Shah Jahan receives his three eldest sons and Asaf Kahn during his ...

Shah Jahan receives his three eldest sons and Asaf Kahn during his accession ceremonies

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Eberhard Fischer

The Technique of Indian PaintersA short note

Indian pa:ntings are generally termed ‘ODiii.C waierccicrs on paper.’t This is quite correct

as far as the appearance and materials are concerned but ones gn-f.:ant part of the pro

duction technique is not included in this definition — and this is what is most specific for theIndian miniaturist’stechnicue but uncommon in toe West The moments that arc — generuHy

— mixed w th gum aratec. the crystallized sap of the oaoul or acacia tree, as binding media

and appliett w,tfi water ate most often laid in several thin layers. and each one is carefully

burnishedY pressed first into the primed paper and then into the lower pigment-wash. Thepaper used br these paintings is generally of a consistency and thickness that permits thefinelyground mineral pigments lobe micro-crushed by the burnishing process thus produc

ing the brilliance of an enamel-like surface and the very sparkliri g effect of the colors. Thisburnishing is done by placing the painting with the picture-side down on a very ftat hard base,be it marble, ivory or — in recent times — a th:ck sheet of glass. It is polished on the reverse

vigorously in regular horizontal and vertical Lines with an egg-shaped, list-sized agate (ghota).or smooth stone oi crystal pestle Both hands are used fnr these straight parallel movements,

and the painting is often fixed to the ground with the toes. From time to time the painting islifted carebully its surtace checked. and everytime a layer of p:gmenis is applied the processis repeated Only gold. painted or tixec on a layer of gum cr glue to the painting at the veiy

end oithe finishing orocess. will be polished directly from the front with a smat pointed agateor ivoiy piece. otteri Fixed nto a handle Ouite often, a oicture is later gummed to a th:cker

backing sheet that often consists of several papers pasted together and ca.ted wash.

The nigmentsuscd bythe Indian painterscan be minera(sextracted from stone includ

ing semi-precious slopes uke lapis azuli, malacnite. innabar in a.’orde) metals Ilike In and

gold). earth (like calcium carbonate orpiment or red and yellowocbre) organic material (likelump black. ivory-charcoal, indigo, red lac dye and gamboge-) and synthetic pigments (likecopper-oxide. smelt. vermillion, verdigris, zinc- and lead-white) As a rule, these pigments

are often used pure because of their varying specific weight, but Indian painters know whatmixes welt.5

Of all pigments the so-called indian yellow.” locallycalled peon orgau goli. isof special

interest There is much uncertainty’ about its origin and properties but it is possible that this

superb deep yellow was prepared from the organic residue from the urine (rom a cow that

had developed some liver disease.’ It mixes rather weLl with indigo and Prussian blue for

green In tart, peon is mnmpatible w th most other p ;merts a—d was otten used as a washon loo c-f yellow orpimem Feori is fluorescent and flashes orght yellow under ul:ravolet t’ght

It may also be of interest to mentior that ibe fine brusbes used oy the Indian masters

1w precise liqes are made fr-3m scuirrc: hair The tied :cet.’ier [-u:r husnel t:ut frcm the tailispLl!ed torougn a biro’sfeatnercuiLaod fixed to a bamboo nandie °crearncoora separatebrush is usuaiyusec. rhefnest brusnes (routlining on nc eec in a straight tin but are considered best when the hair possesses a natural sickle-like curve ending in a tip With this peculiar brush a master can draw a circle with an utmost uniform thin Linei One should also

793

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not forget that Indian painters traditionally sit on the floor when working and keep the tablet

with (he picture on their left thigh. (When a low table is used its top is generally slanted at

an angle (The painters hand with the brush touches or even rests on the picture, which is

covered at that point with a small piece of paper The regular viewing distance is thus given

by the length ot the arm The traditional miniaturist has his pigments mixed with gum arabic

(from the babul or acacia tree) and sometimes with catechu sap or with shellac for an even

flow Mixed pigments are usually stored in small river mussel shells placed to Ilie rigtit ot

the painter on the ground

Painting a picture is generally done in eight stages alter (he paper is burnished to make

it compact, smooth and less absorbent

1 The rough outline of the compcsiticn is sketched with charcoal

2 The first drawing — often in sar;uine — is done with the brush

3 A first thin wlite wash is app cc acove this drawing

6 The drawing is reoeatcd. now in a thin but precise black line

5 The white priming is laid overtne drawing in such a thickness that its black lines reman

feebly visible

a Before now filling in colors, excess oigments are erased with a sharp knife-blade, and

the surface is burnished.

