994. Storagestudies on sweetpotato roots: Experiences withKSP 20 cultivar. Acta Horticulturae 368: 441-452.

Low, J., Kinyae, R, Gichuki, S., Oyunga, M. A.,Hagenimana, V., and Kabira, J. 1997. Combatingvitamin A deficiency through the use ofsweetpotato.Resultsfrom Phase I ofan action research projectinSouth Nyanza, Kenya. International Potato Center(CIP), Lima, Peru.

Ndamage, G. 1988. Developpement et ameliorationde la production de la patate douce au Rwanda.In: Seminaire-atelier sur la production, la conserva

tion, la transformation et I'utilisation des racines ettubercules. IWACU, Kigali, Rwanda.

Odaga, A. 1992.Preliminary results of a study on theutilisation of sweetpotato tubers and flour inbakery products in Bamenda, NorthwestProvince, Cameroon. Paper presented at theWorkshop on Sweet Potato in West and CentralAfrica, Douala, Cameroon, July 27-29.

Omosa, M. 1997.Current and potentialdemandforfreshand processed sweetpotato products in NairobiandKisumu, Kenya. Social Science DepartmentWorking Paper No. 1997-1. Postharvest Management, Marketing Program, International PotatoCenter (CIP), Lima, Peru.

Onwueme, I. C. 1982. The tropical tuber crops: Yams,

cassava, sweetpotato, and cocoyams. EnglishLanguage BookSociety and John Wiley and Sons,Chichester, UK.

Orodho, A. B., Alela, B. O., Wanambacha, J. W. 1995.

Use of sweetpotato {Ipomoea batatas L.) vines asstarter feed and partial milk replacer for calves.KARl-Kakamega, Kenya.

Scott, G., Wiersema, S., and Ferguson, P. 1. 1992.

Product developmentfor root and tuber crops.Vol. 111-Africa. Proceedingsof Workshop on Processing,Marketing, and Utilisation ofRoot and TuberCrops inAfrica, held October26-November2,1991, at theIITA, Ibadan, Nigeria. CIP, Lima, Peru.

Smit, N. E., and Ocitti p'Obwoya, C. N. 1994.Piecemeal harvesting of sweetpotato: Its effect onyield and yield loss due to sweetpotato weevils.Paper presented at The Third Triennial Conference of the African Potato Association, 9-13May1994, Sousse, Tunisia.

Walingo, A. M., Alexandre, C., Kabira, J. N., andEwell P. T. 1997. Potato processing in Nairobi, Kenya:Current status and potentialfor future development.Social Science Department Working Paper No.1997-6.Postharvest Management, MarketingProgram, International Potato Center (CIP). Lima,Peru.

Woolfe, J. A. 1992. Sweetpotato:An untappedfoodresource.Cambridge University Press, Cambridge,UK.

26

Promoting Improvements in PostharvestSystems in Sub-Saharan Africa: The Roleof IITA

Mpoko Bokanga

Over the past 30 years,IITA has contributed to the

agricultural developmentof Africa mainly throughthe development of highyielding, disease- and pest-resistant varieties of six

major African food crops,and through the development and application of biological controlmethods to protect crops from pestdamage. Between 1966/68 and 1996/98,Africa's population experienced a 222%change. During the same period, theproduction of cassava, yams, cowpea andsoybean exceeded this change by 21%,25%, 56% and 729% respectively (see table1). Despite these positive changes, povertyand food insecurity continue to be on theincrease in some areas in Africa.

In the mid-1980s, it was realized that

some improved varieties of crops were notbeing adopted by farmers either becausethese varieties did not have the right tasteor could not be used to prepare traditionalfood products. —armers also complainedthat they did not have profitable marketsfor the extra produce arising from increased production. In addition, thedrudgery involved in processing cropsinto food products, particularly by womenwho had almost total responsibility for

processing, was seen asan impediment to increasing crop production. Torespond to these challenges, IITA, in the late1980s, decided to increase

its capacity in postharvestresearch and technologyby recruiting a

postharvest engineer and two foodtechnologists. The engineer embarked ona program to develop simple and low-cost machinery for harvesting, processing and transportation while the foodtechnologists focused on efforts toexpand the utilization of crops bydeveloping and promoting new productsfor household and commercial use.

Improving Postharvest Systems

The research agenda of IITAis subdivided into 16 projects including onepostharvest project called "ImprovingPostharvest Systems." The overall goal ofthis project is to increase the incomegenerating capabilities and improve thenutritional status of farmers, processorsand consumers in the rural and urban

communities of sub-Saharan Africa. The

project's aims include:

• identifying market opportunities

Mpoko Bokanga is a Biochemist and Food Technoiogist at the Internationaiinstitute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria.

27

Table 1. Changes in Africa's popuiation and in production of liTAmandate cropsbetween 1966/68 and 1996/98.

Population Production (million t)Period (millions) Cassava Maize Yams Plantains Cowpea Soybean1966/68 337.3 35.0 20.3 12.1 11.2 0.8 0.08

1996/98 745.6 85.0 41.0 29.9 21.9 2.4 0.79

% change 222 243 202 247 196 278 951

Source: FAO.

within the postharvest system andgenerating a range of technologieswhich will enhance food security andprovide competitive options forfarmers, processors and consumers inthe food, feed and industrial sectors

• enabling regional networks, nationalagricultural research systems, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)and community-based organizations toevaluate and disseminate new technol

ogy packages to increase the commercialization of IITAmandate crops

• strengthening IITA's partners' capability to carry out postharvest researchand development projects.

Project Outputs

The first expected output from thisproject is a characterization of postharvestsystems found in the region. This characterization covers products made from IITAmandate crops, in terms of quality, cost ofproduction, consumption patterns andtrends, supply and demand potential,existing and potential markets, andprocessing methods and machinery.Results from characterization will reveal

existing technologies and mode of utilization of crops, and enable the identificationof constraints and the selection of priorityareas for research and interventions.

The second expected output is concerned with the development of technological solutions to identified constraintsand opportunities. These solutions fallinto four categories: quality improvementin new variety development, product and

process development, postharvest equipment development, and Improvement instorage systems.

The third expected output is thetransfer of postharvest technologythrough degree and non-degree trainingprograms, demonstration of developedtechnologies, and participation in exhibitsand agricultural trade fairs. New technologies are tested in various countriesthrough collaborative research with localinstitutions. The modes of information

dissemination used by the project includescientific publications, publication of anewsletter, organization and participationin workshops and conferences, andinteractions with visitors throughout theyear. In this manner, the project contributes to the dissemination of postharvesttechnology know-how and to thestrengthening of human resources involved in the postharvest sector.

In the area of impact assessment,baseline studies are conducted to providea basis for measuring impact, and toidentify existing technologies developedat IITAor elsewhere which can readily betested as possible solutions to identifiedconstraints. Ex-post impact assessmentshows improvements in the postharvestsystem and indicates when it is mostappropriate for IITAto disengage anddevolve responsibility to collaboratinglocal organizations or partners.

The improvement and use ofpostharvest technology can increase theutilization of crops and thus furtherstimulate their production. IITA's experi-

28

ence with soybean and cassava will serveto illustrate this point.

Expansion of Soybean Utilizationin Nigeria and impact onProduction

Soybean cultivation was introduced inNigeria in the 1940sas an export crop.There was therefore no attempt to encourage local processing or consumption of fhecrop. By the 1960s, soybean export hadreached 15,000tonnes/year. The level ofexport dropped sharply in the 1970s,andalmost came to a halt in 1977 because of

fhe civil war in Nigeria.By the early 1980s, IITAhad achieved

several research breakthroughs in soybeanproduction: breeding of high-yieldingsoybean varieties that could nodulate withbacteria found in African soils; curbing fhetendency of pods to shatter and dispersethe beans before they could be harvested;and reducing the time requirement for thecrop to mature, to suit rainfall patferns insavarma areas. Despite these breakthroughs, little interest was shown byfarmers towards the cultivation of the

crop. This was because there was nomarket for the grain, and most people hadlittle idea of how to cook soybean forhome consumpfion.

In 1983/84, a severe drought reducedthe availability of fhe locust bean {Parkiaclappertonia and P. filicoides), which wastraditionally used in the preparation ofdawadawa, a local seasoning ingredient.Producers of dawadawa began substifuf-ing the locust bean with soybean, thuscreating a small local demand for soybean.This small but new demand for soybeanencouraged IITA to start a small SoybeanUtilization Project in 1985.The hope wasthat with appropriate research andlinkages with industries, women's groups,extension services and other relevant

organizations, an increased demand for

the crop could be fostered which could inturn lead to the development of a marketfor fhe soybean grain. Working in collaboration with the Institute for AgriculturalResearch and Training (lAR&T), at MoorPlantation, Ibadan, and with the supportof fhe International Research Development Centre of Canada, the projectdeveloped and propagated soybeanprocessing technologies, such as extrusion-cooking and screw press technology,for producing soy products for bothhuman food and hvestock feed.

The Soybean Ufilizafion Project alsodeveloped a wide range of food productsthat incorporated soybean into traditionalmaize and cassava food products; examples are "soyvita," "soygari" and"soylafun." New products such assoymilk, sorghum/soy biscuit, and"soyamusa" were also developed andcommercialized. During this time, variousNGOs (e.g., UNICEF) were promotingsoybean consumption for its nutritionalvalue. Between 1987 and 1989, the number

of markets selling soybean products in thecity of Ibadan increased from 2 to 19,while the number of retailers went upfrom 4 to 419(Ogundipe and Osho 1990).Before 1985, only one of the currententerprises in Nigeria had been producingsoybean oil and feed cake,with an armualcapacity of 500 metric tons. By 1989, sixcompanies were producing oil and feedcake, with over 117,000 metric tons peryear capacity. The production of oil/feedcake from soybeans accounted for 95% offhe total capacity for fhe industrial use ofsoybean. Between 1987 and 1997, soybeanproduction in Nigeria increased three-foldfrom 107,000 fo 361,000 tons per armum,while from 1961 to 1986 production hadstagnated between 60,000and 80,000 tonsper armum.

The case of soybean in Nigeria showsclearly thaf increasing industrial demand

29

and home consumption have driven theexpansion of soybean production. Theincreased demand for soybean has beensupported by a conducive policy environment and the availability of appropriatepostharvest technologies.

Cassava's Potential for

Commercialization and Impacton Production

In Africa, cassava is used mainly forhuman consumption and has become themost important contributor to foodsecurity on the continent. Production haskept up with population increase. InNigeria, the armual per capita cassavaproduction has gone from 150kg in 1980to about 250 kg in 1994 (Ouraga-Djoussouand Bokanga 1998).

In addition to its traditional uses,

cassava can be promoted as a modernfood ingredient, comparable to wheat insome of its applications in the foodindustry, and as a modern input in thegrowing agro-industrial sector. In order toabsorb excess supply and increase farmincome, the highly perishable cassavaroots have to be transformed into a more

stable product with a longer shelf life thanthe fresh roots, and with the physico-chemical characteristics desirable in the

baking industry. IITAhas developed asimple process for producing high qualitycassava flour suitable for the baking andother food industries. The process hasbeen tested and adopted by women andfarmers' groups in the rural areas of Oyoand Ogun states. These rural-basedcassava processors are currently supplying cassava flour to urban-based biscuitmanufacturing companies, bakeries andfast food manufacturers. The demand for

cassava flour is growing, as new end-usersare made aware of the possibility of usingcassava flour in their products andprocesses.

The opportrmities for cassava flourinclude uses not only in the bakingindustry, but also in the alcohol and starchmanufacturing industries. A large alcoholmanufacturing plant in Nigeria hassuccessfully switched from sugarcanemolasses to cassava flour as a raw mate

rial for alcohol production.Some simulations of alternative uses of

cassava flour in various industries have

been made, and these have indicated that

Nigeria could save significant amounts offoreign exchange earnings, which could betransferred to cassava processors andfarmers. For instance, if wheat was

substituted with 15 percent cassava flour,Nigeria would save $14.8 million inforeign exchange. These savings couldpartly be transferred to cassava processors($12.7 million) and cassava farmers ($4.2million). The benefits are even higherwhen a 20% substitution of cassava flour

for wheat is considered (Ouraga-Djoussouand Bokanga 1998).

The development of high-yielding,disease- and pest-resistant varieties, andthe biological control of introduced pestsof cassava, have set the stage for a tremendous increase in cassava production inNigeria and elsewhere in Africa today. Inaddition, IITAhas developed cassavaprocessing technologies that reduce thedrudgery of traditional processing methods and produce high quality foodproducts and ingredients for industry.There is the need for favorable socio

economic policies and dedicated extensionmechanisms to push further the utilizationof cassava, in a manner that will enhance

the income-generating capacity of cassavafarmers and processors.

Development of Tools forImproved Postharvest Systems

With increased agricultural production,there is a need for greater efficiency in

30

handling and processing the harvest intovalue-added forms which are easier to

store. One focal point of fhe IITApostharvest project is to increase theefficiency and capacity of postharvestoperations as well as reduce the drudgeryexperienced by postharvest operators.Traditional postharvest systems have beenanalyzed with a view to identifying gapsand inefficiencies which have enabled the

development of technological solutions.IITA'sprocessing systems have improvedtechnical features: simple and affordable,high product recovery, less labor inputand improved storage and quality. Forexample, the collaborative study ofcassava in Africa (COSCA) revealed thatin sub-Saharan Africa, women wereinvolved in 95%of cassava processingoperations. An engineering analysis oftraditional cassava processing in Nigeriashowed that labor input for the processingof 10 tons of fresh cassava roots amounted

to 295 man-hours of which women

contributed 87% and processing losseswere over 22%. A modern processingcenter equipped with simple machinerysuch as a grinder, a manually operatedscrew press, sifters and energy-conservingfryers could reduce the labor requirementby 70% and the processing losses to only10% (Nweke 1996).

