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Educational Continuance for Pregnant Students and Sexual Education
(A Comparative Study between Australia and Indonesia)
By Arie Pamungkas
Dept.of Sociology and Social Policy
Gadjah Mada University !ndonesia
A. Introduction
"eenagers in high schools e#perience lots of changes in $oth their psychological
and $iological conditions as %ell as their social development. At this stage in their lives
they e#perience critical life&defining events'particularly in their social relationships
e.g.( pu$erty first se#ual intercourse and adaptation to the adult %orld in terms of
independency and %ork o$ligation. Mean%hile schools are constructed as primary placesfor preparing teenagers for adult life. "he roles of schools in preparing those a$ilities is
e#plained $y Sherman Dorn )*++,- %ho says that schools function as the great socialisers
of adolescence $ecause high schools are a special type of %arehousing institution %hich
are attached to age&related e#pectations or age norms )Dorn *++, pp.-. !n this century
high schools have $ecome the dominant institution of teenagers since many are less a$le
to find %ork and secondary education has greater value in the la$or markets. At this stage
teenagers are e#pected to pursue an education until they can $ear the responsi$ilities of
$eing independent $oth personally and economically. "his vie% also refers to se#ual
activities among teenagers the results of %hich may cause to an educational pause or
even educational leave for e#ample if teenage girls are found pregnant )Sydney Morning
/erald 0une 1221-.
Because schools had $een assumed to $e institutions that provide moral learning
at least until the early t%entieth century most pu$lic schools removed pregnant students
from regular classes. "his %as supported $y the argument that says such measures %ere
aimed to protect other students 3against moral pollution4 )Dorn *+5, pp.*25-. 6or
instance in the U.S. during the ,27s as Dorn 8uoted from Goldstein )*+,+- the decision
regarding e#clusion of pregnant students %as s%inging $et%een %hether to e#clude
married students from school or e#pel unmarried pregnant students. 9et until *+:1 in the
U.S. %hen the amendments to the ;lementary and Secondary ;ducation Act $anned
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se#ual discrimination in schools accepting federal aid the Department of /ealth
;ducation and <elfare ruled that e#cluding pregnant %omen from school constituted
discrimination )Dorn *+5, pp.*2+-.
A.. Australia! "eneral #rends
Mean%hile in Australia the engagements $et%een feminism and social
movements since the :27s have effectively resulted in the manifestation of applying
gender e8uity policies at schools. "his can $e inferred from several policy documents
such as( Girls school and society = >ommon%ealth Schools >ommission *+:? Se#
Discrimination Act *+5@? the national policy for the education of girls in Australian
schools = >ommon%ealth Schools >ommission *+5:? and the national action plan for the
education of girls =Australian ;ducation >ouncil *++? and Gender e8uity( A frame%ork
for Australian schools = Ministerial >ouncil *++: )Ail%ood and ingard 122*-. !n the
Se# Discrimination Act *+5@ the discussion is generally focused on discrimination on the
grounds of se# marital status pregnancy or family responsi$ilities or involving se#ual
harassment )Mc7Mahon et.al. 1222-. Cne of the aims of this act clearly states that
3to eliminate, so far as is possible, discrimination against persons on the ground
of sex, marital status or pregnancy in the areas of work, accommodation,
education, the provision of goods, facilities and services, the disposal of land, the
activities of clubs and the administration of Commonwealth laws and
program…4)i$id pp.:-.
"hus this Se# Discrimination Act has $ecome the fundamental policies regarding
any practices of se#ual discrimination. "he Gender e8uity policies are specifically
concerned %ith girl7s education $ut mostly pay attention to de$ates over the content of
education in terms of masculinity and femininity rather than identifying specific issues
concerning se#ual relationships among students that might result in the pregnancy of
female students. A specific policy related to pregnancy and the continuance of education
%as recently set out $y the Department of ;ducation and "raining. !t provides $asic
guidelines in supporting pregnant and parenting students. "he guidelines entitled
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Procedures for Resolving Complaints and Discrimination against Students !""# %as
follo%ed $y another pu$lication $oung %others in &ducation !""'( %aterials to assist
school in their support of young pregnant women and young mothers and $oth offer
strategies and suggestions for assisting young pregnant and parenting %omen to continue
%ith their education )Milne&/ome et. al. *++,-. /o%ever different schools reflect very
different attitudes to%ard this pro$lem and %ill $e discussed later on in this article.