7 The pigrrients are laid one by (mc - in tin layers, the t.rst ones beirg a ralher liquid

wash and usually somewnat lighter than the Final color The p:cture is burnished tram

tns back when ory. followed by a second round of applying pigments and burnishing

5 When all colors are placed and dried. tne outlines a’e tracec details incorpcrated and

shading or volume indications done.” Some wash with yellow or light brown may be

given, gold can finally be applied on yellow undercoating, and white drops may be made

for oearls from powdered conch she.ls or zinc oxde mixed with chalk. The told (or ti

for an silver effect) can be oowcered foil and applied like other mineral pigments, but

aso gcld teat could be glued on the picture In both cases its surface was often pierced

with a blunt needle lnowr as suikari workl after burnish:ng it to ennance the glittering

effect

A vcperiy trained oainter always made sketches and drawings freehand But for ordinary

naiaar-work or simpe copies prepared by trip wershop prukea draw.riqs . sume.lirrieson

deer-skin —were used as pounces for iracing wilh powdered charcoalto indicate the pos:ton

of na1cr detaus

It mght be mertcned alsotnat in SouthAsa paintirgsweretracitionallyviewedsitt ng

taking them in hard.The :roau borderswere made as aprotection wher handling thepaint

ing and passing it on from one viewer to the next. Only rarely — imitating European customs

— were paintings framed and hung on the walls or inserted under a glass in the walls Chitra

sala, halls decorated with pictures exsted as reception rooms or pleasure pavilions, in many

Ra1asthani palaces, but here the walls were decorated with rnurats painled a! secco Pantings

on paper it should be emphasized, whether they were single paintings, or parts of a series

illustrated books or muraqqa albums), were seen slanted not displayed straight And the

painters expected the viewers to view with attention, ‘read” them carefully take in not only

the general iconography, color scheme composition but also all minute details.

795

To end this short note. a smalL narrative 1mg lit be appropriate ID point out that the tech -

nicat process is not alt thai is required to produce a fine picture Alt success depends on thesupport of the family goddess of the painter’sworkshop She is always to be honored becauseshe guides the painters hand as much as she reaches out to catch hold of the patrons andkeep them in her hands For her devotees. The tantric picture of such a painters ishtar den,family goddess, is found in Fig 31 in the essayon the First Generation alter Manaku and Nainsukh of Cuter

The story of the Painter and the Queens Mole — welt known in the Pan1ab” and existingwith several variants in Iexts like the Kalhar.3fnakara - narrates that once a painterwas asked

by the rala to paint his and his wiles portraits. But since the rani lived in strict pardah. it was

understood that the image of the ruler would be realistic and an ideal aristocratic lady wouldbe placed next to him This kind of double-portrad was done by the painter but when he gavethe tina. touch 10 the queens mace, a small back dot tell from the tin of tne brush onto herbody Since he couldni I erase ii. tie honed the krng wouldn’t remark it and reaty at first, hispatron waspteased with the picture, butwben heexamined itwith care he not:ced the black

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796

Eberhard Fischer The TeunnIque at indian Painters

rip 3A beautiful girt visit tip a pail or

Painter at the - Seen pit gee erstion

or N ale wkliPanjab Hilts C 1800 —1825Muaeem vi I tee Ar’s Sus’on Gilt ciA ran ta K Li,emarasw a my 22 675

1 the term ‘gouache’ 5 tess correct because here ttiijtntefltsarit usually macof with white partirtes (tier, whitetto arhiovo an opaqueness Gum outhit. or deatrin ran he used as binder

