Sequence stratigraphy in the context of rapid regional uplift and high-amplitude glacio-eustatic changes: the Pleistocene Cutro Terrace (Calabria, southern Italy

Sequence stratigraphy in the context of rapid regional uplift andhigh-amplitude glacio-eustatic changes: the Pleistocene CutroTerrace (Calabria, southern Italy)

MASSIMO ZECCHIN*, DARIO CIVILE*, MAURO CAFFAU*, GIOVANNI STURIALE�and CESARE RODA�*Istituto Nazionale di Oceanografia e di Geofisica Sperimentale – OGS, Borgo Grotta Gigante 42/c,34010 Sgonico (TS), Italy (E-mail: [email protected])�Dipartimento di Scienze Geologiche, Universita di Catania, Corso Italia 55, 95129 Catania, Italy�Dipartimento di Georisorse e Territorio, Universita degli Studi di Udine, Via del Cotonificio 114,33100 Udine, Italy

Associate Editor – Gregor Eberli

ABSTRACT

The Cutro Terrace is a mixed marine to continental terrace, where deposits up

to 15 m thick discontinuously crop out in an area extending for ca 360 km2

near Crotone (southern Italy). The terrace represents the oldest and highest

terrace of the Crotone area, and it has been ascribed to marine isotope stage 7

(ca 200 kyr bp). Detailed facies and sequence-stratigraphic analyses of the

terrace deposits allow the recognition of a suite of depositional environments

ranging from middle shelf to fluvial, and of two stacked transgressive–

regressive cycles (Cutro 1 and Cutro 2) bounded by ravinement surfaces and by

surfaces of sub-aerial exposure. In particular, carbonate sedimentation,

consisting of algal build-ups and biocalcarenites, characterizes the Cutro 1

cycle in the southern sector of the terrace, and passes into shoreface and

foreshore sandstones and calcarenites towards the north-west. The Cutro 2

cycle is mostly siliciclastic and consists of shoreface, lagoon-estuarine, fluvial

channel fill, floodplain and lacustrine deposits. The Cutro 1 cycle is

characterized by very thin transgressive marine strata, represented by lags

and shell beds upon a ravinement surface, and thicker regressive deposits.

Moreover, the cycle appears foreshortened basinwards, which suggests that the

accumulation of its distal and upper part occurred during forced regressive

conditions. The Cutro 2 cycle displays a marked aggradational component of

transgressive to highstand paralic and continental deposits, in places strongly

influenced by local physiography, whereas forced regressive sediments are

absent and probably accumulated further basinwards. The maximum flooding

shoreline of the second cycle is translated ca 15 km basinward with respect to

that of the first cycle, and this reflects a long-term regressive trend mostly

driven by regional uplift. The stratigraphic architecture of the Cutro Terrace

deposits is the result of the interplay between regional uplift and high

amplitude, Late Quaternary glacio-eustatic changes. In particular, rapid

transgressions, linked to glacio-eustatic rises that outpaced regional uplift,

favoured the accumulation of thin transgressive marine strata at the base of the

two cycles. In contrast, the combined effect of glacio-eustatic falls and regional

uplift led to high-magnitude forced regressions. The superposition of the two

cycles was favoured by a relatively flat topography, which allowed relatively

complete preservation of stratal geometries that record large shoreline

displacements during transgression and regression. The absence of a palaeo-

Sedimentology (2011) 58, 442–477 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3091.2010.01171.x

442 � 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation � 2010 International Association of Sedimentologists

coastal cliff at the inner margin of the terrace supports this interpretation. The

Cutro Terrace provides a case study of sequence architecture developed in

uplifting settings and controlled by high-amplitude glacio-eustatic changes.

This case study also demonstrates how the interplay of relative sea-level

change, sediment supply and physiography may determine either the

superposition of cycles forming a single terrace or the formation of a

staircase of terraces each recording an individual eustatic pulse.

Keywords Crotone, glacio-eustasy, marine terrace, Pleistocene, small-scalecycles, stratal architecture.

INTRODUCTION

The principles of sequence stratigraphy weredeveloped mostly in settings characterized byoverall subsidence, such as passive continentalmargins (Posamentier & Vail, 1988; Posamentieret al., 1988; Van Wagoner et al., 1988; Galloway,1989), foreland basins (Van Wagoner & Bertram,1995; Plint & Nummedal, 2000) and normal fault-bounded and rift basins (Embry, 1993; Gawthorpeet al., 1994; Howell & Flint, 1996; Zecchin et al.,2006). However, only few works illustrate theeffects of uplift on sequence architecture (Jones &Milton, 1994; Gawthorpe et al., 1997).

Zecchin (2007) emphasized that relative sea-level rises and falls are attenuated and enhanced,respectively, in uplifting settings, and this influ-ences the relative thickness of transgressive andregressive deposits. A consequence is that thesedimentary cyclicity developed in these contextscommonly shows features that diverge from thosethat characterize subsiding settings. For example,Cantalamessa & Di Celma (2004) addressed thispoint by showing stratigraphic architectures dom-inated by transgressive deposits and stronglydownstepping forced regressive units due toregional uplift in the Early Pleistocene Peri-adriatic Basin (central Italy).

