SHINGON BUDDHISM (4) - J-Stage

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THE SYMBOL-SYSTEM OF

SHINGON BUDDHISM (4) by

Shozui Makoto Toganoo

CHAPTER VI. ROKU-DAI, A COMPOUND SYMBOL OF THE ESSENCE OF

DHARMA-KAYA

The term roku-dai meaning literally the "great six" is the abbreviated

Japanese rendition of the Sanskrt term sadmaha-bhutani. Since the term

bhuta has the three significations of "being or that which exists," an "element," and the "world," the term sad-maha-bhutani was usually translated

in early Buddhism, as the "six existences or elements," or the six worlds

(sad-dhatu)."

In Shingon Buddhism, this sad-maha-bhutani, that is, earth, water, fire,

wind, space, and consciousness or mind, are deemed the symbols (samaya) of

Dharma-kaya; therefore, they are simply called the Great Six (Roku-dai).

The process from the six elements (roku-dai) in early Buddhism to the

great six symbols (Roku-dai) of Dharma-kaya in Shingon Buddhism has a

complicated and long history. The complications are due to roku-dai (the six

fundamental exis tences) having been treated as problems of ontology, cos-

mology and epistomology in addition to the religious problem. To describe in

detail its historical formation from roku-dai to Roku-dai is truly a difficult task

and one which is not our present intention; however, we cannot adequately

approach our subject without making some comment on it. Therefore, we shall

outline it to a necessary extent in the following.

In early Buddhism roku-dai (the six elements) were treated in two ways.

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On the one hand, they were conceived as the fundamental and constituent

elements of all existences: All corporeal existences, including the human body,

consist of the five elements (i.e., earth, water, fire, wind, and space), and the

spiritual function is produced by the element of consciousness or mind. This

was the general idea of roku-dai from which the ideas of the six sense-organs,

the six objects of senses, the six inherent qualities (guna) produced by the

objects and organs of senses, etc., were evolved.

On the other hand, they were treated as the objects of meditation. In

Hinayana Buddhist scriptures such as the Visuddhi-magga and the

Abhidharma-kola (Chinese. Chu-she lun) the meditational practice called dasa-

kasina (Sanskrt. data-krtsna) literally meaning "ten universals" are explained.

Takakusu states this dasa-kasina in this manner:

... This is a meditative unification, of diverse phenomena into one of the

ten universals, that is, blue, yellow, red, white, earth, water, fire, air,

space, consciousness. In this you must meditate on the universe until it

becomes to your eyes one wash of a color or one aspect of an element. If

you meditate on water, the world around you will become only running water. 251

Concretely speaking, in pathavi-kasina (skt. prthivr-kritsna) (the medita-

tion of the earth element), for instance, a circle (kasina-mandala) a few inches

in diameter moulded of earth or clay is placed upon a low frame. Seated at a

short distance the meditator must fix his eyes upon the circle, and concentrate

upon the idea of the element of earth, inwardly repeating the various

qualitative names of earth, and dwelling on the thought that the particles of his

own body are composed of the earth element. He must continue this exercise

until, he receives a "sign or indication (nimitta)" that supernatural illumination

is produced. Then he attains the sight of the circle (mandala) of earth equally

well with the eyes open and shut.252

In short, this is the application of the idea of roku-dai to meditational

practice, and has a deep relationship with the formation of Roku-dai and

Mandala in Shingon Buddhism.

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The rise of Madhyamika and Yogacara, or Snyavada and Vijnanavada

brought a great change onto the idea of roku-dai. In the Madhyamika school,

based upon the concept of sunyata, roku-dai were treated as the dharmas of

the phenomenal world, and considered non-substantial, that is, sunyata.

In the Yogacara school, the six elements (roku-dai) were divided into

matter and mind. The five elements (earth, water, fire, wind, and space) were

classified with the dharma of matter (rupa) and considered as a temporary

existence. The element of mind or consciousness was further divided into

sdsrava-vijnana, or the consciousness which has illusion, and andsrava-vijnana, or

the consciousness without illusion (klesa), i.e., pure and undefiled conscious-

ness. The former can be a constituent element of the spiritual function but the

latter can not. Vijnana-vada (the doctrine of vijnana) developed further its

theories of vijnana-mdtra and tri-bhava-citta-matra and became the core of the

Yogacara school.

The Yogacara school, on the one hand, asserted, the phenomenal world

which is composed of the five elements (go-dai) is not a real existence but a

temporary existence produced as a result of a temporary combination of

various causes; truly real existence is consciousness alone (vijnana-matra); and

the realization of tri-bhava-citta-matra, i.e., that all phenomenal existences in

the three worlds are produced by citta (mind) alone, is the final goal of

enlightenment. On the other hand, the Yogacara school, as a means (upaya) to

attain this highest state, adopted the meditational practice of roku-dai which is

similar to the data-kasina of Hinayana Buddhism.

In contrast to Sunyavada and concurrent with Vijnanavada, Tathata-vada

arose. This is the doctrine (vada) of tatha-ta literally meaning "the state (-td) of

being so' f tatha)."

Zimmer says,

... Tatha means "yes, so it is, so -be it, amen." It is the everyday,

whole-hearted affirmative. Hence the term tatha-ta, "such-ness," re-

presents' the utterly positive aspect of Nirvana-enlightenment,... 253

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Tathata-vada was the doctrine based on the affirmative and positive

interpretation of Nirvana. For instance, the four virtues, i.e., permanence,

joyousness, great self, and purity, in the Mahaydna-nirvana-sutra can be

regarded as Tathata-vada.

Influenced by Tathata-vada, in Vol. 567 of the Mahaprajna- paramita-

sutra translated by Hsuan-chuang (600-664) in 659 A.D., the profound

prajna-paramita is explained figuratively with earth, water, fire, wind, and

space.

This idea was carried over in the Mahavairocana-sutra, in which

sarva jnana (perfect wisdom), the replacement of prajna paramita, is expressed

in five similitudes of earth, water, fire, wind, and space, in this manner:

As the earth supports all sentient beings, so sarva-jnana is the

fundamental ground for devas, men, and asuras. As water is pure and cool, and

by eliminating the burning of anxiety, gives pleasure to every existence, so

sarva jnana bestows joyous benefit upon all devas and all men. As fire can burn

all firewoods so sarva jnana bums out all delusions (avidya). Just as wind blows

away all dust, sarva jnana removes all illusions (klesa). And as space, which is

beyond comprehension, has neither discrimination nor identification, sarva-

jnana similarly is beyond all knowledge. 254

Sarva jnana expressed in the five similitudes of Earth, Water, Fire, Wind,

Space, is 'explained further with five significations (artha) in the following

verse: "I, [Mahavairocana] , am enlightened that Sarva jnana is by its very

nature non-origination (an-utpada), It surpasses the sphere of words (vaktva), It

is released from all errors and dusts (rajas), It is far removed from all causations

(hetva), and It is identical with space (kha)." 255

These five significations are represented through five gates of letters. "A"

is the initial letter of an-utpada meaning "non-origination"; "va" of vaktva the

state of being spoken; "ra" of rajas all errors and dusts; "ha" of hetva the

state of being a hetu, i.e., causation; "kha" is as such kha meaning space. Since

the letter "va," "ra," and "ha" contain the sound "a" which connotes

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a-svabhava (nothing own nature) and an-utpada (non-origination), these letters

can be interpreted thus:"Va" represents the state"surpassed" vaktva;"ra" the

state"released" from rajas;"ha" the state"removed" hetva.