Conclusion

The cases of soybean and cassavadiscussed above are good examples of the

catalytic role that postharvest technologycan play in increasing the utilization ofcrops and in stimulafing their production.They also show that postharvest technologies provide the tools needed by farmersto convert their harvest into commodities

that will attract the income they deserve.IITAhas been at the forefront of agricultural research and development in Africaand is now heralding a new approach toagricultural research, one that is holisticand embraces the production-to-consumption continuum. The project for improvingpostharvest systems will continue togenerate technologies that will promoteincreased utilization of crops for greaterincome and better nutrition and serve as

an engine of growth for increased agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa.

References

Nweke, R 1996. Cassava: A cash crop in Africa.COSCA Working Paper No. 14. InternationalInstitute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Ogundipe, H. O., and Osho, S. M. 1990.Developmentand introduction of improvedsoybeanutilizationtechnologyfor use in householdsand in small scaleprocessing enterprises in rural Nigeria: Final reportof the IITA/IDRC Soybean Utilization Project (1987-1990). International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria.

Ouraga-Djoussou, L. H., and Bokanga, M. 1998.Cassava and wheat consumption in Africa: Newopportunity for cassava in the 21st century.Proceedingsof the 6th Symposiumof the InternationalSocietyfor Tropical Root Crops-AfricaBranch(ISTRC-AB),22-28 October 1995, Lilongwe, Malawi.International Institute of Tropical Agriculture,Ibadan, Nigeria.

31

Advances in Postharvest Technologiesand Systems Appropriate for Sub-Saharan Africa: The Ghana ExperienceKwaku Nicol

The crop sub-sectordominates the agriculturesector in Ghana and

comprises about 85% oftotal agricultural sectorproduction. The remaining15% is accounted for

mainly by livestock,fisheries and forestry. Themain food crops include cereals such asmaize, sorghum, millet and rice and thenon-grain starch staples like cassava,yams, plantains and cocoyams. Eventhough the non-grain starch staples are themost important in terms of contribution tothe overall agricultural production, cerealscover probably some 25% of total cultivated area and thus give important cashincome opportunities to a great number offarmers. They are also important foodsecurity items as evidenced by the largeimports of cereals, especially rice, into thecountry.

The major technical factors constraining the achievement of increased agricultural production are to be found more inthe off-farm than the on-farm areas.

Considerable attention has been given toincreasing food production throughdevelopment of high yielding varietiesand increasing the availability of growthpromoting factors such as fertilizers and

water. Much less effort has

however been put into thepostharvest sector, wherethe need is to ensure that

all the food produced issafely harvested, preserved,processed and distributedto meet the requirements ofconsumers.

A priority for action to reduce losses offood after harvest lies in the development,adaptation and communication of efficientand appropriate technologies. Thesetechnologies must address harvesting,handling, storage, drying, processing anddistribution practices, particularly in therural areas. This paper looks at how theGhana Government is tackling the problem of postharvest loss reduction.

Government Food SecurityPolicy

An important policy objective of theGovernment is to accelerate increased

food production to reach self-sufficiencyin the shortest possible time. In thisregard, several efforts are being undertaken to comprehensively tackle theproblems, both through immediatemeasures directed towards eliminatingcrucial bottlenecks and failures, and

through improving medium and long

Kwaku Nicol is Head of the Post-Harvest Management Division, Ministry of

Food and Agricuiture, Ghana.

32

term prospects through more effective andfeasible agricultural policies and planning.In the area of crop storage, preservationand processing, efforts have been taken bythe government to comprehensively tacklethe problem. At the national level theMinistry of Food and Agriculture, in athree-phased installation program, hasprovided grain storage and handlingfacilities in strategic locations for efficientpostharvest management of grain surpluses. This is aimed at minimizingpostharvest losses and maintainingadequate grain reserves for both pricestabilization and emergency purposes.

Even though the provision of bulkstorage facilities should be sufficient tosatisfy the demand for food storage in theshort run, any lasting improvement in theareas of postharvest losses must involvethe education and subsequent adoption bythe small scale farmer, of affordable,

technologically and culturally appropriatestorage, preservation and processingpractices. Some considerations in thisdirection include:

• proper application of insecticidesduring on-farm storage which wouldreduce storage losses due to insectattack

• introduction of improved structuresthat will not only store but will also beable to dry harvested produce while instorage

• promotion of traditional pest controlmethods (e.g.,use of plant materialsand fire smoking)

• improvement of traditional handlingand storage methods

Post-Harvest ManagementDivision

The Ghana government and donorshave in the past, focused so much onincreased food production without giving

much thought to storage and preservation.Thus, whatever benefits new technologiesin production offered were eroded bypostharvest losses as a result of lack ofstorage facilities, insufficient processingfacilities and under-developed marketinginfrastructure. The picture is now different, as The Ghana government, havingrealized the enormity of the postharvestproblem established the Post-HarvestDevelopment Unit which is now knownas the Post-Harvest Management Division(PHMD), in 1986 to fulfil the followingfunctions:

• improve the diets of people in thecountry by increasing the availabilityof food through the reduction ofpostharvest losses

• improve the quality of food by enhancing handling, transportation, processing and storage

• increase income generation capacitiesof farmers through the adoption ofimproved grain storage technologies

• introduce mechanization into the

processing system to reduce thedrudgery on especially women andchildren who tend to be mostly involved in postharvest activities

• help establish agro-based industries togenerate income and employment.

• diversify exports by adding value toproducts and to conserve foreignexchange through import substitution

• train extension staff in the use of

improved postharvest technologies

The Postharvest System

The Postharvest sector embraces manyresearch and other activities designed toimprove on food production by reducinglosses, increasing storage life, refiningcrop quality and adding value to primaryproduce. It therefore involves a widerange of functions between production

33

and consumption. These functions have tobe fulfilled efficiently by the differentactors or stakeholders in the postharvestchain in order to supply good qualityfood, keep transaction cost low and at theend of it all, raise domestic welfare or

standard of living.At the moment postharvest develop

ment activities or interventions have been

centered on researching into the traditional systems of storage and processingand improving upon them. Since amajority of Ghanaian farmers are engagedin small holdings, any intervention toimprove the system, takes into consideration the ability of the farmer to afford thenew system. Any intervention put in placein the development of postharvest systemis assessed holistically, in order to makethe system efficientin reducing losses.

Storage

In Ghana, most postharvest activitiesare centered around storage and processing. It is not exactly known how much ofthe food produced is used for homeconsumption, but on-farm storage isessential for food security at the farmlevel. The Ministry of Food and Agriculture, in collaboration with some non

governmental organizations and someinternational organizations, is developingand promoting improved on-farm storagefacilities. Also an integrated controlstrategy or system which combineschemical and biological control with othermethods such as storage hygiene, the useof resistant varieties and appropriatestorage structures, is now being recommended for the safe storage of, especially,grains and legumes.

For chemical control, the specificity ofeach agro-ecological zone needs to betaken into consideration. For the humid

zone EC formulation is recommended

while dust formulations are recommended

for dry zones. Fumigation can be carriedout in all zones but should be under the

strict supervision of a highly trainedperson.

The use of biological control measuresis being tried in Ghana and is beingincorporated into the national plantprotection program. For example,Teretriosoma nigrescens, a predator, is beingused to control the Larger Grain Borer, avery destructive insect on maize and therelease of such a predator or biologicalagent should be carried out in a systematicmarmer, including pre and post-releasemonitoring. Other methods such asstorage hygiene, best harvest dates, goodstorage structures and resistant varietiesare also essential to protect the harvestedcrop.

Processing

Another area of postharvest development that has been intensified is processing. The objective here is to add value toprimary produce using a range of technologies and techniques to preserve theproduce to make it available at all times ofthe year. Processing primary produceleads to significant improvement in itspostharvest handling properties and aconsiderable increase in its market de

mand.

Recently, there has been the need totrain local manufacturers and artisans in

the fabrication of simple processingequipment. Where such equipment havebeen designed and fabricated in international research organizations or universities, it is necessary for the equipment to betried and if necessary, modified to suitlocal conditions. It is only after successfullocal trials and necessary modificationshave been effected that the equipmentshould be disseminated to end users

within a country. Below are some of theimproved technologies that have been

34

disseminated in the country:

• protection of grains against insect pests• improved drying of grains• improving grain quality by cleaning,

sorting and grading• improved rice parboiling• construction of improved ventilated

narrow crib

• harvesting of plantain and banana• harvesting of tomato and other veg

etables

• packaging of fresh horticulturalproduce

• storage of fresh cassava• use of an iceless cooler

• use of solar dryer• improved gari processing• cassava puree production

Marketing

While most staple foods are consumedin all parts of the country, their productionis carried out only in certain areas. Themovement of commodities from production areas to consumption centers isaccomplished through a marketing chainmade up mainly of farmers, wholesalers

(both sedentary and itinerant), retailersand transporters. According to participantsin the marketing chain, the main constraints facing them are inadequate creditfacilities, poor market infrastructure,spoilage and poor handling of produce.

Challenges

Most of the research and developmentwork, relating to a number of postharvestaspects, have been found to be xmco-ordinated. There are many instanceswhere efforts are duplicated and theavailable resources are not being usedeffectively. Moreover, the linkage betweenresearch and farmers is weak and the

research findings on postharvest developments are not reaching farmers. As thePTTMD could not effectively carry out itsfunctions without research support, it willhave to institute regular workshops andseminars to update research and extensionworkers on new developments in thepostharvest sector, and to initiate andestablish continuous exchanges of information between institutions and field

workers.

35

Characterizing the Desirability ofPostharvest Technologies for AfricanConditions

Y. W. Jeon and L. Halos-Kim

Postharvest technologyresearch and developmentin Africa may be said tostill be in its infancy. Whilethis may be so, it offers anopportunity to learn fromprevious experiences ofearly technology development and extension efforts.

Since the early 1970s anumber of innovations and technologieshad been introduced into Africa with

limited success because the technologiesoften did not fit the users' needs. This

state of affairs was due to the fact that

early development efforts were based onthe classical piece-meal technologydevelopment approach that satisfies thewhims of the designers, but not theexpressed needs of end-users. Also,imported technologies introduced throughdevelopment aids, grants or loans failed toconsider the technical requirements foroperating the technologies.

The preceding observations on technology development and introduction inAfrica, suggest that technology development approaches should be re-oriented tofully integrate social, economic, andtechnical considerations. Agriculture inAfrica has unique characteristics that

L . ..M

necessitate careful planningand a strategic approach totechnology development.Strategies that have beenfound to be useful are

those that used holistic and

participatory technologydevelopment approaches.Such strategies lead to theproper targeting of technol

ogy users and also contribute to the fullunderstanding of the constraints andopportunities for developing appropriatetechnologies.

This presentation summarizes recommendations by Jeon and Halos-Kim (1997)on improving postharvest technologydevelopment in Africa. First, it is important to look at the characteristics of

agricultural production and post-production systems critical to the development ofpostharvest technologies. These characteristics are important because they form thebasis for identifying desirable attributes ofpostharvest technologies that are suitableunder the given conditions.

Crop Production and FoodProcessing Patterns

Agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa ischaracterized by small, fragmented.

Y. W. Jeon is a postharvest technologist and L. Halos-Kim is researchspecialist, Postharvest Engineering Unit, Resource and Crop ManagementDivision, liTA, Ibadan, Nigeria.

36

resource-poor farms on which multiplefood crops are mainly for family consumption. One of the major crops grownis cassava, a root crop important in thediets and livelihoods of many small farmholders. About 80% of the cassava grownis consumed by the producing household.Harvesting of cassava tor consumption isusually done weekly while processing isdone throughout the year by women andchildren using rather slow and sometimesunhygienic traditional methods.

Cereals and grain legumes are alsogrown extensively with about 75% beingconsumed by the producing household.Maize is mainly grown as a cash crop,while sorghum, millet, and cowpea aregrown tor family consumption. Each crophas a brief harvest period, but the harvested crop is processed into food productsin small quantities throughout the year.

Handling Efficiency

Production increases resulting fromimproved growing practices are diminished by improper handling of the cropsafter harvest. In cassava, post-productionlosses can be as high as 45%, with about14% occurring during harvesting and 22%during processing. Qualitative andquantitative post-production losses incereals and grain legumes have beenestimated at 30 to 50%. These losses result

from field and environmental conditions,

varietal characteristics, untimely harvesting, improper drying, insect damage,consumption by livestock, operators'attitudes, and lack of processing tools andequipment.

Gender Roles and Status in Cropand Food Production

Division of land resources among adultfamily members is common in Africa.Land allocation distinguishes each familymember's role and status in crop and food

production. Men and women performdistinct roles in crop and food production.The division of labor is based more on the

physical difficulty of the task than themagnitude. Men are generally involved inproduction activities, while post-production activities, in addition to householdchores, are reserved tor women. Thewoman's role in processing is also to alarge extent, dictated by social and cultural norms.

Farmers also tend to differentiate

tasks by the type of crops grown. Maize isconsidered a cash crop and is controlledmostly by men from production to marketing. Sorghum, millet, and cowpea arecrops grown by women tor family consumption. In many cases, women andchildren provide the labor required toractivities ranging from crop care andmanagement to processing.

Labor Requirement

Most traditional postharvest operationsare slow and therefore time-consuming.For example, Jeon and Halos-Kim (1994)estimated that it normally takes 663laborer-hours to harvest and process 10tonnes of cassava roots harvested from a

1-hectare field. In addition to beinginvolved in harvesting and processing,which require the most labor, womencontribute 87% of the time required toprocess food tor family consumption,(Jeon and Halos 1991).

Labor input tor harvesting, handling,drying and processing cereals and grainlegumes (217laborer-hours/t) is providedmainly by the family members—20% iscontributed by the husband, 62%by thewife, and about 15% by adult sons ordaughters (Jeon and Halos-Kim 1994).

The timing of harvesting and consequent operations tor cereals and grainlegumes is critical. This is because sateprocessing and storage can only be

37

ensured when the crop is gathered quicklybefore severe deterioration and pestdamage occur. This urgency places aheavy load on the women and childrenwho normally perform most of thepostharvest activities.