2 Therefore the term pigment cainlings on paper would he ittota tent opt rate than watercolors” for the Indianpictures on paper thtsttrtm -s gonera-Cy used let phrlmrtit paintings ttnrinth’ tottistinqirish them Iron dyedor rrmhrrtidcrrd figurative teat cs

spot, which was on the queens thigh exactly where his wife had a mote Suspecting a secret

liaison between painter and queen, the king was infuriated and imprisoned the painter The

following night, however, the family goddess of the painter appeared in the rala’s dream and

told him that she had been sitting in the tip of the brush and had made the little black dot on

the queens body to have the portrait acquire more authenticity The king released the painter

and rewarded bin

797

3 P,qirr —r ,trhtrnm hemp in SiaInt West P.intuhlwas pterlclett al Miiqt’ai r iris and tiypainteis in hi’ Pan1ah

lills Out thcre were many more “enters at oaper eroductien I over the cai;rtry or ar.i ntroductien to nd an

rape rnak rz see Pr emelird 1995

6 Ga.e’ocge s the ‘es n at a garer.ia tree alien used to- l-ansaa-e-ri macn to give a trans;;arctit warm yeilowtore on arc’eals C othes are so efl

Ohri loW, lb —31 Also let same p gme—tsikc- CC2 to are Tielt tch; dc-glue as err.,: eq med urn is proertee to per’ Arabic

Alt racy a rrnii y .rc her, was an acute shartaqe. ane a rr Ira tt.yni;h r:r eat real pee ‘‘and :t 55:5 often

odu’.terjtci writ- teal r:hromate

7 tie wt’y - ,ittle acr’uutil at peat • p1 je,iro’ a by MjI; a-u, 1883) wIre ecut Is that I was rtiadtr it ant liv’u’tne at cows leit CSCIU5L vely an Mango leaves iMintrve —ndica Li He v sited the ow herders at villagesMiitiqtiyi d vincI at Rihar intl roper Is that here this special row untie was rultected in cat titan pats anti can -

entrated by ev.iporat rig all the tiuid Alter straining the scdirnt:nts were it ci and maLe into small bal.swhich were sold to whiesate dealers this account is band in Beer. Indicter and Joe: 1912For details see also l.azaro 2005 71—75

9 The best tacumeniatien at Pahari painters techniques, tools antI matenias is Ohri 2901 (with excellent visuals

by Vi1ay Si-it ‘a); tar Ralasllian see Sutttiit wilt a 19911 Bower- 1991 att-J L ‘nat a luLlS10 Exceptions are apis lazult. acurite and verdugris - these three r..qrnents are built tip ri a pain rtg in one ep

pliration see Ohi 7001.it rr.r the traditional terms used tar the various kinds at shading sI ppling with tilts criss crass strokes carullel

sit okes. cross ltatctiing. and so an. known to the great artist Jadi I F al of Ohilwara see Ohni 2001.6012 This shortened vet sion was similarly narrated to us by the painter Chandulal flame II timeehat Pradesn). tar

similar stories, tittan invols ng a tearnett Brahmiri instead at the painlet ‘s family goddess (tshtar devti. seeGoaw,ittty arid I isrhtit 10114,613--I,)

Selected Bibtiography

Baer N S.. tndictar. N and Joel. A - the Chemistry arid History at the Pigment lntttan Yeltew - In PrrrtiiIs at rentriturten a to the. C istcn Ceegmea a 1912 I ondon [hit Irt tern at t ental In slit a ti Inir Con stir Ca Ii tin ot H st or IC anitArtist c Works, 912 hI 4118

lowe,. Cr airjctt W wi lh Any Sitedg I dSS L iris at id [clot PaiNt rig f-I ,ii Ct rats a lit ‘uttiniqucs in Kot at’ — In Gels.Kitigs in-I Tigers IheArt ci Kctah edited by Stuart Cary Welch -inich and New York Prestel 1997 83—89

