1 Seven generations (Hedrich von) Wiederhold in the Dutch East Indies Part I (1747- 1826) A distant ancestor from Hessen serving with the VOC Pirates versus Perak, tin versus silver and the virtuous Hendrik against the wily sultans George Molenkamp Voorschoten, 1 December 2016
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Sevengenerations(Hedrichvon)WiederholdintheDutchEastIndies
PartI(1747-1826)
AdistantancestorfromHessenservingwiththeVOCPiratesversusPerak,tinversussilverandthevirtuousHendrikagainstthewilysultans
GeorgeMolenkampVoorschoten,1December2016
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SummaryJustbeforethetransferofsovereigntytothestateofIndonesia,ImovedwithmyparentsfromtheformercolonyoftheDutchEastIndiestotheNetherlands.MymaternalfamilyhadlivedontheislandofJavaformanygenerations.InthelastthirtyyearsIhavereconstructedthelifeofmyancestorsintheDutchEastIndies.Indoingso,Itracedafascinatingfamilyhistory,usinginformationfromresearchersinGermany,theNetherlandsandMalaysia,aswellasfamilydocuments,VOCarchivesandhistoricalreportsfromMalaysia.MyfirstancestorintheDutchEastIndieswasayoung,enterprisingGerman,HendrikJuliusWiederhold,wholefthishometownofWanfried(Hessen)in1747todepartforAmsterdam.HeservedasasoldierwiththeVOCintheEastIndiesandneverreturnedtohisnativecountry.InPartI,Igobackintime270years;IwilldiscussHendrik’sGermanbackgroundandgiveanaccountofhisjourneyoverseastoBatavia,hiscareerinMalacca(theMalaysianpeninsula)servingtheVOCformorethan40years,andhislifeasacitizenofMalacca.Virtuallyliteralreportshavebeenfoundofhisexperiencesasacommander(“resident”)ofanoutpostoftheVOCinthesultanateofPerak,wherehehadtocarryouthisdutiesinahostileenvironment.Thesereportsgiveafascinatinginsightintohisdailylifeandthedifficultandhazardouscircumstancesinwhichthese‘servants’oftheVOCcarriedouttheirdutiesintheoutposts.IwillmakefrequentdigressionstothedailyaffairsoftheVOCandthecomplicatedpoliticalsituationontheMalaysianpeninsula.IwillalsodiscussthemanyconfrontationsoftheVOC(andlatertheDutchRepublic)withtherapaciousMalaysianpirates,thewarmongeringBugisandthecompetitionoftheBritishEastIndiaCompanyinthearea.Finally,IwilldiscussthelaterBritishoccupationofMalaccaintheNapoleonicera,thecontroversialfoundationofSingaporebyThomasRafflesandthefinalDutchlossofMalaccatotheBritish.
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TableofContents
1.Introduction.....................................................................................................................................................71.1WhydidIwritethisaccount?...........................................................................................................................71.2OurfamilyintheDutchIndies.........................................................................................................................71.3Connectingthedots..............................................................................................................................................91.4Methodandjustification.....................................................................................................................................9
2.TheWiederholdfamilyinHessen.......................................................................................................102.1.DistributionofthenameinGermany........................................................................................................102.2.ConradWiederhold(1598-1667)...............................................................................................................112.3.Widerhold’slinkwiththeNetherlands....................................................................................................12
3.HendrikJuliusWiederhold.....................................................................................................................133.1.Hisfamily...............................................................................................................................................................133.2.HeinrichJuliusleavesforAmsterdam......................................................................................................133.3.GermansservingtheCompany....................................................................................................................143.4.JoiningasasoldierintheVOCChambersinAmsterdam.................................................................153.5.The‘GeneralLand-andSeajoiningrolls’andtheships’wagebooks:theVOC’spayroll...15
4.Hendrik’sjourneytoBatavia.................................................................................................................164.1.TheshipDomburg.............................................................................................................................................164.2.TravellingtotheEastbyshipinHendrik’stime..................................................................................17
5.Batavia.............................................................................................................................................................195.1.HistoryandroleofthecityofBataviafortheVOC..............................................................................195.2.Hendrik’sarrivalinBatavia...........................................................................................................................205.3.Thesoldiers’lifeinBatavia............................................................................................................................20
6.Hendrik’spostingtoMalacca................................................................................................................216.1.Anewpost.............................................................................................................................................................216.2.ThepositionofthetownofMalaccaintheVOC’stradenetwork.................................................216.3.ThetownofMalaccainthe18thcentury..................................................................................................226.4.HendrikjoinstheLowGermanReformedChurch,marriesandhaschildren........................23
7.HendrikleavesforPerak.........................................................................................................................247.1.Introduction.........................................................................................................................................................247.2.Perak:geographyanditsimportancefortheVOC..............................................................................247.3.Perak:politicalsituationintheseventeenthandeighteenthcentury........................................257.4.PersistentattemptsbytheVOCtogainatinmonopolyinPerak.................................................26
8.HendrikasresidentinPerak.................................................................................................................288.1.Introduction.........................................................................................................................................................288.2.ThegeneraldutiesoftheresidentofPerak............................................................................................288.3.ThefortsofDingdinhonPulauPangkorandTanjungPutus..........................................................298.4.Hendrik’stwomostimportantcontemporaries...................................................................................308.5.HendrikvisitsthesuccessorofsultanIskander...................................................................................328.6.Selangorpressesitsadvantage....................................................................................................................328.7.Hendrikentersawasps’nest........................................................................................................................338.8.DiscussionatsultanMahmud’scourt.......................................................................................................348.9.TheBugisarriveinPerak...............................................................................................................................348.10.ConsequencesforHendrik..........................................................................................................................35
9.BackinMalacca...........................................................................................................................................35
10.WhathappensinandaroundMalaccainlatertimes?.............................................................3510.1.Introduction.......................................................................................................................................................3510.2.TheBugisattackMalacca.............................................................................................................................36
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10.3.MalaccafreedandfinalreckoningwiththeBugis............................................................................3610.4.ThesituationinandaroundMalacca......................................................................................................3610.5.Wiederholddies...............................................................................................................................................3610.6.TheBritishgainafoothold..........................................................................................................................3710.7.MalaccafallsintoBritishhands................................................................................................................3710.8.MalaccareturnstoDutchcontrol.............................................................................................................3810.9.RafflesfoundsSingapore;theDutchmonopolyisbroken............................................................3810.10.ThelastDutchattemptstotradeinPerak.........................................................................................3810.11.ThedefinitivetransferofMalaccatotheBritish............................................................................3910.12.ThedeclineofMalacca...............................................................................................................................3910.13.TheWiederholdssettleonJava..............................................................................................................39
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1.Introduction
1.1WhydidIwritethisaccount? Mymaternalfamily,namedHedrichvonWiederhold,haslivedonJavaformanygenerations.IhavealwaysbeenfascinatedbythequestionhowthisGermannameendedupinIndonesia.Mymaternalgrandfather1hadstudiedthismatter,buthehaddiedinaJapaneseprisoner-of-warcamptwoyearsbeforeIwasborn.Mostofmyfamily’spossessionsanddocumentsintheDutchEastIndieswerelostduringthewar.However,fromthescantinformationheldbymygreat-uncle,2IgatheredthattheWiederholdfamilyhadbeenlivingonEastJavaforaconsiderableperiodoftimeandhadownedsugarplantations.InthelasttwentyyearsIhavelookedfortherootsoftheHedrichvonWiederholdfamilyinIndonesia.Almostbycoincidence,Idiscoveredafascinatingstory.ThefirstancestorofthefamilylandedinJavaalmost270yearsagoandwasa‘servant’3oftheDutchEastIndiesCompany(VOC)formorethan40years.
IwouldliketoshareHendrikJulius’sexperiencesandthoseofhisdescendantswithmyfamily.ButIhopetheywillalsoproveinterestingforanyoneinterestedintheVOCandDutchcolonialhistory,especiallybecausethestoryofthefirstWiederholdintheEasttakesplaceinapartofthearchipelagothatisunknowntomany:theMalaysianpeninsula.
1.2OurfamilyintheDutchIndies
Myfathermovedinthelatterpartofthe1930sfromEnschedetotheDutchEastIndiestoservewiththeAirforceoftheRoyalDutchEastIndiesArmy.4HewasstationedattheSingosariairfieldnearMalangandmetmymotherinthetown.ShehadbeenborninMalangandlivedtherewithherparentsandyoungerbrother.5
Myparents6marriedon19January1942inMalang,whenwarhadjustbrokenoutintheDutchIndies.MyfatherwasstationedonSumatra(PakanBaru)andflewpatrolsovertheStraitofMalaccatointerceptsuspiciousvessels.Hewasgiventwodays’leavetomarrymymother.Onhismarriageday,2.5hoursaftertheweddingceremony,hewascalledbacktothefrontbyaliaisonofficer.ThenextdayhissquadronwentonamissiontobombJapanesetransportshipsinMuntok7harbour.8Myparentsdidnotseeeachotherforthenextfouryears.
AfterthesurrenderoftheRoyalDutchEastIndiesArmy,myfatherwastakenprisonerofwarinBandung.Mymotherandgrandmotherwereplacedinwomen’scampsinSoloandAmbarawa.Mygrandfather,whohadbeendraftedtoservewiththeRoyalDutch
1WillyAndrewGeorgeConstantHedrichvonWiederhold(Pladju,29November1903–Chungkai,26May1945).2EngineerThomasLucienHedrichvonWiederhold(Pasuruan,3November1896–Malaga,19April1970).3ThetermusedfortheemployeesoftheVOCatthetime.4InDutch:KoninklijkDutch-IndischLegerorKNIL.5Goentoerweg5.Thehousestillexists.6BernardJohannesMolenkamp(Enschede1917–Enschede1996)andGermaineHedrichvonWiederhold(1925).7MuntokislocatedonthewesterntipoftheislandofBangkainIndonesia.8Atranscriptofhisnotesmadeduringthewar,whichmyfatherhadmadeduringaconversationwiththehistorianP.Boer,isavailablefrommeorfromacopyheldbytheDutchMilitaryHistoryService(MilitairHistorischeDienst).
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EastIndiesArmyinfantry,wasdeportedtoSiam,togetherwithagreatnumberofotherprisoners,toworkontheBurmarailway.ImmediatelyaftertheJapanesesurrender,myfatherwascalledbacktoactiveservice.9MymotherandgrandmotherreturnedtoMalangbythemselves,10butwereplacedininternmentcampsagain,thistimebytheIndonesians.Theyhadlostcontactwithotherfamilymembersyearsearlier.Ayearlater,theyfoundoutthatmygrandfatherhaddiedandwasburiedinChunkaiinSiam,11afewmonthsbeforetheJapanesesurrenderon15August1945.12
IntheDutchEastIndiesapowervacuumremainedaftertheJapanesesurrenderon15August,leadingtoachaoticsituation.On17AugustIndonesiadeclareditsindependence.Irregularextremistgroups13movedabout,plunderingandkillingatrandom.TensofthousandsofDutchinhabitants14andevenJapanesewerekilled,untilsomecontrolwasre-establishedbytheBritishandlatertheDutch.Evenafterwards,thesituationremainedtenseanddangerous.Myparentsandmygrandmotherpersonallyexperiencedtheterrorsofthistime,whichalmostcostthemtheirlives.Myfatherfortunatelymanaged,withgreateffort,tofindmymother.HetookhertoBrisbane,15,16wherehehadbeenpostedtemporarily.InBrisbane,Iwasbornandnamedaftermydeceasedgrandfather.Aftersometime,wehadtoreturntoJava,wherethebattleforIndonesianindependencehadbrokenout.WelivedinRijswijk,aneighbourhoodinBatavia.MyfatherworkedatTjililitanairportandwaspickedupforworkandreturnedeverydaybyanarmedtransport.
BeforethetransferofpowertotheindependentstateofIndonesia,ourfamilyleftonleavetotheNetherlands.BecauseofthefurtherdevelopmentsinIndonesia,westayedintheNetherlandspermanently.SoonmygrandmothermovedfromSurabayatotheNetherlands.Threeyoungerbrotherswereborn;wegrewupinEnschede.Athome,therewasmuchtalkaboutIndonesia,thebeautifulperiodbeforethewarandthehardtimesafterwards.
ItwasneverdiscussedhowthenameofHedrichvonWiederholdhadendeduponJava.MymotherandgrandmotherweremoreinterestedintheWiederholdcoatofarms,whichhunginourlivingroomandwasspokenofwithpride.TheWiederholdfamilyhad,accordingtofamilyhistory,aninterestingpast,originatinginGermany.Oneofthe
9Iwillreturntothislater.Ipossessanaccountofhisexperiences,describinghowhewasorderedtotaketheKalibentangairport,nearSemarang,fromtheJapanese,andwascapturedbyIndonesianextremists.10Theirhousehadbythenbeenoccupied.Theymovedinforamonthwithmymother’sgrandmother,Mrs.D.Lammers,whoownedaprivatematernityhospitalandwhomtheJapanesehadallowedtostayinherhome.TheIndonesiansboycottedtheDutchbyshuttingdownthewaterandelectricitysupply.GivingfoodtoDutchpeoplewaspunishablebydeath.Later,thethreewomenwereinternedinanIndonesiancampinMalang,wherethesurvivedforalmostayearinappallingcircumstances.11ModernThailand.12LetterofMr.W.P.Broekema,B.B.G.Afd.OnderwijsBangkok,dated12July1946.Broekemahadbeeninthesamecamp.13Robbergroups,Muslimgroups,andirregulartroopsoftheTNI(Indonesiandarmy)andPamudas(armedyouthmilitias).Theyhaveoftenbeenunjustlylabelled‘freedomfighters’.See:H.Th.Bussemaker,Bersiap!Opstandinhetparadijs.DeBersiap-periodeopJavaenSumatra1945-1946.Zutphen:WalburgPress,2005.14Europeans,Indo-Europeans,Chinese,IndonesiansloyaltotheDutchgovernmentandothers.15Duringthewar,theDutchEastIndiesGovernmenthadbeenlocatedinAustralia.MyfatherwaspostedtothedepartmentofTrafficandWaterworkswiththe19thTransportSquadroninBrisbane.16Thishappenedon10July1946.TheyleftfromthemilitaryairportatTjililitan.Myfatherwasamemberofthecrew.Therewereonlyafewpassengersonboard,includingtheBaronvanAerssen.Thejourneyhadvariousstages:EastTimor,Clonkerry(Australia)andBrisbane.
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familymemberswasConradWiderhold,acareersoldierwhohadbecomeveryfamousinGermanybecauseofhisroleintheThirtyYears’War(1618-1648).Becauseofhim,manygenealogicalresearchersarestillactivelystudyingtheWiederholdfamilytree.Lesswell-knownWiederholdshavealsoreceivedsomeattentionintheprocess.17
1.3Connectingthedots
Onemorningaround1980-81,anelderlyGermancouplecalledatmymother’sdoor.18AlfredWiederholdfromKasselhadbeendoinggenealogicalresearchontheWiederholdfamilyfor55yearsandhadwrittenadetailedbookaboutit.Hehadcomeuponthe‘Indonesian’branchoftheWiederholds,partoftheso-called‘Homburg-andMünde-line’.InaDutchphonebookhehadfoundthenameandaddressofmygrandmother,Mrs.J.H.HedrichvonWiederhold-DeBruin,19andwantedtogetintouchwithher.MygrandmotherwasatfirstveryreluctanttoreceiveAlfred.ButwhenheshowedhertheWiederholdfamilycrest,sheconnectedthedots.Thiswasthestartofaninterestingrelationship.AlfredhadalreadychartedtheIndonesianbranch,basedondocumentswhichapparentlyhadsurvived.