These Great Five (Go-dai), five similitudes, five significations, and five

letters correlate respectively in this manner:

The reason that sarva jnana supports all existences as the earth does is

that the state of sarva jnana -is primarily the ultimate state of non-origination

("A"=an-utpada) which transcends all contradictions and at the same time

involves all existences. Sarva jnana is pure and cool and it gives all pleasures in

the same manner that water does; therefore, the ultimate pleasure of

sarva jnana is that which surpasses the sphere of words ("Va"==vaktva). As fire

burns up all firewood so the state of sarva jnana is that which burns up all

firewood of delusion (avidya) and it is the state in which one is released from

all errors and dusts ("Ra"= rajas). and so forth.

In Mantra-yana, these Great Five (Go-dai) are also called mandala (rin in

Japanese). The term mandala here symbolizes the"object," the"world" and

the"sphere" of sarva jnana and has a deep relationship with kasina-mandala in

Hinayana Buddhism.

Five shapes (i.e., square, circle, triangle, half-circle, and"drop-shape

(s)") and five colors (yellow, white, red, black, and blue) are assigned to five

mandalas. The squareshape of the prthivr (earth)-mandala is thought to

represent the shape of the foundation of Mt. Sumeru, the circle-shape of the ap

(water)-mandala the round-shape of the lotus flower emerging through the

water, the triangle-shape of the tejas (fire)-mandala the shape of burning fire,

the half-circle shape of the vayu (wind)-mandala the curved-line of a banner

being blown by the wind, and the"drop-shape" of the dkasa (space)-mandala

the shape of the dot called"space" which is marded over the m or h in Sanskrt.

The five colors, i.e., yellow, white, red, black, and blue, represent respectively

Earth, Water, Fire, Wind, and Space.

Taken altogether, the Great Five (Go-dai), five similitudes, five

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significations, five gates of letters, five mandalas of the different shapes, and

five colors, express sarvajnana. In other words, all of them symbolize the state

of sarva jnana, namely the state of enlightenment. And this sarva jnana or

enlightenment itself is called the Great Consciousness (Shiki-dai) or the Great

Mind (Shin-dai) by kukai.

As we have seen before, the verse expressing the five significations of

sarva jnana in the Mahavairocana-sutra begins with the phrase "I am

enlightened that..." This "I am enlightened" and the letter "hum'" which is the

bija-mantra of bodhi-citta (the enlightened mind), and of Vajrasattva in the

Vajrasekhara-sutra are assigned to the Great Consciousness by Kukai.

According to Kukai, "Consciousness (vijnana)," "Wisdom (bodhi)," "Enlightenment (buddha)," and "Mind (citta)" are one and the same.

Kukai explains it in his Significance of Becoming Buddha in This Very

Body (soku-shin jyobutsu gi) in this manner: 256 "I am enlightened" means the Great Consciousness. Should it be seen

from the aspect of cause, regarding the state of apprehending, it may be called "Consciousness," whereas when seen from the aspect of effect, regarding the

state of being apprehended, it may as well be called "Wisdom." "Wisdom" is

also identical with "Enlightenment." The Sanskrt terms buddha and bodhi are

both derived from budh. The buddha is the name given to "Enlightenment,"

while the bodhi is for "Wisdom" attained. So the term samyak-sam-bodhi has

been rendered in the old versions as "universal wisdom (hen-chi)," but in the

new versions it is rendered as "perfect universal enlightenment (to-kaku)." This

is by reason of the fact that the significations of "Enlightenment" and "Wisdom" are fundamentally correlated to each other. And the reason that in

the Mahavairocana-sutra "Consciousness" has been called "Enlightenment" is

for an emphasis on the superior result of enlightenment. Whether we express it

by the term "Consciousness" or "Enlightenment," depends on our approach,

viewing it either as the cause for the attainment of enlightenment or as the

result attained thereby.

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Kukai, further explains the identity between "Consciousness" and "Mind" as follows:

In the Vajra-sekhara-sutra, it has also been said: "All dharmas, are by

their very nature non-origination. Their own very nature (svabhava) transcends

words by far. They are pure and never contaminated by anything. They

operate as the cause of all and are equal to space."2 5 7 What has been said

herein is the same as that which was stated in the. Mahavairocana-sutra. "All

dharmas"here refers to the Dharma of Mind. The Mind and its various qualities

or attributes are countless or innumerable; therefore, they are called "all."

Here we call it "Mind," but it is identical to what we have called "Consciousness," although both, so far as their names are concerned, appear to

be quite different. Thus did Vasubandhu establish his doctrine on vijndna-mdtra

or "Consciousness alone" by the theory of tri-bhava-citta-matra or "Mind alone

exists in the three states in the three worlds (trailokya)." Again in the

Mahavairocana-sutra it has been said : 258 "I, Mahavairocana, am identical with

the state of Mind. I, being free from delusion in every place, pervade all

sentient and. non-sentient beings..." This "Mind" here is vijnana /nana

(Consciousness Wisdom), namely "Great Consciousness (Shikidai)."

In the "revealed" Buddhism, the five great existences (go-dai) are usually

considered to be the corporeal substantialities and non-sentient beings; and the

element of consciousness (shiki-dai) is the spiritual function and sentient

beings; and the great six elements (roku-dai) deemed the generating, namely

the active subject, and all existences produced by roku-dai the generated,

namely the passive object.

Contrariwise,* Shingon Buddhism asserts that the Great Five (Go-dai) are

the samaya (symbol) of tathagata. In the truth of tathata (such-ness) there is

no differentiation between "mind and matter," between "subject and object,"

and between "the active and the passive", and the Great Six (Roku-dai)

symbolize the "essence of Dharma-dhatu (hokkai-taisho)."

KUkai explains this in this manner: 2 5 9

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In the "revealed" Buddhism, earth, water, fire, wind, etc., are considered

non-sentient beings; whereas with the "secret" doctrine, these are indeed

deemed the symbol (samaya) of tathagata. These Great Five (Go-dai) exist

without being separated from the Great Mind (Shin-dai). Though there are

differences recognisable between mind and matter, yet their essential nature is

that they are one and the same. The matter is but mind, and the mind is indeed

the matter: Between the two there is no hindrance nor any barrier to separate

one from the other. Wisdom which is subjective is the sphere for that which is

objective, therefore the sphere is indeed wisdom. Likewise wisdom which is

cognitive is indeed the essential principle for that which is cognizable, and the

essential principle is indeed wisdom; both. interacting with each other

unrestrictedly and unimpededly. Although from an ordinary standpoint one

can discriminate between the two as though one were the generating and the

other the generated, yet in reality they are of but one generation, the former

only being viewed through aspect of activity while the latter of passivity. How

can there be any such thing as the generating or the generated with each other

confronting the other in the truth of tathata? Both terms, i.e., the active,

namely the generating, and the passive, namely the generated, are the "secret"

terms of tathagata; therefore, man should not, by clinging to the ordinary way

of thinking, debate about these "secret" terms with trifling and fruitless

arguments. Entire truths as the generating and the generated are nothing but

the Great Six (Roku-dai). Therefore, the Buddha has expounded on Roku-dai

as the "Essence of Dharma-dhdtu (hokkai-tai-sho)."