A common feature in uplifting settings alongcoastal areas is the development of staircases ofmarine terraces, recording the interplay betweenuplift and eustatic changes (Keraudren & Sorel,1987; Zazo et al., 2003; Zecchin et al., 2004b).Recent papers show that marine terrace depositsmay be composed of more than one transgressive–regressive cycle, reflecting high-frequency rela-tive sea-level changes (Leonard & Wehmiller,1992; Carobene, 2003; Zecchin et al., 2004b,2009b; Nalin et al., 2007). The architecture ofindividual cycles forming the terrace sediments,as well as their stacking pattern, depend onvarious factors such as the rates of uplift and ofeustatic change, local physiography, sediment

supply, environmental energy and the nature ofthe bedrock. These variables may combine toproduce cyclical architectures and stacking pat-terns that are not easily predictable.

This study documents a Middle Pleistocenemarine terrace in the Crotone area (southern Italy;Fig. 1A and B), where the deposits are composedof two small-scale transgressive–regressive cyclesinferred to be linked to the interglacial sub-stagesof marine isotope stage (MIS) 7. The stratalarchitecture of cycles, in particular the partition-ing of sediment volumes into different systemstracts and the nature of stratal surfaces, reflectsboth the uplift history of the area and the high-amplitude glacio-eustatic changes characterizingMiddle to Late Pleistocene time. Moreover, theobserved cycle superposition is unexpected, asthe inferred uplift rate of the region is high, in theorder of 1 m kyr)1 (Zecchin et al., 2004b). There-fore, this example is useful in elucidating thedevelopment of transgressive–regressive cyclesand their stacking patterns in the context ofmarked regional uplift, and may contribute tothe development of a sequence stratigraphicmodel for these contexts as well as to highlightsimilarities and differences with more widelydocumented subsiding settings.

GEOLOGICAL SETTING

The Calabrian Arc

The Calabrian Arc (Fig. 1A), mostly composed ofa pile of pre-Mesozoic crystalline nappes, islocated between the north-west trending southernApennine chain and the east trending SicilianMaghrebides. It migrated south-eastward frommid-Miocene times onwards in response to sub-duction of the Ionian crust, which generated theback-arc Tyrrhenian basin (Malinverno & Ryan,1986; Bonardi et al., 2001). The movementtowards the south-east strongly dissected the arc

Sequence stratigraphy in uplifting settings 443

� 2010 The Authors. Journal compilation � 2010 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 58, 442–477

into different parts separated by strike-slip faults(Fig. 1A). These faults are characterized by left-lateral movement in the central and northernparts of the arc, and right-lateral movement in thesouth (Knott & Turco, 1991). During the south-eastward migration, a general extensionaltectonic regime generated several Neogene basinsboth on the Tyrrhenian and Ionian sides of theCalabrian Arc.

Since mid-Pleistocene time, the Calabrian Arcexperienced rapid uplift of up to ca 10 mm year)1

(Westaway, 1993), documented by flights ofmarine terraces developed along the coasts. Sev-eral hypotheses have been presented to explainthe regional uplift of the Calabrian Arc. Manyworkers invoke either an isostatic rebound thatfollowed the breaking of the subducted IonianCrust (Spakman, 1986; Westaway, 1993; Wortel &Spakman, 2000) or convective removal of thedeep root and consequent decoupling of the arcfrom the subducting plate (Doglioni, 1991; Gvirtz-man & Nur, 2001). The uplift was accommodatedlocally by repeated displacement along the majoractive faults (Monaco & Tortorici, 2000; Catalanoet al., 2003).

The Crotone Basin

The Crotone Basin, located on the Ionian side of theCalabrian Arc (Fig. 1A and B), began to openbetween Serravallian and Tortonian times (VanDijk, 1991). It is generally interpreted as a forearc

basin positioned between the external Calabrianaccretionary wedge to the south-east and theAeolian volcanic arc to the west (Bonardi et al.,2001; Zecchin et al., 2004a). The basin is boundedto the north and to the south by two north-westtrending left-lateral shear zones (Rossano-SanNicola and Petilia-Sosti) (Fig. 1B), whereas otherstructures separate the Crotone sedimentary suc-cession from the crystalline Sila massif to the west.

The tectonic history of the Crotone Basin wascharacterized by a dominant extensional tectonicregime that was interrupted periodically by shortcompressional or transpressional phases in mid-Messinian, earliest mid-Pliocene and mid-Pleistocene times (Van Dijk, 1991; Massari et al.,2002; Zecchin et al., 2004a). The stratigraphicsuccession of the basin, Serravallian to MiddlePleistocene in age, consists of shelf, slope andlagoonal claystones and marls, and shoreface anddeltaic sandstones and conglomerates (Roda,1964; Massari et al., 2002; Zecchin et al., 2003,2004a, 2006; Zecchin, 2005).