Heshowedusthatsevengenerationsearlier,HeinrichJuliusWiederholdfromWanfried(Hessen)hadenteredintoservicewiththeVOCin1747andtravelledtotheEast.HisdescendantshadalwayslivedintheDutchEastIndiesuntiltheirdepartureafterthewar.ThiscleareduptheconnectionbetweentheWiderholdsinGermanyandtheIndonesianbranch.Inthepast30years,IhavelookedfurtherintoWiederhold’stracesintheDutchEastIndies.
1.4Methodandjustification Slowlythe‘skeleton’createdsoclearlybyAlfredWiederholdwasfleshedout.Asmyresearchprogressed,thepastcametolife.Thefamilyhistorieswhichmymotherandgrandmotherhadtoldme,wereconfirmedandsupplementedwithactualsupportingevidence.MywifeYvonneandIhave,sometimeswithmymother,travelledtoGermany,MalaysiaandIndonesiaseveraltimesinordertofollowthetracesoftheWiederholdsandcreateanimageoftheirlives.Inordertogetagoodpictureofthesituation,IreadagreatdealabouttheVOC20andDutchcolonialhistory.IreceivedgreatsupportfromacolleagueatKPMG,thelatePeterHollander,registeredaccountant.HegreatlyassistedmeinmyresearchattheDutchNationalArchivesinTheHague,aswellasintroducingmetootherresearchers.Iamstillverygratefultohim.TheNationalArchivesownanoverwhelmingamountofdigitallyaccessiblematerialsregardingtotheVOCandotherrelevantsubjects.AsIwentalong,IfoundmuchmorethanIhadexpected.Moreover,Iwasverylucky:the
17Amongothers,ProfessorGioWiederhold,professoratStanfordUniversity.IaminfrequentcorrespondencewithGioandhavemethimpersonally.Gioisoneofthefirst‘Computer’professorsintheUnitedStates.HehascreatedadigitaldatabaseofallWiederholds,sothatconnectionsbetweencurrentandpastWiderholdscanbeidentifiedimmediately.18AlfredWiederhold,Boyneburgstrasse2,D3500Kassel.RundbriefNr.5,January1983.19JeanetteHenriëtteHedrichvonWiederhold-DeBruin(1902-1994).
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digitalisationofsourcematerialcontinuedapace,sothatmanysourcesintheNetherlands,Germany,UnitedKingdomandMalaysiabecameaccessible.TheDutchCentralBureauforGenealogyturnedouttoownapublicationabouttheEuropeanpopulationofMalaccaunderDutchrule,21containinginterestinginformationaboutthesecondandthirdgenerationofWiederholdsinthearea.PeterHollanderpointedmeinthedirectionoftheMalaysianhistorianBarbaraWatsonAndaya,whohaspublishedseveralinterestingbooksaboutPerakintheeighteenthcentury,inwhichHendrikJuliusWiederholdfeaturesaswell.Shehasalsoprovidedmepersonallywithadditionalinformation.Finally,IwashappilysurprisedbyapublicationintheIndischeNavorser,publishedbytheIndonesianGenealogicalSociety(IndischGenealogischeVerenigingorIGV).RoeldeNeve,secretaryoftheIGV,hadstudiedthenamesWiederholdandHedrichvonWiederholdonhisowninitiativeandpublishedtheresults.22
Thisstudyformepersonallywasanexcitingjourneyofdiscovery,aswellasagreathobby.Moreover,myfamilyhistorywasagreatstartingpointtolearnmoreaboutthehistoryoftheVOCandtheDutchEastIndies,aswellasengrossmyselfinthewayoflifeofmyancestors.
ItshouldbenotedthatIwillnotdiscussthehistoryoftheDutchEastIndiesinfull,butonlythemainevents.Idonotintendtogiveacomplete,academicallyreliablesummary.23Ionlywishtotouchuponsome‘highlights’inordertoclarifymyaccount.Indoingso,IhavemadeafewexcursionsinthehistoryoftheVOC,insofarasthisisrelevantforthestoryoftheWiederholds.ReadersinterestedintheVOCIwouldliketorefertotheveryaccessibleworksofauthoritiessuchasFemmeGaastra24andElsJacobs.25
Inordertolivenupthestory,Hendrik’sexperiencesarewritteninpresenttense,whilegeneralhistoricaleventsaresetinthepasttense.Furthermore,Iuseseveraltermsforthesamething:theVOCisalsocalledthe‘Company’;theDutchEastIndiesalso‘Indonesia’or‘theEast’;a‘sultan’issometimescalleda‘ruler’.WhenIthoughtthiswasnecessary,Ihaveusedexplanatoryfootnotes.
NowontothestoryoftheWiderholdsinGermanyandHendrikJuliusWiederhold,anenterprisingyoungGerman,26whoenteredintoservicewiththeVOCandleftfortheEast–heneverreturnedtothecountryofhisbirth.
2.TheWiederholdfamilyinHessen
2.1.DistributionofthenameinGermany
21P.A.Christiaans,‘DeEuropesebevolkingvanMalaccaonderhetlaatsteNederlandsebestuur,1818-1825’.JaarboekCentraalBureauvoorGenealogie.Part40(1986)p.257-287.22DeIndischeNavorser,vol.18(2005)no.4.23HistoriansDavidArmitageandJoGuildihavecalledforhistoricalwritingwhichnotjustmentionsdryhistoricalfactsandfigures,but–inmywords–placeshistoryinacontemporarycontext,whichcanteachusvaluablelessons.Inmyview,manyoftheissueswhichthereaderwillencounterinmyaccountarestillrelevant.IwouldliketoanswerthecallofArmitageandothers.Iwillleaveittothereadertotranslatetheexperienceofthepastintothepresent.24FemmeS.Gaastra,DegeschiedenisvandeVOC.Zutphen:WalburgPress,1991.25ElsM.Jacobs,KoopmaninAzië.Zutphen:WalburgPress,1993.26N.B.Germanydidnotyetexistasaunitednationstate,butIwillusethenameforwantofabetterterm.
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ThefamilynameWiederhold(alsowritten‘Wedderholt’or‘Widerholt’)ismentionedinHessenaround1450.Thenameisstillcommoninthearea,especiallyaroundthecityofKassel.
Atfirstitwasafamilyofsmallbusinessmen,craftsmen,traders,clergymenandteachers,withafewmayorsandagovernor.AratherlargenumberofWiederholdswereprofessionalsoldiers.In1637onebranchoftheWiederholdfamilywasknightedandreceivedtherighttocallitself‘VonundinWiedenhoven’.Thefamilycrest,whichIhavementionedbefore,wasintroduced.27,28,29,30
Thefamilywasnotyetverywellknown.ThischangedduringtheThirtyYears’War(1618-1648),whenConradWiederhold,31aprofessionalsoldier,savedthefamilynameforposterity.HisactionsensuredthattheWiederholdnamebecameapopularsubjectforgenealogicalstudy.Thankstohim,Iwasable,centurieslater,todiscoverthefamilytreeoftheWiederholdsintheDutchEastIndies.
2.2.ConradWiederhold(1598-1667)32
Germany,asitisnowknown,didnotyetexist.ItwassubecttotheruleoftheHolyRomanEmperor,butinfactconsistedofhundredsofmoreorlessautonomousstates.ActualpowerhadbeenlocatedwiththeHabsburgsinAustriasince1453.In1618theThirtyYears’WarbrokeoutinGermany.
Atfirst,thisconsistedofaseriesofreligiousconflicts,escalatingintoadevastatingwarbetweentheGermanstatesthemselves,withtheimperialarmyandwithSweden.ConradWiederholdmadehisnameduringthiswar.Hewasamercenary(mountedmusketeer),whojoinedthearmyattheageof17.AfterhiseducationheservedwiththeHanserepublicofBremen,marriedthedaughterofthegarrisoncommanderofHelgoland33andthentravelledthroughoutEurope,34wherehebecameanexpertinthelatestmilitaryinnovations.HealsoservedinthearmyoftheNetherlandsandwaspostedinDelfzijl.InVenice,theheartlandofmilitaryinnovation,ConradmettheDukeofWürttemberg.Later,hejoinedtheDuke’sarmyathisrequest.Hewasquicklypromotedanddistinguishedhimselfonthebattlefield.In1632hewaspromotedtoOberst-Leutnant(Lieutenant-Colonel).
In1634ConradwasnamedcommanderofthefortressofHohentwiel(locatednearthemoderntownofSingenonLakeBoden).HohentwielwasownedbyEberhardIIIVonWürttemberg.ItwasthelastWürttembergianoutpostagainsttheimperialtroopsoftheHolyRomanEmpire.35EberhartIIIhimselffledtoStrasbourgandleftthedefenceof
27Fieldquarterly,silverandazure,withramescutcheon.Quarters1and4ingoldwithblackeagle;quarter2and3inred,chevronsilverwiththreegreencloverleaves.28Kneschke’sAdelslexicon.Band9,p.567.29GeslechterundSiegelkunde.DasGeslechtvonWiederhold,undateddocumentfromthe19thcenturyinGothicscript.30ByWürttembergiandecreeof29November1824forCunovanWiederhold,aWürttembergianmajor-general,thestatusofnobilitywasagainconfirmed.31Obrist(Chief)ConradWiderhold.32FriedrichCarst.HistorieundgenealogischesAdelsbuchdesKonigreichsWürttemberg.II.GenealogiedesRitterschaftlichenAdels.Stuttgart,1839.33DuringamilitaryparadeattendedbythedaughterofthecommanderofHelgoland,whowasonhorseback,Wiederhold’smusketaccidentlyfired.Thehorseofthecommander’sdaughterspooked.Hemanagedtosaveherandthuswonherheart.34EspeciallyEngland,theNetherlands,France,Portugal,Spain,ItalyandCorfu.35FerdinandIIandFerdinandIII,ArchDukesofAustria.
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HohentwieltoConrad.DespiteEberhardtIII’srequesttoleaveHohentwieltotheemperor,Conrademphaticallyrefused.Hedefendedthefortressveryablyforfourteenyears,andsurvivednolessthanfivesiegesbytheimperial,SpanishandBavariantroops.Hetookallstepsnecessary:allpossibledefensivepositionsinthesurroundingswererazedtotheground.Nearbyfiefdomswereobligedtopaytribute.RaidswerecarriedoutacrosssouthernGermanyinordertoweakentheenemyasmuchaspossible.Conradwasfeared,butatthesametimerespectedforhisfairness,integrityandmoralcharacter.HeneverforgottheescapedDuke,whowasseriouslyshortofmoney.Hebroughthimcashthroughsoldiersdressedasbeggars.Hewasalsoastrictlyreligiousprotestant.Duringthesieges,hebuiltachurchinthefortress,36whereheoftenpreachedhimself.Conradwasrewardedforhisservicesandreceived,amongotherrewards,thefiefdomofNeidlingenandthetitleofKriegsrat.37
Hecaredgreatlyforthepoor,thesickandtheinjured.Theeducationofyoungpeoplewasneartohisheartandhecreatedafundforthispurposewithastartingcapitalof15,000guilders.Afterhisdeath,ofnaturalcauses,hewasburiedwithhiswifeinSt.Martin’schurchinKirchheim.Theirmonumentsandepitaphsareagreathomage.
ThefortificationHohentwielwaswidelyknown,especiallyduringtheRomanticperiod.IntheNapoleonicera,HohentwielwasblownupbyFrenchtroopsundergeneralVanDamme,althoughittookthemsevenweekstodestroythesolidly-builtfortress.Inthemidstoftheruins,abustofWiederholdhasbeenplaced.Tohonourhismemory,thetownofSingenregularlyorganizestheWiederholdFeste.Hewasfearedamongthepopulationforalongtime.MotherswithunrulychildrenthreatenedtocallWiederhold.I’mnotsurethiswaseffective–pedagogicalideashavechangedsincethen.
2.3.Widerhold’slinkwiththeNetherlands
Asmentionedbefore,ConradWiderholdbrieflyservedintheNetherlands.ThereisanotherconnectionbetweentheWiderholdsandtheNetherlands,whichisinterestingtomention.GeorgReinhardWiederholdvanWeidenhovenwasamilitarybusinessman,a‘colonnel’.HeworkedasamercenarywitharegimentofWallonianhorsemen,whichherecruitedhimselfandequippedathisowncost.HefoughtintheDutchEightyYears’WarfirstundertheroyalistHendrik,EarlvandenBerg,38ontheSpanishside,againsttheDutchtroops.HewasknightedbytheemperoroftheHolyRomanEmperor39andcalledhimself‘WiderholtvanWeidenhofen’,lordofPoederoojen,colonnelandgovernorofBoekholt.40HeacquiredthefiefdomPoederooijenon27May1645.GeorgWiderholtthenchangedtotheDutchside,when
36ToobtainanorganforhisnewchurchhetookthecityofÜberlingenonLakeBoden.Hedidnotwantmoney,butonlytheorgan,andhegotit.37Conradcontinuedhisprofessionasanarmycommanderandtookservicewith,amongothers,LouisXIII.38AsonoftheoldestsisterofWilliamofOrangeandthereforeacousinofStadtholderFrederikHendrik.HewasaprominentsoldierintheSpanishcamp,whomovedtotheStadtholder’ssidebecauseofdissatisfactionwithSpanishdominanceandthroughbribes.39Carst,AdelsbuchdesKönigsreichsWürttemberg;Adelsblatt1889,p.71.40SeeRegionaalArchiefRivierenland3508WapenalbumsFamiliewapensBommelerwaardNr.Wied/3122andtheregisteroftheGeldersArchief,RegisterLeenakteboekenvanGelreenZutphene.a.no.325,p.719-721bySloete.a.
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HendrikvandenBergstartedtoworkfortheRepublic(DutchStatesGeneral)in1632.Atthatpointheledfivecompanies,withatotalof619men.41On1Novemberhisfivecompanieswerereducedtooneof150men,inordertosavemoney.TheDutchStatesGeneralonlypayhimacaptain’swage.Therefore,in1642hejoinedtheLandgravineofHessen,eventhoughthecontinuedtoliveinHolland.
GeorgfirstlivedinthecentreofDelft,hisfavouritetown.42In1642heboughtaplotfromtheEarldomofHollandattheBuitenhof37inTheHagueandbuiltahousethere.43ThishouseiscurrentlynamedtheVijverhof,alsoknownasNoyelleshuis,44andhousestheMinisteryofGeneralAffairs.Varioussketchesofthetownmadeinthe17thcenturyindicatethehouseasbelongingto‘Capiteyn’(Captain)Widerholt,ontheroadfromTheHaguetoRijswijkandDelft.