In short, "Roku-dai is the symbol of tathagata" and "Roku-dai is the

symbol of the Essence of Dharma-dhatu." These two conclusive religious

statements by Kukai are consistent. with each other.

The first Roku-dai indicates each single symbol of Earth, Water, Fire,

Wind, Space, and Consciousness or Mind; and the second Roku-dai the symbol

of Earth, Water, Fire, Wind, Space, and Consciousness or Mind, as a whole: In

other words, the second Roku-dai is what we call "a compound symbol."


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Kukai's -interpretation of Roku-dai has to some extent quite a

philosophical tinge. Even the term hokkai-tai-sho meaning literally the "substantial nature of the Dharrna-world" conveys ontological and cosmo-

logical meanings. However, here Roku-dai should not be apprehended in those

meanings. In Shingon Buddhism, the Wisdom of Mahavairocana Buddha, i.e.,

Dharma-kaya (the personified Dharma), is termed the "Wisdom of hokkai-

tai-sho"; therefore, hokkai-tai-sho is identical with Mahavairocana Buddha or

Dharma-kaya. Accordingly Roku-dai is the symbol of Mahavairocana

Buddha or Dharma-Kaya. Mahavairocana Buddha is the adi-Buddha, that is, a

primary buddha. All tathagatas are generated from and reverted to

Mahavairocana. Mahaairocana transcends all tathagatas and involves them as

well. Therefore, the religious signification of the two statements of Roku-dai is

that each single roku-dai is the symbol of tathagata and what is* symbolized

by Roku-dai as a whole is that which transcends and involves all tathagatas and

all oppositions such as "mind and matter," "subject and object," and "the

active and the passive": -- namely Mahavairocana Buddha or Dharma-kaya.

To elucidate the signification of Roku-dai as a compound religious

symbol, Kukai versifies and expounds as follows: 260

The Great Six (Roku-dai) are all pervasive (rouge)

And perpetually (jya) correspond together (yuga).

Those which are symbolized by each Roku-dai are all pervasive, each

permeating one another, and are all constant and unchanging, each existing

ever the same and in unlimited vastness. "All pervasive (muge. skt. apratihata)"

here means that they (those which are symbolized by each Roku-dai) are all in

their essential nature ever permeating one another with nothing to impede

them and are ever free. And the word "perpetually (jyo)" means that they are

all ever immovable and undestructible. Yuga, Yoga in Sanskrt, is rendered "mutual correspondence." Yuga here signifies "soku (just as it is)" in the

phrase "soku-shin-jyobutsu," or the "realization of Buddhahood in the body of

man just as it is."

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Roku-dai is neither elements nor existences; therefore, this verse does not

mean that the six elements or existences (roku-dai) correspond mutually

without resistance. In Shingon Buddhism, each single Roku-dai is the symbol

of tathagata, and Roku-dai as a whole is the symbol of entire tathagatas, i.e.,

Mahavairocana Buddha. Therefore, this. verse would be interpreted like this:

The dynamic omnipresence of all tathagatas symbolized by each of the

Roku-dai enters everywhere without hindrance; and all tathagatas correspond


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perpetually with one another. This is the "substantial nSture of Dharma-world

(hokkai-tai-sho)," namely Mahavairocana or Dharma-kaya symbolized by

Roku-dai as a whole; and to experience or realize this state just as it is (soku) in

one's body is called "Becoming Buddha in This Very Body."

The symbol-system of Shingon Buddhism does not exist without

concreteness. To approach enlightenment without a concrets, perceptible

symbol is not easy for ordinary man. This is the reason why Buddhism in the

course of its evolution has adopted various concrete and perceptible tantric

symbols in his own system.

As we have seen already, in the Mahavairocana-sutra, sarva jnana (perfect

wisdom) is represented in five mandalas with five different shapes, i.e., square,

circle, triangle, half circle, and drop-shape. Shingon Buddhism, adopting this

concrets symbol-expression, represents the symbol of Roku-dai with the

five-storied stupa.

In Japan, we can see the following frames in any grave-yard, temple-yard

or cemetery, especially iri that of Mt. Koya.

These frames are usually made of stone or wood, and have various shapes

and sizes. The frames made of stone are usually called go-rin-to (the five-storied

stupa). They are grave-stones set up to the memory of the departed, and

usually one's ashes or remains are placed in it. The frames made of wood are

usually simply called toba (stupa), which are usually erected on the memorial

day of the departed. The gorin-to or toba consists of five-storied shapes, from

the bottom to top, square, circle, triangle, half-circle, and drop-shape, and on

the front of which, five Siddham letters, (-"A", (4) "Va", (q) "Ra", (A) "Ha", and (A) "Kha" are engraved or written. These five-storied shapes and

letters represent respectively the symbols of Earth, Water, Fire, Wind, and

Space, and the whole gorin-to or toba symbolizes the Great Consciousness

(Shiki-dai). On the back side of the grave-stone or wooden monument, the

letter (4) "Van" is engraved or written. The letter "Vain" is the bija-mantra

of Dharma-dhatu. Therefore, the whole of the frame represents the Great Six

(Roku-dai) and at the same time symbolizes the Dharma-dhatu.

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Soon after the death of Kukai, Roku-dai as a compound symbol of

Dharma-kaya was reinterpreted as the substantial elements. Roku-dai Engi

(sad-maha-bhutani pratitya-samutpada), that is, that all existences arise from

causation based on the Great Six (Roku-dai), was interpreted and accepted by

the people as "all spiritual and corporeal existences are generated from and

resolved into six great elements (roku-dai). "

Consequently, from the Kamakura-Period (1192-1333) onwards, to make

oblations in order to promote the happiness of the souls of the dead or to help

the dead attain deliverance from the miseries of reincarnation, many

five-storied stupas were erected as grave-stones or as grave-posts.

CHAPTER VII,

MANDARA, THE UNIFYING SYMBOL

FOR THE MANIFESTATION OF

DHARMA-KAYA

The most important and essential symbol in Shingon Buddhism is

Mandala (Japanese, Mandara). According to KUkai, better known as Kobo

Daishi, Shingon-mikkyo (Shingon, the "secret" doctrine) is Himitsu-mandara-

kyo (the "secret" Mandala doctrine); hence, Mandala is a synonym for

Shingon. And "the Shingon mandala is a picture, a layout, or a map depicting

the secret doctrine, which is that of Dharrnakaya Mahavairocana. 1261 In other

words, mandala is the synthetic symbol of all other symbols in Shingon

Buddhism.

Shingon Buddhism has two major Mandalas called Mahd-karund-

garbhodbhava-mandala literally meaning the "mandala generated (udbhava) from the womb (garbha) of great compassion (maha-karund)" and

Vajra-dhatu-maha-mandala literally meaning the "great mandala (maha-

mandala) of the adamanine world (vajra-dhatu)" The former is based on the


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Mahavairocana-sutra which belongs to the group of Carya-tantra, and

commonly called Garbha-mandala (Japanese, Taizo-mandaaa). The latter is

based on the so-called Vajra-sekhara-sutra (the exact title: Sarva-tattagata-

tattva-sarhgraham nama mahayana-sutra which belongs to the group ofYoga-tantra, and is called Vajra-dhdtu-mandala (Japanese, Kongo-kai mandara).