The interplay between the strong uplift of thebasin, initiated in the Middle Pleistocene, andglacio-eustatic changes, produced a staircase ofmarine terraces placed at progressively lowerelevations (Gliozzi, 1987; Palmentola et al.,1990; Zecchin et al., 2004b) (Figs 1B and 2).These terraces consist of a transgressive erosionalsurface overlain by shallow-marine sediments,which unconformably overlie the Plio-Pleistoceneslope succession known as the Cutro Clay. Gliozzi

Rossano - S. Nicola

shear zone

Petilia - Sosti

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Capo Colonna

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Lower Pliocene

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seaIonian

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Fig. 1. (A) Simplified structural map of the Calabrian Arc with location of the Crotone Basin. (B) Geological sketch-map of the Crotone Basin (modified from Zecchin et al., 2004a,b).

444 M. Zecchin et al.


(1987), Cosentino et al. (1989) and Palmentolaet al. (1990) recognized three to four terraces,whereas Zecchin et al. (2004b) identified fivedifferent terraces. The uplift rates obtained fromdifferent authors in this area range from 0Æ4 to1Æ8 mm year)1 (Cosentino et al., 1989; Palmentolaet al., 1990; Zecchin et al., 2004b).

The Cutro Terrace

The Cutro Terrace is composed of marine, paralicand continental deposits reaching a thickness of15 m, and crops out over an area of ca 360 km2

between Strongoli to the north and Isola di CapoRizzuto to the south (Fig. 2). The terrace repre-sents the oldest and highest terrace of the Crotonearea, and it has been ascribed to MIS 7 (ca200 kyr bp) (Gliozzi, 1987; Cosentino et al., 1989)or MIS 9 (ca 330 kyr bp) (Palmentola et al., 1990).More recently, results by Zecchin et al. (2004b)and Nalin et al. (2007) reinforced the attributionof the terrace to MIS 7.

At present, the Cutro Terrace consists of adismembered sub-horizontal landform of vari-able extent, elevated between 15 and 220 mabove mean sea-level and dissected by a net-work of river valleys (Fig. 2). The landformsurface is inclined gently towards the east inthe northern sector and to the south-east in thesouthern one. The southern part of the terrace isdissected by two main normal fault systems,showing ENE–WSW and NNE–SSW trends(Fig. 2), and having a total throw that reachesa few tens of metres.

Zecchin et al. (2004b) and Nalin et al. (2007)recognized an internal transgressive–regressivecyclicity, inferred to be linked to high-frequencyglacio-eustatic changes, in the stratigraphic suc-cession of the Cutro Terrace. Their study illus-trates a mix of siliciclastic and carbonate faciesrepresentative of four main depositional settings:shelf, shoreface, back-barrier and alluvial. Thedeeper settings are generally characterized bycarbonate sedimentation, represented by red algalreefs a few metres thick. The recognized cyclesforming the terrace deposits display an overalldownstepping stacking pattern related to theregional uplift (Nalin et al., 2007).

Despite the various studies on the Cutro Ter-race, the character of the innermost depositionalsettings, the lateral extent of the cycles, the three-dimensional (3D) facies and stratal architecture,and the palaeogeographic evolution of the areaduring the terrace formation have been poorlydocumented, and they are described in this paper

for the first time. Furthermore, a sequence strati-graphic model for uplift settings highlighting thevariables that allow the vertical stack of individ-ual cycles and control their internal architecturestill is lacking, and it is presented here.

METHODS AND DATA

Geological mapping (scale 1 : 10 000) of an areaextending over 400 km2 along the Ionian margin ofthe Crotone Basin represents the basis of thepresent work (Fig. 2); this has allowed a detailedrevision of the regional geology. Sixteen strati-graphic sections, to which detailed facies analysiswas applied, were measured in the deposits of theCutro Terrace (Figs 2 to 7). Excellent exposures inthe terrace deposits allowed the definition ofdetailed facies geometries and the recognition ofkey stratal surfaces, whereas section correlationwas crucial in reconstructing the depositionalsystems and allowing the sequence-stratigraphicmodel to be elaborated. Transgressive–regressivecycles were defined by correlating stratal surfacestypified by key physical attributes across the studyarea; this has allowed the recognition of sedimen-tary units showing consistent lateral facieschanges along both depositional dip and strikedespite the patchy distribution of outcrops (Fig. 2).

FACIES AND SEDIMENTARYENVIRONMENTS

A detailed description and interpretation of faciescomposing the Cutro Terrace deposits is providedbelow. The facies scheme with interpreted depo-sitional environments is summarized in Table 1.

Carbonate reef facies association (A)

This facies association consists of a rigid frame-work of red algae, also containing abundantbryozoans, serpulid tubes, bivalve shells (pecti-nids, venerids and rare ostreids), gastropods, andminor corals (Cladocora caespitosa) and echi-noids (Facies A1) (east Cutro, Sant’Anna, Mari-taggi and Vrica 2 sections; Figs 3 and 4). Itsthickness ranges between 0Æ5 and 6 m, reaching amaximum in the south-eastern locations (Mari-taggi section; Figs 2, 3 and 7). Its lateral extentvaries from a few metres (patch reefs) to severalkilometres in the south-eastern part of the terrace.In the central to northern part of the terrace, thefacies is absent (Fig. 7). Facies A1 overlies lag



Fig. 2. Simplified geological map of the study area showing part of the succession of the Crotone Basin, the CutroTerrace, the younger marine terraces and the locations of the measured sections.