GeorgReinhardfoughtinthelastyearoftheThirtyYears’WarasacolonelundergeneralKarlRabenhauptagainsttheimperialarmyledbygeneralHolzappel.AtthesiegeofHombergcastleinHomburg/Efze(NorthernHessen)helosttheupperpartofhislegbyaricochetingmissile.45Hediedthenextday,8February1648.HewasburiedthenextmonthintheNewChurchinDelft,nexttohiswife,ElizabethVoller,whohadpredeceasedhim.Histombwithnameandtitlesismentionedinoldinventories,buthasnowdisappeared.46,47
3.HendrikJuliusWiederhold
3.1.Hisfamily HendrikJuliusWiederholdisbornon6June1724inWanfriedinHessen,asHeinrichJulius,sonofthemerchantArnoldHeinrichWiederhold48,49andAnnaMariaWalter.50
3.2.HeinrichJuliusleavesforAmsterdam 41HewashiredbyHendrik,EarlvandenBerg,afterthelatterhadbetrayedtheSpanishcauseinthesouthernNetherlands,toservetheSpanishwiththetroopshehadraised.42HeismentionedinthecityarchivesofDelftinrelationtotaxdeclarations.43Dr.W.Moll,‘DieHaghe.’Jaarboek-DieHaghe,1945,p.106,107,13244https://nl.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vijverhof_(DenHaag).TheplotwaslocatedatthecorneroftheVijverdamandtheBuitenhof.ItwasboughtfromtheEarldomofHollandandthehousewasbuiltonWiderholt’sinstructionsbystonemasonAdriaanszoon’tHooftandmasonThomasJasperssenHogendorp.Whenthebuildingwasfinished,Widerholt’sfinanceswereratherdesperate,porbablybecauseofdevelopmentsinthewar.In1680thehousewasacquiredbytheCountdeNoyelles,alsoacareersoldier.45KarlFreiherrRabenhauptvonSucha.DerDreissigerjährigeKrieginSelbstzeugnisseChronikeundBerichte.http://www.30jaehrigerkrieg.de/rabenhaupt-karl-freiherr-rabenhaupt-von-sucha-3/46LordofBoekholt(Bocholt?)andVanPoederooijen.47GioWiderhold(seenote17)andIwereunabletofindthetomb.Graveswereoften‘reused’inthisperiod.ThetombismentionedbyPhileleutherusTimaretes(pen-nameofTheodorusJanssoniusvanAlmeloveen),AlbertusFrese,VerzamelingvangedenkstukkeninNederland,uitgeestelykeetc.etc.,Vol.2.48SonandsixthchildofChristophHeinrichWiederholdandKatharinaElisabethHillgard(born18January1665inMünden,died5November1730inGöttingen).Christoph’sfatherwasHeinrichWiederhold,merchantandmayorofMünden(born24January1620,died27September1680inMünden);inthevillageofBühreninSt.Blasius’churchatombstoneisstillpresent.HisfatherwasJohannes(born1578inHomberg,died30May1626inMünden),firstteacherinHannover,laterministerinBühren.49Born10March1698inMünden,died17March1757inWanfried.50StammfolgenWiederholdausHomberg/Efze;bearbeitetundverlegtvonAlfredWiederhold,Kassel(1981);55JahreFamilieforschungWiederhold.VortragvonAlfredWiederhold,Kassel(1985).
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Inhistwenties,HeinrichleaveshisplaceofbirthandleavesforAmsterdam.In1747hejoinstheVOC(DutchEastIndiesCompany,alsoknownastheCompany)asasoldier.WedonotknowhowhetravelledtoAmsterdam.MostGermansfromHesseneitherwalkedthroughtheEasternNetherlandsorsaileddowntheRhine.51ThejourneytoAmsterdamwasnotfreeofriskatthistime.Travellerswereoftenassaultedandrobbed.ThesituationintheDutchUnitedProvinceswasunstableinanycase.TheFrenchhadinvadedtheDutchUnitedProvincesin1747andhadalreadytakenDutchFlandersandBergenopZoom.
Wedon’tknowwhyHeinrichJuliuswantedtogototheEastIndies.HisfatherwasamerchantandcouncillorinWanfriedandalsoownedaninninthetown.UndoubtedlyhisfatherknewpeoplewhoknewabouttheVOC;perhapsstoriesabouttheEastmadeHeinrichJuliuscurious.HewasnottheonlyGermanwhojoinedtheVOC,becausetheUnitedProvinceswereveryattractivethroughoutEuropeintermsoflabouropportunities.
3.3.GermansservingtheCompany
Inthemid-eighteenthcentury,everyyearsome33,000GermansmovedtotheUnitedProvincesinsearchofwork.ManyofthemjoinedtheVOC,orasitwascalledatthetime,became‘servants’oftheVOC.ThiswasaremarkablyhighnumberofmigrantscomparedtotheDutchpopulationofca.2million.52IfwecalculatethisrateforthecontemporaryNetherlands,withca.16millioninhabitantsin2016,thiswouldmeanmorethan250,000Germanimmigrantsperyear!
ThroughouttheexistenceoftheVOC(1602-1799)60%ofthesoldiersand40%ofthesailorswereforeigners.MostofthoseworkingonVOCshipscame,intheseventeenthcentury,fromNorway,Denmark,theGermanNorthSeacoastandtheBalticstates.ThesoldiersandcraftsmenweremostlymenfromtheinlandGermanstates.Withoutthisimmigration,itwouldhavebeenimpossibleforamultinationalliketheVOCtohaveexistedforsuchalongperiodoftime.TheliteraturesketchesapersistentlynegativeimageofthelowerpersonneloftheVOC,offoreignorigins,whoaredescribedas‘agreymass,acollectionofthievesandvagabonds,whojoinassoldiersorsailors,asadesperatemoveinahopelesssituation’.Similarly,theship’ssurgeonNicolaasdeGraaffwroteinhistraveljournalaround170053thattheVOCwasahavenforthepoor,includingmenfromPoland,Sweden,Denmark,‘theNorth’,Jutland,Hamburg,Bremen,Lübeck,Danzig,Königsberg,High-Germans,‘theEast’,Westphalia,Bergen,Gulik,Cleve‘andallotherkindsofKrauts,bastards,mutts,wagelabourersandothercows,whostillhavethegrassbetweentheirteeth…’
Thisverynegativeimageshouldbenuanced,inmyview.Nodoubtthereweremanymigrantswhomatchedtheprejudicesketchedabove.ButtherewerealsoseveralgoodreasonsforyoungGermanmentoleavetheirnativecountry.Notjustthegenerallydepressedeconomicsituation,butalsoaneagernesstotravel,curiosity,entrepreneurialspirit,‘Wanderschaft’54orthewishtoavoidbeingpressedintothearmywerevalid51RoelofvanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur:DuitsersindienstvandeVOC.Nijmegen:SUNPress,1997.52https://www.rug.nl/staff/r.f.j.paping/urbanisatietilburg2009powerpoint.pdf53NicolaasdeGraafjoinedtheVOCasship’ssurgeonin1639,travelledextensivelywiththeVOCandpublishedtraveljournals.54Theobligationforapprenticestoundertakeworkexperienceelsewhere.
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reasons.Amongthemigrantswefindstudents,craftsmen,soldiers,merchants,accountants,surgeonsandmanyotherskilledmen.InwhatisnowtheNetherlandspeopleoftenlookeddownoneconomicmigrantsandespeciallyonGermans.ForthisgroupitwasimpossibletosailtotheEastotherthanassimplesoldiersorsailors,despitetheirqualifications.TheVOC’spolicywastoappointonlyDutchmenasship’scommanders,magistratesintheEastandhigh-rankedbusinessmen.55ThesameappliedtoHendrikJulius.Hewasprobablyacapablewriterandbookkeeper,butjoinedtheVOCasasoldier.
3.4.JoiningasasoldierintheVOCChambersinAmsterdam
HendrikJulius(we’llcallhim‘Hendrik’)joinsasasoldierforawageof9guilderspermonth(about186eurosincurrentvalue),attheVOCChamberinAmsterdam,56locatedintheEastIndiaHouse,whichstillexists.57TheVOCdidnotsetspecificphysicalrequirementsforitssoldiers.WeonlyknowthatsoldiersfromWürttemberghadtobeatleast1.50metrestall.Hendrikishiredandleaveswiththeship‘Domburg’toBatavia.Inhisship’swagebook,theGeneralLand-andSeajoiningrolls,58andlatercorrespondencebytheVOChisfirstnameis‘Dutchified’asHendrik59insteadofHeinrich.Atdeparture,heisgiven18guildersspendingmoney.Asumof150guildersiswrittenoff,probablyasareimbursementforhisstayinAmsterdam.Furthermore,9guildersand25centsarechargedforhisseachest.
Allthisinformationistakenfromhisship’swagebookattheship‘Domburg’underthename‘HendrikJuliusWiederhold’.Fromthemomentofjoininguntilhisdeath,morethan40yearslater,all(financial)transactionswereaccountedforinhisship’swagebook–aremarkableachievementforthisperiod.ThereforeIwouldliketodiscussbrieflythepayrolloftheVOC:theGeneralLand-andSeajoiningrollsandtheships’wagebooks.
3.5.The‘GeneralLand-andSeajoiningrolls’andtheships’wagebooks:theVOC’spayroll60
EachChamberoftheVOCmaintaineditsownpayroll,accordingtonationallyarrangedrules.EveryyeartheCompanymadealistofallitspersonnelonlandandsea,the‘servants’inAsiaandtheCapeofGoodHope.TheseGeneralLand-andSeajoiningrollslistthousandsofVOCservants,withtheirranksandstations.
TheLandjoiningrolldistinguishedbetweencivilianandmilitarypersonnel.EveryservantoftheVOCwasassignedarankwithamatchingwage.Withineachrank,therewereseveralpositions.
55VanGelder,HetOost-Indischavontuur.56TheVOChadsixChambers,ofwhichtheAmsterdamChamberwasoneofthemostimportant.57Currentaddress:Kloveniersburgwal48,Amsterdam.58InDutch:GeneraleLand-enZeemonsterrollen.59IntheregisteroftheNationalArchivehisnameiswronglyspelledasWiederholt,apparentlyastheresultofacopyingerror.InthevariousVOCdocumentshisnameisspelledendinginD.60AgreatoverviewofthepersonneladministrationoftheVOCwaswrittenbythelatePeterHollander.ItisavailableonthewebsiteoftheVOCChamber(Caemer)DieHaghe;non-membersmayapproachthesecretaryoftheChamberorthepresentauthor(http://www.voccaemer.nl/fileadmin/afbeeldingen/Het_personeel_van_de_VOC.pdf)
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Thebasisofthepayrollweretheships’wagebooks.TheselistedthepersonaldetailsandwagesofallthosesailingoneachVOCship.Thedatawereenteredperemployee.Thepayrollstartedwiththedateonwhichtheshiplefttheshoreandendedwiththepaymentofthesumthesailor(orarightfulclaimant)wasowedattheendofthecontract.Forsafety,copiesweresentbothtotheofficeinBataviaandtherelevantVOCChamberintheNetherlands.Eachyearallchangesintheship’sbookwerelistedunderthenameoftheshipwhenitleftshore.TheVOCpersonnelwasatitlargestaround1750,whenitemployedaround25,000people.Itwasapainstakingjobtokeepthepayrolluptodate,buttheVOCwasverygoodat‘payrollmanagement’.Ofalleighteenth-centuryship’swagebooks,about95%havesurvived:2.797booksoutof2.950journeysfromtheNetherlands.Thankstothiswell-oiledadministrativemachinewenowhaveaseriesofships’bookwithover700,000namesofVOCservants,whichhavebeenwrittendowninauniformmannerwithveryfewmistakes.
Since2003,thearchivesoftheVOChavebeenlistedasUnescoWorldHeritageinthe‘documents’category.UnescoconsidersthearchivethelargestandmostimpressiveofallearlymodernEuropeantradingcompaniesactiveintheEast.TheVOCarchivesarekeptbygovernmentorganizationsinCapeTown,Chennai,Colombo,JakartaandTheHague.About25millionpageshavesurvived.AccordingtoUnesco,theconstitutethemostdetailedandmostcompletesourcefromearlymodernworldhistory,astheycontainrelevantinformationaboutthehistoryofhundredsoflocalpoliticalandtradeorganizationsinAsiaandAfrica.TheVOCarchives,moreover,containawealthofinformation,onavarietyofsubjects(climate,sociology,botanyetcetera),thatisstillofvaluetoscientists.
4.Hendrik’sjourneytoBatavia
4.1.TheshipDomburg
HendriktravelstoBataviaintheship‘Domburg’,weighing850ton.Itwasbuiltin1740,commissionedbytheZeelandChamber.OnitsthirdjourneytoJava,itleavestheroadsteadatTexelon3March1747,61commandedbycaptainLeendertBonekamp.Theweatherthatdayisbleak(2degreesCelsius)andcloudywithanorth-westerlywind.Theshipiscarrying201sailors,112soldiersandthreecraftsmen.
The‘Domburg’doesnot,aswasusualatthetime,visittheCapeofGoodHope.Instead,theDomburgisatBayFalse62from10Juneto4July1747,beforeitcontinuesonitswaytoBatavia.Theshiparrivesthereon17September1747.63OnthewaybacktotheNetherlands,inearly1748,theDomburgisshipwreckedsomewherebetweenBataviaandCapeTown,carryingcargovaluedat212.281guilders.Tomyknowledge,thewreckhasneverbeenfound.
Hendrik’sjourneytotheEastwasnotfreeofdanger.Shipscouldsinkorbecapturedontheway.Forthesailorsandsoldiersonboard,thelivingcircumstanceswereveryhard,asIwilldiscussthisinmoredetailinthenextsection.
61ThosesailingontheshipwerebroughtfromAmsterdamtoTexelinsmallervessels.62Abayabout48kmfromCapeTown.63CeesBasker,curatoroftheWest-FriesMuseum,letterdated8July1997toMr.P.Hollander.
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4.2.TravellingtotheEastbyshipinHendrik’stime
Between1602and1795,4,721VOCships,carryingatotalof973,000Europeans,sailedfromtheRepublictoAsia.Inthesameperiod,3,354shipswith366,900occupantsreturnedfromtheEasttotheRepublic.
Theaveragenumberofpeopleonboardtheshipsduringtheoutwardjourneywas206,whilethiswas109onthereturnjourney.ThedifferencecanbeexplainedbythedeathofmanyCompanyservantseitheronboardorintheEast.Manyotherservantspreferredtosettledownoverseas.64Theoccupantsformedamixedgroup,originatingintheRepublic,Germany,ScandinaviaandothercountriesaroundtheBalticSea.Theofficersandpassengersenjoyedseparatecabins,whiletherestofthecrewhadtofindspacebelowdeckorinthe“cowbridge”,thelowestdeckabovethehold.Inthislow,narrowanddarkspacethemensleptclosetogether,betweenthecannons,theship’sgearandtheirseachests,inhammocksmadeofsailclothwithamattress,pillowandblanket.
Freshaironlyenteredthroughtheportholesandhatches,butthesewereclosedinbadweather.Thecrewwas‘aired’everydayinfrontofthemainmast,iftheweatherpermitted.Lightingbelowdeckswaslimited.Theportholesandhatchesadmittedsomelight,whentheywereopeninfineweather.Ifnecessary,thecrewusedoillamps.Thefoodonboardwassufficientincalorificenergybutveryfattyandsaltyandlackedvitamins.Greatamountsoffoodweretakenonboardforthejourney.Foracrewof350,theshipcarried55,000poundsofbread,22,000poundsofmeat,10,000poundsofbacon,3,700poundsofbutterand700cheeses.
Therationsweredescribedindetailintheso-called‘articleletter’oftheVOCandwerecarefullymeasured.Fornormalsailors,therationperweekwas330gramsofmeat,660gramsofbacon,220gramsofbutterforthebread,one‘mutsje’ordram(25cl)ofvinegarandonedramofoliveoil.Provisionsoftenspoiledbecauseofthebadqualityofthepurchasedgoodsandthecircumstancesonboard.