;very year in Australia as reported $y "he Association of <omen ;ducator $irth
rates to teenagers )including pregnancy rates- vary in different states as can $e seen in the
follo%ing ta$le(
9ear " "AS ED <A S< SA F!> A>" Aust
*+52 +5.+ 5.* ,.+ 2.1 15.2 1,. 1*.2 *+.+ 15.*
*++1 +2. 1+.2 1,. 1.2 11.5 *5.: *@.: *@.2 1*.+
*++@ [email protected] 1:.1 1., 1@.+ 12., *,.* *@.1 *@.2 12.:*++, :5., 1,.5 1,.2 11.5 *+.+ *5. *1.5 *@.@ 12.*
otes( Births per *222 of the estimated resident *&*+ females population *++,=
Source( the Association of <omen ;ducator( http==%%%.sev.com.au
eaving schools early is sometimes the only option for girls $ecause it is hard for
them to complete their education at the same time they have to prepare for giving $irth
and most importantly $ecoming mothers. Pregnant students e#perience often difficulties
maintaining their education due to the lack of support from schools their friends )peer
groups- the community and even their o%n parents. "his is $ecause incidents of
pregnancy among students in some schools and in a society is still stigmatied? ho%ever
there are some schools that try to channel pregnant students to%ard completing their
education. "his can $e seen in Plumpton /igh School in Sydney <estern Su$ur$s %hich
has run 3 ) $oung %other in &ducation Program4 since *++@. Plumpton /igh school
provides a very supportive environment particularly %ith a special area that functions as
a kind of childcare center. "his program has significantly helped students to cope %ith
their fears of une#pected pregnancy and their lack of skills to enter the adult %orld
particularly in caring for their $a$ies. By contrast in schools that provide little or no
support teen mothers tend to terminate their education $ecause the stigma and social
$arriers are too much to $ear
A.$. Indonesia! "eneral #rends in %eveloping Countries
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!n comparison in the developing countries in this case !ndonesia the situation is
much %orse than in developed countries such as Australia. !n !ndonesia %here the
population is around 112 million )!ndonesian Bureau Statistic 1222- there is no
availa$le data a$out ho% many pregnant students %ho are e#pelled from pu$lic and
private schools. According to a report from PKBI Perkumpulan *eluarga +erencana
ndonesia or in ;nglish "he !ndonesian Planned Parenthood Association )!PPA- there
are a$out 1. million teenagers that opted for a$ortion in 1222. Most are poor and living
in remote areas of the country. "he issue of pre&marital pregnancy in a country such as
!ndonesia $ecomes very complicated $ecause at the state level there is no particular
policy that deals specifically %ith youth health and reproduction. Moreover in this
patriarchal country %omen that $ecome pregnant $ear the $lame and social stigma %hile
men are hardly held responsi$le at all. "hus it is %omen that e#perience social
disapproval and isolation. !ndeed the social stigma is so harsh that for many %omen
a$ortion $ecomes an inevita$le choice.
6urthermore young unmarried !ndonesian %omen have enormous difficulties
o$taining contraceptives $ecause $irth control is legally dispensed only to married
couples. !t is very typical in !ndonesia for those students that get pregnant to e#pect little
or no support from their schools or even their o%n families. As reported $y PHB! )!PPA-
%hich has e#perience in providing youth se#ual education and helping pregnant students
receive medical treatment it is very common among their clients that most commonly it
is parents %ho suggest a$ortion due to em$arrassment and fears of $eing persecuted $y
communities still $ound $y religious and cultural traditions %here pre&marital se# is
punished $y socially ostraciing the transgressor )PHB!&Hompas 1222-.
!n fact trends in most developing countries sho% that pre&marital se#ual activities
have increased every year as reported for instance $y 9oung Adult Ieproductive /ealth
Surveys )</C *++- in atin America average age at first intercourse ranged from *
to *, years for $oys and from *, to *5 years for girls. !n Africa among Henyan students
surveyed in the late *+52s @5J of males in primary school and ,+J of males in
secondary school %ere se#ually active compared %ith *:J and 1:J of girls in primary
and secondary schools. !ndonesia is reported to have a significant increase in se#ual
activities among adolescents from 5 J during the :27s to 12 J in the +27s )ibid -.
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"hese descriptions reflect concern over the vulnera$ility of teenagers mostly
students in secondary schools in coping %ith their reproductive health and understanding
their rights of continuing education as a $ridge to adult life. "his case sho%s us ho%
teenage girls are the most vulnera$le victims e#periencing e#clusion from social life due
to the physical and psychological $urden of pregnancy %hile also enduring e#pulsion
from school and $eing denied their educational rights. "hese facts should $e carefully
noted $ecause preventing pregnant students from o$taining an education %orks against
any efforts to%ard alleviating poverty.
A.&. Expected 'utcomes from te Comparative Study
"here are e#pected outcomes from this comparative study. "he first is trying to
identify the de$ates over the function of schools as educational providers representing
gender e8uity and individual rights. /o% far is the idea of fighting for se# discrimination
and e8ual opportunity implemented in different social and political levels( the state
pu$lic and private schools community and family )parents-. At this point ! %ould like to
compare the different conte#ts related to this issue namely Australia a socially
progressive and modern country and !ndonesia %hich is still considered a conservative
and traditional patriarchal country.
"he second outcome is e#pected to sho% %hat constitutes the idea of reproductive
health in relation to claims over individual rights )claims over a %oman7s right to her o%n
$ody in deciding %hether to continue or terminate her pregnancy-. !n this matter ! %ould
like to criticise the educational practices that e#clude pregnant students $ased on the
moral de$ates or dra%ing from cultural or religious $elief to deny a person her individual
rights. More specifically in the !ndonesian case ! %ould like to e#amine the moral
de$ates over pre&marital se#ual activities and pregnancy among young adults and in
particular evaluate government policies on youth se#ual reproductive health )SI/-. !
also %ant to analyse the response of local communities to%ard issues of 9outh se#ual
reproductive health $y discussing the role of the !ndonesian Planned Parenthood
Association rather than simply advocating the role of schools.