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deposits (Facies B1), and is sharply to erosionallyoverlain by clastic facies (Figs 3, 4, 7 and 8A).Some metre-scale fractures filled with siliciclasticsandstone (Facies D4) may occur within FaciesA1, especially where the facies is thicker (Mari-taggi section, Fig. 3).

Interpretation of facies association AFacies A1 is interpreted as an algal reef, inferredto be growing in the mid-shelf at an optimumdepth between 40 and 60 m as observed in thepresent day (Laborel, 1961; Peres & Picard, 1964;Bosence, 1983; Nalin et al., 2006). The progres-sive increase in thickness and lateral extent of thefacies towards the south-east, from isolated patchreefs to very large bodies, reflects the seawardincrease of water depth, reaching optimum con-ditions for reef growth. Algal reefs are very

common in the terrace deposits of the Crotonearea (Zecchin et al., 2004b, 2009b; Nalin et al.,2006, 2007; Nalin & Massari, 2009).

Condensed shallow-marine faciesassociation (B)

Facies B1: Conglomerate lagFacies B1 is commonly recognizable at the base ofthe terrace deposits, and consists of a one clastthick pebble-size conglomerate or a 25 cm thickpebble-size conglomerate to very coarse-grainedquartz sandstone (Papanice, east Cutro, Mancadel Vescovo 1 and Vrica 1 sections; Figs 3 to 5and 8B). The base of the facies is erosional on thesubstrate (the Cutro Clay), and the top is sharp(Fig. 8B). Facies B1 is overlain by the shorefaceand shelf deposits of facies associations C and A

Fig. 6. Sections showing the north-ern part of the Cutro Terracedeposits (see Fig. 2 for location andFig. 3 for symbols), which are com-posed entirely of braided fluvialgravels and sandstones, and of finer-grained overbank sediments (faciesassociation E). The accumulationwithin a broad valley located atSerra Mulara accounts for the strongthickness contrast between the twosections. The boundary between theCutro 1 and Cutro 2 cycles is notrecognizable in this part of theterrace.



(Figs 3 to 5). Conglomerates can exhibit bothcalcareous and crystalline clast composition orcan be made solely of carbonate sediment con-taining plant debris and oogons of characeae,especially in the one-clast-thick beds (Fig. 8B).Clasts are well-rounded in all cases. A fining-upward trend, bioturbation, and some scatteredpectinid and gastropod shells may be present inthe thicker intervals (Vrica 1 section; Fig. 4).

Facies B2: Condensed shell bedFacies B2 may be present both at the base of orwithin the terrace deposits, and shows variablecomposition and thickness in different locations(Isola di Capo Rizzuto, Vrica 1-2 and Margheritasections; Figs 3 to 5 and 8C). Facies B2 is up to0Æ7 m thick and may show a fining-upward trend(Vrica 2 section; Fig. 4). Its base is always sharpand erosional on the substrate or on the under-lying terrace deposits, whereas the upper contactwith overlying facies varies from sharp to gradual.Facies B2 contains a mix of well-preservedcarbonate hardparts with locally common biotur-bation. In particular, it may comprise a variable

mix of ostreids, bryozoans, small corals, pectinidsand centimetre-scale rhodoliths (Isola di CapoRizzuto, Vrica 1 and Margherita sections; Figs 3to 5), or an association dominated by Gibbula sp.with minor pectinid and venerid bivalves (Vrica 2section; Figs 4 and 8C). These hardparts show achaotic arrangement and are immersed in amatrix of fine to very coarse-grained quartz sand-stone (Fig. 8C). Flat to low angle cross-laminationmay be present within the facies.

Interpretation of facies association BThe relationship of Facies B1 with an underlyinglaterally extensive erosional surface and with anoverlying shallow-marine succession containingwave structures (facies association C, see below)suggests that this facies is a lag deposit formedafter wave erosion and shoreface retreat, andmostly composed of material reworked from thesubstrate (Demarest & Kraft, 1987; Nummedal &Swift, 1987; Hwang & Heller, 2002). Carbonateclasts containing plant debris and oogons ofcharaceae suggest the reworking of a lacustrinedeposit. In contrast, Facies B2 is composed mostly

Fig. 7. Three-dimensional fence panel illustrating facies distribution and stratal surfaces of the Cutro Terracedeposits (see Fig. 2 for location of the sections). Both facies and stratal surfaces indicate a south-eastward directionfrom proximal to distal locations and allow two transgressive–regressive cycles, the Cutro 1 and Cutro 2 cycles, to bedistinguished (see text). Clastic marine deposits are found in proximal settings and pass distally into carbonatebuildups. Marine deposits grade landward into bay-lagoonal and continental deposits without the interposition ofcoastal cliffs. The lateral variability of the deposits is also appreciable. Dotted lines indicate uncertainty.



of intra-basinal skeletal material, probably accu-mulated in distal shoreface to shelf settings andunder conditions of relative siliciclastic starvationthat promote shell concentration (Kidwell, 1991;Abbott & Carter, 1994; Naish & Kamp, 1997; Kondoet al., 1998). The chaotic shell arrangement may bedue to the action of major storm waves, whereasthe occasional cross-lamination indicates the localpresence of currents.