Greatamountsofbeer,brandy,wineandwaterwerecarried.Everycrewmanreceivedtwolitresofbeerperdayatthebeginningofthejourney.Thesupplyofbeerlastedaboutthreemonths.Furthermore,everyonereceivedfourdramsofginorbrandyperday,dilutedwithwater.Atthetime,ginwasconsideredamedicinaldrink,notanalcoholicbeverage.Whenthebeerranout,thedrinkingwatersupplywasdrawnupon.Thiswassufficientforfourmonths.Becauseoftheheatandbiologicalpollution,itsqualityrapidlydecreased.Threemealsweretakenonboardeveryday.Breakfastwasconsumedat8AM,aftermorningprayers,andconsistedofgroatsmixedwithplumsorraisins,oftendilutedwithwater,beerorwine.Thenoonmealconsistedofboiledbeansorpeaswithabutterorfatsauce.Fourdaysaweekthiswassupplementedwithsaltedcod,twodaysaweekwithbaconandonedayaweekwithsaltbeef.Fordinner,theleftoversofthenoonmealwereused,supplementedwithbreadandbeer.Freshmeatwassometimesonthemenu,whenchickensorpigswereslaughtered.Thesailorsalsocaughtfish,or,whentheywerenearland,sealsandturtles.Therewerefewcomplaintsaboutthefoodanddrink:
64VOCKenniscentrum.http://www.voc-kenniscentrum.nl/themas.html
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feedbackbycomplainantswasmercilesslypunishedwithafloggingandastayinthelockup.Thisefffectivelyquelledanycomplaints.MortalityratesonboardofVOCshipsarenotexactlyknown;itisestimatedthatabout15%ofoccupantsdidnotsurvivetheoutwardjourney,against10%forthereturn.Onboard,diseaseslikemalaria,beriberi,colds,pneumoniaandscurvywerecommon.ThecoldandraininEuropeandthehotdaysandcoldnightsinthetropicsoftencausedcommoncoldsandpneumonia.Themendidnotalwaysownadequateclothingtoprotectthemselvesagainstthecold.SometimestheyhadsoldtheirwarmclothesinAmsterdam,becausetheyhadbeentoldtheywouldn’tneedtheminthehotclimate.Somemendidn’townmorethanonesetofclothing,sothattheyhadtosleepintheirwetclothes.Inordertopreventillnessasaresultofthecoldandwetweather,theships’occupantsweregivenextrawineandbrandyseveraltimesaweek,usuallyinthemorningonanemptystomach.
AfterapublicationbytheScottishscientistJamesLind65in1753,aboutthebeneficialeffectsoflemonagainstscurvy,theVOCquicklymovedtoprovidetheships’occupantswithonespoonof‘lemon’juiceaday,beforebreakfast.Immediatelythepercentageofdeathsonboardfellto2-3%.
TheboardoftheVOC,the‘Heeren17’(SeventeenLords)hadissuedvarioushygienicinstructions.66Everyday,theshipsmustbecleanedandwastedisposedof;severaltimesaweekthebaggageshouldbebroughtuptothedeck,sothattheholdcouldbescrubbed.Inthisperiod,diseaseswereusuallyblamedon‘badair’(miasma).Therefore,thesailors’andsoldiers’quarterswereregularlysprayedwithvinegar;gunpowderandjuniperberrieswereburnedto‘clean’theair.67When,despitethesepreventivemeasures,diseasebrokeoutonboard,theillhadtobeisolated.Inpracticethisusuallydidnotsucceed,becauseofthelimitedspace.Forthetreatmentofwoundsafteraccidents,theshipsemployedsurgeons,buttheycouldonlyofferbasicmedicalassistance.Ifthesurgeonscoulddonothing,the‘comfortersofthesick’steppedin.Thecomforterswere‘preachers’withoutanyeducation.Theyreadprayersinthemorningandeveningandsangafewpsalms.OnSundaystheywereexpectedtogiveasermon,whiletheyalsoassistedthesickanddyingbyreadingprayers.Still,itwasnotallbad.Afterthedailylabour,therewastimeforentertainmentduringthejourney.Ingoodweather,playswereperformedandtherewasmusic,singinganddancing.Chessandcheckerswerealsopopular,butcardsanddicewereexpresslyforbiddenandpunishedwithafine.Sometimesphysicalgamesgotquitewild,suchasthe‘miller’sgame’,wheretheplayerswereroughlytreatedphysicallyandmentally.HendrikJuliusmusthavebeenstrong,becausehesurvivedthelongandnodoubtarduousjourneyonthe‘Domburg’,incontrasttosomeoftheotheroccupantsoftheship.Butthiswasnottheendofthechallengesthathefaced.OnarrivalinBatavia,newordealsawaitedhim.
65JamesLind,Atreatiseofthescurvyinthreeparts.Aninquiryintothenature,causesandcureofthatdisease.Edinburgh:A.Kincaid&A.Donaldson,1753.66Intheso-called‘articleletters’.67Withtoday’sknowledgewecansaythatthishasaslightlydisinfectingeffect.Theburningofgunpowderreleasessulphurdioxide,whichcertainlyhasdisinfectantqualities.Vinegarisknownforitsbactericidaleffect.
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InthenextchapterIwilldiscussBatavia,itshistoryanditsroleinthetradenetworkoftheVOC.
5.Batavia
5.1.HistoryandroleofthecityofBataviafortheVOC
Bataviahadbeenfoundedin1619withtheexpressintentiontofunctionastheheadquartersoftheVOC.TheVOCfocusedprimarilyontradeandespeciallyonsellingspices68fromtheEastinEurope,whichbroughtinlargeprofitsfortheCompany.ButtheVOChadlittletoofferintermsofEuropeanproductsthatwereofvaluefortheAsianmarket.Tofinanceitstrade,therefore,largequantitiesofsilver,goldandcashhadtobroughtinfromEurope.Governor-generalJanPieterszoonCoen(1587-1629)quicklyrealizedthatastrongtradenetworkinAsiawasrequiredtosystematicallysolvetheshortageofpreciousmetals.
ThesaleofChinesesilktoJapanwasatfirstareliableandprofitablesourceofgoldandsilver,aswellascopper.ThissilverwasusedtobuytextilesinIndia,whichwerethentradedforpepperandspicesinSouthEastAsia.ThustheVOCslowlybuiltanetworkoffactories(tradingposts),whichsuppliedsilver,tin,timber,skins,copper,sulphur,ivory,betelnutsandopium.Thispan-Asiantradenetworkwasalsocalledthe‘Indianoutertrade’.69
CoenknewthatapermanentbaseinEasternIndonesiawasnecessaryfortheproperfunctioningofthe‘outertrade’.Severalpossiblesettlementlocationswereconsidered.ThefirstoptionwasthetownofMalacca,whichintheearlyseventeenthcenturywasheldbythePortuguese.‘Governor’CorneliusMateliefdeJongewassentin1605fromtheNetherlandswithafleetoftwelveships,carrying1,300men,totakeMalacca.HewasassistedbythesultanofJohor,whohadbeenexpelledbythePortuguese.Despiteheavybattlesonlandandsea,thePortuguesewereexpelledonlyin1641.ThiswastoolateaccordingtoCoen,whodidnotwanttowaitthislong.Therefore,heconqueredJacatraontheislandofJavaon30May1619andfoundedthetownofBataviaasheadquartersanddistributioncentreoftheVOC.
Coen’sinitialintentionwastomakeBataviaafreetradepostwithaDutchcolonyofcitizensettlers,whowouldbefreetotrade.Thisfailed,becausethetownwasnotdesirableenoughtoattractcolonistsfromEurope.TheVOCboardthereforechangeditspolicyanddecidedon13April1652torefusefurthercolonistsfromtheNetherlands,withtheexceptionofwivesofthehigherandmiddlemanagementoftheVOC.ThetradeprivilegesoftheBataviancitizenswhohadalreadysettledtherewerewithdrawn.TheCompanytookoverthemonopolyontradeinlucrativegoods,asthisbroughtinlargeamountsofmoneyforthetownofBatavia.Furthermore,untiltheendoftheEighty
68Pepper,nutmeg,maceandcloves.69TradewithinAsiawasveryprofitablefortheVOCuntiltheendoftheseventeenthcentury.Later,tradewithJapanbywayofDejimalargelydriedupandtheexportofsilverandgoldfromJapanwasforbidden.Inthesecondhalfoftheeighteenthcenturytrademovedfromexpensiveluxurygoodstocheapermass-produceditems,whichloweredtheprofitmargin.
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Years’War,privateeringwasveryprofitable,70especiallythecaptureofPortuguesecarracks71indeStraitofMalacca.Bataviadevelopedintoalargetown,designedaccordingtoaDutchmodel,withtypicallyDutchcanalsandhouses.72Thetownquicklybecameacommerciallypowerfulforce,takingupanindependentpositioninbetweentheexistingprincipalitiesofJava.TheprimaryaimoftheVOCwastrade,asmentionedabove,notexpansionofterritory.Nevertheless,theVOCwasoftendrawnintotheconflictsbetweentheprincipalitiesintheIndonesianarchipelago.InexchangeformilitarysupporttheVOCreceivedimportanttradingpostsandmonopolies.
5.2.Hendrik’sarrivalinBatavia
Wedon’tknowmuchaboutHendrik’sarrival,exceptforthedate,17September1747.InBataviathisisthedryseason;themonsoonwillstartinafewmonths.Thetemperaturewillhavebeenaround30degreesCelsiusduringthedayandabout20atnight.
5.3.Thesoldiers’lifeinBatavia
Usingtraveljourneysbycontemporaries,wecangainanimpressionoftheusualcourseofeventsandlivingcircumstancesatthetimeofHendrik’sarrival.Hendrik,withhisfellowsoldiers,willhaveenteredthecastleofBataviathroughtheWaterGate.Thecastlewasthefortressthatservedasthecommandpostofthegovernor-generalandhisstaff,fromwhichtheentireareaundercontroloftheVOCwasruled.Thecastlehadagarrisonofabout800to1000soldiersandhousedfacilitiessuchasbarracks,ahospital,alaboratoryetcetera.ItwaslocatedontheSundaKelappa,Batavia’sport.ThisalsoheldthehugeandheavilyguardedwarehousesoftheVOCandalargeshipyard.73
Thesoldierswereassignedtothebulwarksofthecastleandthecitygates.Theywerehousedinbarracks.Thosewhoweremoreorlesshealthyandweretoserveonlandweregivesthreedays’leave,theso-called‘baarsedagen’(newbiedays).TheycouldusethistimetovisitBataviaandgetusedtotheclimateandtheinhabitants.Next,thenewarrivalswereassignedtotheirdefinitivepostingandposition,dependingontheirjobexperienceinEuropeandthequalitiestheyhadshowntopossess.Hendrikwasnodoubtassignedonthebasisofhiswritingandbookkeepingskills.Afterthis,thesoldierscouldbesenttooneofthemanyoutpostsoftheCompany.
Countlesssoldiersandsailorswerealreadyillwhentheyarrived,orfellsickbecauseofthesuddenchangeinclimateandfood.Inthe‘InnerHospital’,builtin1640,160,000Companyservantsdied,75%ofthemafter1733.Mortalityratesrosealarminglyespeciallyintheeighteenthcentury.Ofthe473,000peoplewhoarrivedbetween1730and1798,25%diedinthedampandbadlyventilatedInnerHospital.Therewasareasonforitspopularname,the‘MurderPit’.TheVOChadunknowinglycontributedto
70Thiswasarrangedbylaw.Theprivateersweregrantedspecialpermissionbythegovernment,theso-called‘privateerletters’(inDutch:kaperbrieven).71Largemerchantships.72HendrikE.Niemeijer.Batavia.Eenkolonialesamenlevinginde17eeeuw.Amsterdam:BalansPress,2005.73TheSundaKelappastillexists,butthefunctionoftheporthaschanged.UnderDutchrule,anewport,TandjongPriok,wasbuilt.ThemodernSundaKelappaharbourisprimarilyaimedatnationaltraffic,forexampleBugischooners.ThecastlewasmostlydemolishedunderDutchruletomakespaceformaritimeworks.TheVOCwarehousesandshipyardstillexistandfunctionasamaritimemuseumandexhibitionspacerespectively.
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thisbythecreationofgreatnumbersoffishpondsinBatavia.Togetherwiththecanals,theywereprimebreedinggroundsformalariamosquitos.UntiltheeighteenthcenturyVOCsoldiersinAsiaworenouniformsandwereshabbilydressed.Oftentheywentbarefoot.Eveniftherewasmilitaryclothingavailable,itwasexpensiveand,duetothewoolthatwasused,notsuitablefortropicalclimates.
ThegarrisonfoodinBataviawasboring.Inbigcauldrons,riceandkatjang(anoverarchingtermforlegumes)werecookedfor100to200men,ofwhicheveryonecouldeathisfill.Itcouldbemadepalatablewithsalt,pepperandvinegar.ThursdaysandSundaysasoupofbuffalomeatandricewascreated,theso-called‘Poespas’.OnSundaysakindofcoconutpastewasalsoserved,called‘Liplap’.Iwouldn’tbesurprisedifthesoldierssometimesboughtlocalfoodatthepasar,74attheirownexpense.
6.Hendrik’spostingtoMalacca
6.1.Anewpost
HendriksurvivesthehardshipsofBatavia.InMarch1748,almostsixmonthsafterhisarrivalinBataviaandayearafterhisdeparturefromAmsterdam,heistransferredtoMalacca.75MalaccaislocatedontheMalaysianpeninsula,ca.250kmnorth-westofthemodernSingaporeandabout1,280kminadirectlinefromBatavia.Mostlikely,WiederholdhasbythentransferredtothecivilianbranchoftheVOC,perhapsbecauseofhisskillsinwritingandbookkeeping,becausehewillbetakingonfinancialandadministrativetasksinMalacca.
FirstalittlebitaboutthebackgroundofMalacca,theimportanceofthistownfortheVOCanditsroleinthetradenetworkswithinAsia.
6.2.ThepositionofthetownofMalaccaintheVOC’stradenetwork
MalaccaislocatedontheStraitofMalacca.ThiswasthemostimportantsearoutebetweentheMiddleEastandIndiaontheonehandandChina/Japanontheother.InthefourteenthcenturythecitywasoneofthebiggesttransitharboursofAsia.In1511MalaccawastakenbythePortuguese.ThereigningdynastyofsultansfledandcreatedanewprincipalityinJohor,inthesouthernpartoftheMalaysianpeninsula,northofthemodernSingapore.ThesultanateofJohoralsoincludedRiau,animportanttradingcentre.
RelationsbetweentheVOCandtheprincesofJohoratfirstwerecordial,becausetheyhadasharedenemyinPortugal.ThischangedwhencompetitiongrewbetweentheVOC,MalaccaandJohor.TheVOCconsideredMalaccaaseriousthreattothefurtherdevelopmentofBatavia.AllseatraffictoJava,Sumatra,BorneoandtheMoluccanarchipelagohadtopassthroughtheStraitofMalacca.
Asmallsquadofvesselscouldcontrolallmovementofshipsinthenarrowstrait76andthuscontrolalltradeinIndonesia.ThismadethepositionofBataviaveryvulnerable.
74Market.75VOCLandjoiningroll.Hereceivesninemonths’wagesfor1748inMalacca.76About16nauticalmileswide.