Implications for TechnologyDevelopment

The issues raised above suggest thatpostharvest operations, including foodprocessing, are mainly the responsibilityof women. A majority of these women useinefficient traditional methods which

necessitate the development and introduction of improved postharvest technologies. The pattern of crop production, thetype and nature of food processing andconsumption, the available resources, thetechnical and economic capability of thefarmers, and the marketing opportunitiesavailable are among important criteriaaffecting design and capacities ofpostharvest equipment. In addition, thespecial requirements for specific foodpreparations, as well as taste preferencesof the consumers, must also be taken into

account.

In Africa, gender roles and status incrop and food production are distinct andcan not be ignored in the technologydevelopment process. Men and womentend to have different production objectives that should be addressed. More

enterprising individuals, generally men,and groups require technologies that willaddress their income generation objectives, while most women, representingindividual or family units, require technologies that will provide more and betterfood for the family with less labor input.

To enhance productivity, the development objective is to provide appropriatetools and equipment that overcomeexcessive losses, high labor input, andpoor product quality. Consequently, the

technologies should create opportunitiesto increase the income and save the time

of processors, which can then be devotedto other productive activities.

Technology Attributes Desirablefor African Conditions

The application potential ofpostharvest and agro-processing technologies introduced under African conditionsshould be based on whether these tech

nologies are simple enough to be operatedand maintained, even by women. This,and other desirable characteristics of

postharvest technologies for Africanconditions are summarized in the

following sections should be givenincreasing attention in technology designand development.

Characteristics Related to TechnologyDesign

To address the diverse nature of

African farming systems and to satisfy thetaste and food preferences of consumersrequires different types of technologypackages or package components havingthe following attributes and advantages;

Simple,easy to operate and maintain— Makes technologies manageable, even by

women processors

— Reduces technical problems, i.e., mechanical breakdowns

Technology level basedon existing technologies andindigenousknowledge— Adapts existing technologies already

known to users

— Relates to compatibility and transferabilityof existing and new technologies

— Facilitates adoption of technologies

Ability to handle different crops— Allows farmer to diversify and expand

production

Dual, or multiple application— Reduces investment cost

— Ensures utility continuum

38

A range of capacityfor different levelsof operation— Addresses user's production objectives: for

consumption and/or marketing

Balanced technology mix— Matching capacities of each component

technology in the system— Eliminates voids and clots in the processing

chain

Uses locallyavailable materialsfor constructionand operation— Eliminates importation costs— Has low investment, operation and

maintenance costs

— Encourages the participation of privatesectors

Characteristics Related to Technology,Economics and Social Science

The ultimate goal for introducingtechnology into any social system is toimprove the economic and social wellbeing of the target users. User's attitudesand economic status affect decisions and

investments with regard to technologies.Technologies addressing these concernsare characterized as:

Affordable— Requires low investment, operation and

maintenance costs

Equally beneficial tofarmers, processors andconsumers

— Makes available good and nutritious foods— Creates additional source of income

— Better allocation of resources

— Improves economic scale of the farmers andprocessors at all levels

Gender-sensitive empoweringfarmers andprocessors in their own rights— Eliminates dependency on vested groups— Allows farmers and processors to manage

their time and operations effectively

Characteristics Related to Technologyand Utilization

Adoption of new products developedto expand the market potential of a crop

may be hindered by consumer preferencefor traditional processes and products.New high quality products shouldtherefore be similar to existing productsand preferred quahties to ensure a highlevel of acceptability. The nutritionalattributes of the crops must be considered along with other desirable featureswhen plarming expanded utilizationalternatives for value added products.Therefore, technologies developedshould provide for:

Product diversification— Allows the production of more food and

non-food products— Opens market opportunities

Newproductssimilar to existingpreferences— Improves the chances of being accepted

Improve nutritional attributes— Improves the health status of particularly

children

— Increases market-competitiveness of theproduct due to the new value-added state

The Challenge

Technologies proven to work in otherdeveloping coimtries may not proveeffective under African conditions.

African agriculture has its uniquecharacteristics that make technologydevelopment and adoption more complicated. Thus, a careful process thatanalyzes the socio-cultural and economiccharacteristics of rural farm families,

their attitudes and food preferences aswell as the technical criteria must be used

in the development of technologies forAfrica. Some postharvest equipmentdeveloped by ETTA after careful analysisof the African conditions is shown below.

These pieces of equipment are beingpromoted by the Sasakawa AfricaAssociation in some West African coun

tries such as Ghana, Berlin and Nigeria.

39

GRATING MACHINE

Power Drive: 3.5 Hp Petrol Engine.

Capacity: Up to I.Ot/hr.

Fuel Consumption: 1.2 l/hr.

Installation: 4 anchor bolts (for stationaryoperation) or a pair of transport wheels (for

mobile operation).

Advantages

• Oval-shaped hopper reduces spillage &increases cassava/rasper contact.

• Has high capacity.

• Does not require much power for operation.• Produces pulp of uniform size.• Can be adjusted for different fineness of

grating.

• Allows easy collection of grated pulp.• Lightweight design allowseasy mobility of

equipment.

Repair & Maintenance

• Requires regular engine check-up.

• Requires rasper replacement every 1000 hrof use.

Application Potential

• Can be used for grating cassava.• Can be used for mashing fruits and veg

etables for juice extraction.

FERMENTATIONRACK

Capacity: 5 to 8 bags of grated pulp perloading; or approx. 0.5-tonne per batch in 2-3hours.

Advantages

• Provides a hygienic way to hold fermentingcassava.

• Has a convenient starch collection feature to

collect good starch expelled with water

during the first 3 hours of fermentation.• Features a simple compact design which

minimizes processing space requirements.• Easyto move around.

Repair & Maintenance

• Requires regularwashing.

Application Potential

• Drain rack can be used for starch collection

and similar applications.

40

DOUBLE SCREWPRESS

Capacity: 200 to 350 kg, or up to 5 bags per

batch.

Rate of Dewaterlng: Pulp with an initial

moisture content of 70-80% can be reduced to

40 - 45% moisture content in 4 hours.

Oil Extraction Rate: 1.50 I/kg; or 300 I per

batch.

Advantages

• Improves compressive force with less strainto the structural frame of the press.

• Has an adjustable press bar which allows

varying loading capacity.

• It is movable; base construction needs no

special footing design.

• Can be tilted to allow easy cleaning and

draining; orto collect expelled water or oil.• Easy to operate.

Repair & Maintenance

• Requires regularwashing.

• Requires greasing of screws.

Application Potential

• Multipurpose batch type press can be used

for commercial scale operation.

• Can be used for dewaterlng cassava pulp in

the preparation of "gari."

• Can be used for palm oil extraction.

CHIPPING MACHINE {Mama\)

Capacity: Up to 200 kg/hr.

Operating Speed: About 60 RPM.

Advantages

• Provides efficient cutting even with veryfibrous roots.

• Eliminates de-fibering operation.

• Produces uniform sizes of chips with

minimum stumps.

• Lightweight construction makes it easy tomove around.

• Simple to operate.

• Produces thin chips which dry and/orferment faster to produce a better quality

product.

Repair & Maintenance

• Requires occasional sharpening of blades.• Requires washing after use.

Application Potential

• Can be used for chipping root and tubercrops (cassava, yam, potato, sweet potato);also plantain.

41

CHIPPING MACHINE (Power driven)

Power Drive: 3.5 Hp Petrol Engine; or 0.5 Hp

Electric Motor.

Capacity: Up to 1.2t/hr.

Fuel Consumption: 0.8 l/hr.

Operating Speed: 250 RPM.

Advantages

• Does not require much power for operation.

• Provides efficient cutting.

• Produces uniform sizes of chips withminimum stumps.

• Eliminates the need for de-fibering operations.

• Produces thin chips which dry and/or

ferment fasterto produce a better qualityproduct.

• Lightweight construction makes it easy tomove around.

• Simple to operate.

Repair & Maintenance

• Requires occasional sharpening of blades.• Requires washing after use.

• Requires regular engine check-up.

Application Potential

• Can be used for chipping root and tubercrops (cassava, yam, potato and sweet

potato); can also be used to chip plantains.

MAIZE SHELLER (Manual)

Capacity: Up to 30 kg/hr.

Advantages

• Adjustablethreshing teeth suit varying cob

sizes.

• Reduces grain breakage.

• Simple to fabricate using local materials.

• Portable, can be mounted on any table or

bench.

Repair & Maintenance

• Requires occasional greasing.

Application Potential

• Can be used for shelling relatively drymaize.

42

MECHANICAL THRESHER

Power Drive: 5.0 to 7.0 Hp petrol engine.

Capacity: 800 kg to 1000 kg/hr (depending

on crop type).

Advantages

• The design is compact and portable.

• It is easy to operate and maintain.

• Has grain collection feature to minimizespillage.

• Has adjustable strawthrower/chute for easy

collection of biomass.

• Design ensures minimum breakage.

Repair & Maintenance

• Requires changing of pegs as necessary.

• Requires cleaning machine from debris afteruse.

• Requires regular engine check-up.

Application Potential

• Can be used forthreshing maize (with orwithout husk).

• Can be used forthreshing rice, soybeans,

cowpea.

• Can be used forthreshing sorghum, millet.

GRAIN POLISHER (Abrasive Type)

Power Drive: 3.5 Hp petrol engine.

Capacity: 5 to 10 kg per batch.

Polishing Time: 15 to 30 min, depending ondegree of polishing or whiteness required.

Advantages

• Eliminates soaking and pounding opera

tions.

• Allows collection of good quality bran foranimal feed.

• It is easy to operate.

• It is portable and can be moved around.

Repair & Maintenance

• Requires replacement of worn-out discs.• Requires regular engine check up.• Requires brushing of discs immediately after

use.

Application Potential

• Can be used to polish rice, maize, millet,sorghum, other grains.

• Can be used for grinding cassava and yamchips into flour.

43

GRAIN POLISHER (Auger type)

r

Power Drive: 3.0 Hp electric motor, or 5.0 Hppetrol engine.

Capacity: Hulling/Polishing 120 kg/hr; Kernelcracking = 250 kg/hr.

Advantages

• Has high recovery rate for whole grain, and/or nuts.

• Can be operated in multiple passes.• Discharge counterweight controls efficiency

of hulling orcracking.

Repair & Maintenance

• Requires dusting off machine parts particularly auger every after use.

• Requires regular engine check-up.

Application Potential

• Can be used for hulling/polishing rice,especially parboiled rice, maize, sorghum,millet.

• Can be used for cracking palm kernel anddigesting oil palm digesting.

GRINDING MACHINE (Manual)

Capacity: Up to 5 kg/hr ofwet or dry grinding.

Advantages

• Easy to fabricate.• Has adjustable plate clearance to suit

grinding requirement.• Multi-pass operation produces fine grind.• Can be operated by one or two persons.• Reliableforfamilyfood processing.

Repair & Maintenance

• Requires brushing and washing after use.• Requires occasional checking of bolts and

other joint fasteners.

Application Potential• Can be used for grinding cassava, yam and,

plantain chips into flour.• Can be used for dehulling soybeans and

yambean.

• Can be used for wet and dry grinding ofmaize, cowpea, soybeans, sorghum, millet.

• Can be used forwet and dry grinding ofvegetables (pepper, tomato, okro, etc.).

44

GRINDING MACHINE (Abrasive type forwet grinding)

Power Drive: 5.0 Hp petrol engine, or 3.0 Hp

electric motor.

Mechanism: Pair of grinding stone plates.

Capacity: Up to 50 kg/hr.

Advantages

• Has adjustable grinding plate clearance tosuit required fineness of grinding.

• It is easy to mount and install.

Repair & Maintenance

• Requires washing after use.

Application Potential

• Can be used for grinding wet materials.• Can be used for grinding maize, millet,

sorghum, soybeans, cowpea.

• Can be used for grinding cassava for starchproduction and other related applications.

• Can be used for grinding vegetables such aspepper and tomato.

OIL PRESS (Screw type)

Capacity: 10 to 30 kg paste per batch.

Oil Extraction Rate: 0.75 to 1.0 l/hr.

Advantages

• Has convenient oil collection feature.

• Easy to operate.

• It is movable.

Repair & Maintenance

• Requireswashing after use.

• Requires greasing of screw.

Application Potential• Multipurpose batch type press appropriate

for small scale operation.

• Can be used for oil extraction: groundnut oil,

palm oil.

• Can be used for starch pressing: cassava

and maize.

• Can be used for dewatering cassava pulp

and soybean curd.

• Canbeusedforsoymilkextraction.

45

The technological know-how offarmers and processors is often limited tothe traditional system. This means that theintroduction of new techniques wUlrequire a lot of investments in systemarrangements and training of humanresources. It is important for these investments to be made. Finally, all technological innovations should be enhanced with

farmers' traditional knowledge to facilitate the transfer and adoption of thetechnology.

References

Jeon, Y. W., and Halos-Kim, L. 1991.Addressing R&Dfor cassava postharvest system in West Africa.Paper 915530presented at the American Societyof Agricultural Engineering Winter Meeting,Chicago, 17-20 December.

Jeon, Y.W., and Halos-Kim, L. 1994. Gender

implications for post-production technologydevelopment. Paper 948004 presented at the 1994American Society of Agricultural EngineeringSummer Meeting, Kansas City, Missouri, 19-22June.

Jeon, Y.W., and Halos-Kim, L. 1997. Improvingpostharvest technology development in Africa.In; Women, agricultural intensification and householdfood security, ed. S. A. Breth. pp. 133-141.Sasakawa Africa Association, Mexico City.

Jeon, Y. W., Mado, X, and Halos-Kim, L. 1998.

Research, development and transfer of smaU-scale postharvest technology to farmers. A casestudy presented during the CASIN workshop1998 on Partnerships for Rural Development insub-Saharan Africa. Villars-sur-Ollon, Switzer

land, 11-15 September.