Regressive shallow-marine faciesassociation (C)

The regressive shallow-marine association con-sists of an upward coarsening beach sequence,

1 to 10 m thick, separated into four facies (C1 toC4) (Fig. 7).

Facies C1: Flat-laminated and mostly burrowedsandstoneFacies C1 is composed of fine to medium-grainedquartz sandstone (Facies C1a) or coarse to verycoarse-grained calcarenite with subordinatequartz constituents (Facies C1b) (Figs 3 to 5 and9A). The lower and upper boundaries of the faciesare commonly sharp, but the lower contact maybe gradual over up to 10 cm with Facies B2 (forexample, in the Vrica 2 section; Fig. 4). Facies C1is characterized by indistinct flat lamination andpervasive to indistinct bioturbation (Fig. 9A).

Table 1. Summary of facies and related depositional environments of the Cutro Terrace deposits.

Facies association Facies Depositional environment

Carbonate reef (A) A1: Carbonate algal reef Middle shelf

Condensed shallow-marine (B) B1: Conglomerate lag Shoreface to shelfB2: Condensed shell bed Lower shoreface to shelf

Regressive shallow-marine (C) C1: Flat-laminated and mostlyburrowed sandstone

Lower shoreface to inner shelf

C2: Flat-laminated to swaley andhummocky cross-stratifiedsandstone

Middle shoreface

C3: Trough cross-stratifiedsandstone and conglomerate

Upper shoreface

C4: Low angle-laminatedsandstone and conglomerate(for all facies, suffix a = mostlysiliciclastic, suffix b = mostlybioclastic)

Beachface

Estuarine, lagoon-bay andsheltered shallow-marine (D)

D1: Bay mudstone and sandstone Lagoon-bay or estuary centralbasin

D2: Planar-laminated to massivesandstone

Inner bay with bayhead deltas

D3: Oyster conquina Axial part of estuaryD4: Reef cavity fill Bay-estuaryD5: Sand waves Estuary to sheltered shallow

marineD6: Carbonate mudstone Brackish pond

Continental (E) E1: Horizontal-beddedconglomerate

Longitudinal bedforms inhigh-energy fluvial

E2: Planar cross-stratifiedconglomerate

Linguoid and transverse bars inhigh-energy fluvial

E3: Channellized conglomerateand sandstone

Fluvial

E4: Sandstone with gravel sheets Distal braid plainE5: Siltstone with sandstonelaminae and lenses

Channel plug and overbank areas

E6: Fining-upward sandstone tosiltstone

Fluvio-lacustrine

E7: Pedogenized deposit – E7a:soil, E7b: conglomerate with clastscovered by a calcareous film

Subaerial, subjected topedogenesis



Where individual burrows can be distinguished,they are commonly horizontal or slightly inclined(Fig. 5). Some coarser-grained planar layers up to10 cm thick, or rare swales 0Æ5 m across, arepresent (Figs 3 to 5). The thickness of the faciesranges from 0Æ5 m (Piana Brasa section; Figs 4 and9A) to 5 m (Manca del Vescovo 1 section; Figs 4and 5). Fossils are very rare to abundant in thecarbonate-rich components, and consist ofbivalve shells (pectinids, cardids, ostreids andvenerids), gastropods and serpulid tubesdispersed in the sediment or organized in centi-metre-scale shell beds (Figs 3 and 4). Facies C1may rarely alternate with Facies C2, as observedin the Margherita section (Fig. 5).

Facies C2: Flat-laminated to swaley and hum-mocky cross-stratified sandstoneFacies C2 is transitional between Facies C1 andC3, and consists of medium to coarse-grained

quartz sandstone with occasional layers of pebblyconglomerate (Facies C2a), or coarse to verycoarse-grained calcarenite (Facies C2b) (Figs 3 to5 and 9B). Its thickness ranges between 0Æ3 and2 m. The lower boundary of the facies is sharpand erosional, whereas the upper boundary issharp but is clearly erosional only with Facies C3(Figs 3 to 5). Characteristics of Facies C2 areamalgamated swaley cross-stratification (SCS)and hummocky cross-stratification (HCS) passinglaterally and vertically into flat-lamination (Figs 3to 5). Occasional conglomerate layers are oneclast to 10 cm thick and fine upwards (Manca delVescovo 1 section; Fig. 5). Trough cross-stratifiedsets, up to 10 cm thick, are present locally (Mancadel Vescovo 1 and Margherita sections; Fig. 5).Fossils are rare to abundant, consisting of bivalveshells (pectinids, ostreids and Mytilus sp.),gastropods and rare bryozoans, and are locallyorganized into shell beds up to 20 cm thick

A B

C

Fig. 8. (A) Carbonate reef made of red algae (Facies A1), erosionally overlain by shallow-marine clastic facies (east of Isoladi Capo Rizzuto). (B) Erosional contact between the basement (the Plio-Pleistocene Cutro Clay) and the terrace deposits,here represented by a lag of carbonate clasts (Facies B1) deriving from a previous lacustrine deposit and by shallow-marine sediments of Facies C1a (Papanice section). Hammer head for scale is 18 cm long. (C) Shell-rich deposit (FaciesB2) containing Gibbula sp. and bivalves in a sandstone matrix (Vrica 2 section). Coin for scale has a diameter of 2 cm.