Both mandalas are "the schematic drawings" of the entire system of

Mantra-ydna based on Carya and Yoga-tantras and of Shingon Buddhism based

on Mantra-yana as well2 62

The use of mandala is not peculiar to, Mantra-yana and Shingon

Buddhism. Use of mandala is made in Hinduism and in the Japanese Buddhist

sects other than the Shingon sect and even in Shintoic religions.

Giuseppe Tucci, in his book The Theory and Practice of the Mandala,

says;

... Still, although the examples on which we have mainly relied... are all

inspired by Buddhism, that does not mean the other religious schools of

India do not know mandalas. Indeed, much use of them is made in

Hinduism, for instance in the Saiva School of Kashir...

In Hinduism, however, yantras, purely linear designs expressing the

same principles, are usually substituted for mandalas.... It is clear... that

a yantra represents, in its essential plan, the linear paradigm of a

mandala. 2 6.3

Religions in Japan have various "Japanized" mandalas. The mandalas

which are called judo-hen (literally, transformation to Pure Land) are all

Nipponic modifications of mandala influenced by the Pure Land belief, among

which the mandalas of Chiko, Taima, and Seikai are most famous. The

Nichiren Sect has a mandala called Jikkai (literally, the mandala of the ten

worlds) and even the Nichiren Sho-Shu (Soka Gakkai) has a mandala which is

commonly called Ita (board)-mandala.

The mandalas of Kasuga (Kasuga Shrine), Hie-sanno (Hie Shrine), Ikoma

(Ikoma Shrine), Kakinomoto-miya (Kakinomoto Shrine), Mii (Mii Temple),

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Kasagi (Kasagi Temple), and Iwashimizu-or Otokoyama-hachiman (the

Bodhisattva Hachiman, a deification of the Emperor Ojin, of Otokoyama),

etc.,264 are all syncretistic mandalas of Shintoism and Buddhism. This

syncretism is based on the theory of honji-suijaku, i.e., that the Shinto kami

are manifestations or incarnations (suijaku) of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas, and

on the Japanese manner of the acceptance of mandala.

On the system of "Mandala," Dr. Suzuki says, ...

look ... at their elaborate systems of "Mandala," by means of which they

try to explain the universe. No Chinese or Japanese mind would have

conceived such an intricate net-work of philosophy without being

influenced. by Indian thought.2 6 s

What Dr. Suzuki says is quite right, but the common people of Japan

were unconcerned with its "elaborate system" and its "intricate net-work of

philosophy." They received "Mandala" with a tender senteiment and believed

that it was the gathering of deities centered about a main deity or primary

religious object and the happiest harmony to be achieved in the coming or in

this present world. Therefore, from the Kamakura period onwards, numerous

mandalas have been produced by Shinto, Jodo, Jodo-shin, Zen, Nichiren, and

even by Sokagakkai in the twentieth century.

The symbolic pattern of the mandala is not limited to the mandala

proper of oriental religions, but "the mandala is both an imago mundi and a

symbolic pantheon"; 266 hence, we can see similar patterns in historical

religions. "Mandala" is not only an object of Religionswissenshaft, but a central

concern of depth psychology. The whole system of Jungian psychology

consists of the deep interpretation of mandala-symbols. Jacobi, the most

experienced author among Jung's Zurich circle, asserts,

.. Today... they [the mandala-symbols] belong to a most important

domain of psychological experience which he [Jung] discloses to those

who entrust themselves to his guidance. 2 6 7

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Truly, the study of "Mandala" is a vast field in itself. In the case of our

mandala proper, that is, the garbha-and vajra-dhatu-mandalas, if we tried to

explain them fully, we would need over one hundred pages. Therefore, we

must confine ourselves to the symbol-system of "Mandala and mandala" in

Shingon Buddhism, and shall survey briefly the historical formation of the

symbol mandala, then discuss, as a finishing touch of Part II, the relationship

betweenMandala and other essential symbols in Shingon Buddhism.

1. Historical Formation of the Symbol Mandala

Similar to the case of the symbol Samaya, the historical formation of the

symbol Mandala can be seen in the transformation of the meaning of the term

mandala. "Term" is defined as "a word or a group of words serving as the

specific name of something, especially in a special field"; therefore, if this "something" and/or "field" were qualitatively transformed, the meaning of the

term is, as a matter of course, altered. When various "held-objects" of deities

became cihan-mudra (sign-symbol) and were called samaya, the term samaya

which has, "ideally,at least, one and only meaning" becomes the term which

has "a wide variety of meanings." In other words, the term samaya of the sign

situation in which the definitional meaning proponderates became the term

samaya of the symbol situation in which the contextual meaning proponde-

rates.268

In the case of the term Mandala we can see clearly the alteration of the

meaning between the terms used in Pre-Mantrayana and in Mantrayan.

The alteration from the sign-term mandala to the symb olterm mandala

indicates as such the historical process of the formation of the symbol

Mandala. And, as we have seen already, when a concrete sign-symbol

(cihna-mudra) had been called samaya, the sign-term samaya was etymological-

ly reinterpreted and, having a wide variety of meanings, became a symbol-term

samaya, and the symbol-system of "Samaya and samaya" was for-mulated. In

the case of the symbol-system of "Mandala and Mandalas," we can see the

same pattern.

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a) The term mandala used in Pre-Mantrayana

Several usages of the term mandala existed in Pre- Mantrayana. In the

Ig-veda, the term is used to indicate a "division" or "section" of the writings.

Thus some of the hymns are divided into ten parts, according to its authorship,

and each part is called a "mandala."

In the great Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, which in its present form was

probably knit together by several writers between the fourth century B.C. and

the fourth century A.D.,2 69 it designates a "surrounding district" or "neighboring state, the "circle of a king's near and distant neighbors with

whom he must maintain political and diplomatic relations." Also in Kautilya's

Arthasastra, it, being called the raja (king)- mandala, 2 7 ° indicates the "circle of

states," or "political circle of neighbors."

Heinrich Zimmer treats mandala in his book Philosophies of India as "Political Geometry" in this manner:

Britain's balance of power policy will serve to introduce another of

the basic principles of the Indian Arthasastra, that of the mandala, or

political circle of neighbors....

This remarkable game of weights and counterweights is one that

was taken very seriously by the ancient kings and princes of India....

The principal Hindu formula for the arrangement of foreign

alliances and coalitions ' is based on a pattern of concentric rings of

natural enemies and allies. Each king is to regard his own realm as

located at the center of a kind of target, surrounded by "rings"

(mandalas) which represent, alternately, his natural enemies and his

natural allies. The second ring then is that of his natural friends,...