46

INPhO - The Information Network on

Post-Harvest OperationsJose Venancio Machado and Carolin Bothe

The FAO considers

information as a publicgood that is "non-rival inconsumption," whichmeans that one person'sconsumption does notreduce the amount avail- «

able to everybody else, and"non-excludable in provision," which means that nobody can bedenied access to the good once it has beenprovided. While information is clearly"non-rival in consumption," it is notnecessarily "non-excludable in provision,"because the information considered a

public good may not actually be in thepublic domain.

Many factors have contributed in thepast to the reduced access to availableinformation. In the post-production sector,for instance, a large amount of literatureaccumulated by projects developed byresearch institutes and developmentorganizations remain inaccessible orunknown to those who need it. Also,information on post-production is sometimes difficult to access because it is

placed under the general heading ofagriculture, or farming or rural development and is therefore immersed and

dispersed in a sea of literature.

CAROLIN BOTHE

Post-productionLosses and Food

y SecurityInformation has a vital

Jt '• •' i role in the management ofthe post-productionsector. This sector includes

a wide range of heterogeneous operations or

functions such as harvesting, handling,transportation, storage, processing,marketing and distribution which occurbetween crop maturity and consumption.All these operations have to be performed competently and efficiently bythe different actors involved, in order to

reduce food losses and supply food ofgood quality at appropriate times and atreasonable cost.

World food security is largely dependent on the efficiency of the post-production systems. To supply food for a globalpopulation expected to reach 8.3 billionin the next twenty-five years, and withincreasing pressure on available land andother resources, the world will need

substantial increases not only in agricultural productivity, but also forcibly in theimprovement of post-production management and distribution systems. This isa challenge in the coming years for most

Jose Venancio Machado is with the Agro-industries and Post-Harvest Management Services, FAO, Rome, Itaiy. Carolin Bothe is a Visiting Scientist from GTZ tothe Agro-industries and Post-Harvest Management Services, FAO, Rome, itaiy.

47

developing countries and to the international organizations that are assistingthem to achieve this goal.

In fact, even though the technicalconditions for increasing production haveall been met, the increase may not takeplace because of post-production constraints and food losses. Food losses

represent both a considerable waste oflabor and inputs and a significant reduction in the availability of food. For instance, a FAO field project onimprovement of rice post-production inSierra Leone verified that losses can be

reduced by 10%, from the present 25% to15%, through the adoption of improvedpost-production methods, thus reducingrice imports by one third.

Post-production DevelopmentEfforts

FAO has endeavored to improve post-production in developing countries,particularly since the launching of itsSpecial Action Program on Prevention ofFood Losses in 1977. Since then, almost

two hundred projects have been executedin developing countries, out of which 50%are located in Africa. These projects havebeen active in fields varying from lossassessment and consequent introductionof improved post-production technologies, to national policy development.

During the past decades, significantcontributions have also been made byother United Nations agencies, bilateraland multilateral institutions and NGOs

working in the postharvest sector. Appropriate equipment for reducing drudgeryin postharvest operations, improvedtechniques for drying, storage and conservation of crops are a few examples of theachievements of those projects. Manyworkshops have provided a forum forexperts and farmers to share experiencesand discuss project achievements.

It has been recognized, however, thatthe relevant information and literature

produced and gathered by those projects,which is vast and useful in various

aspects, needs to be widely disseminatedso that it can gain usefulness. Amongother things, it may, for instance, guideresearchers and development agencies informulating future projects and help avoidunnecessary and costly attempts atintroducing into a country technologies,equipment or policies that have provenunsuccessful elsewhere.

Furthermore, the introduction or

improvement of a particular post-production technology takes several years for fullimplementation, since the approach isgenerally composed of various steps: 1)assessment of the post-production system;2) creation of awareness of the postharvestproblem; 3) setting up of a pilot project totest and compare the improved technology and its costs; 4) institution buildingfor extending the successful results of thepilot project on a larger scale; 5) trainingof personnel involved in extension of theimproved technology; 6) tailoring ofextension activities to each target group;using incentives to encourage targetgroups to adopt the new technology; and8) making available needed inputs (including equipment and credit).

Notwithstanding all the inputs, effortsand time spent in the implementation ofthese projects, the adoption of the improved technologies or equipment by thetarget groups may be, and has been,restricted and limited. As a result, the

expected progress in the postharvestsystem development may be very disappointing.

Learning from Experiences

Experience has led to the widespreadunderstanding that post-productionconstraints were not only of a technical

48

nature, but part of the global environment(economic, social and legal) affectingagriculture production. The system approach was then advocated to analyze theconstraints that hinder post-productiondevelopment. The post-production systemcould be defined as the set of operations,operators, tools and markets, as well asthe complex interrelations (often inopposition) between these components ofthe agricultural post-production sector.

The system approach envisages theunderstanding of the interdependencyand association between these components with a view to developing effectivestrategies to achieve specific goals. Although the application of this conceptproved to be more difficult than initiallyenvisaged, it has at least built up awareness of the need for an interdisciplinaryapproach to post-production issues andfocused on the inter-linkages among thevarious operations, actors and supportservices involved in post-production.

Information disseminationin support ofthe system approach for effective improvement of postharvest systems andconsequently/ood security, is the key issueunderlying an initiative taken by FAO, incollaboration with a small group ofinternational organizations (GTZ, CIRAD,and USAID) working in the postharvestsector, to establish a specialized databaseon postharvest and a network for theexchange of information. It has beendubbed Information Network on Post-

harvest Operations (INPhO) .

Objectives of INPhO

The basic purpose of INPhO is thecollection, collation, development anddissemination of useful information

regarding various elements of post-production systems, giving particularemphasis to products and technologiesrelevant to developing countries. This

information is mainly accessible throughthe Internet, but, as access to Internet is

limited in some parts of the world,selected information wiU be downloaded

on to diskettes and CD-ROMs for wider

dissemination.

The ultimate goal of INPhO is tocontribute to food security and economicand social development of the membercountries in the developing world. Targetusers would be entrepreneurs in post-production and members of the supportenvironment, including governmentalservices, universities and research centers,

NGOs, co-operation and developmentagencies, and professional organizations.The final beneficiary is the small farmer,processor, and entrepreneur.

Elements of the information

Network

The Information Network comprisesthree major components: a post-production database, a communication and

interactive services and a linkage to otherdatabases and libraries (See Fig. 1).

Post-productive database

This a comprehensive collection ofinformation dealing with postharvestissues. It contains information collected

and synthesized from literature and theexperiences of the participating organizations. The database comprises three subcomponents: archives, post-productionfacts and decision-support tools.

In the archives, users will find biblio

graphic references, document highlights,new books, magazines and other documents in the field of postharvest issues.An additional feature will be digital

^The INPhO Secretariat is located at FAO Headquarters, andis managed by the Post-Harvest Management Group of theFood Industries and Post Harvest Management Services,Agricultural Support Systems Division, in collaboration withthe World Agricultural Information Centre. The Networkcan be accessed through the Internet at www.fao.org/inpho.

49

INFORMATION NETWORK ON POST HARVEST OPERATIONS

(IN PRO)

Database Communications Services

E-Maii Conferences

Question & Answers

Service

Fora

POST PRODUCTION DATA AND RESOURCES

POST PRODUCTION FACTS

Products profile

—I Production &tra^

Utilization

—I Postharv. operatio^

H Losses and contr^

—I Current research

Resource list

Equipment

—I Research institutes

—I Deveiopment or^

services

Post-productiontechnologies

— Traditional technologies

—j innovations

Training

—I Pest control

Country information

Agric. statistics

H institutional framework

Post-productionprojects

R&D and trainingsupport

—I Socio-economic Issues

—I Quality standards |

ARCHIVES

Bibliographicreferences

Full documents

Documents tiighiights

Ptiotos and movies

Links to Other Dtabases

DECISION SUPPORT TOOLS

Project preparationand feasibility studies

Engineering

Marketing

Post-productionsystem analysis

Fig. 1. Information network on postharvest operations (INPhO).

50

photographs and short video films onpost-production operations.

The post-production facts sub-component is divided into the following sections:products profile, resources lists, countryinformation and post-production technologies. The products profilewill coversubjects such as world production, tradeand consumption statistics, post-production operations, post-production lossesand current research. The resources lists

will provide users with informationnecessary for the planning, implementation or maintenance of post-productionprograms or projects. The coimtry information will be mainly composed ofagricultural statistics, institutional framework, projects, postharvest support, socioeconomic issues food quality standards.The section on postharvest technologies isreserved for information on trainingopportunities and available trainingmanuals.

The component on decision-supporttools will have a project preparation andevaluation sechon, an engineering section, apost-production system analysis section anda marketing section. The section on projectpreparation and evaluation is envisaged toprovide tools that can assist entrepreneursin investment and decision-making, suchas guidelines, checklists, procedures,simple computer programs to evaluatecosts/benefits, and standard format for

project presentation. The engineeringsection will provide information on simpleconstruction techniques, post-productiontools, equipment and costs, the section onpost-production system analysis willprovide tools useful for analyzing, evaluating and assessing post-productionsystems or sub-systems. Finally, a sectionis dedicated to the marketing aspects of aninvestment or project.

Communication Services

INPhO facilitates an interactive Com

munication Service with the view of

enhancing the exchange of informationand making available the expertise thatexists in various aspects of postharvest. Inprinciple, three types of communicationservices have been anticipated: E-MailConferences, Questions and Answers

Service, and Fora.

The E-Mail is a cost-effective medium

of communication currently available inboth developed and developing countries,and therefore ideal for exchange of ideasamong people who reside in differentregions of the world. E-Mail Conferenceswill be regularly organized by the INPhOSecretariat on relevant topics.

In the Questions and Answers Service,

which is not yet available, users would beable to ask questions or search throughpast questions. Some answers may becontributed by resource experts or institutions.

The Fora is a particular site whereINPhO users can make comments, suggestions or exchange ideas on selected topics.The Network will provide lists of topicsfor established fora and instructions for

accessing them. One of the fora will berestricted for use by institutions participating in INPhO for exchange of ideas andinformation.

Links with Libraries and Databases

This is another feature of INPhO. It will

offer the possibility of accessing theelectronic libraries and databases dealingwith postharvest issues of partner institutions.

Conclusions

The objective of the informationnetwork (INPhO) established through aFAO partnership with some internationalorganizations working in the field of

51

postharvest is to contribute to the improvement of the post-production sectorand to food security. This can be achievedby providing to actors in the post-production system, information that can contribute, directly or indirectly, in a holisticapproach, to the efficiency of thepostharvest system.

The information provided is selected,collated and harmonized to ease consulta

tion and utilization. The impressive strides

made world-wide and in many developingcountries in the development of information systems, and the increasing opportunities of communication offered by fheInternet, will hopefully facilitate the task ofinformation transfer and exchange. It ishoped that other postharvest web-sites onpostharvest would be effectively linked topromote the exchange of informationbeing imdertaken through INPhO.

52

Strengthening the EntrepreneurialCapacity of SmaU-Scale Palm Oil MillersCharles Ofori Addo

TechnoServe is a privatenon-profit, non-sectarianinternational developmentagency founded in 1968. Itsorganizational mission is toimprove the economic andsocial well-being of low-income, rural people indeveloping countriesthrough a process known as enterprisedevelopment. Specifically, TechnoServefosters the establishment and growth ofsmall to medium-scale community basedagricultural enterprises. It does so throughan integrated approach aimed at assistingrural communities directly by providingthem with managerial and technicalassistance and training; and indirectly byproviding similar services to variousdevelopment institutions, governmentministries, banks, technology centers andnon-governmental organizations.

Working throughout Ghana since I97I,TechnoServe assists organized groups ofrural farmers and food processors to addvalue to agricultural products and, in sodoing, to increase family incomes andlocal employment opportunities.

TechnoServe's Approach

TechnoServebelieves that the key topromoting dynamic growth in the agricultural sector in Ghana is to develop viable

Charles Ofori Addo is a Business Advisor to TechnoServe, Ghana.

53

small- and medium-scale

rural enterprises, based ona thorough understandingof international and

domestic market realities.

TechnoServe believes that

small-scale producers willonly be motivated toincrease their production

and productivity, and to supply productsto local industries and exporters, if theyare confident that they can sell theirproduce at a reasonable profit to dependable buyers. While this statement mayseem obvious, there are relatively feworganizations promoting such linkages inGhana today.

TechnoServe and its developmentpartners in Ghana believe that the following services, among others, are essential toovercome the existing constraints toimproved market linkages and increasedgrowth:• carry out in-depth analysis of potential

agricultural subsectors to determineappropriate commodity/product focusand interventions, based on detailed

market information

• development of viable, replicablebusiness models, based on suchanalysis

• provision of practical advice andassistance to small-scale farmers/

processors on how to improve theefficiency and quahty of production tomeet local industry and internationalstandards

• increased access to post harvest technologies to improve enterprise productivity and the quality of goods

• training for micro enterprise ownersand staff in business management andsimple record keeping

• development of innovative financialmechanisms that can provide credit,advances from the private sector, and/or venture capital to rural entrepreneurs in a relatively low cost and lowrisk marmer

• training and incentives for relevantfinancial institutions to operate suchfinancial schemes

• formation and/or strengthening ofproducer and business associations inorder to supply larger-scale dependable buyers in a reliable and cost-effective manner

TechnoServe also believes it is essential

for potential business owners to demonstrate a strong sense of commitment to theprocess of enterprise development.Therefore, it requires prospective ruralclients to make "up front" contributions,in the form of cash or "in kind" paymentssuch as land, labor, materials and produce.In addition, prior to any TechnoServeassistance, enterprise owners or membersare required to attend regular meetings toplan enterprise operations and sign amanagement agreement, which includes acommitment to pay a modest management fee to TechnoServe. This is done not

only to rmderscore the mutual commitments involved, but also to prepare thebusinesses to pay for outside serviceswhen TechnoServe eventually discontinues its support.