A

C

D

B

Fig. 9. (A) Lower shoreface burrowed bioclastic sandstone (Facies C1b) in the Piana Brasa section. (B) Ophiomorphatrace and other burrows in Facies C2a (Margherita section). (C) Upper shoreface trough cross-stratified bioclasticsandstone (Facies C3b) in the Piana Brasa section. (D) Upper shoreface sands and gravels (Facies C3a), consisting of aplanar cross-stratified interval overlying trough cross-stratified sediments near the Manca del Vescovo 2 section.Hammer for scale is 28 cm long.



(Figs 3 to 5). Bivalves in the shell beds areconvex-up in arrangement. The degree of biotur-bation is variable, but not pervasive. It is typicallyrepresented by decimetre-long, vertical to in-clined and horizontal shafts, some of which arereferred to the Ophiomorpha ichnogenera (EastCutro, Margherita and Tre Chiese sections; Figs 3,5 and 9B). Facies C2 may be intercalated withFacies C1, and occasionally with the lower part ofFacies C3 (Margherita and Tre Chiese sections;Fig. 5). In some cases Facies C2 is absent, andFacies C1 abruptly passes above into Facies C3(Papanice and Manca del Vescovo 2 sections;Figs 3 and 5).

A 25 cm thick finer-grained interval, consistingof lower very fine-grained sandstone and contain-ing scattered abraded rhodoliths, is present with-in Facies C2a in the Vrica 2 section (Fig. 4). Thisinterval is associated with load structures involv-ing the overlying coarser-grained beds.

Facies C3: Trough cross-stratified sandstoneand conglomerateFacies C3 consists of medium-grained calcareniteand sandstone to granule-grade conglomerate andoccasionally pebbly conglomerate, containingpredominantly trough cross-stratification (TCS;Figs 3 to 5, 9C and 9D). Its thickness rangesbetween 0Æ2 m (east Cutro section, Fig. 3) and 4 m(Margherita section, Fig. 5). Siliciclastic compo-nents (Facies C3a) are more common, and mostlyconsist of quartz sandstone. Biotite micas areconcentrated locally along foresets, forming darklaminae a few millimetres thick (Fig. 9D). Inplaces, pectinid shells are rare or absent (Mancadel Vescovo 2 section; Fig. 5). Carbonate beds(Facies C3b) are found only at Piana Brasa (Figs 4and 9C), and consist of shell and reef detrituswith subordinate quartz grains and occasionalwhole pectinid valves and centimetre-size rho-doliths. The lower boundary of the facies iserosional on Facies C1 and C2, whereas the upperboundary with Facies C4 is sharp and/orerosional (Figs 3 to 5).

Trough cross-sets are up to 50 cm thick andshow foresets inclined up to 30�; they are com-monly truncated by SCS and HCS intervals up to1 m thick, passing laterally into flat-lamination(Manca del Vescovo 2 and Tre Chiese sections;Figs 5 and 10A). Swales up to 2 m wide can bevery prominent locally, and may show a pebblelag at their base (Fig. 10A). Even planar cross-setsup to 40 cm thick and both current and waveripple cross-lamination were observed (Fig. 9D).Planar cross-sets can be truncated by granule-

grade to pebbly conglomerate layers a few centi-metres thick (Fig. 9D). Palaeocurrents fromtrough cross-sets are dispersed and show a pre-vailing direction that varies between locations. Atthe Manca del Vescovo and Margherita sections,the only sections that offered a sufficient numberof measurements, palaeocurrents show prevailingwest/south-west and south-east directions,respectively (Fig. 11).

Pebble-size to cobble-size conglomerate layers,ranging in thickness from one clast to 0Æ5 m andvarying in shape from tabular to lenticular, arecharacteristics of Facies C3, in particular at theManca del Vescovo and Margherita locations(Figs 5, 9D, 10A and 10B). Clasts are well-rounded, commonly elongated, and their compo-sition is heterogeneous, with both calcareous andcrystalline elements. Layers may contain a matrixof coarse to very coarse-grained quartz sandstoneand may show normal grading. Occasional imbri-cation of large clasts has been observed. Theseconglomerate layers truncate all of the featurescited above, and are more common where theFacies C3 interval is coarser and thicker, asobserved at the Manca del Vescovo and Marghe-rita locations (Fig. 5).

The degree of bioturbation in Facies C3 isvariable, ranging from absent to common, andconsists of characteristic vertical to inclinedburrows (Figs 3 to 5). In rare instances (Apriglia-nello section; Fig. 4) Facies C3 is absent and isreplaced by Facies C2.