Then beyond is a ring of remoter danger, interesting primarily as

supplying reinforcement to the enemies directly at hand. Furthermore,

within each ring are subdivisions signigying mutual natural animosities;

for- since each kingdom has its own mandala, an exceedingly complicated

set of stresses and cross-stresses must be understood to exist. 271


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It can be hypothetically assumed that the idea of "mandala" in

Mantra-yana has had a close relationship with the science of policy of ancient

India 2 72 as explained in Kantilya's Arthasastra and the Mahabharata, because

both writings were to be regarded with high reverence by the Hindu as great

authorities on religious, moral and social matters. 273 This relationship is also

illustrated in the mandala because "the figures of the Buddha shown on a

mandala often wear mantles and royal tiaras," and the "paradises of the

different Buddhas are known as Buddhaksetra, that is 'kingdoms of

Buddha'."2 74

In the early Buddhist scriptures, the term mandala is used in the sense of

a "circle," for instance, in Visuddhi Magga written by Upadesa, ten sorts of

kasina-mandala are explained. Kasina, the meditation of "universals" is the

name for one of the meditational practices used in Hinayana Buddhism, and it

is called kammatthana (skt. karma-sthana), the "basis of action." It is a process

by which meditation may be induced. We have already discussed the

kasina-mandala (circle of "universals"), in the previous chapter. In

Anathapindana- sreshthi-duhitri-paritranaprapta-nidana-sutra (sutra spoken by

Buddha on the Primary Cause in the conversion of the daughter of the

distinguished Anatha-pindana) translated by Sh'hu in the later Sun Dynasty,

who arrived in China in 980 A.D., there is a sentence like this: "That good and

harmless daughter makes a mandala (mandalam karoti) with the beautiful

flowers." In this case the term mandala also means a "circle," in particular, a

garland.

In the Mahavyutpatti: (Tib. Bye-brag-tu rtogs-byed-chenpo), Sanskrt-

Tibetan Buddhist Dictionary, the following seven usages of the term mandala

in the "revealed" Buddhism are stated:

1) prithu-caru-mandala gatra (literally, large beloved mandala-body), that

is, one of thirty two noble signs of Buddha. Here, the term mandala indicates "well-rounded" or "bland." Its Tibetan translation is bzan-ba which means

"beautiful.' 275

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2) tri-mandala-parisuddha (literally, three mandala perfect-pure-ness)

meaning the perfect pure-ness of the three: giving, a giver, and a receiver. Here,

the term mandala indicates "that which surrounds" the three. Its Tibetan

translation is hkor. 276

3) mukha-mandala i.e., "face" or "face-orb." Here, the tern mandala

indicates "orb" or "round circle," because the face is round. Its Tibetan

translation is hkhor-lo meaning a "wheel.' 277

4) janu-mandala, i.e., "knee" or "knee-pan." Here, the term mandala is

round one, i.e., pan. Its Tibetan translation is lha-n* a, knee-pan. 278

5) sarva-mara-mandala-vidhvamsana-jnana-mudra (literally, all-enemy-

mandala-destroy-wisdom-sign) meaning the "name of the hand gesture or the

sign which destroys the siege of all enemy." In this case the term mandala

indicates a "circle" of the enemy. Its Tibetan translation is dkyil-hkhor. 279

6) sarva-vantam-parsan-mandala (literally, all-grouppersons-mandala)

meaning "all groups of assembly." In this case the term mandala denotes "group" or "assembly," that is, "circles" of persons. Its Tibetan translation is

dkyil-hkhor. 280

7) samddhi-mandala (literally, concentration-mandala) meaning a place

for meditation. In this case the term mandala is a "platform" or "terrace" or "altar." Its Tibetan translation is dkyil-hkhor. 281

From the above, we recognize that the term mandala indicates (1) "circle," "that which surrounds"; (2) "round circle," "circular objects"; (3)

"group of people"; and (4) "place, especially sacred place or spot." 2 82 And at

the same time we note that the term mandala is almost always translated into

Tibetan as dkhil-hkhor, or hkhor.

The Tibetan term dkyil-hkhor is used with the following meanings:

1) circle, circumference, 2) figure, 3) a circle of objects, 4) the area of a

circle; disk; globe, 5) region, sphere; surroundings; suburb, and 6) it is

especially used as the equivalent of the Sanskrt term mandala, the sacred

objects for worship and for practice in Tibetan Buddhism. 283


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The Tibetan term dkyil means "the middle," its equivalents in Tibetan

terms are dbus or mthil, which means 1) bottom, 2) inner or lower part of a

thing, 3) the background, and 4) the center, the principal or chief part. Its

Sanskrt equivalent is madhya which means "the middle."

The term hkhor generally has the following meanings: 1) a wheel, 2)

circle, 3) circumference, 4) the persons or objects encircling, and 5) that which

surrounds (a certain point or place).

In short, the term mandala itself means a "circle," and in Pre-

Mantrayana, the term according to its contextual usage, indicates the

condition, quality, or quantity of that what is "circular."

b) The term mandala in Mantrayana

From the time of the completion of the sutras, such as the

Suvarnaprabhasa translated by Dharmaksena (Chin. T'an-wu-ch'an) (d. 433

A.D.) and the Kuan-fo san-mei hai-ching translated by Buddhabhadra in the early fifth century, onwards, synthesization of symbols took place concur-

rently with the appearance of the symbols, such as mudra and samaya. We can

see the prototype of the five dhyani (meditation) Buddhas, i.e., Sakyamuni

Buddha (center), Aksobhya (east), Ratnaketu (south), Amitayus (west) and

Dundubhisvara (north), in these two sutras. 284 Then, in the Mahavairocana-sutra, Mahavairocana Buddha is regarded as a

primordial symbol which synthesized all symbols, and, centering upon Him, centrifugal symbols (Skt. pravrtti i.e., descen ding upaya), and centripetal

symbols (Skt. Nivrtti i, e., descending upaya) are systematized and actually figured. To this figuration the term mandala is assigned. The term, then, starts

to have new significations.

Just as we have seen in the interpretaion of the term samaya, the term

mandala also is interpreted in the basis of its original etymology.

The Sanskrt term mandala is composed of the two parts, "manda" and

"la." "Manda" means "the scum of boiled rice" or "the thick part of milk,

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cream," or "the spirituous part of wine," or "foam on froth," and also it

means "essence" or "the head." The suffix -la in Sanskrt like the suffix -mat,

or -vat denotes "possession" or "accomplishment." 285

Therefore, in Mantra-yana, the interpretations of the term mandala have

been given as follows:

The Tibetan version of the Mahavairoeana-sutra states that manila

denotes 'essence,' and la is 'achievement.' Achievement of this essence is

Mandala.286 Then, Buddha-guhya (the eighth century A.D.) comments on the

above sentence in this manner:

This 'essence' is bodhi, enlightenment, and achieving bodhi is

mandala. 2 s 7

Sakya-mitra, who made a commentary on Tattva-sarhgraha (the

Vajra-sekhara-sutra), in the seventh century A.D. says: "Manda" means "essence" and it is like the essence of strong spirituous liquor. Here, ultimate

enlightenment (anuttara-samyak-sath-bodhi) is the essence and to attain (-la) it

is mandala. Therefore, mandala means attaining ultimate enlightenment 288

This interpretation of the term mandala continued on to Tantric

Buddhism based on the group of Uttara-yoga-tantra.

In the Hevajra-tantra, which was compiled in its form by the end of the

eighth century A.D., Mandala is explained in this manner:

... Then Vajragarbha, begging all the yoginis to have patience, addressed

the Lord: May the mandala be called a stronghold, which is the essence

of all buddhas? Tell me Lord, just how things are, for doubt assails me.

The Lord replied: 'The mandala is the very essence, we say; it is

bodhicitta and the great bliss itself.... 289

Naropa (1016-1100 A.D.) also says, Manda means essence and la to

accept it. "290

When the term mandala, being separated into manda (Tib. spin-po, i.e., "essence")and la (possession or accomplishment), was interpreted as the

"possession or accomplishment of bodhi (i.e., enlightenment)," the term


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mandala was no more the sign-term having, "ideally at least, one and only

meaning," that is, a "circle," but it is the symbol-term having "a wide variety

of meanings." That which is indicated by the term mandala is Mandala which is

approached through and symbolized by mandala.