Finally, TechnoServe also believes thatin many instances these businesses will be

best positioned to grow and prosper ifthey are able to establish marketingagreements with larger, more dependablebuyers and firms. In this regard, TechnoServe seeks to act as an "honest broker" to

ensure that such linkages provide positiveincentives for both parties and can therefore endure and grow.

In Ghana, TechnoServe is currentlyproviding assistance to small-scale farmers and food processors in the followingagricultural subsectors:

• non-traditional exports, with a focus oncashew nut, shea nut, kola nut and

pineapples• palm oil processing, with a focus on oil

for local food consumption and traditional soap manufacturing

• grain storage and marketing, with afocus on community-level storage forlocal food sales and consumption

TechnoServe is currently assisting 180community-based rural enterprises with acombined total membership of 8,334, ofwhom 48% are women located throughoutGhana.

Collaboration with DeveiopmentPartners

In order to build the capacity of ruralproducers to enable them to transformtheir operations into viable ventures,TechnoServe has been collaborating withother development partners. Prominentamong such partners are the InternationalInstitute for Tropical Agriculture (IITA)and community development associationsin Nigeria with which TechnoServe hascollaborated to promote cassava and palmoil processing technologies.

TechnoServe also co-ordinated a one

year postharvest pilot project; a component of the larger Village InfrastructureProject, a major donor-funded inihative inGhana. The pilot project was implemented

54

in conjunction with Sasakawa-Global 2000(SG 2000), the Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA), the Self-Help Foundation(SHF), the Ministry of Food and Agriculture (MOFA), the Department of Cooperatives, the Agricultural DevelopmentBank (ADD) and four rural banks inGhana's so-called "maize triangle" locatedin the Brong Ahafo and Ashanti Regions.The organizations involved each provideda range of promising technologies tofarmers and food processors.

TechnoServe provided basic businessskills and records keeping training withgroups which accessed inventory creditloans from the ADB to store and market

maize. SG 2000 and the Ghana's MOFA

promoted the use of a package of agricultural inputs and provided training forparticipating farmers to plant in rows andconstruct maize storage cribs and storingpatios.

SFIFprovided access to multi-purposepower tillers for farmer groups andprovided training in their use and maintenance while SAA promoted a range ofsmall-scale post harvest technologiesincluding cassava grating and pressingequipment and maize shelters and threshers developed by the IITA. The Department of Co-operatives provided trainingin cooperative principles and bookkeepingto participating cooperatives while ADBprovided loans for agricultural inputs andinventory credit.

An Organizational Model forSmali-Scaie Palm Oil Processing

In 1985, a group of 10 farmers established a co-operative in Ntinanko to seeksolutions to their oil palm fruit marketingproblems. The group came into contactwith TechnoServe and an agreement wassigned for TechnoServe to provide assistance in identifying solutions to theirproblems. The first step was the imdertak-

ing of a subsector study of the palm oilindustry, with the dual aim of determiningthe potential for small-scale producers andfood processors to add greater value totheir produce and identifying the constraints that would need to be addressed

to make this possible. The study concluded that there was significant potentialfor increasing production and incomesthrough the introduction of enhancedtechnology and the adoption of appropriate management and organizationalstructures.

The decision was made to proceed, andan appropriate small-scale, labor-intensivepalm oil processing plant was identified.TechnoServe provided assistance to thegroup in areas of organization, businessmanagement, and record keeping and alsohelped with the preparation of a businessplan for the processing plant.

Members made their prescribed equitycontributions of 25 percent of the projected total capital costs, both in cash andin kind contributions in the form of labor

and materials used in constructing thebuilding to house the processing equipment. The members were also required tobuy a minimum of one share each in thebusiness and to agree to purchase additional shares in future. During this period,group membership increased and wasexpanded to include local palm oil processors, all of whom were women.

Even though TechnoServe assisted thegroup to develop a credible, financiallyviable business plan, the group wasimable to secure local bank financing.TechnoServe was convinced that the

processing plant could be profitable and,as a last resort, decided to provide loanfinancing to the group in order to demonstrate the potential of the concept, and theplant was eventually commissioned inOctober 1987.

Despite thorough planning, initial

55

operations were not encouraging. Theoriginal business plan was for groupmembers to purchase palm fruit fromlocal producers and then process and sellthe palm oil collectively. However, thelabor costs involved in purchasing andprocessing the pabn fruit turned out to bemuch higher than projected. In addition,local farmers had a tendency to sell low-quality fruits to the mill while selling theirhigh-quality fruits to larger institutionalbuyers. Furthermore, an unexpectedincrease from 10 to 25 percent in sales taxon edible oils had a negative impact onplant revenues.

Thanks to the maintenance of timelyand accurate financial and productionrecords, these key problems were identified at an early stage. The owners held aspecial meeting with TechnoServe staffand made several key decisions regardingcorrective action. They decided to:

• cease fruit purchases and instead tooffer processing services to growersand processors on the basis of a fixedfee per ton

• move to the use of a higher capacityhydraulic press.

Impact and Cost-Effectiveness

Both of these measures reduced the

group's labor requirements significantly,simphfied management operations, andeliminated the tendency by processors tosupply poor quality fruit, as the individual processors were now responsiblefor marketing their own palm oil. Thechanges also had an immediate positiveimpact on plant throughput. The volumeof fruit processed at the plant rose from 11tons in January 1988 to 45 tons in June ofthe same year. The plant subsequentlyprocessed between 60 and 80 tons of fruitper month during the fruiting seasons,reaching a maximum of 93 tons in March1989. By the end of 1990, the plant re

corded a net profit of (£820,785 ($2,350).The net income accruing to the

processors and their employees duringthe first three years of operation was(£6.64 milhon, while the Ntinanko mill

employees received (£l.27million mwages (a total of (£7.9 million or $22,595).In addition, a number of business have

been established in the village to providefood, clothing and various services as aresult of the increased volume of com

mercial activity in the commimity.Net income increases accruing to

farmers during the first three years of theproject have been calculated at ^14.4million ($41,150). However, these figuresassume that all oil palm productionwould have been sold on the fresh fruit

market if the plant had not been established. In fact, given the irregular fruitpurchases in the area prior to the mill'sestablishment, it can be conservativelyestimated that about 40 percent of thepotential fruit sales would not have takenplace. If these incremental sales areconsidered, the net value added increases

to (£18.8 million ($53,700).The plant now operates profitably

without any outside assistance. Furthertechnological upgrading has beenundertaken and a 30-acre oil palmplantation and oil pahn nursery forimproved-variety seedlings has beenestablished. To diversify its operations,the co-operative has also recently becomea buying agent for a large cocoa purchasing co-operative in Kumasi.

As might be expected, the costsassociated with establishing theNtinanko model were high and financialanalysis showed costs exceeding benefits.However, analysis of the first replicationof the model found that benefits ex

ceeded project costs by a factor of morethan five to one.

56

Replication of a SuccessfuiExperiment

Based on the success of the Ntinanko

model, TechnoServe expanded its assistance to four similar mills in different

regions of the coimtry. In 1992, the program came to the attention of the GhanaGovernment which awarded TechnoServe

a contract with funding from fhe Worldbank to establish 23 palm oil processingmills in conamunities outside the buyingcatchment areas of the large-scale palm oilmills under the Intermediate TechnologySmall-Scale Palm Oil Mills Project.

These community mills have cometogether to form a national association ofpalm oil producers, the Co-operative PalmOil Millers Association, which currentlyhas four regional chapters to whichTechnoServe is providing assistance. It isanticipated that as the association develops, it will increasingly take over many ofthe roles that TechnoServe staff have

played.During the 1996 season, the

Association's regional chapters startedstockpiling palm oil in central locations inorder to attract larger industrial buyers,such as soap manufacturers, who payhigher prices than local traders for palmoil, if they can be assured of purchasinglarge volumes conveniently. The Association is also promoting the development ofvillage level oil palm nurseries to producehigh-yielding, disease-resistant varieties,both to increase members income in the

short term and to improve the quality andquantity of palm oil to enhance futureearnings.

Future Role

In July 1998,TechnoServebegan theimplementation of a five-year Micro-enterprise Development AssistanceProgram. Under this new program,TechnoServe proposes to strengthen itsBusiness Support Services to small enterprises. These Business Support Servicesgenerally consist of the following assistance provided in the following sequencein order to overcome the barriers and

constraints which small agro-processorsface:

• Explanation of group djmamics andbusiness principles for agro-processinggroups either already involved in agiven sub-sector or with good potentialfor involvement.

• Explanation of the roles and responsibilities of group enterprise executives.

• Calculation of current cost of production technologies to micro-enterpriseswhere relevant.

• Introduction of simple bookkeepingand financial analysis.

• Development of business plans.• Assistance in mobilizing investment

and working capital, if necessary• Assistance in obtaining, instalhng and

operating equipment, if necessary• Provision of marketing assistance and

advice.

• Provision of on-going training andassistance in simple records keepingand financial analysis.

57

—' • ft

'/.i

•X' ^ ^ r

Cassava Chip Processing in Ghana:Participatory Postharvest Research andTechnology Transfer in Response to NewMarket OpportunitiesAndrew Westby and Stephanie Gallat

Postharvest systems arehighly complex in naturebecause of the interaction of

technical, social and eco

nomic constraints faced bysmall-scale farmers. The use

of an appropriate andeffective postharvestresearch and developmentapproach is the key toensuring that post-harvestresearch and technologytransfer activihes have impact on poorpeople. At the Natural Resources Institute,working in collaboration with a number ofnational programs in Sub-Saharan Africa,we have seen an evolution of our approach from one that was very scientist-orientated (termed hypothesis testing) toone that is participatory in nature. Webelieve that by involving beneficiaries atall stages of the project cycle—fromproblem/opportunity assessment totesting and adaptation of new technology—the chances of achieving a positiveimpact on livelihoods are improved.

This paper describes the use of a"systems" approach to the development ofa processing system to meet an identified

STEPHANIE GALLAT

market opportunity. Theprocessing of cassava chipsfor the domestic animal

feed market in Ghana is

used as an example of theapplication of this approach. The "systems"approach brings together avariety of tools includingneeds assessment and

market analysis, andrequires the involvement

of all key stakeholders in the system.

The "Systems" Approach

As opposed to the "hypothesis testing"approach which is based upon understanding how biological systems workand then applying the results of researchto have an impact, the "systems" approach takes an integrated view of thepost-harvest system from production toconsumption. Using a multidisciplinaryapproach, the systemsapproach alsorecognizes the social, economic andtechnical factors that influence farmers'

decision making and capacity for adopting new technologies.

The "systems" analysis approach

Andrew Westby and Stephanie Gallat work at the Natural ResourcesInstitute, United Kingdom. This publication is an output from a researchproject funded by the United Kingdom Department for internationai Devei-opmenf (DFiD) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressedare not necessarily those of DFiD.

59

(Westby 1999) has drawn on: needsassessment to determine needs of farmers,

market analysis to understand whichmarkets farmers can access, and a systemsanalysis with stakeholders to identifysolutions to bottlenecks.

Needs Assessment

Needs assessment is a term used to

describe a range of qualitative diagnosticsurvey methods such as rapid ruralappraisal (RRA) and participatory ruralappraisal (PRA) (Cropley and Gilling1993). Their essence is that they facilitatecommunication between researchers and

beneficiaries and they represent the startof a collaborative interaction between the

two.

Needs assessment relies on the use of a

basket of tools that facilitate discussions

between researchers and beneficiaries. It

relies upon an attitude on the part of theresearcher of being informal, open mindedand analytical. Beneficiaries are activeparticipants and not just respondents. Theprincipal tool used is semi-structuredinterviewing which is a form of guidedinterviewing where only some of thequestions are predetermined and newquestions are introduced during theinterview. At most, it uses a checklist of

questions as a flexible guide. Other toolsthat can be used as required include:reviews of secondary data, direct observation, various forms of ranking, scoringand diagramming exercises (see Thesisand Grady 1991, Kleih et al. 1997).

The needs assessment approach hasbecome a central feature of how post-harvest research on root and tuber crops atNRI is undertaken (e.g., Westby et al. 1998;Hall et al. 1998).

Market Analysis

Matching research effort directly to theneeds of the market is another recent

feature of NRI's work on root crops. Thisprinciple which is not unique to NRI, isone of the central features of the Interna

tional Fund for Agricultural Development-led Global Cassava DevelopmentStrategy (Plucknett et al. 1998) and is, forexample, a strong feature of the approachbeing adopted by the Eastern AfricaRegional Root Crops Network. Theconcept can be carried through to such adegree that inputs from a wide range ofdisciplines can be arranged around theneeds of the market. This approach hasbeen applied in, for example, work onmarkets for high quality flours andstarches in Ghana (Graffham et al. 1998)

Cassava Chip Processing inGhana

The following account of work oncassava chip processing in Ghana describes an example of the application ofthe "systems" approach to participatorypost-harvest research, technology development and transfer.

Firstly, there was rural needs assessment. Rural needs assessment studies

(Kleih et al. 1994) conducted in Ghana in1994 identified the need of farmers to sell

their cassava into new markets as a means

of increasing incomes.Secondly, there was market analysis.

Market analysis (Graffham et al. 1998;Barton et al. 1996) indicated a need forhigh quality cassava flour and cassava inthe animal feed sectors. Rural communi

ties can prepare these products as a meansof increasing incomes.

Thirdly, there were stakeholder consultations. Stakeholder consultations (involving, for example, farmers representatives,feed millers, researchers, extension staff,members of the poultry feed association)were held throughout the work to presentfindings and discuss future work andpriorities.

60

Fourthly, studies were undertaken tounderstand and develop various parts ofthe chain from producer to consumer(systems analysis). The experimental workfocused on the production of spaghetti-shaped chips called "mmichips." Theinvestigations were undertaken in theorder agreed in the stakeholder consultations. The chain from the field to the

consumer is shown in Figure 1. Thestudies undertaken are also indicated in

Fig. 1 and summarized in the followingsections.