Facies C4: Low angle-laminated sandstone andconglomerateFacies C4, where present, is located at the top ofsuccessions of Facies C1 to C3, and is composedtypically of medium to very coarse-grained quartzsandstone and granule-grade to pebbly conglo-merate (Facies C4a) or very coarse-grained calcar-enite (Facies C4b) (Figs 4, 5 and 10B). An overallfining upward trend is recognizable in severalcases (Manca del Vescovo 1 and 2 and Margheritasections; Figs 5 and 10B). Conglomerate clastshave both calcareous and crystalline elements,and are well-rounded and elongated. Lenses up to30 cm thick, composed of abraded pebble-sizedrhodoliths, may be present at the base of FaciesC4b (Apriglianello and Piana Brasa sections;Fig. 4). Rhodoliths may also be sparse withinthe facies. The thickness of the facies ranges from0Æ7 to 1Æ2 m, and the lower and upper boundariesare sharp and erosional (Figs 4, 5 and 10B).

Facies C4 is characterized by low angle lami-nation, from a few degrees inclined to nearly



horizontal (Fig. 10B). However, the coarser-grained siliciclastic units show a more complexinternal structure. In particular, at the Manca delVescovo 2 section (Figs 5 and 10B), Facies C4a iscomposed of pebbly conglomerate passing up-ward into medium-grained sandstone withprogressively steeper inclinations of laminationdown depositional dip. This produces a convex-upward pattern of laminae geometries thatabruptly terminates at the lower contact withFacies C3 (Figs 5 and 10B). The larger clasts lie atthe boundary between the two facies (Fig. 10B).This motif is interrupted locally by 10 cm thickplanar cross-sets climbing up the slope produced

by the low angle lamination and wedging-out inthe same direction (Manca del Vescovo 2 section;Fig. 5). A common feature of the conglomerateintervals is clast imbrication, with clasts inclinedin the same direction as the low angle lamination(Fig. 10B).

Interpretation of facies association CThe observed features indicate that the intervalformed by Facies C1 to C4 represents a typicalregressive, shallow-marine succession, character-ized by both coarsening and shallowing upwardtrends (Clifton, 2006). The bioturbated Facies C1,forming the lower part of the regressive interval,

A

B

Fig. 10. (A) Upper shoreface sandsand gravels (Facies C3a) near theManca del Vescovo 2 section. Med-ium-scale dunes are replaced bylarge swales in the centre of thephotograph. Note the decimetre-scale gravel layer truncating theunderlying deposits in the upperpart. (B) Boundary between uppershoreface sands and gravels (FaciesC3a) and beachface gravels (FaciesC4a) in the Manca del Vescovo 2section. Note the upward decreasinginclination of laminae in Facies C4a,from the steeply inclined lowerbeachface to the gently-inclinedupper beachface. Hammer for scaleis 28 cm long.



is indicative of relatively low energy levels in alower shoreface to inner shelf setting, above thestorm wave base (Reading & Collinson, 1996;Clifton, 2006). The occasional coarser-grainedplanar layers and swales are interpreted as eventbeds related to the action of major storm waves.Also the presence of horizontal burrows is indic-ative of an environment characterized by rela-tively low energy levels, between the lowershoreface and the inner shelf. These featuresresemble those of the Cruziana ichnofacies, typ-ical of this depositional environment (Pembertonet al., 1992; MacEachern & Bann, 2008). Alterna-tively, Facies C1 may locally represent a deposi-tional environment characterized by shallowerwater but protected by direct wave action,thus leading to relatively intense bioturbation(Zecchin, 2007).

The dominance of amalgamated SCS and HCSover bioturbation indicates higher wave energylevels for Facies C2, which is inferred to becharacteristic of a middle shoreface environmentsubjected to oscillatory-dominant flow (Dott &Bourgeois, 1982; Leckie & Walker, 1982; Dumaset al., 2005). The occurrence of SCS and HCS ina relatively coarse grain size had already beenobserved in other shallow-marine deposits (Mas-sari & Parea, 1988). In addition, the observedburrow traces, dominated by vertical forms, aretypical of the Skolithos ichnofacies, which ischaracteristic of higher energy levels in theshoreface (Pemberton et al., 1992; MacEachern& Bann, 2008).

The features of Facies C3 are indicative of ahigh-energy environment characterized by themigration of 3D and locally 2D dunes in the surfand breaker zones, producing trough and planarcross-stratification (Clifton, 1981, 2006; Massari &Parea, 1988; Hart & Plint, 1995) and, in somecases, also by structures related to intense oscil-latory motion by shoaling waves during storms(SCS and HCS; Greenwood & Sherman, 1986).Conglomerate layers are inferred to be the productof the accumulation of sediment eroded from a

gravel beach and delivered to the shorefaceduring major storms (Massari & Parea, 1988) or,alternatively, they may derive from the accumu-lation of sediment eroded from adjacent mouthbars supplied by a coarse-grained river (Leithold& Bourgeois, 1984). All of these features indicatean upper shoreface environment that locally isinfluenced strongly by storms (Clifton, 2006). Thecoarser grain sizes observed at the Manca delVescovo and Margherita locations suggest closerproximity to the mouth of coarse-grained rivers,and a depositional setting transitional to a wave-dominated deltaic mouth bar (Bhattacharya &Walker, 1991).