Also the historical formation of the symbol Mandala (Manda-la) can be

reinterpreted by focusing on "Manda (Bodhi)-la (possession)" like this: 2 91

Sakyamuni Buddha attained enlightenment under the so-called Bodhi-

tree at Buddhagaya in Magadha. Therefore this special spot at which the

Buddha got enlightenment (bodhi) was called Bodhi-manda or Bodhi-mandala.

Later on, not only this special spot, but all sacred places and the places of

practice at which enlightenment can be attained or approached came to be

called Mandala.

Saying that the sacred place, altar, or the place of practice is itself

Mandala is not sufficient. In this place Buddha s. and Bodhisattvas should be

assembled. Therefore, since the time of the Mon-li-man-tu-to-chou-thing

translated in the Lian Dynasty (502-557), the images of Buddha and

Bodhisattva have been placed at these sacred places. Consequently the term

mandala came to signify the "assembly" of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas.

Subhakara-simha (Chin. Shan-wu-wei) who arrived in China in 716 A.D.,

therefore, says in the Commentary of Mahavairocana-sutra Vol. 4, "Mandala is

named 'assembly,' because all tathagatas are gathered together with true merits

at the sacred spot." 2 92

Now, the four meanings of the term mandala have been brought forward,

i.e., (1) attainment of bodhi, (2) sacred place or altar, (3) place of practice, and

(4) assembly. And the last three meanings have been unified into the first

meaning of the "attainment of enlightenment." In other words, as the religious

symbol, the term mandala symbolizes the state and place of enlightenment in

which millions of virtues assemble.

Concurrently with the formation of the symbol Mandala, the figuration

or objectification of Mandala took place, and that which is objectified as a

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meditational tool, or that which is constructed or painted on the ground or on

a cloth has been called mandala. Here, "Mandala and mandala" are formulated.

Buddhaguhya (the eight century A.D.) classifies "Mandala and mandala"

into three types: 293

(1) Self-nature (svabhjva)Manda1a

(2) Meditative Mandala

(3) Concrete and material mandala "Svabhava means literally the "own-nature," "self-substance," or

"unchanging character of anything"; therefore, Svabhava :Mandala is Bodhi

itself. In other words, it is tathata.

The Tibetan Great Yogi, Milarepa, sings thus:294

... For the Mandala of the Thatness,

Appearances external and the mind are one;

Shatter then your theory of duality.

Svabhava-mandala cannot be objectified, because it is beyond the subject-

object dichotomy. It isMandala itself, i.e., Bodhi itself.

In the case of the Meditational Mandala, all phenomenal existences are

meditated as Mandala. In other words, all symbols represented by the

three-secrets of Dharma-kaya, that is, mudras (kaya guhya), mantras (vac-

guhya), and samayas (manns guhya), are considered the Meditational Mandala.

The concrete and material mandala is mandala proper, that is, the

constructed or pictured mandala as a synthesis or a unification of all symbols.

These three classification of "Mandala and mandala" show the historical

process from Mandala to mandala.

In summary, the historical formation of "Mandala and mandala" is based

on two processes, that is, one is the process from the sign-term mandala to the

symbol-term mandala, and the other the process from Mandala to mandala.

2. Mandala, the Unifying Symbol for the Manifestation of

Dha rma-kaya


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a) The four kinds of "Mandala and mandala"

The Sam-mitsu (Skt. tri guhya, i.e., three secrets) of Mahavairocana

Buddha (or Dharma-kaya) is delineated by the phrase "sam-mujin sogon,"

literally "three limitless or in-exhaustible glories (alamkara)." Because the

activities of the Sam-rnitsu are limitless or endless, the manifestations of it are

immeasurable- or inexhaustible, and these activities or manifestations of the

Sam-mitsu are apprehended as glories or adornments (alamkara).

This "sam-mujin sogon" is denoted by the term mandala and symbolized

by the four kinds of "Mandala and mandala":

The kaya guhya (secret of body) of Dharma-kaya, being expressed by the

maha-mandala, is actually delineated with maha-mudras (bodily postures) of

tathagatas on paper or on cloth. The kaya guhya of Dharma-kaya is

Maha Mandala, and its actual figuration, that is, the mandala on which the

figures of various tathagatas are pictured is called maha-mandala.

The vac guhya (secret of speech) of Dharma-kaya is Dharma Mandala,

whose actual figuration with dharma-mudras is dharma-mandala, on which

shingons, especially bija-mantras are %written.

The manas guhya (secret of mind) of Dharma-kaya is Samaya Mandala,

whose actual figuration with samayas or cihna-mudras (sign-symbols) is

samaya-mandala, on which held-objects, such as lotus flowers, vajra, sword,

wheel, etc., are pictured.

The activities or manifestations (Karma) through the three secrets

(tri guhya) of Dharma-kaya is Karma Mandala', whose cubic delineation with

karma-mudras (the symbol of action) is called karma-mandala, which is a

constructed mandala with various images or held-objects, either casted or

moulded, of tathagatas. Karma Mandala is the symbol of the activities or

manifestations of Dharma-kaya as such, namely the symbol of tathata

(such-ness) of Sam-mitsu.

According to Kukai, any and every dharma (sarva-dharma), whether

mundane or supra-mundane, is Dharma Mandala; any and every sentient being

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is Maha Mandala; any and every thing contained in the Vessel (i.e., the

Universe) is Samaya Mandala; and sarva-karma (entire actions) are Karma-

Mandala.2 9 5

Therefore, these four kinds of Mandala symbolize each Sam-mitsu and

Sam-mitsu as a whole.

The four kinds of Mandala, that is, Maha-, Samaya-, Dharma-, and

Karma Mandala, are called respectively MahaJnanaMudra, Samaya-Jnana-

Mudra, Dharma-Jnana Mudra, and Karma-Jnana-Mudra. These four Mudras

(Symbols) are connected to the four kinds of mudra classified in the

Vajrasekhara-sutra, which we have explored in"Mudra and mudra" therefore,

here, the symbol-systems"Maha Jnana Mudra maha Jnana-mudra," and so

forth, are formulated.

The four kinds of mandala, that is, the objectified, tangible, or actually

figured mandalas are, as a matter of.course, connected to the four Mandalas

and formulate the symbol-systems"Maha Mandala maha-mandala," "Samaya Mandala I Samaya-mandala," and so forth.

Amogavaj ra (705-774), the sixth master in the lineage of the"secret"

Buddhism, says,"all mandalas. of yoga are included in the four kinds of

mandala."2 9 6

The mandala of yoga denotes the mandala which is objectified or

actually figured for the purpose of the practice of yoga, and the mandala by

which yogi or yogin may be united (yoga) with Mandala.

b) Mandala, the unifying symbol for the manifestation of Dharma-

kaya.

The four kinds of Mandala are nothing but the Mandalas which

symbolize the adamantine (vajra) play (vikridita) of Dharma-kaya from its four

aspects, i.e., karma guhya, vac guhya, manas guhya, and tri guhya as a whole.

Therefore, the four kinds of Mandala are primarily inseparable. In otherwords,

in the truth of tathata, the four kinds of Mandala are embodied by one and

only one Mandala, that is, the unifying symbol for each and all Sam-mitsu of


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Dharma-kaya.