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TheVOCthereforedecidedtotakeMalaccabyforce,legitimizedbythewarbetweentheRepublicandSpainandPortugal,whichwasstillgoingon.Asstatedabove,CorneliusMateliefdeJongehadattackedthetownin1606withca.1,300men.ThesecretinstructionbytheVOCboardexplicitlyorderedhimto‘showanaggressivestancetowardsthePortuguesebyattackingMalaccadirectlyandindirectlybydistancingthePortugueseallies,suchasthesultanofJohor,fromthePortuguesesphereofinfluenceandbyofferingthemprotection’.Butonlyin1641,afterlongbattlesonlandandsea,thePortuguesewerefinallydefeated.SupportedbythesultanvanJohor,Malaccawasfinallytaken.77Thechurches,housesandfortressesthatthePortuguesehadbuilt,suchasthefortressAFamosa,wereleftintactandmodernize.Malaccabecameanimportantregionalcentreforgovernmentandtrade.
TheVOC’spolicywasambivalent.Ontheonehandittriedtore-establishMalacca’spositionasaninternationalcentreoftradeandtoprofitfromthecollectionofimportandexportdutiesandmoorage.Ontheotherhand,MalaccashouldnotbeallowedtogrewsomuchthatitwouldtakeoverBatavia’sposition.TheVOCachievedthelatteraim:MalaccaneverregaineditsancientgloryafteritsconquestbytheVOC.
Tradingvesselscouldanchorinseveralplaces.AsianmerchantstradedintheRiauarchipelago(Johor)goodswhichtheysmuggled,withorwithoutthecooperationoflocalsovereigns,toandfromareascontrolledbytheCompany.However,thisdamagedtheinterestsofMalacca.
6.3.ThetownofMalaccainthe18thcentury78
InHendrik’stime,thetownofMalaccahadapproximately15,000inhabitants.Ofthese,some540were‘servants’oftheVOC;therewerealsoPortuguesemestizos,Malaysians,Bugis,Minangkabaus(originatingfromSumatra),otherIndonesiansandChinese.Atthehighestpointofthecity,therewasthereformedchurchofSt.Paul(formerlyattachedtoaconvent),aswellasthefortressAFamosa,builtbythePortuguese,andtheresidenceofthegovernorofMalacca.Later,inthelowercity,aroundHeerenStreetandJonkerStreet,acityhall(1650),achurch,warehousesandhousesforVOCservantswerebuilt.MalaccaremainedstronglyinfluencedbythePortuguese,evenaftertheoccupationbytheDutch.ItwasseenasaveryattractiveAsiancity.
Inland,Malaccawassurroundedbyaflat,marshyareawithcononuttrees.Behindthiswasanimpenetrableforest.Threeroadsranfromthecitytothevillagesalongthecoastandtheprivatelyownedestatesinland.Theareaaroundthecitywallswasdangerous,becauseofthreatsbyMinangkabausandpirates.Forthisreason,itwasimpossibletopracticeagriculturehere.Riceandothersupplieshadtobeimportedfromelsewhere.
Dutchtracesarestillvisibletoday,inthenamesofbuildingssuchastheStadhuijs(TownHall)andtheformerlyDutchReformedChurch,nowcalledChristChurch.SeveralstreetshaveDutchnames,suchHeerenStreet,andthereareseveralDutch
77LeoAkveld.MachtsstrijdomMalacca.DereisvanVOC-admiraalCornelisCornelisz.MateliefnaarOost-Azië,1605-1608.Zutphen:WalburgPresss,2013.78PartiallytakenfromD.MayjerTimmermansThijssen,Tweegouverneurseneenequipagemeester.InenomMalacca1778-1823.Bilthoven:Knuf,1991.
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fortresses.TherearestillfamilieslivingMalaccawithnamessuchasMinjoot,Mosbergen,VanderBeek,Kraal,DeWindt,WesterhoutandVanDordt.79
6.4.HendrikjoinstheLowGermanReformedChurch,marriesandhaschildren80
HendrikhadprobablybeenraisedasaCalvinist81andjoinstheLowGermanReformedChurchinMalacca,aswasusualatthetime.ApparentlyhetriestoadaptasmuchaspossibletohisDutchenvironment.TheChurchisanimportantentrancetosociallifeinMalaccaforHendrik.TherearetwochurchesinMalacca,withaseparateministerforthechurchofSt.Paulandforthelowercity.Mostlikely,Hendrikisamemberofthechurchinthelowertown.On16November1750hebecomesadeacon,inchargeofcareforthepoor.82TherewerefourdeaconsinMalacca.Theywerechosenbythechurchcouncil,buttheir‘calling’requiredtheapprovalofthePoliceCouncil,becauseChurchCouncilmembershadtobemembersofthechurchandofblamelesscharacter.InWiederhold’stimetherewereabout100Councilmembers,actuallymorewomenthanmen.Sailors,soldiersandcraftsmencouldnotbecomemembers.HendrikJuliusapparentlypassedmusterandcanberightlyconsidereda‘paragonofvirtue’.
Hendrikworkedhiswayup83fromsoldiertorespectedcitizenofMalaccaanddeputymerchantoftheVOC.HeismentionedintheofficiallistofnamesoftheVOC.84Thiswasa‘whoiswho’,publishedinAmsterdamandnamingthehigherandmiddlerankswithintheVOC’sadministration.Thelistofnameslisthisjobas‘deputymerchant,payerofsoldiers’wages,caretakerofbusiness,recipientoftheDomainsandtradesman’.Heapparentlybelongedtothe‘innercrowd’ofMalacca,workingfortheVOC,butwithhisownbusinessontheside.
ServantsoftheVOCcouldearntheirfortuneintheirownbusiness.FromHendrik’sship’swagebookitcanbedeterminedthathenevertakesouthiswageincash.Insteadhetakesoutbillsofexchange,85throughthetradingcompanySwaenandSwartandthroughJohannesBoelen,86awinemerchantinAmsterdam.Mostlikelyheusesthismoneytobuygoods,whichhethensoldinMalacca.Inthecity,almosteverythinghadtobeimported.87BecauseJohannesBoelenwasafamouswinemerchantinthisperiod,IassumethatHendrikimportedwineandgin.Johannes’sbrotherDavidwasgovernorofMalaccawhenHendriklivedthere.Thiswasundoubtedlyexpedientforbusiness.Thiskindofself-tradebyVOCservantsusingbillsofexchangeisrecordedinofficialrecordsandapparentlywasconsiderednormalinthisperiod.Furthermore,itwasprofitablefor
79D.deWit,HistoryoftheDutchinMalaysia.Selangor:NutmegPublishing2007.80From1571thiswastheLowGermanReformedChurch.ThenameLowGermanservedtodistinguishitfromtheWelsh,Schottishandotherchurches.81HessenwaslargelyCalvinist.82Thischurch,nowknownasChristChurch,wasbuiltfrom1741-1753.Itwasoriginallypaintedwhite,buttheEnglishlaterpainteditred,inordertohidetheredsirijuicethatthenativepopulationspitagainstthewalls.DuringWiederhold’sstayinMalacca,thepastorswereGerardCornelisBastiaanse,SalomanvanEchten,JoannesTheodoresvanderWerth,PasquildeSivaandHotzeensPetrusAugustTheodorusvanHuijsumrespectively.83G.J.Schut.HetIndischSion:deGereformeerdeKerkonderdeVOC.Hilversum:UitgeverijVerloren,2003.84Naam-boekjeVandeWel.Ed.HeerenderHoogeIndiaseRegeeringe,GequalificeerdePersonenenz.opBatavia.JosiaSoutenenWed.ReinierOttensBoekverkopers.Amsterdam1794.85Abillofexchangeisapaperguaranteethattheindicatedamountwillbepaid.Inthiscase,theVOCinAmsterdamguaranteesthatthepaymentwillbemadetotheexchangeoffice.86JohannesBoelenlivedfrom1710-1791andwaswinemerchantinAmsterdam.SeeNationalArchives1.10.081981.87LocatedontheHerengracht/Prinsengracht.
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theVOC.Billsofexchangewhicharenotimmediatelycollected88placelessofaburdenontheVOC’scapital.HendrikmarriesthewidowCatharinaWillekens,amemberofhischurch;mostlikelytheymetinchurch.Threechildrenarebornfromthismarriage:AnnaMaria,CatharinaSophiaandJanArnold.ClearlyhehasnotforgottenhisparentsinWanfried,sincehepassesonhisparents’names,AnnaMariaandArnold,tohischildren.
HissonJanArnoldWiederhold89laterjoinstheVOCas‘leerlingaandepen’(pupilofthepen).HisdaughterCatharinaSophia90marriesJohanHendrikWerth,headsurgeonoftheVOCand‘first’(director-surgeon)ofthehospitalinMalacca.91AfterCatharinaWillekens’sdeath,HendrikmarriesCatharinaPuijt,widowofHendrikDinkgreef.
7.HendrikleavesforPerak7.1.Introduction
On27December1764HendrikleavesforPerak,asultanatetothenorthofMalacca.Hebecomesgovernor(‘resident’)attheoutpostofTanjungPutus,inchargeoftheCompany’stintrade.
InthischapterIwillfirstexplainwhatisgoingoninPerakandsurroundings,andthecomplexsituationinwhichHendrikfindshimself.Therefore,IwillstartbyexplainingtheimportanceofPerakfortheVOCandthecomplexanddangerouspoliticalsituationinthearea.Chapter8discussesHendrik’sexperiencesduringhistimeasgovernor.
7.2.Perak:geographyanditsimportancefortheVOC
ThesultanateofPerakisabout300kilometresnorthofMalacca.Tothenorth,PerakbordersthesultanateofKedah,avassalstateofthekingdomofSiam.TothesouthitbordersSelangor,asultanateknownasthehomeofBugipirates.ThenamePerakisderivedfromtheMalaywordforsilver,perak.92,93Perakwasrichintinore,whichresemblessilver.ThePerakriver,calledinMalaytheSungaiPerak,94isthesecond-largestriveroftheMalaypeninsula.Ontheriverbank,manytinminesandsmeltingworkswerelocated.Tinorewasalsofoundintheriverbottomandcollectedbythelocalpopulation.
TinwasanimportantproductfortheVOC’stradeontheintra-Asianmarket,especiallyfortradewithChina.95TheVOCboughttininSiam,butwasforcedtodosoagainstunattractivelyhighmarketprices.Itthereforetried,earlyinitsexistence,tobuildamonopolyinthetintradeelsewhere.Atfirst,BankawasanimportantsupplieroftinfortheVOC.WhenthetinsupplyfromBankastagnated,theimportanceoftheMalaypeninsulagrew.
88Theywereusuallycollectedafteraboutninemonths.89JanArnoldisbaptizedinMalaccaon7July1754anddiesinorafter1824,probablyinMalacca.90CatharinaSophiaisbaptizedon29January1753inMalaccaandburiedinMalaccaon13March1818.91ThishospitalislocatedononeofthebastionsofMalaccaclosesttothesea.92ZakwoordenboekjevoordeIndonesischetaal,NederlandscheStoomvaartMaatschappij.93Cassiterite,tinoxide.94ThePerakismentionedinRudyardKipling’sTheCrabThatPlayedwiththeSea.95WhenChinabecameanimportantsupplieroftea,theteawaspaidforwithtin.TinwasusedinChinatolinewoodenteachests.Japanwasalsointerestedintin,sincetinfoilwasusedasofferingsintemples.
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7.3.Perak:politicalsituationintheseventeenthandeighteenthcenturyPerak’srelationswithAcehandSiam
PerakwasdominatedbythesultanateofAcehintheearlyseventeenthcentury,butlaterbecamemoreorlessindependent.AnotherimportantpowerintheregionwasthekingdomofSiam(nowThailand).ThesultanofKedahwasavassalofthekingofSiam.ThiswasnotthecasewithPerak,butSiamconsideredPerakandseveralothersultanatesinthepeninsulahertributaries.
Inpracticethisdidnotworkout,becauseSiamwasbusydefendinginvasionsfromBurmaandcouldnotenforcethepaymentoftribute.Instead,thesultanatesonthepeninsulamadeasymbolicpaymentintheformofgoldandsilverflowerseverythreeyears.96Forthemomentthiswassufficient,butthekingdomofSiamanditsvassalKedahremainedapotentialdangerforPerak.
PerakthreatenedbytheBugis
PerakregularlysufferedattacksfrompiratesandmaraudersintheStraitofMalacca.Inthe20sand30softheeighteenthcentury,thesultanatewasconstantlythreatenedbybelligerentBugisandMinangkabauers.
TheBugis’presencewasanunintendedconsequenceofthepeppermonopolywhichtheVOChadestablishedontheMoluccanarchipelago.Inordertoguardthismonopoly,theVOChadconqueredMacassaronCelebes,97sothatitcouldcontrolthetraderoutetotheMoluccas.InMacassar,thefortressRotterdamhadbeenbuilt.9899FromMacassar,theVOCwagedwaragainstotherprincipalitiesonCelebes.ThewarmeantthatmanyBugislivingonCelebes,whowereexcellentsailors,movedwestoverseas,wheretheyterrorisedtheareawithpiracyandplundering.
ThismeantthatinthelateseventeenthcenturylargegroupsofBugissettleddownintheRiauarchipelagobelongingtothesultanateofJohorandlateralsointhesultanateofSelangor.100Theyquicklygainedinfluenceinthesesultanates.Theycausedmanyheadachesforthesultans,suchasthesultanofJohor,butwerealsohiredbythemasfighterswhennecessary.
TheStraitofMalaccawasafavouriteoperatingareaforBugipirates.TheyoftenusedfakeVOCflagsontheirvesselsinordertotricktheirvictims.Theyalsopossessedlight101andheavyguns.(Deserted)Europeanshadtaughtthemhowtousethese.
TheBugiswereaseriousthreattotheVOC.TwicetheyattackedMalacca.Perakwasattackedandplunderedin1740fromSelangor.102
ThreatsbypiratesfromSumatra
96Theso-calledBungaMasdanPerak.97Sulawesi.98Thisfortressstillexistsandhasrecentlybeenrestored.99DuringthewarwiththeVOC,theBugistatesLuwuandWajofoughttheDutch,withtheiralliesBoneandSoppeng.Manyleadersofdefeatedprincipalitiesfledwestwiththeirfollowers.100TheVOCanditsmostimportantally,therulerofBone.101Includingmuskets,weaponswhichshotdebrisandglassandcausedinjurieswhichwerealmostimpossibletotreatinthetropicalclimate.102SelangorwasatfirstheavilyinfluencedbynearbyRiau(Johor),buttriedtoextricateitselffromJohorwhenitbecamesteadilyricherduetotradewiththeBritish.Itevendeclareditselfindependent.
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OtherthreatsforPerakcamefromtheothersideoftheStraitofMalacca,onSumatra,especiallythepiratestrongholdsalongtheSiakriver.Therulersandprincesinthisareabecameengagedinprivateeringonalargescaleinthe50softheeighteenthcentury.TheVOCwasalsoaffectedbythisdevelopment.In1759thenearbyVOCfortressofPulauGontongonSumatrawaspillagedbyrajaMahmudandhissuccessorIsmaëlofSiak.Ofthegarrison,65outof72menweremurderedandtheweaponsinthefortwerestolen.103Theonly(married)Europeanwomaninthefortresswascarriedoffasaslave.104ThiswassufficientreasonfortheVOCtodespatchafleettoundertakeapunishmentexpeditionagainstthepirates.105Thepirateswerewellensconcedandofferedheavyresistancewithfirearmsonseaandland.RajaIsmaëlfledafteraheavybattle,inwhichhundredsofVOCsoldiersandsailorswerekilled.106
7.4.PersistentattemptsbytheVOCtogainatinmonopolyinPerak
TheVOCpersistedintryingtogainatinmonopolyinPerak.AtfirstitdidsobynegotiatingwiththerulersofAceh,butbecauseofthenegativeattitudeofthesultanofPerakthisdiscussionwasunsuccessful.Therefore,theVOCresortedtotheuseofforce.IttooktheVOCalmost100yearstoachievethetinmonopolyinPerak.