"he third outcome is aimed to%ard searching for alternative options for pregnant
students if they chose to continue their pregnancy. "his might accomplished $y
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integrating the roles of different actors( state schools )including teachers- local
communities and also family )parents-. "he 8uestion is ho% these roles could $e
distri$uted among those actors and ho% they might operate to help students in achieving
their education goals. !n this stage ! %ould like to study and use the case of Plumpton
/igh School as a model that can $e applied to solve similar pro$lems in !ndonesia.
!ndeed regarding the fact that most Schools in !ndonesia are not actively involved in the
areas of 9outh se#ual and reproductive /ealth this study tries to find an alternative
program to that proposed $y another institution )!PPA = PHB!- in dealing %ith this issue.
. #e Case of Pregnant Students in Australia! An In*uiry to te Individual +igts
and "ender E*uity
!n Australia there has $een a distinct shift in teenager7s decision to resolve their
pregnancy %hich moved from a dichotomy of marriage and motherhood or adoption to
one of motherhood )sole parent- or a$ortion );vans 122*-. !n the ,27s %hen teenage
girls %ere found to $e pregnant they %ere often sent to live %ith their relatives or friends
or at a $oarding house to deliver their children for adoption. "hus at that time the
decision %as in the family7s control %here in some cases churches actively supported
the family in dealing %ith this pro$lem. !n the *+:27s control over the decision $egan to
move a%ay from social institutions to%ard more individual decision making )i$id-.
6inancial support from the government for single parents and the option to undertake
a$ortion have induced young %omen to make their o%n decisions outside the family
structure )i$id-.
/o%ever there are other factors that influence students in deciding %hether to
continue their pregnancy or terminate it. ;vans indicates that these other factors include
%omen7s living arrangement and area of residence that is related to the source of
influence they might receive? and access to a$ortion services %here for instance %omen
%ho live in Sydney Metro are more likely to have an access for a$ortion rather than
%omen %ho live in rural or remote areas );vans 122*. pp.1-. !n a recent research report
;vans found that the decision to undertake a$ortion is likely to $e an individual decision
,
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although there are reported influences from others )partners $oyfriends family or
friends-.
De$ates over %omen7s rights over their o%n $odies are marked $y the notion of
individual rights %hich is 8uintessentially li$eral since the ideology of possessive
individualism is centred on the proposition that individual is the rightful possessor of his
or her $ody capacities )C7>onnor et-al . *+++. pp.*5-. !n this notion the term 3rights4 is
usually associated %ith the capacity to %ork and the capacity to determine %hat %ould $e
suita$le for their $ody7s )reproductive- capacities ) ibid -. "herefore the argument that
says a %oman has the right to control her o%n $ody means that she has the right to
choose to e#press her free %ill regarding her o%n $ody and resultantly she has the right
to decide she %ants to continue her pregnancy or terminate it. !ndeed it suggests that
reproductive right is a form of citienship %hich entails civil political and social rights
)ibid pp.*,*-.
.. #e Scool,s +esponse on te issue of Individual +igts and "ender E*uity
!n principle schools are e#pected to $e places %here adolescents prepare for their
adult life. "his %ould $e a 3$ridge4 for adolescents to enter the adult %orld particularly
in regard to employment. !n this sense young people are more likely defined as $eing 3 at
risk 4 in achieving a successful transition to adult roles in society $ecause of the
possi$ility of leaving school early. Batten and Iussell as 8uoted from Mc!ntyre et al
)*+++- put pregnancy and motherhood as one of other potential indicators of school
leaving in Australia. Mc!ntyre7s report finds that $et%een the early *+527s and the *++27s
there %as a marked increase in the proportion of young people completing 9ear *1 from
J to 52J )i$id. pp.*2-. !t also says that completion rates for female students had
$egun to rise in the mid *+527s $ut no% it had decreased consistently )ibid -.
!n regard to this issue the S< Government circulated the e% South <ales7s
>harter for e8uity in education and training )*++:- %hich states(
&veryone is entitled to high e.uality of education and training programs that
provide recognised credentials and clear pathways to employment and lifelong
learning- /he outcomes of education and training should not depend on factors
beyond the learner0s control or influence- )ll young people are entitled as a
:
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minimum, to be able to complete their school education to $ear !1 or a vocational
education e.uivalent )Mc!ntyre et.al.*+++ pp. 5-.
6rom the a$ove statement it can $e inferred that there are some people %ho do not
complete their education and %ho do not receive recognied credentials and clear
path%ays to employment and lifelong education. 6ocus on youth education therefore
plays an important role in the attempt to provide path%ays to employment and lifelong
education. !n this sense more schools that support students in coping %ith their
difficulties and disadvantages inhi$iting them to finishing their education are needed. !n
this part school functions as an educational provider that values gender e8uity and
individual rights and provides access to employment and lifelong education. "hus young
people may face disadvantages in gaining access to the la$our market due to their
outcomes from schooling. "herefore supportive schools that help students to find
path%ays to the adult %orld is very important.
!n regard to the gender e8uity issue >arol Gilligan notes that due to the
differences in the %ays that teenage girls think of themselves and resolve issues related to
other teenagers girls should $e given a different sense of priority from $oys. /ere
pregnancy is an o$vious area %here %omen rather than men are truly the su$jects.