!Juswiirny Ii N end Fischer I berhard -. The Painter, the Queen antI the Mole Notes nn a Newly-Otscovened Painting,tbnot ,irt Ott-LaId rate In The Ananda-vana elindiart Art--dr Anon-I Krishna Felnitatten Vr:tume edited Iiy N evilKrishna and Maiu. Kttstina Varanas indira Books 20(34. 612- 618

tsarr c, nrtco and -larran jeselib- re 1 -c LItrawetel - trj Ed Meltt:io at A’nttys:s a Screrlit: Approat-- In theSi,-J’jot ndian M:n:aturesAr’.emasAvras 533 6ii-792i hID 57

Jottttsctt. IS A Petite’ aty Study rI tIre te:r’tiig’je at at; SI c. clue ‘atituu:tj — tttAspc’.ts I ttejiuit An. e’Jtt,dty Pralaeadiiya Pal - c-dc-’ C J lrt I 1912 139 165

I a,arri rsmcn:t Pete., M Jt:t: xis M:i.bt’i;ar.. I Symer:: or ‘hr Pre thy-at aintrn’; rcarlar—n ‘.1 Ra’asihan Anmedahal Yanin Pebi-sh-ng, 2C05

Ohei ‘lts,rw:t [ha—dc’ The ierhnigue at Paha’i ,i:r;t An Inau.r’ nt: Accec Is at Matceiji. M:th:;-is an HistoryShte’ta a—i New Detre mien Institute ‘at Aevanced Stud es /A’y,in Jeutss tie- nalionat. 200!

Prc-rnrhanit Nceta Cit the dcc vIe Edge, a Hater rn-akin3 Jeurncy thrrjtjjh ln:tra Miirnti-- the Ankiar Prx1ect. T995

Puti’-t’:ri. Ni;. y ar’d Ncwttt. ud ,tt-atd A lectttt:ral AtidlYSs ul tuLar Pa it tng M-n1c’:,ts Alttic!’eia 1 In Aideat the Frctres ind:an Art :1 n” Mugi’e: Era to the jr,e,nnatt Ar’ Macrate, ci, ted by 9’a’t I len S and Dar:elS Wflr’ [tnriinati C:r.r nnal A’’ V:.:’-.’n I 9S 1-:-; —‘ill

Si,nrt,:Ltent: -; ‘Jr M:nnt;r” ra,nnio9 Tc:.ne’gue ispun 119!)

798

N o Shah-Jahan receres hIs three eldest Sons andAsaFKhcin during his accession ceremoniesby Bjchitr dnd RamddsMughal. ci630—40SOs 58 3 x 36.8 ecu 1tàlio). 306 x 21.1cm )cmage). Sir: 582 x )6 cm Folio).30.6 x 21.1cm limagelR( INS 1005025.k and 005025 IFois SOs and Sir From a manusi:ript ot the Puc/shahnamu (see cat no 26)Paintings in opaque watercolour including gold and silver metallic paintswith decorative inc sing on piper- set into margins of gold osetallic painson paper with blac k ink inscription

Shah-Jahan ascended the Mughal throne after the death of)ahangir on 8 November 1627. This painting depicts a durbarheld as part of his Formal accession ceremonies staged at theAgra Fort the following spring. The bird in the chamsa of thecanopy above the Emperor’s head represents the huma, theauspicious bird of paradise. According to Iranian tradition,whoever’s head the huma bird flies over will become a greatking. The gold platform in hont of Shah-Jahan is where themullah will come to read the khutba (‘Friday sermon’) in theEmperors name for the first time as a declaration of hissovereignty This will then be issued to mosques across theempires provinces to inform them of Shah-iahans accession.The text describes how the new Emperor’s three eldestsons, Dara-Shukoh, Shah-Shuja and Aurangzeb each in turnkissed the ground and presented their fatherwith a nazrofgold coins. The painter Bichitr depicts Shah-Jahan kissingDara-Shukoh, his eldest son and heir apparent, on theforehead while the others look on- lahangir had kept hisgrandsons as hostages in Lahore v;hile their father was in exilefollowing his rebellion in 622. On the far left of the balcony isAsaf <han, Shah-jahan’s father-in-law, cho played a central rolein his coming to power after lahangir’s death and who escortedthe Princes from Lahore to Agra for the accession events Thispainting therefore commemorates an important reunion afteralmost six years of separation The Podshahnama text describesthe delight of Shah-iahan and his wire Mumtaz-Mahal seeingtheir sons for the first time the day before this ceremony tookplace- The parents’ joy after such a long time was indescribableinasmuch as in the workshop of rhetoric there is no expressionthat can convey such joy. The entire day was spent by theparents admiring the beauty of their grand sons:1tt On the