AgreementwithAcehIntheseventeenthcenturytheVOChadalreadytriedtogainatinmonopolyinPerak.In1655,itestablishedthetradingpostofTanjungPutusonthePerakriver,whichwewillencounterlater.Becausetheareawassufferingfrominternalwarsforalongperiod,thistradingpostwasnotsuccessful.
PerakoriginallywasundertheformalcontrolofthekingdomofAceh,whichmeantthattheVOChadtostartoutbynegotiatingwithAceh.In1639,theCompanywasgrantedtherighttobuyalltinthatitneededforitstradewithSurat(GujaratinIndia).ButtheVOChadnotcountedontheresistanceofthesultanofPerak,MudzaffarShahII.
PerakopposestheVOC
TheCompanythentriedtoreachadirectagreementwiththesultanofPerak.ThegovernorofMalacca,JohanvanTwist,107evengavethesultan18,000guildersinordertowinhisfavour.
Asaresultthegovernorreceivedmanyflatteringwords,ahighMalaysiantitleandthepermissiontostartafactoryatTanjungPutus.ButthetinmonopolystilleludedtheVOC.PerakbarricadedbytheVOC
TheCompanydidnotgiveup.Itinstalledatradebarricade,forcingallmerchantvesselsdestinedforPeraktovisitMalaccafirst,inordertobuyapermitandpaytolls.JavanesetraderswereforbiddentosailtoPerakorriskapublicflogging.SultanMudzaffarwas
103TeddySim,PiracyandsurreptitiousactivitiesintheMalayanArchipelagoandadjacentseas.Singapore:Springer,2016.104ShewaslaterfreedbytheVOC,togetherwithherhusband.105ThisassignmentisdescribedindetailinthememoiresofJanAmbrosiusHoorn:Verdrinkenzonderwater,dememoiresvanVOCmatroosJanAmbrosiusHoorn,1758-1777.Zutphen:WalburgPress,2014.106Thebrig‘Zeepaard’(‘Seahorse’)wasalsoinvolvedinthisassignment.‘Zeepaard’wasprobablyalsochargedwithkeepinganeyeonaffairsinPerak.TheshipwasstillonactivedutyinWiederhold’stime.107GovernorofMalacca1641-1642.
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notintimidatedandthreatenedtocancelhispermissiontoestablishafactoryatTanjungPutus.Then,theVOCblockedthemouthofthePerakriver.Thesultandidnotgivein.However,thisbarricadewaseffective,becausetheVOCgotitshandsonagreatpartofthetinfromPerak.Furthermore,Perak’stradewiththeAcehians,Arabs,BengaleseandJavanesewaseffectivelywipedout.ThetradersfromAcehcomplainedtotheirprince,whoinhisturnpressuredthestubbornsultantoreachanagreementwiththeVOC.Eventually,in1650seniormerchantJohannesTruijtmanreachedanagreementaboutanewtreatywithAceh.ThebarricadewasraisedandtheVOCreceivedamonopolyonthetradeoftinfromAceh.Still,thisagreementwasnotwithoutproblems.ThefactoryatTanjungPutuswasreopened,butwassoonambushedbytheMalaysians.TinwasstillsmuggledfromPeraktobothAcehaswellasmerchantsfromotherpowers.Theresultthereforewashardlyencouraging.
TheVOCbarricadesAcehandPerak
TheCompanydidnotgiveupandstartedanewtradebarricade,nowblockingbothPerakandAceh.Asaresultofthispressure,theVOCwasablein1653tofinallysignacontractwithSultanMahmudIskandarShahofPerak.ThiscontractalsocreatedthepossibilitytobuildaVOCfortressandtradingpostatPulauPangkor,anislandinthemouthofthePerakriver,in1670.Whenfinallythereseemedtobelightattheendofthetunnel,otherdifficultiesemerged.ThefortressatPulauPangkorwasattackedanddestroyedin1690bytheMalaysiansunderthecommandofPanglimaKulup.Itremainedunoccupiedformorethanfiftyyears.
BetterrelationsbetweentheVOCandPerakinthesecondhalfoftheeighteenthcentury
Despitetheinitialopposition,thesultansofPerakslowlystartedtounderstandthatgoodrelationswiththeVOCcouldbetotheiradvantage,notleastbecausePerakhadbeenattackedandplunderedin1740bytheBugisfromnearbySelangor.PerakthereforecouldusetheVOC’sprotection.Thiscreatedanewopeningfornegotiations,whichtheVOCwaseagertoenter.FromMalaccamerchantAryVerbruggewassenttoPeraktonegotiate.In1746hereachedadealwiththesultanofPerak,MuzafarSyah.TheCompanyfinallyachievedthetinmonopoly,whichhadtobepaidinsilverreals.Furthermore,theVOCreceivedtherighttoestablishafactoryandfortress,underthecommandofaresident,attheaforementionedTanjungPutus,upstreamfromPulauPangkor.Awin-winsituation
The1746contractbetweentheVOCandPerakwasrenewedin1753,afterthedeathofsultanMuzafarSyah,byhissuccessorsultanIskander.Wiederholdhadmanydealingswiththisrulerafterhewasassignedtohispost.
ForsultanIskander,theagreementwithCompanymeantmorethanjustagreaterdegreeofsafetyforPerak.Itwasalsoanimportantsourceofpersonalincomebecauseofhisshareinthetollschargedontin.Thisledtoresentmentamongthenobility,whowereeagertogettheirhandsonashare.PerakknewunprecedentedwealthundersultanIskander’srule.Hemanagedtokeepthepeaceinternally,aswellasmaintaingoodrelationswithhisneighboursandwiththeVOC.
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8.HendrikasresidentinPerak8.1.Introduction In1765HendrikbecameresidentofPerakandcommanderofthepostatTanjungPutus.108HeischargedespeciallywiththeimplementationofthecontractsthattheVOChadconcludedwithPerak.Moreover,inthenameoftheVOChemanagesthedailycontactswithsultanIskanderandlaterhissuccessorMahmud.DetailedcorrespondencehassurvivedfromthisperiodbetweenWiederholdandthegovernorofMalacca,ThomasSchippers.Furthermore,extremelyinteresting(Malay)sourceshavesurvivedfromthesultanateofPerak.ThesehavebeenstudiedintensivelybyhistorianBarbaraWatsonAndaya.ShehasnotonlyexaminedDutchcorrespondencefromtheVOCarchives,butalsoprovidesahistoricalperspectiveaccordingtolocalMalaysources.Muchofwhatfollowshasbeenderivedfromherwork.109
8.2.ThegeneraldutiesoftheresidentofPerakTheresidentwasusuallyappointedforaperiodofthreeyears.Hewasresponsibleforthemaintenanceofthetradingpostandfortandtomaintaindisciplineinthegarrison.HereporteddirectlytotheVOCgovernorinMalacca,bothregardingtradeaswellasrelevanteventsinPerakandsurroundingareas.Theresidentthusservedasthe‘eyesandears’ofthegovernorinMalacca.HesystematicallygatheredinformationaboutthecrewofthevesselswhicharrivedfromtheRiauarchipelagoandotherplacesinPerak.TheVOCwaseagertolearnwhatothersthoughtaboutitsactions.
Theresidentalsopersonifiedthedirectcontactbetweenthesultan’scourtandthegovernorinMalacca.Thiscouldoccurforallkindsofreasons,suchasformalmattersofprotocolandtheinterpretationoftheadat.110Notaneasytask,becausethesultan’scourtwasoftenhostiletowardstheVOC.Mattersofprotocolalsoplayedanimportantroleandshouldnotbeunderestimated.IftheVOCusedthewrongsealonalettertothesultan,thiscouldcauseenormouscommotion.Ontheotherhand,thegovernorofMalaccaalsoattachedimportancetodetailsofprotocol,suchasthecolourofthecoverinwhichletterstohimweresealed.Forexample,whensultanIskanderin1755sentalettertothegovernorinawhiteinsteadofyellowcover,therecipientconsideredthisagreatinsult.HerefusedtogivetheusualgunsaluteuponreceptionoftheletterinMalacca.Thewholematter,however,wascausedbyapainfulmisunderstanding.WhitewasamoreroyalcolourforMalaysiansthanyellow.Theresidenthadsomeexplainingtodo.
WhenVOCrepresentativesvisitedPerak,theresidentarrangedtheextensiveceremonialaffairs.Thesemattersofceremonyandprotocolwereatleastpartiallymeanttoimpressthelocalrulers.
108Thefortressnolongerexists(personalcorrespondencebetweenBarbaraWatsonandG.C.Molenkamp).109BarbaraWatsonAndaya,Perak,theAbodeofGrace.AstudyofanEighteenth-CenturyMalayState.KualaLumpur:OxfordUniversityPress,1979.110ThelocalMalaycustoms,anunwrittenlaw.
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AlmostallresidentsspokeMalayandhadareasonablyextensiveknowledgeoflocalcustoms.However,theservantsoftheVOCinTanjungPutuswerenotallowedtokeepMalaysianwomen.111
8.3.ThefortsofDingdinhonPulauPangkorandTanjungPutus
TanjungPutus
TanjungPutusislocatedafewkilometresupstreaminthemouthofthePerakriver.AsmallstonefortresswasbuiltonthenorthernshoreofthePerakriver.112Afewkilometresfurtherupstreamthecourtofthesultanwaslocated.Thefortresswascompletedon18October1748.ItreplacedthefortressofDingdinh,ontheislandofPulauPangkor,whichtheCompanyhadrestoredandtakenintoserviceshortlybefore.
OfthefortressTanjungPutusnoremainshavesurvived,buttheremainsofthefortressofDingdinhonPulauPangkorarenowatouristattraction.WemayassumethatTanjungPutuswasbuiltandfunctionedinthesamewayasDingdinh.AdescriptionofDingdinhwillthereforemakeagoodadditiontothesketchofthefortressTanjungPutusintheMalaysianandDutchsources.
ThefortDingdinh
ThefortresswaslocatedontheislandofPangkorinthemouthofthePerakriver.Originally,itwasasquarewoodenbuilding,laterrebuiltinstone.GovernorBalthasarBotreportedin1678that:“59peopleweretaskedwiththebarricadeofPerak”and“thattheVOCownedafortressontheislandwithnineguns.Amongthepeoplewereaninspector,accountant,captain,surgeons,soldiersandsailors.Thefleetconsistedoftheyacht‘Laren’,thebarge‘Cacap’andtheboat‘Dingdinh’.
Thefortressisbuiltsolidly,withoutaislesandbastions,likeahouse.Everysideisabouttenmetres{long}.Thewallsareofsufficientthicknessandbuiltinstone.Theyareabout30feethigh.
Therearetwelvetofourteenguns,aiminginalldirections.Thegunsareplacedonastrongplatformwithinthehighwalls,ataheightofsixteenfeet.Inthisfortresstheresidentsleepswithabout30soldiers,whosleepbelowtheplatformoftheguns.Thefortressisabout100metresawayfromthesea.Nearthebayisalowwoodenhouse,wheretheresidentspendshistimeduringtheday.”BecauseofthetradebarricadesintroducedbytheVOC,relationshipsbetweentheVOCandtheMalaysianswereverytenseandthegarrisonalwayslivedinfearofaMalaysianattack.Thisfearbecamerealitywhen,asmentioned,in1690thegarrisonwasattackedandthefortressdestroyed.Onlyin1747repairworkwasundertakenandanewgarrisoninstalled.WhentheVOC,alittlelater,hadconcludedanewcontractwithPerakandpermissionwasgrantedtobuildafortressatTanjungPutus,DingdinhwasabandonedandthegarrisonmovedtoTanjungPutus.
ThegarrisonofthefortatTanjungPutus
111WatsonAndaya,Perak,theAbodeofGrace,pp.89-93.112Atlasofmutualheritage(http://www.atlasofmutualheritage.nl)
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Thegarrisonofthefortresswassmall,likethatofthefortressDingdinh,consistingofnomorethan40-60EuropeansandMalaysians.Thefortresscontrolledthetradeintinandallshipsandboatsontheriverwerecheckedforsmuggledwares,atnightandduringtheday.Inthefortressthetinwasreceived,weighed,melteddownanddelivered.Forthemenofthegarrison,lifewashard.Aletterdatedto1791fromthegovernorofMalaccatotheresidentinPerakindicatedwhatwasexpectedofthesoldiersinTanjungPutus.ItislikelythatcircumstanceswerethesameinWiederhold’stime.“Thegarrisonisexpectedtodeepentheditchesaroundthefort,usingallavailablemen.Twiceayear,thehighgrassshouldbecut.Whenworkisundertakenoutsidethefort,acorporalandsixmenshouldstandguardandaguardpostshouldbeplacedoutsidethefort.Everyone,Europeansandnatives,mustundertakeguardduties.IfthereisnoCompanyshippresent,acorporalwithfivemenmustguardtheriverfromavesselontheoppositeshore.Theydonothavetobedressedinuniform,unlikeinMalacca.Becausetheyoftenworkinthemud,ajacketandundergarmentsaresufficient”.
8.4.Hendrik’stwomostimportantcontemporaries
Introduction
AsresidentofPerak,Wiederhold’smostimportantinteractionswerewithhisboss,ThomasSchippers,governorofMalacca,andthesultansofPerak,firstIskanderandthenMahmud.ThomasSchippers,governorofMalacca
Asresident,WiederholdhastoreportdirectlytoThomasSchippers,113governorofMalaccafrom1764to1772.SchipperswaseagertomaintainharmoniousrelationswithPerak.Hehadanextensiveknowledgeoftheexistinglocalrelationsandsensitivities.
HeaimedtoavoidinterferenceintherelationsbetweenPerakanditsneighbours,butatthesametimetriedtoprotecttheimageoftheVOC,and,ashesaid,‘maintainthehonouroftheoldHolland’.SchippersinsistedthatDutchrelationswithPerakshouldbebasedongenerosity.Hewantedtogainthesultan’strustbyapproachinghiminasoftandfriendlymanner.“Acontractonlyworkswhenbothpartiesfindsatisfactioninit,”washisopinion.MostlikelythiswasalsotheinstructionhegavetoHendrik.
Inordertomollifythesultan,SchipperssometimesactedashispersonalagentandboughtitemsforhiminMalacca.Heonceboughtthesultanacannon,avaluableirondishandatransportshipfortin.Inreturn,thesultanwenttogreatlengthstopandertotheCompany’swishes.Forexample,whentheVOCin1767complainedtothesultanthattheftshadoccurredfromitsstores,heundertookimmediateaction.HeorderedthatanyonewhowasfoundintheVOCquartersaftersundownwouldbekilledonsight.Iskander,sultanofPerak,andhissuccessorsultanMahmud
AlthoughPerakexperiencedaprosperousperiodundersultanIskander,severalproblemsthreatenedtoweakenhispositionandcausedhimgreatworry.Firstly,piracywasagreatthreatintheregion.InMarch1764apirateganghadthreatenedthefort,theVOCshipsandthePerakitself.Theship‘Buitenzorg’wascapturedandtheentirecrewkilledortakenintoslavery.ItwasadisgracefortheVOC.Asaresultofthis
113ThomasSchipperscamefromtheNetherlandsandjoinedtheVOCasajuniormerchant.