Gilligan continues as 8uoted from Milne&/ome )i$id.pp.1*- that women and girls have
been shut out of the story of human development, as can $e found from her statement(
23hen women0s studies is 4oined with the study of girl0s development, it becomes
clearer why adolescence is a critical time in girls lives, a time when girls are indanger of losing their voices and thus losing connection with others, and also a
time when girls gaining voice and knowledge, are in danger of knowing the
unseen and speaking the unspoken and thus losing connection with what is
commonly taken to be 2reality5- /his crisis of connection in girls0 lives at adolescence links the psychology of women with the most basic .uestions about
the nature of relationship and the definition of reality- 6irls0 .uestions about the
nature of relationships and about reality, however, also tug at women0s silences)i$id pp. 1*-
Disadvantages due to pregnancy range from declining opportunities for
educational continuance to limited access to employment and training and are considered
as 3forms of silences4. Stigmatiation of pregnant students continues %hen they are
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una$le to continue their education and vie%ed as school drop outs. Milne et-al- argue
that unlike $oys girls typically refuse to separate feelings of love from their
consideration of the rightness or %rongness of se#ual intercourse. At this stage girls
move into contractual and attachment reasoning %here the primacy of relationship
typifies the attachment orientation of girls %hich includes care and justice )ibid -.
/o%ever it is very difficult to $ring the perspective of pregnant students in
academic considerations due to emphasis on pu$lic morality and private shame relegates
adolescent parenthood as a type of deviance in the theoretical frame%ork )i$id-.
"herefore educational continuance for pregnant students )adolescents- needs
perspectives that support gender difference. !n this sense $oth individual rights and
gender e8uity perspectives are e#pected to contri$ute to pointing educational directions
for girls( paid %ork domestic life and citienship. !n attempt to provide a model for
school policy %e may take a look at the case of the Plumpton /igh School under the
<estern Sydney project as an e#ample of ho% special policies for pregnant students is
integrated %ith a supportive school environment.
. $. -earning from te estern Sydney Pro/ect
According to <SIC> )<estern Sydney Iegional Crganisation of >ouncils- on
their report 3$oung %others of the 3est 4 a$out pregnant and parenting students in the
<estern Sydney region there are some findings that sho% support given $y schools %ill
effectively determine a student7s a$ility to continue his or her education. "his research
categorised 1 types of support from schools(
+asic Supporting Schools, %hich provide(
a. Support = encouragement
$. >ounselling
c. Department of >ommunity Service notification
d. !nform the student of educational choices
e. 6le#i$le %ith attendance and timeframe re8uirement
f. Some communication %ith the student7s family
Mean%hile Pro7)ctive Schools %ill provide(
a. A designated access point )a special teacher=support %orker=mentor-
+
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$. inks %ith family
c. inks %ith childcare
d. A specific policy
e. Provisions of information a$out rights and options to students generally
f. ;ducational options advice to pregnant students
g. Maternity leave
h. Special facilities such as feeding= $a$y room toilets maternity sied uniform
i. A supportive environment created through those a$ove practices.
"his report indicates that schools providing a pro&active attitude to%ards pregnant
and parenting students have significantly higher retention rates )55J amongst participant
schools in <estern Sydney- compared to those schools that provide only $asic supporting
)1,J- )<SIC> report 1221-. "his clearly proves that in the attempt to achieve their
educational completion parenting students need full support from their school %hich may
ena$le them to $ear their responsi$ility to%ard completing their education as an
investment in their future and their ne% responsi$ilities as young mother. Some schools
that seem reluctant to practice pro&active support for their pregnant students often argue
that some $arriers preclude them from conducting this program.
"here are some $arriers indicated from the pro$lem( the pregnancy itself
parenting personal $eliefs and attitudes family relationship and community attitudes.
!ndeed there are some possi$le recommendations to cope %ith those $arriers
recommended $y <SIC> (
a. Pregnancy Related +arriers
"hese $arriers relate to $oth physical and psychological conditions during
pregnancy and its effects on pregnant students a$ility to continue her education.
"hese $arriers include tiredness sickness self consciousness )due to change in
appearance- and their medical conditions. As reported $y <omen7s /ealth
Eueensland <ide !nc. )the Association of <omen ;ducators 1221- these %omen
tend to e#perience higher complication rates %ith pregnancy %hich may affect
their achievement at school. >onse8uently students may need an e#tended period
for resting %hich also means educational pause or termination.
*2
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!n attempt to face this pro$lem <SIC> report recommends the possi$ility of
continuing education for those students $y indicating the timing of the $irth. !f a
$irth %as due late in the year a return to school the follo%ing year might seem
more managea$le as all students %ould soon take holidays and time is availa$le
to adjust to the ne% situation. "his means that students may$e a$le to complete
their education on that year. /o%ever if the $irth %ould occur in the mid year
%hen students may miss their class taking time off and missing out on %ork
could $e such possi$le options for them.
$. Parenting Related +arriers
"his $arrier could $e the most significant difficulty for students due to the
availa$ility of accessi$le and afforda$le childcare. !n case that e#ternal child care
is needed there are some issues that %e have to consider e.g.( transport and
financial support for childcare facilities. !n some cases the cost of childcare
$ecomes the reason of %hy some students terminate their education.