1. Market-price competitivenesscomparedwith maizefor animalfeed

Following the needs assessment study,an initial rapid assessment was made ofthe potential market for cassava in thepoultry feed sector (Barton et al. 1996). Itwas estimated that assuming a potential50% replacement of maize in the diet therewas a potential demand for 58,000 tonnesof cassava.

The technology selected involvedchipping cassava into small spaghetti likepieces that could be dried quickly toproduce a good quality product. Thesystem was based upon a chippingmachine developed by the InternationalInstitute of Tropical Agriculture in Nigeria(Jeon and Halos-Kim 1991) and importedinto Ghana by an NGO. A range of pricesfor minichips was established (Collinson1997) based on the costs of production andusing the same rates of return to labor asthose for cassava chips produced forexport. This gave a range of prices from^121 and (tl37/kg assuming real interestrates of 0 and 15% respectively. This priceis higher than for chips produced forexport ((t90/kg) reflecting the increase inlabor required. When compared with theprice of maize on an equivalent basis(same protein content) cassava wouldhave been competitive for 13 out of 24

Cassava Roots

6/7Chipping /Drying

4a

Marketing

High qualitykokonte for human

consumption

5

Storage

4bMarketing

Chips for livestock

Broilers,layers

1

Pigs

1. Market-price competitiveness2. Fitness for use: on-farm participatory trials3. Consumer and market acceptability4a. Marketing for human use4b. Marketing for livestock use5. Storage6. On-farm participatory development of technology7. Avaiiabiiity of credit

Figure 1. Cassava chip production system andstudies undertaken.

months in the 1995/96 period at 121/kg.Chip production is seasonal and optimumdrying conditions occur in January -March when maize prices are high.

2. Fitnessfor use: on-farm trials

In a workshop with stakeholders in thelivestock sector, a major issue was fitnessor suitability of cassava for use as animalfeed. On-farm broiler, layer and pig trialswere undertaken using cassava as apartial replacement for maize. Diets werereformulated to account for the lower

protein content of cassava and comparisons of performance were made withfarmers' own diets. Pigs came to marketweight (60 kg) in 7 months on the cassavabased diet compared with one year (ormore) on the conventional diets (Fleischer1998). Poultry showed no significant lossin performance with 20% cassava in diets(Osei et al. 1998).

61

3. Consumerand market acceptability

Minichips can be substituted fortraditional cassava chips known as"kokonte." Kokonte has a reputation forbeing a low-priced, low-quality staple forlower income consumers. In a survey itwas suggested that kokonte is well likedby a significant proportion of urban-based, higher income consumers, butmany do not eat it because of its unhygienic nature and food safety concerns(Media Majique and Research Systems1998). These urban-based consumers maypay more for a high quality product.Sensory evaluation panels have shown apreference for minichips by certainconsumers.

4. Marketing

Trader acceptability: Quality assessment by trader panels showed superiorquality of minichips (good color andreduced mould and iosect infestation).Minichips are however new and unfamiliar, and traders are therefore imcertain

about how to price it. Commercializationof the minichip is a challenge facing theintroduction of this new high-quality,high-value product onto the market.

Marketing for livestock feed: PRAstudies have shown that farmers will

produce the chips if there is a market.Feed millers and livestock producers haveindicated that they will use cassava ifthere is a regular supply. The challenge isto link these two ends of the chain.

5. Storage of chips

The storage of minichips and kokontewere evaluated in traditional storagestructures. The results showed that

minichips stored significantly better thankokonte. After 3 months of storage,kokonte became moldy and infested withinsects. Under the same storageconditions, minichips remained in good

Table 1. Storage losses for "kokonte" andminichips in traditional storage structures InBrong Ahafo In the 1997 season.

Losses(%)

Month "Kokonte" Minichip

May 4.4 0.3

July 10.5 4.1

Nov 38.5 4.4

condition (white and free from insectinfestation) for 6 months. Levels of

physical loss are shown in Table 1.Minichips therefore have potential to be avaluable food security reserve. They canalso be stored and sold for higher incomewhen prices are higher. From the point ofview of the feed millers, its means that

minichips have an acceptable storage life.

6. On-farm participatory developmentoftechnology

The chipping and drying system wasdeveloped with farmer groups in theBrong Ahafo Region, Ghana. Roots werechipped using a chipper mitially developed by IITA. Some improvements weremade in participatory trials to improveperformance (McNeill and Westby 1999).The combination of the chipper, drying ontrays for one day and on Polythenesheeting for one day produces a highquality product at minimum cost (Hectoret al. 1996). Microbiologically, the chipswere low in coliforms. They were also lowin ash. The process was evaluated withfarmer groups over two seasons.

7. Availability of credit

The availability of credit for agro-processing in the Brong Ahafo Region hasbeen investigated (Akintade 1997). It wasfound that formal and informal sector

credit existed for agro-processing, butinformal systems were more important,especially for working capital. Sevendifferent lending practices were identified.It was observed that commercial banks

62

were decreasing lending to the agricultural sector and, therefore, an increased

reliance on the informal sector was

anticipated. There was evidence of lending to groups, but little evidence that itwas always successful. Individual entrepreneurs were often excluded from credit.

Stakeholder Participation

In the example given above, stakeholders participated in the process at threelevels. During the needs assessment studyinitial contact was made with farmers. The

adaptive research and technology transferprogram was initiated on the basis offarmers' needs. The majority of theresearch work was done in collaboration

with end-users. The chipping/dryingsystem was adapted in collaboration withend-users to meet the quality requirements of the industry. The "fitness foruse" trials were carried out on-farm with

active participation of groups of farmersand the commercial feed compoundingcompanies.

In addition to undertaking the researchwork on-farm with people who would usethe technology, a series of workshopsbrought together all stakeholders in thepost-harvest chain to report results anddecide on issues such as next priorities.Work on the development of cassava chipsand studies into the fitness for use of the

chips was only initiated following stakeholder workshops.

Benefits of the Approach

The systems approach ensures a closeinterface with beneficiaries because of its

participatory and multi-disciplinarynature. It makes technology transfer a partof the research and development processand is faster than some alternatives. In

addition, the systems approach makesallowance for the fact that not all con

straints within a system are technical in

nature. On the other hand, the approach isdependent on a process approach wherethe final technology or product is notalways predictable. Also, the results canbe location specific and expectations canbe raised if the process is not followedthrough to an end point.

Approaches that encourage researchersto work more closely with beneficiariesare clearly going to be more hkely toachieve impact; the systems analysis,market orientation and needs assessment

are tools to achieving this. There is still,however, the need to still draw out andmake more widely available the genericissues from these interventions. This maymean particular issues might have to bethoroughly and rigorously investigated(an integration of adaptive and strategicresearch). It has also to be recognized thatthe best approach with certain problemsmay be to come back to more basicresearch in the laboratory that can later befed into adaptive research. Such strategicresearch is essential for the developmentof new methods and techniques.

Conclusions

It is important to recognize thatpostharvest research and technologytransfer involves people and it carmot bewholly conducted in a laboratory or on aresearch station. It is proposed in thispaper that strategies and tools such asneeds assessment and on-farm research

are needed to assist scientists to interact

with their clients. The complex nature ofpostharvest systems demands that interventions are not only technically appropriate, but also are economically viable andfit within the social and cultural circum

stances of those who are going to usethem. This means that a multi-disciphnaryapproach is required to ensure thatpostharvest research and technologytransfer interventions have an impact.

63

The use of market-orientated research

is critical in order to ensure that the

technology that is developed is relevantand will have an impact on the livelihoods of poor people. In responding to amarket opportunity it is important tohave an understanding of the wholepostharvest system and the wide range ofstakeholders within them. It is only byinvolving the full range of stakeholdersin the system, including the privatesector, and linking them to other stakeholders that it will be possible to enablethe adoption of new technology.

From a research perspective, a keyissue is the balance between strategic andadaptive research. If impact is requiredthen there is the need for more participatory approaches. The problem (particularly for international researchorganizations) is how to do this withoutlosing the work's generic value. Oneanswer to this is to view adaptive andparticipatory activities as part of a widerstrategic picture. Strategic in the sensethat these more "near client" oriented

activihes can inform strategic biologicalresearch. Clearly if the lessons from thesenear chent activities are not made widelyavailable then the widespread adoptionof new technologies will be delayed.

References

Akintade, D. 1997.Assessmentof theformal andinformalcredit sectorsfor agroprocessing in BrongAhafoRegion,Ghana.Project Technical Report.Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Barton, D., Yeboah, D. and Crentsil, D. 1996.

Feasibilitystudy of•potential ofcassavaas afeedforpoultry in Ghana. Report R 2309. NaturalResources Institute, Chatham, UK.

ColUnson, C. 1997. Thefinancial feasibility ofproducingdriedcassavafor the Ghanaiananimalfeedingredients market. NRI Technical Report NaturalResoruces Institute, Chatham, UK,

Cropley, J. and Gilling, J. 1993. Needsassessmentforagricultural development: Practical issues ininformal data collection. NRI Socio-economic

series 1. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham,

UK.

Fleischer, J. E., ed. 1998. Proceedingsof the workshoponon-farm introduction ofcassava in pig ration in thegreater Accra Region. University of Legon andMinistry of Food and Agriculture, Accra.

Graffham, A. J., Ababio, J. T., Dziedozoave, N., Day,

G., Andah, A., Budu, A., Ayemor, G. S., Gallat, S.and Westby, A. 1998. Market potential for cassavaflours and starches in Africa: A case study inGhana. Tropical Agriculture 75:267-270.

Hall, A. J., Bockett, G. N. A. and Nahdy, S. 1998.

Sweetpotatopostharvest systems in Uganda:Strategies, constraints and potentials. Social ScienceDepartment Working Paper No. 1998-7. International Potato Center, Lima.

Hector, D. A., Crentsil, D., Gogoe, S. and Fani, J.1996. Production of cassava basedlivestockingredients in Ghana. NRI/MoFA Technical Report. Jointfunded R6058 and DFID Regional AfricaTechnology Transfer Project on Non-Grain StarchStaples.

Jeon, Y. W. and Halos-Kim, L. S. 1991. Technical

performance of a root crop chipping machine' In:Ofori, F. and Hahn, S. K., eds. Tropical root crops ina developingcountry, pp 94-100. InternationalSociety for Tropical Root Crops.

Kleih, U., Crentsil, D., Gallat. S., Gogoe, S., Nettey, D.A. S. and Yeboah, D. 1994. Assessment of the post-harvest needs in non-grain starch staple systems inGhana. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

Kleih, U., Digges, P. and Westby,A. 1997.Assessmentof the needsand opportunities in postharvestsystemsof non-grain starch staplefood crops. NaturalResources Institute, Chatham, UK.

McNeill, M. and Westby, A. 1999. Ergonomicsevaluation of a manually operated cassavachipper. Applied Ergonomics. Accepted, In Press

Media Majique and Research Systems. 1998. Thekokonte market, June 1998.Accra. Duplicated.

Osei, S. A., Atuahene, C., Ahadze, K., Bonsu, M. L. K.

and Hector, D. A. 1998. Cassava as a substitute for

maize in poultry rations - interim results fromfarmer participatory trials. In: Proceedings of aworkshop held in Kumasi, Ghana. 10th Mcuch1998. University of Science and Technology,Kumasi / Ministry of Food and Agriculture,Accra.

Plucknett, D. L., Phillips, T. P. and Kagbo, R. B. 1998.A global cassava developmentstrategy: Transforminga traditional tropical root crop, spurring ruralindustrial developmentand raising incomesfor thepoor. International Frmd for AgriculturalDevelopment, Rome.

64

rru • r J inni r> i Westbv,A., Kleih, U., Hall, A., Bockett, G., Crentsil,uiesis, ]. and Grady, H. 1991. Participaton/rapid ^ ^. j . -x, j 7 + Tccr^ /c 4.1, H., Ndimguru, G., Graffham, A., Gogoe, S.,

appraisal for community aeveLopment. iihu/baye me ® ^ ^ ^„ j .. T j Hector, D. Nahdy, S. and Gallat, S. 1998. Improv-

Children federation, London. ,

'Wesihy, A. 1999. Getting to the roots (and tubers) of ing the impact of post harvest resear an, , , T 1 r -11. development on root and tuber crops: The needs

fleue/opmenr. Inaugural protessonai lecture. ^^ -iTT- -.T, -iTTT^ assessment approach. Tropical Agriculture 75:143-Greenwich University Press, Greenwich, U.K. r o

^ 146.

65

Collaboration for Agro-IndustriesDevelopment: An Agro-ProcessingProject ApproachToshiro Mado

Over the past ten years,efforts aimed at increasingthe production of staplefoods have been intensified

in many African countries.These efforts have been in

direct response to the foodsecurity challenges posedby growing populations. Inseveral areas appreciable increases in theyields of staple foods can be seen as adirect result of these efforts. These in

creases have been obtained largely fromthe expansion of farm size and the use ofimproved agricultural technologies. Insome instances, the adoption of yieldincreasing technology has enabled farmersto grow more and even produce surpluses. As farmers intensify productionefforts in response to food security challenges, the need for postharvest technology cannot be overemphasized.

The critical features of grain and rootcrops which affectpostharvest management are their short durability in storageand the tendency to change their chemicaland physical characteristics. However,through appropriate processing, additional value can be added to these products to enable farmers earn more income

from their efforts.Agro-processing is seenas a major income generating activity forrural farmers, especially, women farmers

in African countries.

Currently agro-processingactivities are done manu

ally and in a labor-intensive way. The manualprocesses are time consuming and possess a largeelement of drudgery.Adopting a good agro-

processing technology can reduce drudgery, improve processing quality andproductivity, and encourage farmers toproduce more. This paper describes aproject which is a collaborative effortbetween organizations to make agro-processing technology available to agro-metal workers and rural farmers.