iNscRipTioNsrat/am-c handa-yc karnrarrn Bit hirr,’ drawn by the moss nscgnificant slaveSic hirr

mar/es-i u/us c aqdas -c wa/a-ye home-c sholiiiishah -yr tlcaiijai Panuhitesava-yc of cab riO join a vu odin-c aodakhrun-c shohzadalia-ye kamkar-erafiqaar-c a/i rmqdar at rnu/azamar-c ialiib’q,rao-c so/a rmati-qtictarsora/razcyalia,i-c’ kliunkhancgn-e nphasa/ar a rain/nbos-e 0 asiion-c eaoiin.asimon-c arch-i cciqrar / assembly of ihe most blessed accession of HisMost balled Maiescy Shah-lahan. refuge ol’ the caliphate, shadow of shesun, shadow ol God, and the attainment of felicity by the exalted princesthrough paying hotnage to Sahih-Qiran as mighty as Solomon, and thecisobiemems aI Khankhanan. master of the army by kissing the grnundbeFore the heavenly threshold as stable as the divine throne.paovcsasct, From a manuscript prosenied to George Ill byLorti Teignmouth Governor-General of mdii. c 798tiTtkaTutt Beach and Koch 139’ pp 38. 67—9, Welch 995 p 322

right of the Emperor is Prince Murad Bakhsh, then only threeyears old, meeting his brothers for the first time.During imperial durbars, the emperor always sat in thehigh jharokhn at the centre of the hail of public audience wherehe could preside over the ceremony. Below him to the left andright, attendants hold imperial insignia including the sunshadeafrab-gir) and standards (a/am) wrapped in scarlet cloth. Otherservants, seen here standing on two gold elephants, wouldfan the emperor as he sat A strict hierarchy governed whostood where and in what proximity to the emperor during theceremony, with nobles of highest rank positioned nearest. Inthis painting many of the figures are named in tiny inscriptions,allowing us to identify two kajput rajahs closest to the Emperoron the left: Gaj Singh of fodhpur, cousin of the Emperor andRatan Singh of Sundi, who travelled from his homeland to Agrato pay homage to the Emperor on his accession First on theright is the Iranian Zamana Beg, known as Mahabat Khan, whomShah-lahan appointed his commander-in-chief (k/ian-c khanans/pa/isa/ar) Standing by the railings at the centre are the officersrecording the events of the ceremony Outside the railingsare the lesser nobles. During less formal durbars, those withpetitions or seeking audiences with the emperor would havestood beyond a second railMost durbar scenes from Shah-)ahan’s reign conform tothe same compositional formula: the Emperor positioned at thetop of the central axis with his nobles below him in what canoften be read as a pyramid or circular arrangement which theEmperor completes, the strict hierarchy and geometric balanceconfirming Shah-lahan as head of a centralised, harmoniousstate The artist of this work. Bichitr, a technically brilliantdraughtsman. captures the rigid formality of the ceremony’°

US EASTERN ENcOUNTERS

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26 The PULJSIIUhntImU (Book of Emperors)hy A\hd aLHamid Lahori

‘dughaL 1636—7239 foiL 586 x 368 cm (text 346 x 190cm)RUN 1005023

Nianust riot written in riuslu ‘N 5Ctt on gohi-flet ked brown paper. two shrarssclvand an Lfltiminated double-page from ispitc c. S douh{e—1,agc ann 24 single-pagepaintings in opaque watercolour rn lusling metallic paints and gold eat withriecorative Incising. all set into margins ornamented with metallic paintspainted and ac quere d binding

‘RovENsNct Prcsenu,d to George Ill by lord Teignmi,uth, Governor-Generalof india, c, 1798