<hen support comes from the government for instance( >enterlink there are
some administrative pro$lems they might face as can $e found in the infle#i$le
procedures. Iecommendation for this $arrier is offering part time study for them
if those $arriers are very difficult to overcome.
c. Personal +arriers
As mentioned earlier adolescence e#perience emotional turmoil at that age and
pregnancy can result in trauma. "herefore support and encouragement should $e
practiced through ver$al encouragement and some conducive activities sho% $y
teacher7s attitudes peer groups and parents.
d. 8amily +arriers
6amily provides the $asic protection for pregnant and parenting teenagers.
Support from family including from the $a$y7s father is needed to encourage
students return to school. ack of support from family $y hiding their girl7s
pregnancy or their parenting %ould lead to undermine self esteem and motivation.
e. Relationship +arriers
**
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"his may arise from social e#clusion from their peer groups and even social
isolation. Preventing young pregnant %omen from schools %ould mean to social
e#clusion and social isolation.
f. Community )ttitude +arriers
"his relate to community and school attitudes and $ehaviours %hich influence
pregnant students to stay at schools. Such traumatic e#perience caused $y
un%elcome attitudes %ould discourage them to leave school earlier. "herefore
enhancing community a%areness is very important for this task particularly $y
changing teacher personal attitudes
Based on this e#planation it is very o$vious that support from the school is
a$solutely crucial? ho%ever lack of support from parents such as %anting to hide the
pregnancy and removing decision making from their daughter sustains the $elief that
pregnant students should leave schools. !n such cases schools should at least inform
students a$out their rights and possi$le options for continuing their education. <SIC>
also suggests that %hile schools are improving their support schools can assist students
$y providing information on community service support making links %ith support
agencies %orking %ith student7s families and e#ploring innovative support strategies
such as providing mentoring.
.$. Some Policy Implications from te S+'C Pro/ect
Cnly a very fe% schools have a policy regarding pregnant and parenting students
and indeed most are una%are of the Department7s guidelines and strategies. "here are
several reasons for this. 6irstly the Department does not re8uire schools to adopt the
policy $ut only to present general guidelines %ith minimum supervision over pregnant
students )<SIC> report 1221. p.*:-. Some schools argue that the policy is unclear and
thus need a revised version that clearly determines the responsi$ilities of schools in this
area )ibid -. !n fact although the current policy contains vital information regarding the
school7s role and the realities of adolescent parenting it is neglected. "he argument that
the school7s responsi$ility to improve services for pregnant students is precluded $y the
*1
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lo% level of support from the Government in releasing num$ers of reported pregnancies
cannot $e fairly accepted. "his is $ecause schools are e#pected to seek the information
actively. <SIC> suggests that it should $e the school that seeks information actively
regarding pregnant and parenting students )ibid p.*:-.
"his situation could lead to a 8uestion of %hy only some schools participate in the
pro&active program %hile some others seem to ignore it. Despite the fact that some
schools and government are very cooperative in improving their support for pregnant
students it seems that other elements %ithin society nevertheless stigmatise the pregnant
student. !n order to improve such circumstances <SIC> also suggests that school can at
least inform their students a$out options if they may leave school due to pressure from
their peers family or community. !n this regard teenagers and their families deserve
honest information a$out the availa$le options for them. "his %ould help students to
decide their continuance of education %hether they %ant to continue parenting or
rethinking other options i.e. adoption etc. "herefore roles of schools are very important
in improving the educational support of pregnant students as %ell as help them face
e#ternal $arriers. "hese should $e included as the main tasks for every school( providing
information on community service support %orking cooperatively %ith students and their
families and making a link %ith other related agencies. Schools could offer additional
help $y helping the pregnant student e#plore innovative support strategies.
C. #e Case of Pregnant Students in Indonesia! A Policy +eview on te Problematic
0out (Adolescent) 1ealt Policies of Indonesia
According to </C )*++- adolescents are people $et%een *2 and *+ years old
%ho e#perience a comple# development $oth physically and psychologically. <hen
seeking reproductive and se#ual healthcare services !ndonesian adolescents face many
o$stacles due to governmental policy la% and culture. Despite a la% that $ans premarital
se# there is a significant gro%ing num$er of se#ually active teenagers in !ndonesia )as
mentioned earlier in the introduction chapter-. >urrently there are no pu$lic healthcare
clinics designed to offer youth&friendly and non&discriminatory services for these
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teenagers. "herefore the adolescent stage constitutes a 3$lank spot4 in the country7s
health efforts although the health pro$lems that emerge during the adolescent stage are
uni8ue and need special attention. "he lack of access to reproductive and se#ual health
services has significant implications for !ndonesian adolescents. At this point ! %ould
like to specifically look at the youth health policies in !ndonesia $y taking an e#ample
from the case in PHB! )!PPA- in the province of 9ogyakarta my hometo%n.
C.. %emograpic ac2ground (0ogya2arta)
"he estimated population in !ndonesia in 0uly 122* %as 115 million )!ndonesian
Bureau Statistic 122*-. According to U6PA )1222- the age distri$ution of !ndonesia7s
population is as follo%( 2&*@ years K 2.:J? *&1@ years K *+.5J? and ,2 years and over
K :.J. !ndonesia has varied ethnic groups consisting of 22 tri$es %here 0avanese is the
$iggest ethnic group )@J- and a$out :J of its population are Moslems )!ndonesian
Bureau Statistic 122*-.