To elucidate the signification of Mandala as the unifying symbol, Kukai

versifies,"The four kinds of Mandala are inseparable one from the other."29 7

Then he expounds in this manner: 298

The four kinds of Mandala, or the four kinds of Jnana Mudra

(Wisdom-Symbol), are innumerable. Each of them, all permeating one another

throughout the whole universe, fusing together and intermingling with one

another, is in itself of vast expanse. Each one is never apart from the other so

much as the spacious sky sets no barrier for the light to shine forth

therethrough."Inseparability" here indicates"soku (just as it is)" in the phrase "soku-shin jyobutsu," or the"realization of Buddhahood in the body of man

just as it is."

As in the case of Roku-dai, to experience or realize this state just as it is

(soku) in one's body is called"Becoming Buddha in This Very Body."

The Significance of Becoming Buddha in This Very Body written by

KUkai consists of three main themes: Roku-dai, four kinds of Mandala, and

Sam-mitsu. It is explained that the pervasiveness (muge) of Roku-dai is the

Essence of Dharma-kaya, the inseparability (furi) of the four kinds of Mandala

the manifestation of Dharma-kaya, and the communion (kaji) of Sam-mitsu the

function of Dharma-kaya; and, to realize this Essence, Manifestation, and

function of Dharma-kaya just as they are is"Becoming Buddha in This Very

Body."

To sum up, Mandala is the unifying symbol for the manifestation of

Dharma-kaya, and consequently mandala is the unifying symbol of all concrete

or perceptible symbols.

It may safely be said that the symbol-system of"Mandala and mandala"

is the organization and systematization of all other symbol-systems. Centering

on Mahavairocana Buddha, all symbols, being arranged centrifugally and

centripetally, show the two-fold upaya, that is, the descending and ascending

approach. Mandala, that is, the attainment (-la) of enlightenment (manda) is

delineated just as it is by mandala.

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This systematically organized symbol-system of "Mandala and mandala"

does -not appear in the group of Kriya-tantra, but it is first elucidated in the Mahavairocana-sutra (Carya-tantra group) and in the Vajrasekhara-sutra

(Yoga-tantra group). Therefore, in Japan, the "secret" Buddhism based on these two scriptures, being called the "pure secret" doctrine (Jum-mitsu), is

differentiated from the "miscellaneous" doctrine (Z-mitsu) which has no

symbol-system of "Mandala and mandala."

SUMMARY

In the first part of this paper, the historical formation of the particular

symbol Shingon was examined in two fields: that is, in India, and in East Asia.

The main theme of the first Chapter was the process of the symbolic formation

of mantra to Mantra in India. In the second Chapter two main themes were

pursued, one was the transformational process from mantra to shingon in East Asia, and the other the formation of the symbol-system "Shingon and

shingon" based on its transformation.

Mantras (holy formulas or magic spells), which had been widely used

among the people from the time of Rg-veda, were adopted into the system of

early Buddhism under the names of paritta (protection) and vidyd (know-

ledge).

In Mahayana Buddhism, the term dharani (entire support), which

connotes power, was applied to some spells, and a great number of dharani

were produced by the time of Nagarjuna. In the period of the Yogacara school

(ca. 4th century A.D.), some mantras, being endowed with the function of dhdranfs, were called mantra-dharani, and soon the actuall differentiation between mantra and dharani disappeared.

Due to the rise; of Tantrism, mantras emerged as an important factor in

Buddhism. Then, in the Mahavairocana-sutra, mantra, being thought of as

Mantrata, was identified with Dharmatd, and became the particular symbol


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Mantra. One who approaches Mantra through the gate of mantra was called a "Bodhisattva who practises the discipline of the Bodhisattva through the gate

of mantra." The symbol-system"Mantra and mantra" was formulated. Both

adhisthana and upaya were basic and constituent elements of this symbol-

system. Here, Mantra-yana came into being as a religion.

Mantras and dharanis which have their cradle, growth or development on

Hindu soil were after all a foreign or a strange product to the East Asian

people. The exotic nature of mantra and dharani greatly attracted people; and

the incomprehensibility of them had a magico-soteriological function for the

people.

In the course of time, mantras and dharanis have undergone the process

of Sino-J apanization; they have gone through the process of selection; the

sound-theory of mantra, which had occupied a most important domain in -India, was undervalued, and the meaning of mantra was emphasized instead.

Mantra-yana was introduced into China by Subhakara-simha (637-735),

and Vajra-bodhi (671-741). Owing to support by the court and to the religious

activities of I-hsing (687-727) and Amoghavajra (705-774), this imported

Mantra-yana flourished in China as Chen-yen or Mi-tsung in the eighth and

early ninth century,

This Chen-yen or Mi-tsung was, so to speak, a. religious school ranked

with T'ien-t'ai or Hua-yen. In Chen-yen or Mi-tsung,, the particular

symbol-system"Chen yen and chen yen" was not formulated.

The symbol-system of"Mantra and mantra" was transmitted through

Hui-kou (747-805) to Kukai (774-835). And by KUkai the symbol-system "Shingon and shingon" was formulated; and a religion called Shingon was

founded in Japan.

According to Kukai, shingon is vac guhya (the secret of speech), one of

the three secrets of Dharma-kaya; and Shingon the three secrets as a whole. In

other words, Shingon is the whole of the activities or manifestations of

Sam-mitsu of Dharma-kaya, namely Mandala; and shingon is a part of

Sam-mitsu. This symbol-system was, as a matter of course, not identical with

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that of"Mantra and mantra." It was a distinctive symbol-system of Shingon

Buddhism.

Shingon Buddhism has several particular symbols or symbol-systems

beside"Shingon and shingon." To elucidate some of these"several" to a

necessary extent was the purpose of PART II. In PART I, the search had

focused upon the historical process of the formation of the symbol-systems,

however, in PART II the discussion accentuated the structure of the

symbol-systems.

Firstly, the fact that religious experience necessarily demands and

receives symbolic expressions by itself was stated. (Chapter III); and secondly,

the truth and function of religious symbols were discussed in connection with

kaji (adhisthdna), adhimukti and sraddha, and upaya. (Chapter IV).

Thirdly, the symbol-systems of"Mudra and mudra,""Samaya and

samaya," and Sam-mitsu were discussed respectively as kaya guhya of

Sam-mitsu, manas guhya of Sam-mitsu, and as the compound symbol of the

faculties of Dharma-kaya; and Gosh in-bb was described as a concrete example

of the symbol of Sam-mitsu. (Chapter V).

Fourthly, the historical formation of the symbol Rokudai was surveyed;

and Roku-dai was discussed as a compound symbol of the essence of

Dharma-dhatu. (Chapter VI). Lastly, the historical formation of the symbol

Mandala was pursued from the two processes, i.e., the process from the

sign-term mandala to the symbol-term mandala and the process from Mandala

to mandala; then, the four kinds of"Mandala and mandala" and Mandala were

discussed respectively as the symbol of each of the Sam-mitsu and Sam-mitsu

as a whole and as theunifying symbol for the manifestation of Dharma-kaya.

What we have examined in PART II is the symbol-systems of Sam' mitsu,

Roku-dai, and Mandala. These three particular symbols or symbol-systems in

Shingon Buddhism constitute the path to be walked toward the final goal of "Becoming Buddha in This Very Body (soku-shin jyobutsu)." This is Shingon

Buddhism.