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disaster,voicesinthesultan’scourtstartedtoquestionthestrategyofthesultanoflookingtotheVOCforprotection.Hisownfamilywasalsoacauseofworryforthesultan.The‘anaksraja’,thesultan’ssonsfromhis(many)wives,hadtofindtheirownwayinlife.Thisoftenendedinpiracy.Thesonofthesultan’sfavouritewife,rajaMuda,wasagamblerandopiumaddictwithsignificantdebt,andwasdisinheritedbyhisfather.Whenhisfatheraskedhimtofinallytosomethingusefulwithhislife,Mudapromisedto‘buildanewlifeatsea’.Mudaaskedthesultanforastartingcapitalofsomethousandsofrealsandsomesailingvessels.Happythathissonfinallytooksomeinitiative,thesultanboughtafewmoreshipsforhisson.Mudawouldbeabletotakecareofhimselfandthesultanneedn’tworryanymore.However,thiswasnottobe.
MudaimmediatelysettoworkandleftcourtwitheightshipsandaCompanypassport.Unfortunately,aslewofcomplaintscameinaboutpiracybyMudaintheStraitofMalacca.Atleasttenpeoplehadbeenkilled.114ThesultanwasextremelyembarrassedtowardstheVOC,butwastooafraidtotakehissontotask.Thereweremorefamilyissueswhichrequiredhisattention.HisbrotherandlatersuccessorMahmudforcedthesultantolendhimlargesumsofmoney,intimidatinghimbysayingthathewouldnolongersupporttheagreementwhichPerakhadconcludedwiththeVOC.MahmuddidnotagreewithsultanIskander’spolicyregardingthesecurityofPerak,inwhichtheprincipalityreliedheavilyontheVOC.Mahmudwasnotstupidandhesawproblemsinthelongterm.HefearedthatPerak,despitetheVOC’sprotection,wouldremainvulnerable.Fromthenorth(Kedah)PerakhadtotakeintoaccountthepowerfulkingdomofSiamandalsoAceh.MahmuddoubtedwhethertheVOC,whenitcametoit,wouldbeabletodefendadequatelyPerakfromMalacca.MalaccaitselfwasunderpressurefromtheBugisfromthesouth.ThecityofMalaccacontrolledlimitedresources.ThomasSchipperswasthegovernorofMalacca,buthewasonlyasmallplayerwithverylittleinfluencewiththeVOCBoardinAmsterdam.ThesurvivalofthepostinPerakwasnotcertain.ThecostswerehighandtheCompanyalreadyreceivedmoretinthanitcouldandwantedtotrade.Thegovernor-generalinBataviahadalreadyinsinuatedthattheoutpostmightbeclosedandthecontractwithPerakcancelled.Withallthisinmind,MahmudwasmoreliberalinhisideasaboutrelationswithSelangorthansultanIskanderheld.AlthougPerakandSelangorhadbeenarchenemiesinthepast,inthelongtermSelangorcouldofferbetterprotectionthantheVOCcould.
Therewereotherfactorsatplay.TheVOCwasstrugglingtosupplysufficientsilverrealsforthesaleoftin.InFebruary1763,forexample,12,000realsweresenttoPerak,butinNovemberoftheyear,thesupplyhadalreadyrunout.ThiswasveryinconvenientforPerak.Inthefirstplace,suppliersoftinhadtobepaidstrictlyontime.Furthermore,Perakwasindireneedofreals.Perak’sentireeconomyrevolvedaroundtin.VirtuallyeverythingthatPerakneededhadtobeimportedandpaidinhardcash.Reluctantly,othercurrencieswereacceptedattimes,suchasIndianrupees,butthesewerenotasattractive.
114OnthecoastsofPerak,Selangor,Mergui,UjungSalangandTavoy.
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8.5.HendrikvisitsthesuccessorofsultanIskander115
AfterthedeathofsultanIskanderandtheaccessionofthenewsultanMahmud,HendrikvisitsthecourtofthesultaninJuly1765inordertobestowhiswell-wishesonthenewruler.ThesultanpromisestheresidentthatunderhisruletheexistingagreementswiththeVOCwillberenewed.‘Donotfear,Widerhold,’hespeakstoHendrik,‘donottakethedeathofmybrothertoohard,becausewithmeyouwillfindeverythingtwiceaswell.’Heputshismoneywherehismouthis,becausewhenhispiratebrotherrajaMudareturnsfromthesea,heisimmediatelyarrestedandforbiddentoundertakesuchexpeditionsinthefuture.
Althoughthenewsultan,accordingtoHendrik,isshowingmoreaffinitywiththeBugisthanhispredecessor,thiswill,inhisopinion,notendangerrelationswiththeVOC,ashewritestothegovernor.AfterhisinstallationasthenewsultanMahmud,writesalettertothegovernorinMalaccahimself,inwhichheprofesseshis‘unswervingloyaltytotheVOC’.Strengthenedbytheseexpressionsoffriendship,theVOCimmediatelystartsnewnegotiations,silentlyhopingtolowerthebuyingpriceoftin.Invain,becausesultanMahmudneatlypointsoutthatBritishfreetradershaveconcludedagreementswithneighbouringsultanates,inwhichtheyofferamuchhigherpricefortinthantheVOCinPerak.Intheend,theexistingcontractremainsunchanged.8.6.SelangorpressesitsadvantageInthemeantime,theinfluenceoftheBugisintheareakeepsgrowing.ThisisalsonoticeableinPerak.Twoweeksaftertheinstallationofthenewsultan,acanoewithaBugicrewtriestoavoidaninspectionbythefortatTanjungPutus.Whenthisfails,theBugisresorttoviolence.Thedelinquentsarearrestedbythesultan.ButdespitehispromisetoHendrikthathewilldoeverythingtopunishthoseinvolved,herefusestohandthemover.Theyare‘orangislam’116andcanthereforenotbeextraditedtoaChristiancourtoflaw.ThiswouldangertheBugisanddisturbthepeaceintheregion.
TheCompanyhaslimitedoptionstorespond.Notlongbefore,BugipirateshadenteredPerakandplunderedthesultanate,whiletheVOChadbeenpowerlesstostopthem.TheVOCundertakesattemptstolimitthegrowingeconomicpoweroftheBugisintheregion,butwithoutmuchsuccess.ThestrongholdoftheBugisintheRiauarchipelago,undercommandofthesultanofJohor,isflourishing.TheBugisincreasinglymanagetoinfluencethesultanofJohor,whofavourstheDutch.ThisisthebackgroundagainstwhichHendrikmustcarryouthisduties.
HebecomesembroiledinadifficultsituationwhenrajaLumu,leaderofthenearbyBugistrongholdSelangor,117,118attemptstoapproachPerak,withoutconcretemotivations.Thisisthefirstapproachintwentyyearsoftensionbetweenbothsultanates.ForHendrikthisisnodoubtareasonforconcern,becausetheBugisofSelangorarecertainlynofriendsoftheVOC;onlyin1756theyhadbesiegedMalacca.
115NA3075OB1767,WiederholdtoSchippers,13May1765,11June1765,20August1765,NA3104OB1768,WiederholdtoSchippers,5May1766,27September1766,3November1766,17December1766,28October1766;NA3045OB1766,WiederholdtoSchippers,16December1766.116Muslims.117RajaLumuwasconsideredthemostimportantBugileaderinSelangor,althoughtheregionwasruledbyDaengLakani,whohadbeenchargedwiththegovernmentofSelangorbyDaengKemboja.118Hewasenthronedin1740asSultanSallehuddinShahAlmarhumDaengChelak;helived1705-1778.
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8.7.Hendrikentersawasps’nest
InSeptember1766,oneyearaftertheenthronementofsultanMahmud,aSelangoresevesselappearsinthemouthoftheriverPerak.ThecaptaininformsWiederholdthattwoemissariesfromSelangorareonboardandasksforpermissiontosailonwards.TheemissariescarryaletterforsultanMahmudwithasurprisingofferfromrajaLumu.He‘wishestoputasidealldifferencesbetweenPerakandSelangor’andofferstonegotiateanewtreatybetweenthetwostates.LumuproposestotraveltoPerakinpersontodiscussthisproposalfacetofacewiththesultanofPerak.
Theprevioussultan,Iskander,had,aftertherenewalofthetreatywiththeVOCin1753,refusedtorespondtonegotiationattemptsfromtheBugisandhadconsideredthemenemiesofPerakuntilhisdeath.But,asjustmentioned,sultanMahmudwaswillingtonegotiateanddecidedtosendtwoemissariestoSelangor.Atthesametimeitwasimportantnottoinsulthisally,theCompany.HeknowsthattheCompanydistrustsSelangorandwillresistanykindoftreaty.Averydelicatesituation.
SultanMahmudthereforewiselyinvitesHendriktohispalacetodiscuss.HendrikisnotsurethatsultanMahmud’smotivesarewhollyfriendlyandrefusestoleavethefortressforreasonsofsecurity.HeannouncesthatsultanMahmudshouldfirstcommunicatewiththegovernorofMalaccaandrefusestolettherajaofSelangorpasswithoutfurtherinstructionsfromMalacca.
SultanMahmudthenwritestothegovernorofMalaccaandexplainsthathehascertainlynointentionstoactuallytalkwiththerajaofSelangor.ButinOctober1766histwoemissariesreturnfromSelangorwiththemessagethattherajaofSelangorstillmeanstotraveltoPerakhimselftotalkwithsultanMahmud,orhisbrother,rajaMuda.Thisleadstosomecommotionamongthepopulation,sincetheydoubtthetrueintentionsoftherajaofSelangor.SultanMahmudisopentotheadvancesofSelangor,butisunsurehowtoact.
WiththerecentmemoriesoftheearlierBugiinvasion,extraprecautionsarenecessary.Hendrikmustappeasethepopulationatanyprice.ThesultanrequestsHendriktostationtheVOCbrig‘Zeepaard’,119anarmouredtwo-master,inPerak.
SultanMahmudisfacingadifficultdilemma.AlthoughhehastoldWiederholdandthegovernorinMalaccathathecertainlydoesnotintendtoreceiverajaLumufromSelangor,hecannotsimplyrefuseanemphaticrequesttomeettheraja.Accordingtotheadat,itisaseriousinsult.Ontheotherhand,hemustplayitsafe,takeproperprecautionstoarmhimselfandprepareforthedefenceofPerak.ButthiswouldatthesametimeraisesuspicionwiththeDutch.TheleastsignofmilitaryactivityamongthelocalrulersofthearchipelagoisfollowedcloselyandwithsuspicionbytheVOC.InordertosootheWiederhold’ssuspicions,sultanMahmuddecidesonacompromise.HesendsWiederholdamessagethathewillmantherampartsoftheroyalpalace,incaserajaLumuwillentertheriver.Hepromisesnottostorepowderthere.
119Brigorbrigantine.IntheNetherlands,thebrigantinewasnotuseduntilthefirsthalfoftheeighteenthcentury.Thefirstbrigantinesinmerchantshippinghadaroundbowandafallingstern,butlaterthefrontoftheshipwasgivenasharperprofile.Fromthis,thebrigdeveloped.Thebrigantinewasatwo-master;themastsweremadeofonepieceofwoodandwereextendedwithoneortwostaves.Theforemastwascross-checked;themainmastwascheckedalongsidewithoneortwosailsaboveit.Thebowspritwasextendedwithajibtreeandoftenhadayardwithblind.Thebrighadanarmamentoffivegunsonportandfiveonstarboardandtenotherweaponsontheship.Thebrig'Zeepaard'hadalreadybeeninvolvedinapunitiveexpeditiononSumatra.
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On24October1766sultanMahmudsendsmessagetoHendrikthatrajaLumuhasbeenseenintheareawithsixvesselsandthathisfleethaslaiddownanchoratPulauPangkor,wheretheformerfortressofDingdinhislocated.TherajahassentsixmeninordertonotifythecourtofthesultanPerakofhisarrivalandrequeststhathisfleetmaybepermittedtopassthefortatTanjungPutus.SultanMahmuddecidestoaskforassistancefromtheVOCandthebrig‘Zeepaard’.Whilewaitingfortheship,hesendsouttwoofhisownvesselsinordertomakecontactwithrajaLumu.MahmudpermitstherajatocontinuehisjourneyuptheriverPerak,aslongasthedoesnotcommitviolence.ThesultanofPerakinthemeantimeagainassuresHendrikthatheisandwillremainloyaltotheVOC.MeetingrajaLumuwill,accordingtohim,neverbeneficialtoeithertheVOCorPerak.Thesultanemphasizesthathewillneverpermittheresidenttocometoanyharm.Hendrikstilldoesn’treallyfeelsafe.WhenHendrikprotests,thesultansuggeststoallowtherajaofSelangortosailupriverinsmallcanoesonlyandtolimitthetimeofthemeetingwiththesultanofPeraktothirtyminutes.Afterthis,therajaofSelangorwilldepart.Reluctantly,Hendrikgiveshispermissionforthisarrangement.
Suddenly,otherproblemsarise;theatmosphereatMahmud’scourtturnsagainstthesultan.
8.8.DiscussionatsultanMahmud’scourtApparentlyWiederhold’sstancehasledtoaheateddiscussionatthesultan’scourt.SomemembersofthecourtdoubtwhethertheresidentiswithinhisrightstorefuserajaLumu,oranyoneelse,accesstoPerak,ortoimposeconditionsonhisvisit.TheprevioussultanIskanderisseenasashiningexample.Inmatterssuchasthese,IskanderhadalwaysemphasizedhisindependencefromtheVOC.ThetreatywiththeVOC,accordingtothecourt,relatesonlytothetradeoftin.Itdoesnotgivetheresidentauthoritytomakedemandsregardingthereceptionoflocalkingsandprinces.
SultanMahmudfindshimselfinadifficultposition.HeagainensuresHendrikthatthesultan’svisitwillhavenonegativeconsequencesfortheCompany.Buthealsowarnsthat,ifWiederholdcontinuestorefusethewholeSelangoresefleettopasswithoutrestrictions,thiswouldleadtoallkindsoftrouble,perhapseventoviolenceagainstthegarrisonofthefort.
Malaccaisaboutoneweek’stravelfromPerakandcanoffernodirectassistance.ThesmallgarrisonatTanjungPutuswouldbeunabletodefenditselfagainstamajorforceofwell-armedBugis.Hendrikseesthereforenootheroptionbuttoreluctantlygivein,andtoletLumupass.
8.9.TheBugisarriveinPerakOn6November1766theshipsoftheBugissailintothePerakriverandarereceivedwithgreatceremony.However,sultanMahmudprudentlydoesnotshowhimselfatthereceptionandleaveshisbrotherstoobservethehonours.Elevendayslater,therajaofSelangorandhisfollowersdepart.
TheVOCatfirstisnotinformedabouttheresultsofthevisitofSelangortoPerak.TheonlymessagesentbysultanMahmudtotheVOCisthatthenewfriendshipwith
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SelangornotonlyguaranteespeacebetweenPerakandSelangor,butalsobetweenSelangorandMalacca.Furthermore,thegrandsonofMahmudismarriedtothedaughterofrajaLumu.Moreseemstobeafootthanasimplevisitoutoffriendship.