Mean%hile 9ogyakarta is located in >entral 0ava under the province of Special
Iegion of 9ogyakarta. !t has population around .* million in 1222 %ith total area is
*5*5 ha %hich is considered as one of the most densely populated areas of !ndonesia
%ith +*+ persons per s8. km )!ndonesian Bureau Statistic 122*-. 9ogyakarta is a famous
tourist destination after Bali %ith a strong 0avanese culture. Iegarding the custom in
9ogyakarta )0ava- in almost all parts of this country the relationship $et%een males and
females is very patriarchal. <ithin 0avanese culture males are perceived as superior to
females therefore males are allo%ed to dominate and control females. "his can $e
o$viously found in a very %ell&kno%n aphorism( 2to heaven will go along with you and
to hell will also follow5 %hich means that %oman only join and depend on her
hus$and=partner even if she has to follo% him to the hell )Hhis$ijah et. al *++: pp.,1-.
!n addition the influence of religion in !ndonesia is very strong in gender and
se#uality matters. !t strengthens the patriarchal culture and inhi$its the developing of
se#uality and reproductive health issues )ibid -. 9ogyakarta is also kno%n as a 3 student
city4 %hich constitutes of @ state universities ,, private colleges *2 high schools and
122 elementary schools )!ndonesian Bureau Statistic 122*-. 6rom this data it can $e
seen that the youth in 9ogyakarta comprises a large part of the population %here many
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adolescents come from several parts of !ndonesia )including other provinces=islands- and
live in $oarding houses or private accommodations to pursue their education %ithout the
direct supervision of their parents or relatives.
C.$. 1ealt Care System in Indonesia! "eneral %escription
"he Department of /ealth in !ndonesia is part of the People7s <elfare Sector
along %ith Department of ;ducation Department of /ousing and Iegional Development
Department of Ieligious Affairs and Department of <orkforce all under the Ministry of
People7s <elfare and Poverty Alleviation )/idayati 1221-. Iegarding health the infant
mortality rate is 5 per *222 live $irths the total fertility rate is 1. %hile adolescent
fertility rate is :.5 per %oman aged *&*+ and the contraceptive prevalence is J
)U!>;6 1222-. "he leading cause of hospital mor$idity in !ndonesia in *+5+ for
instance %as intestinal infection follo%ed $y complications of pregnancy and a$ortion
)U6PA 1222-.
"he family planning program in !ndonesia generally has generally successful %ith
$irth rates dropping from ., children per %oman in the :27s to 1.+ children per %oman
in the +27s )!ndonesian Bureau Statistic 122*-. 6ertility declined mostly in the 527s %hen
the ational 6amily Planning Program e#tended to cover the entire country. !n addition
the population is still concentrated in the younger age groups %ith the current gro%ing
rate at *.,J annually )U!>;6 1222-.
C.&. Some Critics against te -egal 3ramewor2 and Policy of Sexual +eproductive
1ealt in Indonesia
Utomo )*+++- descri$ed the significant periods %hich can $e identified as a
turning point for !ndonesian government in emphasising concern and focus on issues
relating to se#uality and reproductive health issue. Cne of those is the esta$lishment of
3 Population Development and the Development of 9appy and Prosperous 8amily :aw4
of *++1 %here only married couples can access to se#ual and reproductive services.
Additional policy that regulates family and marriage arrangement is the !ndonesian
Marriage a% in *+:@ concerning the age at marriage %hich allo%s *+ years old for
males and *, years old for females.
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Since the 527s the !ndonesian government has implementing a reproductive
health program for young people called 3 Population &ducation.4 "his program aims to
increase the a%areness and attitudes of young people to%ard reproductive health in
attempt to institutionalise the concept of the 3Small /appy and Prosperous 6amily.4
!ndonesian youth reproductive policies comprise advocacy se#ual and reproductive
health counselling and supportive activities. /o%ever most schools in !ndonesia are not
actively involved in this program. "he program is currently run mainly $y GC7s like
!PPA )PHB!-. 6or its part !PPA )PHB!- has encouraged schools to actively participate in
socialising youth se#ual reproductive health education program.
Iegarding a$ortion a health la% %as enacted in Septem$er *++1 that states that
a$ortion is accepta$le under specific circumstances as mentioned earlier %hich affect the
%omen7s health conditions )Djohan et.al. *++1-. /o%ever the e#act notion of a$ortion
is not clearly e#plained in the la%7s article. "he term of 3a$ortion4 is su$stituted %ith
3tindakan medis tertentu4 )in ;nglish( certain medical procedure-. 9et even this vague
la% is limited in the %ay it allo%s for legal a$ortion( %hen %oman %ants to undertake an
a$ortion she has to provide %ritten approval from her hus$and. Surprisingly most
adolescents %ho undertake a$ortion are Moslems )52J- rather than other adolescents
from non&Moslem religious groups for instance >atholic )J- )Hhis$ijah et.al. *++:.
pp.1,&15-. According to Hhis$iyah there is an argument %hy Moslems agree to
undertake a$ortion %hich is due to the Sharia7a )!slamic- la% allo%ing %omen to
undertake an a$ortion $efore the fetus reaches months. By contrast >atholic $ishop
$anned the practice of a$ortion entirely and put it as a type of sin of killing innocent
people %ho deserve to live. /o%ever in general $oth !slamic and >atholic groups in
!ndonesia agree that a$ortion is a violation of individual rights of un$orn children %ho
deserve to live.