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As the following illustration will show, each symbol-system of Shingon

Buddhism is composed of double symbols, i.e., one is. the primary symbol, and

the other the secondary, practical symbol. Shingon, Mu.dra, Samaya,

Sam-mitsu, Roku-dai, and Mandala are the primary symbols. They are what we

have called abstract, essential, or verbal symbols. Contrariwise, shingon, mudra,

samaya, sam-mitsu, roku-dai, and mandala are the secondary, practical

symbols, which are what we have called concrete, perceptible, or tangible

symbols.

These double symbols correlate with each other, and are inseparable one

from the other. For instance, Samaya and samaya correlate with each other as

Samaya samaya, and there is no symbol Samaya separate from the symbol

samaya

This structure of double symbols, i.e., Shingon -1 shingon, Mudra

mudra, Samaya samaya, Sam-mitsu sam-mitsu, Roku-dai - roku-dai and

Mandala mandala is a distinctive feature of the symbol system of Shingon

Buddhism. And the harmony or unification of the double symbols, e.g.

Shingon=shingon, Mudra=mudra, Samaya=samaya, is the realization of

Buddhahood, or the attainment of enlightenment, because each symbol of

Shingon, Mudra, Samaya, Sam-mitsu, Roku-dai, Mandala is an aspect of the

symbol Dharma-kaya, Mahavairocana.

After examining the symbol-system of Shingon Buddhism, we have come

to the conclusion that the particularity of the symbol-system of any specific

faith is an excellent way of pointing to the particularity of the faith, and that

the study of particular symbols or symbol-systems of a religion is a matter of

vital importance to the student of religion.

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Mahavairocana

or

Dharma-kaya

(a) Samaya Mai)dala

(b) Dharma Mandala

(c) Maha Mandala

(d) Karma Mandala

(i) Samaya-jnana-mudra

(ii) Dharmajnana-mudra

(iii) Maha-jnana-mudra

(iv) Karma-j5ana-mudra

(A) manas-quhya

(B) vac-quhya

(C) kaya-quhya


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(251) Takakusu, op. cit., p. 158.

(252) Cf. Childer, Pali-English Dictionary, pp. 191, 285 and Sakaki, Mahc7vyutpatti, nos. 1528 1540..

(253) Zimmer, Myths and Symbols in Indian Art and Civilization, p.145.

(254) Taisho., vol. 18, p. lb.

(255) Taish o., vol. 18, p. 9b.

(256) Daishi., vol. 1., pp. 508-509.

(257) Cf. Taisho.,.vol. 18, p. 331a.

(258) Cf. Taisho., vol. 18, p. 38b.

(259) Daishi., vol. 1, pp. 511-512. (260) Daishi., vol. 1, pp. 507-512.

(261) Kiyota, op, cit., p. 37. (262) Reishauer says that mandala is "the schematic drawing of Shingon philo-

sophical ideas." Cf. Edwin O. Reishauer and John K. Fairbank, East Asia the Great

Tradition (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1960), pp. 171.

(263) Giuseppe Tucci, The Theory and Practice of the Mandala: With special reference to the modern psychology of the subconsicious, tr. Alan Honghton Brodrick

(London: Rider & Co., 1961), pp. 45-46.

(264) Cf. Sawa, op. cit., pp. 168-173.

(265) D. Suzuki, An Introduction to Zen Buddhism, Arrow book, p. 36. (266) Mircea Eliade, Patterns in Comparative Religion, Meridian Books, 1963, p. 373.

(267) Jolande Jacobi, The Psychology of C. G. Jung, tr. K. W. Bash (New Haven: Yale University Press, Second Printing 1954), p. 181.

(268) See, Hutchison, Language and Faith, pp. 42-43.

(269) Pandharinath H. Prabhu, Hindu Social Organization (Bombay: Popular Prakashan, 4th ed., 1963), pp. 10-11.

(270) On the theory of rajamandala, see, Bhasker Anand Saletore, Ancient Indian Political Thought and Institutions (London: Asia Publishing House, 1963), pp. 474 -

477.

(271) Heinrich Zimmer, Philosophies of India, pp. 113, 115.

(272) A. L. Basham explains the "circle" as a political Symbol in the same manner. See, Basham, op. cit., p. 127 ff. The science of the Mandala (the circle of state) is

discussed in Kautilya's Arthasastra (6.2; 7.1). See, Wm. Theodore de Bary (ed.) Sources of Indian Tradition (New York: Columbia University Press, 1958), pp. 251 -- 254.

(273) Murray B. Em eneu asserts, "Mahabh ara to at least, is an amalgam of several different genres of oral poetry. One is truly heroic in Bowra's sense. Another is the

theological or moralistic oral genre, for which there is much evidence outside the epic -in the latest Vedic texts, in the early law books, in the early texts of Buddhism, and in

many works of later date which draw much from the oral traditions of Hinduism." See, Milton Singer (ed.), Traditional India: Structure and Change(Philadelphia: The

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America Folklore Society, 1959), p. 108.

(274) Giuseppe Tucci, op. cit., p. 44.

(275) Ryozaburo Sakaki (ed.), Mahavyu tpatti (Kyoto University Press, 1915), No. 293.

(276) Ibid., No. 2537.

(277) Ibid., No. 3940..

(278) Ibid., No. 4013

(279) Ibid., No. 4312.

(280) Ibid., No. 6328. (281) Ibid., No. 6877.

(282) According to Edgerton's Buddhist Hybrid Dictionary, the term mandala means a) spot of ground marked out and ceremonially prepared, b) a "circle," piece of ground

specially prepared in honor of a Buddha or saint, and c) one of the parts of the body

which touch the ground in a reverential prostration. Cf. Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammer and Dictionary. Volume II: Dictionary (New Haven : Yale

University Press, 1953), pp. 415, 416.

(283) Cf. Jasche, Dictionary, p. 11 & Das, Dictionary, p. 56.

(284) Yukei Matsunaga, "Ryobu-mandara no Keifu," or On the Formation of the Garbhodhave-mandala and the Vajradhatu-mandala." The Mikkyo Bunka (Vol. 87, May

1969) (Koyasan: Koyasan University), p. 28.

(285) Cf. Monier-William, Sanskrit-English Dicitionary, p. 775, and Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Dictionary, p. 415.

(286) Hakuju Ui, M. Suzuki, Y. Kannakura, T. Tada (ed.) A Complete Catalogue of the Tibetan Buddhist Canons (Sendai: Tohoku University Press, 1934), No. 494.

(287) Ibid., No. 2662.

(288) Ibid., No. 2503.

(289) Snellgrove, The Hevajra Tantra, part 11, p. 97.

(290) Herbert V. Guenther, The Life and Teaching of Naropa (Oxford: Clarendon

Press, 1963), p. 139.

(291) See Toganoo, Mandala no Kenkyu, pp. 3-5.

(292) Taisho., vol. 39, p. 626 a.

(293) Tohoku., No. 3705. Cf. Toganno, Mandara no Kenkyu, p. 7.

(294) W. Y. Evans-Wentz (ed.), Tibet's Great Yogt"Milarepa (Oxford University Press, 1951), p. 278.

(295) Daishi., vol. 2, p. 183.

(296) Taisho., vol. 19, p. 609b.

(297) Daish i., vol. 1, p. 507.

(298) Ibid., p. 513.


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