8.10.ConsequencesforHendrik
Hendrik’sactionshavehitasorespotwithThomasSchippers.Asdiscussedabove,SchippersadherestothepolicytoactascarefullyaspossibleinmatterssuchastheseandespeciallytomakesurethatthesultanswillnotfeeltheCompanyisbossingthemaround.The,tohiseyes,undiplomaticandunprecedentedrefusalbyWiederholdtoletrajaLumupassdoesnotmatchthispolicy.HendrikisrecalledtoMalaccainNovemberofthesameyear.120
9.BackinMalacca
HendrikcontinueshisworkinMalacca.HiseldestdaughterAnnaMariadiesshortlyafter25August1767.Heisappointed‘dispenserofsoldiers’wagesinApril1777,121andjuniormerchantandrecipientofpaymentsfromthedomainson16July1787.AfterthedeathofhiswifeCatharinaWillekens,hemarriesCatharinaPuijt,widowofHendrikDinkgreef,inMalaccaon27April1783.
HissuspicionasresidentofPerakturnsouttobejustified.TwoyearsafterhehasleftPerak,thetruthcomesout.ThetworulersinPerakhaveconcludedasecrettreatyandpromisedeachothermutualaidincaseofanattackbyathirdparty.DarkcloudsgatheraboveMalacca.HendrikisstillalivewhentheBugisfromSelangorandRiauattackMalacca,aswillbecomeclearinthenextsection.ApparentlytheSelangoresehadbeenattemptingtostrengthentheirpositionintheareaforalongtimethroughtheirsecretalliancewithPerak.122Hendrikmayhavelaughedinhissleeve,althoughthesituationwasperhapstooprecarious.10.WhathappensinandaroundMalaccainlatertimes?
10.1.IntroductionThediplomaticgovernorThomasSchippersissucceededin1777byPieterdeBruijn,ahardliner.CompetitionbetweenMalaccaandthefreeharbourRiaugrowsapaceandRiaugraduallyusurpsMalacca’stradingrole.Tensionsincrease.AsHendrikhadsuspected,theBugisbecomemoreandmoreaggressive.TheVOCfinallytakesmeasurestosubduethemonceandforall,buttheBugisretaliateandlaysiegetoMalacca.ADutchfleetisdispatchedtofreeMalacca.ThearearemainsunsettledandtheBritishcontinuetogaininfluenceinthearea.EventuallyMalaccafallsintoBritishhandsandSingaporeisfounded.
120BarbaraWatsonAndaya.Perak,theAbodeofGrace,pp.258-268.121MaandelijkseNederlandscheMercurius,Vol.44-47;April1717,p.183.122TheconflictthatledtothesiegeofMalaccawaspartiallycausedbyclumsymaneuversbythegovernmentofMalacca,asaresultofactionintheFourthAnglo-DutchWar,whichthegovernmentwantedtoprofitfrom.
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10.2.TheBugisattackMalaccaIn1783-1784theVOCattacksthepiratelairinRiauwithafleetofthirteenshipsand1,500men.Theattemptfailsmiserably.ThefleethashardlyreturnedwhentheBugislaunchacounterattack.
On14January1784sixvesselsappearfromSelangor,bring100mentoshoreandapproachtheoutskirtsofMalaccafromthenorth.Fromthesouth,theBugisfromRiauinvadeundercommandofrajaHadjihimself,whoisseenbythepopulationasasaint(‘keramathidup’).
On14March,theBugisstartincursionsintotheeasternpartofMalacca,whichisnowunder(cannon)firefromthreesides.Onlytheroadtotheseaisstillpassable.Thetownsmenundertakedailyattemptstodriveouttheenemy,butatnighttheBugisreturninfullforce.Malacca’spositionquicklybecomesuntenable.
10.3.MalaccafreedandfinalreckoningwiththeBugisAfleetunderthecommandofJacobPietervanBraam,generaloftheNationalWarSquadroninEastIndia,arriveson29MayandbombstheBugivesselsandbatteriesontheshore.VanBraamthenlandswithaheavilyarmedsquadof600men.Hefreesthecityin1784andfinallydriesouttheBugisforgood.Theenemyleavesitspostsinconfusion,partiallybecauseofrumoursthatrajaHadjihasbeenkilledinbattle.Twenty-fourBugivesselsandagreatamountofweaponryaretaken.VanBraamcontinueshisoperationandchasestheBugisfromSelangorandRiau.
AgarrisonisstationedinRiauandthebuildingoffortificationscommencesimmediately.InSelangortwonewfortsandabatteryarebuilt.However,thesituationremainstense.
10.4.ThesituationinandaroundMalacca
In1785thegarrisonoftheVOCinSelangoristhreatenedbytheMalaysiansandrouted.In1786theCompanycarriesoutanexpeditiontoSelangorwithasquadronofthirteenshipstorestoreorderandtodeposetherulerofSelangor.
In1787thepostinRiauisabandonedtemporarilybecauseofanattackbytheSoloccans,apiratepeoplewithtiestorajaAli,whohasbeendeposedbyrajaHadji.Notuntil1788theVOCisabletoretakethepostandreinforcementscalledUpperandLowerFortarehurriedlycompleted.ForthemomenttheVOCisagaintheforemostpowerintheStraitvanMalacca.
10.5.Wiederholddies
Hendrik,stillinservicetotheVOCasajuniormerchantinMalacca,dieson17May1788,aged63.Thisoccursafteralongillness,asreportedbyhissonJanArnold.123,124
1231.Familydocument.2.Accordingtotheship’swagebookoftheDomburg,Hendrikreceivesthelastfullwageforawholeyearin1787.124LetterfromhissonJ.H.WiederholdtohisbusinesspartnerP.D.Elwijk,dated24-05-1788(VIBDN1I020241).
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Thesourcesgivenoindicationofthelocationofhisburial.Onlyafewfunerarymonumentshavesurvivedfromthisperiod,buthisisnotoneofthem.
10.6.TheBritishgainafootholdThelasttreatythattheVOChadconcludedwithPerakdatesto1785.Atthattime,newthreatstotheVOChadappearedintheStraitofMalacca,specificallyBritishmerchantssailingbetweenIndiaandChina.ThedominantpositionoftheVOCinAsiahasbeenaneyesorefortheBritishEastIndiaCompanyforawhile.Itcloselywatchesthedevelopments,sothatitcangrabitschancesoonerorlaterandbreaktheVOC’smonopoly.TheopportunitypresentsitselfintheMalaysianpeninsula,whereBritishtradersmanagetooutbidtheVOCbyofferinghigherpricesfortin.
TheBritishmanagetotaketheislandPenang,tothenorth-westofMalacca,andoppositethesultanateofPenang,on17July1786,andnameit‘PrinceofWalesIsland’.Atthispoint,thestandingoftheVOCislowerthaneverandthecontractbetweentheDutchandPerakiscancelled.Ontheisland,theBritishEastIndiaCompanyfoundsthecityofGeorgetownin1788andthus,forthefirsttimein150years,gainsafirmfootholdinSouthEastAsia.GeorgetownislocatedinanlessfavourablepositionfortradethanMalacca.However,soonnewandunexpectedchancespresentthemselvesfortheBritish.
10.7.MalaccafallsintoBritishhands
TheVOCgoesbankruptin1789anditspossessionsaretakenbytheDutchstate.IntheNetherlandstheBatavianRepublicisdeclaredin1795withFrenchsupport.StadtholderWillemVfleestoEngland.
InFebruaryofthesameyear,France,SpainandtheRepublicareatwarwithEngland.WillemVaskstheBritishinhisKewLetterstomanageallDutchpossessionsintheEastinordertopreventthemfallingintoFrenchhands,arequestwithwhichtheBritisheagerlycomply.125TheBritishfleetenterstheriverPerakinAugust1795andforcesthegarrisonofthefortatTanjungPutustosurrender.On26August1795MalaccaistakenbytheBritish.AlthoughMalaccaisnowunderBritishcontrol,theactualrunningofthetownremainsinDutchhands.TheBritishareshockedbytheenormouscollectionoftortureinstrumentstheyfindinthebasementsoftheCityHall.Theirfirstactistoemptyouttheold,‘backward’torturechambersandburntheinstrumentsoftortureinpublic.
AftertheTreatyofAmiensof1802,126inwhichpeaceisconcludedbetweenEnglandandFrance,MalaccashouldhavebeenreturnedtotheDutch.However,thisdoesnothappen.Justoverayearlater,EnglandandFranceareagainatwar.TheBritishhavealreadydestroyedtheold(Portuguese)fortAFamosaandthewallsofMalaccaforsecurityreasons.127In1810ThomasStamfordRafflesarrivesinMalaccaandfromthere
125TheKewLettersareaseriesoflettersfromthestadtholderdatingto1795.Intheseletters,WillemVcalledforrebellionagainsttheFrenchandorderedthecolonialgovernorstohandovertheDutchoverseaspossessionstotheBritish,sothattheywouldnotfallintoFrenchhands.126Inthistreaty,theNetherlandsregainedtheCapeofGoodHope,butlostCeylon.127Today,remainsofthecitywallcanstillbeseen.
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undertakestheconquestofJava,whichisstillunderDutchrule.Heintroducesimportantadministrativechangesandimprovements.
10.8.MalaccareturnstoDutchcontrolAfterNapoleonisfinallybeateninEurope,theTreatyofLondonof1814laysdownthatMalaccashouldbereturnedtotheDutchandthatJohorandRiauwillremainunderDutchauthority.However,theBritishpresenceintheregionisnotsoeasilyremoved.TheBritishresidentFarquharconcludesanagreementwiththesultanvanJohoronhisowninitiative,goingagainsttheTreatyofLondon.TheDutchsendafewshipsfromMalaccatoJohortorestoreorder.AheateddiscussionwiththeBritishensues,inwhichtheDutchintheenddrawtheshortstraw,undertheinfluenceoftheanti-DutchRaffles.ActualcontroloverMalaccaisnotreturnedtotheDutchuntil21September1818.
10.9.RafflesfoundsSingapore;theDutchmonopolyisbrokenRafflestries,afterthehandoverofMalacca,toestablishUKtradeinterestsinthestrategicallyimportantareaassoonaspossible.Although,assaid,theBritishhadalreadysettleddownonPenangandfoundedGeorgetown,RafflesbelievesthatthisisafarfromoptimaltradelocationincomparisontoMalacca.
Rafflesatfirsttriestoconcludeasmanycontractsaspossiblewithlocalrulers,buttohisdisappointmentandannoyance,‘Mister’(theDutch)hasbeenaheadofhiminmostcases.EventuallyheturnshiseyestoaninhospitableislandjustoffthecoastofJohorintheRiauarchipelago,Singhapura,withaclearobjective:“OnefreeportintheseseasmusteventuallydestroythespellofDutchmonopoly.”Singhapurahadbeenofnoimportanceuntilthistime.Itwasadenselyforestedisland,onlyinhabitedbyafewfishermen.Rafflesestablisheshere,on28January1819,thestrongholdSingapore,againsttheTreatyofLondon,withoutpermissionfromthesultanofJohorandunderloudDutchprotests.ThisisnotaproblemforRaffles,becausetheDutchauthoritieshadnotbotheredtooccupythearea.AsmalldetachmentofsoldierswouldhavebeensufficientandthelegalpositionoftheBritishisveryweak.
Raffles’mottois:‘dofirst,thenfightthelegalbattles’.Helosesnotime.Withinafewweeks,hehassettled2,000peopleontheisland,mostlyMalaysiansandChinese.Afewmonthslater,5,000andofficesandbusinesseshavebeensettledontheisland.Thereisnowayback.ThelegalwranglingbetweenDutchandBritishlawyersonlyleadstoirritationonbothsides.ThedelayingtacticsoftheBritishandtheindecisionoftheDutchensurethatthefoundationofSingaporeunderBritishrulehasbecomefact.128
10.10.ThelastDutchattemptstotradeinPerak
128JohnKeay.TheHonourableCompany.AHistoryOfTheBritishEastIndiaCompany.1991.London:HarperCollinsPublishers,1993.Pp.339ff.
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TheDutchtryin1819oncemoretosettleonPulauPangkor,butareunsuccessful.TheBritishhavebynowagreedwiththesultanofPerakthattheexistingcontractswiththeDutchareinvalid.ConcludingnewcontractswiththeDutchisforbidden.129
10.11.ThedefinitivetransferofMalaccatotheBritish
In1824,whentheTreatyofLondonisreviewed,130itisdecidedthattheNetherlandswillexchangeMalaccaforanumberofBritishpossessions131andwillgiveupallDutchclaimstoSingapore.ThetransferofMalaccatakesplaceon5April1825.
10.12.ThedeclineofMalaccaThegrowthofSingaporecausesthedeclineofMalacca.Furthermore,theharbourisnotdeepenoughforthegrowingdraftofshipsintheStraitofMalacca.Finally,thegradualsiltingupoftheharboursealsitsfate.
AscionofthethirdgenerationofWiederholdsJan(John)ArnoldWiederhold(born6May1796)hashadenoughandleavesaround1826tostartabusinessinEastJava.Hebecomestheownerofseveralsugarplantations132inKluharanandWonoredjo,nearPasuruan,underacontractwiththegovernmentwhichallowshimtodevelopedunclaimedland.TheCultureSystem,introducedin1830bygovernor-generalJohannesvandenBosch,createsfavorablecircumstancesforbusinessmenonJava.Thesugarplantationsgrowandprosper.JohnWiederholdisoneofthefirstEuropeansugarmerchantsinEastJava.ThisendstheadventureoftheWiederholdsinMalaccaafteralmosteightyyears.
10.13.TheWiederholdssettleonJava
JohanEdward,sonofJan(John)Arnoldandthereforethefourthgeneration,becomesownerthekina133plantationBoemikasonearPengalengan(Preanger),landownerinKebobangandownerofasugarfactoryinPasuruan,whichhesellsin1878.ThissonmarriesoneJohannaHedrich.AccordingtoaRoyalDecreedated19November1890,hissonJohnEdwardadds‘Hedrich’tothenameWiederhold,changingitto‘HedrichvonWiederhold’.TheaimofthiswastosavethenameHedrichfromextinctioninthematernalline,sinceMajorHedrichhaddiedduringtheJavaWarinMagalanandleftnomaleheirs.
HissonConstantmarriesGertrudaAntoniaTheodoraLammers.On29November1903inPladjuasonisborn,WillyAndrewGeorgeConstant(mygrandfather).
HismarriagetoJeanetteHenriettedeBruin(bornSurabaya,26November1902)resultsintwochildren,bornonMalang:Germaine(mymother)andRobertHedrichvonWiederhold.GermainemarriesmyfatherBernardusJohannesMolenkampon19February1942.MygrandfatherWillyAndrewGeorgeConstant,beforetheoutbreakof
129R.O.Winstedt,‘DutchEastIndiaCompany’.In:AHistoryofMalaya.KualaLumpur&Singapore:Marican&SonsLtd.1982.Pp.128-130.130FortheBritishTheTreatyofHolland.131IncludingBengkuluonSumatra.132Thesewerecalled‘sugarmills’inthisperiod.133Quinine.
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thewarwithJapan,ownstheTechnischeHandelsmaatschappijMalang(TechnicalTradingCompanyMalang).HeisconscriptedintotheRoyalDutchArmyoftheEastIndies(KNIL)andafterthecapitulationoftheKNIListakentoBurma,whereheisforcedtoworkontheBurmarailway.HediesasaprisonerofwarinJapanesecaptivityon26May1945inChunkai,afewmonthsbeforetheJapanesecapitulation.
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