Apart from the unclear policy on 9outh Se#ual Ieproductive /ealth )SI/-
various youth SI/ activities have $een done in some provinces including 9ogyakarta
sponsored $y international funding agencies e.g.( U6PA <orld Bank 6ord 6oundation
AusAid etc. "hese programs are run $y GC7s and government institutions such as
ational 6amily Planning >o&ordinating Board )6P>B-. "here are several e#isting rules
and regulations including regulations that prohi$it youth from access to contraceptives
*,
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policies that $an unmarried pregnant students from attending schools $ureaucratic
regulations that prevent youth SI/ education in schools and la%s and regulations that
prohi$it se#ually e#plicit materials from $eing distri$uted through the mass media
)/idayati 1221. pp. 1@-.
C.4. 'ter 'bstacles! 1ealt Providers and Community Attitudes
/o%ever there are still o$stacles in developing a youth SI/ program in
!ndonesia. "here are ta$oos in the SI/ issues stigmatisation of youth using the services
as se#ually active persons and negative attitudes of the health %orkers. Usually this
service is integrated into 3maternal and child care4 or 6amily Planning services %hich
only target married couples. "hus such homogenous services cause an uncomforta$le or
inconvenient feelings among adolescents %hich may lead to illegal and unhealthy
a$ortions.
Cften the program encounters pro$lems in gaining community acceptance %ith
reasons that it may encourage youth7s se#ual activities. /ence e#isting advocacy is
particularly directed to%ard politicians community and religious leaders to counter
negative perceptions on youth SI/ programs )/idayati 1221 p. -. Services for youth
%ith special pro$lems such as un%anted pregnancy related complication of unsafe
a$ortion and S"D7s are mostly conducted $y GCs and certain cooperative hospitals.
C.5. 0out Sexual +eproductive 1ealt Care Provision in Indonesia
"here are t%o models of implemented programs? the first is clinical $ased and
outreach programs and the second is a community or a group empo%erment and other
referral system %hen pro$lems are unsolvea$le %ithin those groups. <ithin the first
model PHB! )!PPA- $ecame the first model in !ndonesia that deals %ith youth health
issues e.g. counselling and hot&line information centre dissemination $asic and medical
treatment for adolescent pregnancy and adolescent a$ortion and some other related
trainings for its %orkers and volunteers )/idayati 1221. p,-
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C.6. Searcing an Alternative 7odel! #e IPPA (P8I) Adolescent Clinic Pro/ect
Some health related pro$lems particularly in reproductive and se#ual health
emerge during the adolescent period as can $e seen from this story(
2 am an !; year7old teenager and have a fairly serious problem- 3henever
e4aculate feel very sick- feel tortured and wrong because have beenmasturbating often since was in the 4unior high school- 3hat kind of illness is
this and where can get medicine<
)"aken from one letter in the 3Dear entera Sahaja4 ne%s column in the local
daily ne%spaper Bernas Ccto$er 122*-
"hat story a$ove is only one e#ample of a distraught adolescent %ho is facing a
reproductive and se#ual health pro$lem. /e is ignorant of $asic se#ual $ody functions
and confused a$out %here he can get reproductive and se#ual health services. Another teenager admits in the ne%spaper that she feels like there are no reproductive and se#ual
health clinics for adolescents although she realises that many of her friends are in need of
such services. Also feelings among her peers are $ecoming more and more intense. She
said( 2f we don0t have accurate information about reproductive and sexual health then
we will most likely get lost5 )Bernas !$id-. Many of these teenagers are indeed getting
lost. Data collected in !PPA )PHB!- 9ogyakarta in Decem$er 122* reveals :11 reported
cases of un%anted pregnancy among teenage girls )*@&*+ years old-. "here are also
several reports concerning on the S"D )se#ual transmitted deceases- cases among
9ogyakarta7s adolescents )PHB!&Hompas 122*-. >onsidering the difficulties in accessing
healthcare for this specific age group %e can assume that the num$er of un%anted
pregnancies and S"Ds surely outnum$ers the data mentioned.
"he reproductive and se#ual health services that e#ist in !ndonesia are not
specifically designed for adolescents. Ieproductive and se#ual health services are more
inclined to serve adults or married couples. !n addition %hen a married adolescent
receives reproductive and se#ual healthcare services the healthcare they receive is
designed for married adults. !f adolescents use these services they are discriminated
against $y people %ithin the clinic and also from those %ho administer the services. Due
to these circumstances most adolescents have yet to make use of reproductive and se#ual
*5
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health services. So %here are the services for adolescentsL "his treatment can $e
considered unfair to some teenagers.
"he health services currently availa$le most often perceived adolescents
)teenagers- as children not capa$le of making a good decision. "his narro% thinking fails
to see that adolescents are entering adulthood and should receive the support that they
need and deserve. ack of reproductive and healthcare services for adolescents is due to
the hypocritical attitudes among mem$ers of society %ho assert that teenagers should not
e#press their se#ual desires during their school period complemented $y the other
argument that allo%ing teenagers to have access to reproductive services including the
use of contraceptive means accepting pre&marital se# %hich is considered as a source of
moral pollution.