The Agro-Processing Project

In 1994, the International Institute of

Tropical Agriculture (IITA), Ibadan, andthe Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA)reached an agreement to collaborate in acommon effort to disseminate agro-processing technology developed by thePostharvest Engineering Unit of IITA.Sincefhen, IITA and SAAtogether withnational agricultural extension agents,metal workshops, NGOs, and farmershave worked together to disseminateagro-processing technologies. The collaboration may be viewed as an inter-sectoraleffort involving the industrial and agrar-

Toshiro Mado is Program Officer for Sasakawa Africa Association in Ghana.

66

ian sectors. The major activities of thecollaboration include research and devel

opment of postharvest technology, agro-industries extension and manufacturers

training. Each stakeholder plays specificroles to facilitate the diffusion of available

postharvest technologies in the country(see table 1). The stakeholders are boundby the common desire to succeed and somaintain close communication and share

information.

Research and Development

One of the important elements toconsider in the selection and use of

postharvest equipment is design. A gooddesign contributes in a major way to theextent to which a piece of postharvestequipment is easy to fabricate, easy to useand durable. However, a common problem in the design and manufacture oragricultural equipment has been thetendency to design such equipmentwithout taking into consideration thecharacteristics of crops and humanengineering factors. This major lapse hasbeen one of the main reasons for the low

performance of such equipment.The major advantage of agro-process

ing equipment designed at IITAlies intheir design. Each piece of equipment isdesigned taking into consideration thecharacteristics of crops as well as agricultural and human engineering factors.Some of the postharvest machines aremanually operated while others use asmall petrol engine as a power source.IITA'spostharvest equipment is portable,easy to handle, has good mobility, and istherefore suitable for women. Mobile

equipment is easy to move around whenthere is a need to expand the businessarea. They also offer an opportunity forthe reduction of the cost of farm structures

since they do not have to be installed in astationary position in an enclosed area.

Table 1. Stakeholders' roles and activities.

Stakeholders Role and activities

Research Institutes Designing, testing andmodification

Technicians Training of manufacturers andquality control

Manufacturers Production and sales

Extension Dissemination/demonstration

and mobilization of farmer

groups

Farmers/users Agro-processing business

Agro-metal manufacturers using suchgood designs can become more competitive and improve their earnings.

Agro-industries Extension

The weak linkage between agricultureand industry can be seen quite often. Onthe one hand, many metal workshops arelocated in urban areas with the urban

population as their target. Most of theseworkshops undertake mainly the repair ofparts with only a few (the agro-metalmanufacturers) fabricating agriculturalequipment. On the other hand, mostfarmers are based in the rural areas, do

not have access to the agro-metal manufacturers and do not know what kind of

technologies and equipment are available.There is a gap between farmers and agro-metal manufacturers which obstructs the

integrated business development interestsof both parties.

Agro-Industries extension work isaimed at filling the gap between agriculture and industry through field trainingand demonstrations. Under this systemextensionists visit villages to demonstrateto farmer groups the operation andperformance of agro-processing equipment. The people are then allowed to havea turn at trying out the equipment afterwhich there is an interactive discussion.

This participatory approach usuallysucceeds in creating awareness andgenerating interest and a desire to adopt.

For extension personnel and manufac-

67

turers, the participatory field demonstration is an important opportunity to observea direct response of users and obtain firsthand comments and recommendations

which can form a basis for engineers fordesign improvement.

Manufacturers TrainingHaving a supply capacity of metal

manufacturers is crucial to making adequate postharvest equipment available foruse. Supply capacity must be considered interms of both quantity and quality. Productquality is a crucialfactor not only users butalso for manufacturers as a promotionfactor for their own products. Havingequipment operators who are satisfied withthe equipment they are operating in a ruralarea is good advertisement for the manufacturer who is likely to attract morecustomers. Farmers and other customers

make their capital available during someparticular period, for example, afterharvest. Manufactmers should therefore

have a stockof the equipment readyduring these periods.

Manufacturers training is aiming atintroducing new designs to manufacturers,and to improve the fabrication skill oftechnicians. However, our experiencesshow that training can not make a goodenough impact if the manufacturer doesnot have an internal quality control system.

Impact on Final Beneficiaries

This joint effortaims at improving theproductivity of the final beneficiaries, agro-metal manufacturersand agro-processingfarmers. Agro-metal manufacturers inAfrican countries are generally small-scaleand quite often, have less than a staff of tenworkers many of who possess no formaltechnical qualifications. They also tend tobe low-skilled and serve mostly as apprentices. In most cases apprentices may belucky to be trained by a highly skilled

master. The training given improves thecompetencies of the agro-metal manufacturers and enables them to manufacture

equipment of competitive quality for saleat profitable margins.

Many agro-processors now using theimproved agro-processing equipment havebeen engaged in the business for a longtime. The switch from manual or low-

productive methods to improved equipment has reduced labor requirements andat the same time improved product quality.For example, in the manufacture of cassavaflour, the most crucialoperation is dryingand milling. Cassava pieces chopped usingthe traditional method take about 4-5daysto dry while chips prepared with animproved cassava chipper take 1-2daysto dry because of their reduced size. Also,because of their reduced size, well driedchips are easier to mill and store better.These advantages present agro-processorswith a better quahty product and betterprices.

The technical impact can be summarized in terms of durability, reduced laborinput, high product recovery and improved storability. The socio-economicimpact may be summarized in terms ofreduced workload for women and employment and income generation.

Challenge

As mentioned earlier, the agro-processing project is a joint effort among thestakeholders. To enhance this collaborationand further strengthen existing linkages,there is the need for open communicationand the sharing of mutually beneficialinformation. There is also the need for an

effective co-ordination mechanism that

will ensure that stakeholders are makingthe best use of available information and

resources in order to maximize the benefits

from postharvest technologies.

68

Improving the Development and Deliveryof Postharvest Technologies: SmallGroups Summaries

1. Participatory Deveiopmentand Dissemination of

Appropriate PostharvestTechnoiogies

The major issues considered by thisgroup were;

• identification of stakeholders/partnersin participatory development anddissemination of appropriatepostharvest technologies

• identification of roles of stakeholders/

partners

• social, economic (including markets)and technical considerations

• balancing strategic and adaptiveresearch

• promotion or dissemination of technologies

• monitoring and impact assessment

Recommendations

• Stakeholders/partners in participatorydevelopment and dissemination ofappropriate postharvest technologiesshould be identified and documented.

This may be done through suchmethods as meetings, networks,observations, word-of-mouth recom

mendations, workshops and review ofrelevant reports and other secondarysources.

• The roles of stakeholders/partnersshould be clearly identified through

69

such methods as meetings, surveys,observations and report reviews. SomeGovernment development agenciessuch as research and extension organizations may do this in collaborationwith NGOs involved in postharvestdevelopment.Farmers should be encouraged to formpartnerships with other stakeholders towork together.Farmers should be fully involved withother stakeholders to identify andprioritize existing postharvest problems, and participate, with researchersand extension, in tests and trials to

solve these problems. All stakeholdersshould be involved right from thebeginning. Efforts should be made toensure genuine participation bypromoting equality in the partnership.Donors should work together toprovide funding for development,technical assistance, training andinformation sharing.Donors should, in addition to funding,play an advocacy role to influencepohcy towards enhancing the dissemination of appropriate postharvesttechnologies.Governments should enact policies thatprovide support for the developmentand dissemination of appropriatepostharvest technologies.Governments should create the en-

abling environment (e.g., infrastructure) to support postharvest work.

• Governments should demonstrate

commitment to the postharvest sectorby providing funding for postharvestwork including postharvest trainingand extension work.

• Projects should apply true participatory approaches in project planning,implementation, monitoring.

• Researchers should ensure farmer and

end-user participation in the generation of technologies.

• Researchers should develop, test andrefine technologies based on user needsand the socioeconomic environment.

• Researchers should identify and testalready existing technologies whichhold promise to avoid reinventing thewheel. There should be a balance in

adaptive and strategic research.• Extension should provide information

support for postharvest activities. Thismay be in the form of print media,radio broadcasts or audiovisuals.

• Communication methods for dissemi

nation should put farmers at theforefront.

• Baseline surveys should be conductedto enable subsequent assessment ofimpact to be carried out in a validmanner.

• Evaluation should be multi-disciphn-ary and participatory.

2. Strengthening the Entrepreneurial Capacity of Small-scale Agro-processors andManufacturers

The major issues considered by GroupTwo were:

• identification of marketable commodi

ties and products• national policy• sources of credit

• technical and managerial training

• linkages• trade associations

Recommendations

• Stakeholders should collect and collate

information on marketable commodi

ties and products. This should includeinformation on volume of produce orproducts, market prices, productioncost, quality, demand and supplycharmels. This can be facilitated byNGOs and Governments. Networkingshould be encouraged at facilitatesharing of experiences.

• There should be a systematic effort togather and share market information.

• Stakeholders should create multi-

disciplinary teams to bring togetherdifferent views and ideas for a national

policy to support entrepreneurialcapacity building. The responsiblegovernment agency, assisted by otheragencies such as trade associationsshould collate and harmonize ideas

into a policy document for discussionand adoption. NGOs can play anadvocacy role.

• A high priority should be placed on thepost-production sector in nationalagricultural policy.

• A post-production national agriculturalpolicy should incorporate importantaspects such as food quality standards,nutrition standards and hygiene.

• Government agencies and NGOsshould train entrepreneurs in thedevelopment of business plans andeffective management practices.

• Government agencies, trade associations and NGOs should assist and

encourage the formation of viablegroups of small-scale agro-processorsand manufacturers. The groups,operating as co-operatives, stand abetter chance of obtaining loans fromlending sources.

70

• NGOs and relevant governmentagencies should provide training inacquisition and proper use of loans.

• Governments and NGOs should

support the establishment of entrepreneurial training schools and centers tooffer "training of trainers" courses andalso to train entrepreneurs.

• Governments, with the assistance of

NGOs, donors and the private sector,should provide information supportusing the mass media and other formsto disseminate information on tech

nologies in local languages.• Stakeholders should be brought

together in workshops or conferencesto share information. This can be

facilitated by NGOs, the private sectoror govermnent.

3. Building SustainablePartnerships for Developmentand Dissemination of

Postharvest Technologies

The main issues considered by GroupThree were:

• harmonization

• postharvest information managementand dissemination among stakeholders

• linkages between development anddissemination of technology

Recommendations

• Linkages should be created andnetworking fostered among International Agricultural Research Centers,National Agricultural Research Systems, NGOs, Universities, National

Agricultural Extension Systems andDonors.

• The postharvest system should beaddressed in an integrated marmer.Clear linkages should be developedbetween fundamental research, adaptive research and technology transfer.The process should involve all stake

holders in a participatory marmer.• Donors, NGOs and host governments

should complement each others effortsand not work in competition with eachother.

• Governments should meet their

research obligations.• There should be an effort to collect,

collate and share postharvest information among stakeholders on a regularbasis.

• Stakeholders should work together inpromoting technology fairs and inmonitoring and evaluation of thepostharvest sector.

• Efforts should be made to harmonize

working conditions by encouragingNGOs and donors to work within

existing frameworks.• Stakeholders should meet at regular

intervals, share experiences and learnfrom each others successes and failures.

There should be an effort to document

and share information on successful

projects.

4. Financing PostharvestTechnology Development,Manufacturing and Agro-processing Enterprises

The main issues considered by GroupFour were:

• ineffective linkages between Researchand Development

• inadequate knowledge and capacity toaccess donor support

• insufficient financial provisions• inadequate technical skills

Recommendations

• Emphasis should be shifted topostharvest programs that will benefitmost of the population.

• There should be better communication

between Research and Development• Goverrunents, donors and NGOs and

71

researchers should collaborate to offer

training in project formulation.There should be more collaborative

demonstrations of technologies bystakeholders.

Governments, donors and NGOs

should create awareness and conduct

training in proposal writing to increaseaccess to donor funding.There should be effective linkages forcapital sourcing.Access to affordable credit should be

provided by governments, financialinstitutions and donors for postharvest

72

research, development, manufacturingand agro-processing enterprises.Governments should live up to theirfinancial obligations with respect to thepostharvest sector.Stakeholders should enter into partnerships to be able to pool financialresources together to supportpostharvest research, development,manufacturing and agro-processingenterprises.Stakeholders should provide adequatetechnical and financial support formonitoring and evaluation activities.

CLOSING REMARKS

Bringing the Pieces TogetherChristopher Dowswell

Growing importance of ValueAdded Agriculture

A distinguishing feature of commercialagriculture is the importance of value-added activities after primary production.The urban shift in sub-Saharan Africa,from a historical situation when only 20-30% of the agricultural production enteredthe market to one in which 40-60% will

enter organized markets will have enormous implications for agricultural research, extension, production, foodstorage, processing, and transportation.

Urbanization will bring about changingpatterns of food consumption. The foodchain will lengthen and become muchmore complex. With trends in globalization, Africa's urban food consumers are

likely to also have increasing choices. Willthey obtain their food from domesticproducers and food processors? Or willthese food products be imported? Qualityand quantity considerations will influencethe final decision.

Business and Economic

Perspective

Is it logical to expect not-for-profitgovernmental and non-governmentalorganizations to play key roles in micro-enterprise development? As RosettaTetebo rightly said, if such publicly

frmded organizations don't take the leadto help organize, train, and strengthenthese emergent private sector micro-enterprises, "who will do it?" I agreewith her.

What is really important, then, is thatthese not-for-profit developmentalorganizations adopt a clear business-likeorientation in their advisory services andinterventions. Potential agro-processingand other postharvest technology andequipment must be evaluated againststandard business criteria. Is there a

market? Can the enterprise become acompetitive player? Can they mobilizethe human, physical and financial capitalrequirements to enter the market? Whatis the potential for profit? What are therisks?

In the end, farmers and micro-

enterprise owners are really moreconcerned about "income" rather than

prices, per se. As such, they are interested m the ratios between input costsand the potential revenue from theiroutput. Where profit potential is significant, and the technical expertise isavailable and can be assimilated, the

chances are good that small-scale entrepreneurs (including farmers) will take upnew technologies and prosper.