LITERATI RE Baburi 2012: Reach and koc h 1997 Komaia 982

Jahangir was succeeded by his third son, Prince Khurram,who ascended the Mughal throne as Emperor Shah-Jahan(r 628—58). The Padshahnama (Book of Emperors-) is acontemporary chronicle commissioned by Shah-f ahan as apropagandist celebration of his reign and dynasty Wntten bythe court historian Abd al-Hamid of Lahore, the objective ofthe text was to proclaim the political and ideological legitimacyof the Emperors rule. Shah-lahan was born on the eve of theIslamic millennium and projected himself as a great redeemer,believed to come into existence at the beginning of everymillennium to stamp out rebeliion and ignorance in the worid.’The Persian text is a c-ombination of prose and verse written inan ornate style full of complex allegory and flowery metaphorsThe authors preface describes it as ‘an adorned text, thedescription of which fills the listeners dress with jewels’.’Numerous copies of the Padshahnama were written duringShah-Jahan’s lifetime for presentation to princes and nobles,and early drafts exist containing corrections and amendmentsin his hand This manuscriot in the Royal Collection is unique,being the only contemporary illustrated imperial Padshahnamavolume to survive It contains only the first of the threevolumes which make up the text. Following a long introductionrecounting the Mughal imperial genealogy from Timur tolahangir, the greater part of the manuscnpr is a discourse onthe first decade of Shah-lahan’s rule (1628—38) and ends withan epilogue listing in order of hierarchy the nobles, officialsand religious figures who feature in the narrative.t’

This volume was written by the calligrapher MuhammadAmin of Mashhad in 1067 AH (Ao 1656—7)° Within months ofMuhammad Amin completing his transcription of this volume,Shah-)ahan fell ill, an occurrence which proved the Fatefulcatalyst for a war of succession between his sons, each thenposted as governors of Mughal provinces. In the end. PrinceAurangzeb lorced his father to abdicate and seized the thronefor himself Shah-lahan lived for another nine years imprisonedin the Agra Fort. To what extent the Emperor retained accessto his artists and library during this time is unknown. Thedecorative heading of the opentng page of the Royal Library’sPadshahnama manuscript was only outlined -and r,ever

illuminated, which would suggest a cessation of the manuscript’sembellishment at that point. The calligrapher left spaces for42 paintings, but it is unclear when the paintings and the twodouble-page &ontispieces (whit h are not painted on the reversesides of the text folios, as customary, but pasted in separately),were added, The manuscript’s outer borders, ornamented withthe same design of freehand gold .llumination throughout, itspainted lacquer covers and cover sheets all date to the early tomid-eighteenth century” Some art historians have dated someof the unascribed paintings in the Padshahnama manuscriptto the early eighteenth century’2 though the majority canconfidently be attributed to Shah-iahan’s artists during the1630s. 1640s and 1650s, and include a number of his painters’self-portraits. They depict significant events in the Emperor’slife — magnihcent durbars. lavish processions. glorious victorieson the battlefield — but it N’unlikely that they were specificallypainted for this particular manuscript”3 They are neverthelessall appropriate to the text they accompany

Like his father lahangir Shah-lahan personal!y oversaw’ thework of his artists and artisans, holding daily morning meetingsto inspect their rnasterworksyi In the same way that metaphorsof imperial power and hierarchy abouno in tne literature hecommissioned, the Emperor’s painters presented him withallegorical and idealised visions of Shah-Jahani rule. Althoughusing an esiablished visual system depicting relationshipsthrough placement, gazes and symbols, formal conventions ofrealism and illusion were brought to new leves to create a worldof imperial analogy beyond the visual world in these works, Theluminous colours, sparkling gold and extraordinary detail all playa role in reflecting the glory and opulence of Shah-Jahan s court.In the portrayals of durbar assemblies (see cat. nos 29—30),the same composition is repeated with the Emperor at the topof the central axis, presiding over the rigid ceremonial fromthe 1harokha balcony — a visual metaphor of the centralisedMugha[ stase in which all power was invested in the body of theemperor” Similarly scenes of battles and hunting successes(see cat no 31) all follow a visual framework of hierarchy andsuhordinatio9 to make manilest the ali-pervadng authority ofthe emperor

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