"o deal %ith these circumstances efforts have $een made $y a fe% organisations
in 9ogyakarta. "he !ndonesian /ealth Department for instance has tried to create a kind
of adolescent health consultation group at $oth the political district and inter&school
organiational level. !PPA )PHB!- 9ogyakarta for e#ample initiated a pilot project %ith
the offering of 3youth&friendly4 reproductive and se#ual health services for adolescents.
"his clinic strives to create an atmosphere %hich is peaceful and comforta$le and in
%hich adolescents can receive services %ithout judgement discrimination or stigma
)PHB!&Hompas 122*-. "his development seems to $e a right direction for the future of
youth health services in !ndonesia. /o%ever difficulties to conceptualie the construction
of an adolescent clinic still inhi$its this effort $ecause of conflicts of moral and religious
values and culture.
*+
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%. Conclusion
6rom this comparative study it can $e seen that there are some similarities %hich
$oth occur in Australia and !ndonesia. "his includes the social $arriers for pregnant
students to cope %ith their decision of continuing education pregnancy and parenting in
the same time. /o%ever dra%ing from the pregnant student case here it is o$vious that
Australia has esta$lished pre&conditions that support pregnant students as can $e seen
from the legislation and related policies despite other pro$lems in encouraging active
school participation. !n terms of individual rights and gender e8uity it can $e said that in
Australia decision over se#ual reproductive health is an individual7s o%n.
!n !ndonesia the pro$lems are much more difficult and comple# not only due to
the local social $arriers $ut $roader cultural $arriers as %ell. "he dominant patriarchal
culture has influenced every policy released $y the government as can $e seen from the
un%illingness of most schools to cooperate %ith the issue of student pregnancy. Despite
such difficulties efforts made $y some GCs like !PPA )PHB!- have resulted in
alternative solutions for pregnant students in particular and 9outh Se#ual Ieproductive
/ealth in general.
E. +eferences!
Ail%ood 0o and Bo$ ingard. 122*. "he endgame for national girls schooling policies in
AustraliaL in the )ustralian =ournal of &ducation, )pril 1>>! volume ?#,Australian >ouncil 6or ;ducational Iesearch. Availa$le at( !6C"IA>"(
http==%%%.usyd.edu.au )accessed *1 Septem$er 1221-
;vans Ann. 122*. "he influence of significant others on Australian teenagers7 decisionsa$out pregnancy resolution in 8amily Planning Perspective @ol-AA Bo-# = Sept&
Cct 122* e% 9ork.
Djohan ;. *++. "he attitudes of /ealth Providers to%ard a$ortion in Reproductive
9ealth %atters !""A @ol-1 Bo-!! pp.+.
Dorn Sherman. *++,. Drop outs as social Problem, Praeger<estpoint USA. !n the
>hapter >reating the Dropout( An !nstitutional and /istory of School 6ailure.
12
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/a%kes Gail. *++,. ) sociology of Sex and Sexuality. Cpen Univ.Press Buckingham.
>ph.1( Se# and Modernity
/idayati oor. 1221. nwanted Pregnancy in $ogyakarta H!" )Ioyal "ropical !nstitue-
/ealth Department Amsterdam "he etherlands. )Iesearch report
unpu$lished-
/uman Iights and ;8ual Cpportunity >ommission- )nnual Report !"""71>>>( Sex
Discrimination avalai$le at(http== %%%.hreoc.gov.au )accessed *1 Septem$er 1221-
!ndonesian Bureau Statistic 122*. Changing on Demographic data. Availa$le
at(http==%%%.$ps.go.id )accessed *@ Ccto$er 1221-
0ohn Mc!ntyre 0ohn 6reeland Bernice Melville >ristina Sch%enke *+++. &arly School
:eavers at Risk . >F;I South Australia.
Hhis$iyah Murdiyana D and <idjayanto. *++:. nwanted Pregnancy among
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ancaster and /am$urg. *+5,. School )ge Pregnancy and Parenthood Social ScienceIesearch >ouncil e% 9ork.
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to employment, education and training amongst pregnant and parenting adolescents A <omen7s ;mployment ;ducation and "raining Advisory Group
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Pascall Gillian.*+5,. Social Policy "avistock Pu$lications td e% 9ork. >hp.@
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1*
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"he Association of <omen ;ducators 1221. Present, Pregnant and Proud, keeping
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<SIC>.1221. $oung %others of the 3est( )n exploration of support and issues surrounding young pregnant and parenting women from 3estern Sydney in
State secondary education( ) Research Report <SIC> td and S< Dept.for
<omen. Availa$le at( http==%%%.%esroc.org )accessed *1 Septem$er 1221-
U6PA 1222. nited Bations Population 8und Proposed Pro4ects and Programmes
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Ccto$er 122*. )Access via internet( %%%.$ernas.co.id = accessed *2 Ccto$er 1221-
Glendinning ee. * 0une 1221. Principal )ims to &nd pregnant Pauses in &ducation
Sydney Morning /erald * 0une 1221 Sydney )article-.