And as Ruth Oniang'o pointed out.

Christopher Dowswell is Director for Program Coordination,Sasakawa Africa Association.

73

however, we should not be dogmaticabout whether these enterprises are runthrough collective action groups or byprivate entrepreneurs. Indeed, in manycases, the small family business may bethe best organizational structure to ensuresuccess.

We should be especially sensitive toidentifying what is the "real" demand, orpotential demand, and not lead farmersand micro-enterprise collaborators downthe primrose path of purchasing a bimchof postharvest equipment to handle andprocess some crop or another, and thenstart looking for markets. This is also truein crop production. How often do supplyand technology considerations drive theinterest of researchers and extension

workers in a crop rather than a realassessment of demand? Most of us have

this "supply" bias. Farmers and foodprocessors take up our recommendedtechnologies, expand their production,only to be disappointed when they findout that the market is very thin. As aconsequence, they have little hope ofrepaying their debt for inputs and equipment—and we often say the "farmer is notcredit worthy." In fact, it is we who are not"credit worthy."

Greater access to market information

will help us move from our current"supply-in-search of demand" mentalityto one that looks at the food productionpropositions from a business perspective.Farmers are very concerned about marketsand prices, yet all too frequently researchers and extension officers, especially themen, don't seem to know the current

prices of almost anything. They don'tknow market prices for the main food andcash crops, inputs, oxen, traction equipment, or transportation. When one asks,one usually gets a blank stare. If there is aresponse at aU,it is usually last year'sprice! It really is incredible!

How can we advise farmers and micro-

entrepreneurs on business decisions,whether in food production or inpostharvest marketing, when we are sopoorly informed about the key prices ofinputs and outputs. We simply must do abetter job in this area, if we are to do ourduty in serving the small-scale, emergentcommercial farmer. There is much scopefor MOAs, in partnerships with NGOs, todevelop much more robust marketintelligence systems. Developments intelecommxinications and data processingcan help us greatly in such work.

Policy interventions

Those of us working in ministries ofagriculture, universihes, research andextension organizations and NGOs alsoneed to become more active in trying toinfluence national policies that affect theagricultural sector. We cannot just acceptthe status quo. We need to point out to ourclients and bosses the effects particularpohcies have in holding back the development of modem agricultural systems andagro-businesses, especially for small-scaleagriculture. For example, national importtariff pohcies often discourage the importation of raw materials needed to make

small-scale machinery or to can or package food products. As a result, it ischeaper to import such equipment andintermediate products than produce themlocally. Is this what governments reallywant? I think not.

It is one thing for governments tocharge high tariffs on the importation ofluxury goods and fancy cars, but what isthe logic of slapping a big import duty ona 5-7 hp motor, or metal alloys needed tomake a machine or even a tin can?

We must get involved in these issues,and begin to lobby parliamentarians andthe executive branch of government tocreate a more favorable environment for

74

development of rural industries andenterprises. We are too quiet! We mustbecome activists for change.

Food Quality and Safety

Issues of food quality and safety, suchas spoilage and carcinogen residues willgrow in importance as we move fromsubsistence to commercial production,and as the chain from rural producer tourban consumer lengthens. Obviously,we need to maintain perspective in howwe approach these issues. We don't wantto paralyze farming or food industrieswith excessive and unrealistic rules and

regulations. At the same time, longer-term storage and added processing offoods will make issues like aflatoxins

and salmonella increasingly important.

Engaging the Private Sector

Market economics is the current ragein development circles. Strident marketfundamentalists think that the privatesector can solve almost every economicproblem. Obviously, where marketswork, we should rely on them. Wherethey don't, we should intervene in themarket, through various forms of publicand quasi-public (e.g., NGO) sectorinterventions. Governmental and non

governmental organizations are still in amating dance with the private sector.Few solid marriages have resulted.

Many international donors todaydoubt that publicly fimded institutionsare capable of developing real partnerships with private enterprises andNGOs. They believe that public civilservants are so threatened by the rise ofalternative types of organizationalstructures that they will never agreewillingly to work in effective partnerships with either the private sector orNGOs. Can we prove the critics wrong? Ihope so.

In particular, we need to be moreimaginative in seeking ways for publiclyfimded research, extension, and educa

tional institutions to reach out to

agribusinesses for help and support. Itmay be unlikely that these big firms willbe very interested in partnering with mostsmaU-scale producers and agro-processors, for the reasons that Charles Ofori ofTechnoServe gave us, e.g., problems ofsmall suppliers meeting quality standardsand sufficient supply volumes.

But perhaps the Nestles and UACscould help in training government andNGO subject matter specialists in technical and business development skills; insupporting various research and development initiatives to develop small-scaleequipment, perhaps even in some forms ofmicro-finance support to some micro-enterprises. We need to develop conceptsof corporate citizenship and perhaps offersome tax incentives to sweeten the deal.

One thing is sure. We must get our acttogether in MOAs and NGOs before weapproach private sector agribusinessesasking for assistance. Usually, we are toovague in our requests, and appear like weare just looking for hand-outs rather thanforging real development partnerships.

In private sector strategic alliances allparties must derive some benefits. Wewon't be any different in the partnershipsthat we seek. What do we have to offer in

terms of potential benefits to our partners?

Strategic and Adaptive Research

1thought that Stephanie Gallat madean important point about the balancebetween strategic and adaptive research inpostharvest technology. As with manyfields of research, there is often a consider

able amount of good technologies alreadyavailable. Some of these technologiesmight only need slight modification, if ataU, to be appropriate for many

75

postharvest enterprises. As my boss. Dr.Borlaug, is fond of saying, "the perfect isoften the enemy of the good" in plantbreeding.

A similar analogy can been drawn inthe development of small-scale equipmentand machinery. In many cases, it seemsthat we should be focusing more efforts onthe diffusion of what we already haveavailable, perhaps with some adaptiveresearch for small design changes wherenecessary. Let's get on with it.

The small group meetings have madeseveral excellent recommendations to

improve the postharvest sector. We shouldwork together to ensure the implementation of these recommendations.

In closing, 1quote Mahatma Gandhiwho said, "We must be the change wewish to see in the world." We shouldn't

wait for someone to take the initiative. We

should start the ball rolling, starting wherewe are, using what we have, and doingwhat we can.

76

Workshop Participants

Ayo AbifarinDirector, World Vision Intema-

tional

Food Security, Africa RegionAccra, Ghana

Magloire EmileAccrombessi

Coordinateur (IngenieurAgronome)Direction Generale CARDER-

AtlantiqueCalavi, Benin Republique

Charles Ofori AddoBusiness Advisor

NevirBusiness DevelopmentTechnoServe Ghana

Accra, Ghana

Dossou Firmin AdjahoussouDirecteur National

The Hunger Project - BeninCotonou, Benin Repubhque

Lucy Jummai AmaduExtension Officer

SG 2000 NigeriaKano, Nigeria

Dorothy Ankpah

Extension SpecialistWomen in Agricultural Development

Accra, Ghana

Chamuene AntonioResearch Assistant

National Institute of AgriculturalResearch

Maputo, Mozambique

Antoine AogaFood TechnologistSasakawa Africa Association

Cotonou, Benin Republique

Ishaya Buba BajamaManager, Rural DevelopmentProgramSavanna Conservation NigeriaKaduna, Nigeria

H. P. BatsaActing DirectorAgricultural Engineering ServicesDepartmentAccra, Ghana

Gashu BelayPostharvest Technician

SG 2000 EthiopiaAddis Ababa, Ethiopia

Albert BellCoordinator for the RegionalPostharvest Systems AnalysisProjectGerman Agency for TechnicalCooperationEschbom, Germany

Mpoko BokangaBiochemist & Food TechnologistIITA

Ibadan, Nigeria

Carolin BotheVisiting ScientistAgro-Industries and PostharvestManagement ServiceFAO

Rome, Italy

Robin Boxall

Postharvest TechnologistNatural Resources Inshtute

Kent, U. K.

Kifty Cardwell-SghulthessPlant PathologistIITA

Cotonou, Benin Republique

Marie Odile Comlanvi neeHountondjiCharge de Pohtique SectorieUeCellule Femme dans le

Developpement Agricole et RuralCotonou, Benin Republique

Mathieu CondeChef, Service Adjoint du Centred'Etudes et ExperimentationMach. AgricoleMinistere de TAgriculture, desEaux et Forets

Conakry, Guinee

Dante de Padua

Consultant (Rice PostharvestSpecialist)IRRI Engineering DivisionLos Banos Philippines

Emmanuel Foli DeganusDirector

Agricultural ConsultancyLome, Togo

77

Aliou DiopChief, Agro-industry DepartmentGroupe HBAQuebec (Quebec), Canada

Tim Donaldson

Manager, DFID Crop PostharvestProgrammeNatural Resources International

Kent, U, K.

Christopher DowswellDirector for Program Coordination

Sasakawa Africa Association

Mexico D.F., Mexico

Fortune Fagbohoun

National Coordinator

SG 2000 Benin

Cotonou, Benin Republique

Pascal Fandohan

Specialist. Food GrainPostharvest TechnologyDSfRAB

Porto Novo, Benin Republique

Tonkara Fode

Charge de coursEcole Nationale d'Agriculture etd'Elevage de ToloMaurou, Guinee

Stephanie GallatIn-coimtry Coordinator (Ghana)DFID Crop Postharvest ResearchProgramme, NRIAccra, Ghana

GbadidiSpecialist, Root & TuberPostharvest TechnologyINRAB

Porto Novo, Benin Republique

Georges GbaguidiPresident

Institut de Parhcipation du BminCotonou, Benin Republique

Blaise O. GlLglL

Ahanhanzo

Economist & President

Association pour leDeveloppement des Petites etMoyennes Enterprises etd'EmploiCotonou, Benin Republique

Beenadin GlehouenouCoordinateur

SG 2000 Benin

Cotonou, Benin Republique

Horst GrimmeDirector, Research and CropManagement DivisionHTA

Ibadan, Nigeria

Vital HagenimanaPostharvest Scientist

International Potato Center

Nairobi, Kenya

Leonides Halos-KimResearch SpecialistniA

Ibadan, Nigeria

Germain HoundekpondjiDirecteur

Centre de Formation TechniqueMgr. SteinmetzOuidah, Benin Repubhque

Djidjoho JosephHounhouigan

Enseignant-chercheurFaculte des Sciences

AgronomiquesCotonou, Benin Republique

Afollinaire HounyoviIngenieur/Charge VulgarisationMinistere du DeveloppementRural

Cotonou, Benin Republique

Yong Woon JeonHead, Postharvest EngineeringUnit

nxA

Ibadan, Nigeria

Battson Rusoke Emmanuel

Kayaayo

Subject Matter Specialist,Fabrications P.H.

MAAIF/SG 2000

Kampala, Uganda

Tenagne KidanaHome Economics Extension

ExpertMinistry of AgricultureAddis Ababa, Ethiopia

Sicco KolijnAgricultural EngineerFAO

Kampala, Uganda

Kgeei Adechion KomlanDirector

Self-help InitiativesLom^ Togo

Fred G. J. KruitAgricultural EngineerRecherche Appliquee en MillieuReel

INRAB-RAMR

Atogon, Benin Republique

Joseph KwartengSnr. Lecturer/Editor

Department of Ag. Economics &Extension

University of Cape CoastCape Coast, Ghana

Toshiro MadoProject Officer, Agro-ProcessingSasakawa Africa Association

Accra, Ghana

Fernando Lasite MavieExtension Training OfficerNational Directorate of Rural

Extension

Maputo, Mozambique

Bussie Maziya-DixonFood TechnologistIITA

Ibadan, Nigeria

William Meikle

EntomologistIHA

Cotonou, Benin Republique

Kouame Miezan

Program Leader, Irrigated RiceProgramWARDA

Saint-Louis, Senegal

Felix Mishiame

Postharvest Officer

Ministry of Food and AgricultureCape Coast, Ghana

Salami MoukaDirecteur General

CAMEMEC Sari

Godomey, Benin Republique

Peter NeuenschwanderDirector, PHMD

IITA

Cotonou, Benin Republique

78

Kwaku NicolHead, Postharvest Division

Agricultural Engineering ServicesDept.Accra, Ghana

F. NzamudjoDirecteur

Songhai CentrePorto Novo, Benin Republique

Augustine Okoruwa

Food TechnologistIITA

Ibadan, Nigeria

Ruth K. Oniang'oProfessor / Consultant

Jomo Kenyatta UniversityNairobi, Kenya

Olayinka a. OsinubiResearch Training SpecialistHTA

Ibadan, Nigeria

Kwame Prakah-Asante

Executive Director

Ghana Regional AppropriateTechnology Industrial ServiceTema, Ghana

Sam a. QuayeManaging DirectorEngineering and TechnicalServices Est.

Tema, Ghana

Madina Seieou

Chef, Service Formation

Education Nutritionnele et

Documentation

Porto Novo, Benin Republique

Anatole CakpoSOGBOHOSSOUDirecteur, Direction de la

Formation Op&ationneleet de la VulgarisationMinistere du DeveloppementRural

Cotonou, Bmin Republique

Wakiii Adio TairouChef

Service Appui 1 la Vulgarisation,DIFOV

Cotonou, Benin Republique

Timothy Olurotimi TayoDirector, UNAAB Consult

University of AgricultureAbeokuta, Nigeria

Rosetta Tetebo

Director

Women in Agricultural Development

Accra, Ghana

Philippe Vernier.

Yam Postharvest SpecialistUTA-CIRAD Special ProjectCotonou, Benin Republique

Esther Walabai GadzamaWIA SpecialistWorld Bank

Abuja, Nigeria

79

Sasakawa Africa i\ssociation, c/o CIMMYT, Apdo. 6-641, 06600Mexico D.F. Mexico

Global 2000 Progi'am of The Carter Center, 1 Copenhill Road, Atlanta, CA 30307,USA

ISBN 2-940200-10-6