The erosional base of the trough cross-stratifiedzone is referred to as the surf diastem (Zhanget al., 1997; Swift et al., 2003), which may beconsidered as the base of the upper shoreface. Inthe present case, the depth of the surf diasteminferred from the thicker sections (Manca delVescovo 2 and Margherita; Figs 5 and 7) is of theorder of a few metres, suggesting a relationship ofthis surface with storms and therefore with thedepth at which storm waves break, as illustratedby Tamura et al. (2008) along the eastern Japancoast.

The variability in the prevailing palaeocurrentdirections, together with their noticeable disper-sion, suggest that trough cross-stratification is theresult of both longshore and rip currents and, insome cases, of onshore migrating shoaling waves(cf. Reading & Collinson, 1996; Clifton, 2006),each of which may become dominant probablydepending on local physiographic factors.

The alternation between Facies C1 and C2, andbetween Facies C2 and C3, observed in somecases, probably indicates variations in waveheight, which may be related to seasonal varia-tions in storm intensities and/or to highfrequency climate changes (Hampson, 2000;Hampson & Storms, 2003). The local absence ofFacies C2 and its replacement by Facies C1 maybe related either to a relatively quieter environ-ment, allowing higher bioturbation levels below

North

TCS - Facies C3(Manca del Vescovo)n = 15

TCS - facies C3(Margherita)n = 19

North North

Sand wavesfacies D5n = 20

Fig. 11. Palaeocurrent directionsfrom trough cross-stratified deposits(Manca del Vescovo and Margheritasections) and sand waves.



the surf zone, or to the erosion of Facies C2 by thesurf diastem. The replacement of Facies C3 byFacies C2 may be related to the absence of flowsleading to bedform migration, possibly due tolocal physiographic factors.

The features and position of Facies C4 in theregressive interval indicate that it has beendeposited in a beachface environment, dominatedby swash and backwash. The beachface com-monly corresponds to the intertidal foreshore;however, in gravelly beaches it extends furtherinto the sub-tidal zone, and is separated into asteeper lower beachface (sub-tidal) and an upperbeachface (intertidal) (Massari & Parea, 1988;Postma & Nemec, 1990). Where Facies C4 isbetter developed and coarser-grained (Manca delVescovo 2 section; Figs 5 and 10B), it showsevidence of both the steeply inclined lowerbeachface and the gently inclined upper beach-face (i.e. the foreshore). A similar architecture,although thicker, is shown by Massari & Parea(1988) in the Pleistocene marine terraces ofPuglia, southern Italy. In other examples, thelower beachface shows a marked step, called theplunge step (Hart & Plint, 1989). The planar cross-sets climbing upon the beach slope are inter-preted as the result of landward migration oflongshore bars during post-storm recovery stages(Massari & Parea, 1988).

The generalized coarse-grained sediment sizeand the scarcity of mud, even in the burrowedintervals accumulated in relatively deep settings,reinforces the interpretation of a high-energysetting for the shallow-marine regressive succes-sion formed by Facies C1 to C4. Sandy sedimen-tation extending onto the inner shelf may berelated both to high energy levels, causing thefiner-grained fractions to be bypassed to deepersettings, perhaps via storm-generated rip currents(Gruszczynski et al., 1993; Clifton, 2006) and tothe scarce availability of mud supplied by riversin the form of sediment plumes (Tamura et al.,2008). In the present case study, rivers areinferred to have been similar to those of thepresent day, that is, they were small, ephemeral,characterized by catastrophic floods and suppliedthe nearshore area with mostly coarse-grainedsediment.

Estuarine, lagoon-bay and sheltered shallow-marine facies association (D)

This facies association is common in the centraland southern part of the study area (Fig. 7). It iscomposed of six facies.

Facies D1: Bay mudstone and sandstoneFacies D1 is composed of dark, clayey siltstoneto fine-grained quartz sandstone, in successions0Æ2 to 5 m thick, and typically contains anoligotypic fauna dominated by either Cerasto-derma sp. or ostreids (Figs 3 to 5, 12A and12B). Pectinids, venerids and gastropods(cerithids) are common locally. Shells may beeither scattered within the sediment or concen-trated in layers (east Cutro, Maritaggi and Isoladi Capo Rizzuto sections; Fig. 3). Whole cardidshells are found within the finer-grained inter-vals, whereas oyster shells occur locally in near-life position and dispersed within the sediment,forming 30 cm thick layers (Isola di CapoRizzuto section; Fig. 3). Shell abundance variesconsiderably, and the facies may locally lackmacrofauna. Flat to undulatory lamination andcurrent ripple cross-lamination occur in thecoarser-grained intervals (Maritaggi and Isoladi Capo Rizzuto sections; Fig. 3). Bioturbationvaries from absent to abundant. The boundarieswith other facies are normally sharp, but FaciesD1 may gradually pass below into Facies D2(Figs 3 to 5, 12A and 12B). The presence of a15 cm thick tephra layer in the finer-grainedpart of the facies at the Maritaggi section isnotable (Fig. 3).

Facies D2: Planar-laminated to massivesandstoneFacies D2, recognized in the Margherita sectiononly (Figs 5 and 12B), is composed of planar-laminated to massive, coarse-grained sandstoneto siltstone forming tabular packages. The faciesconsists of 0Æ2 to 1 m thick fining-upward layersgrading upward into Facies D1 and formingFacies D2 to D1 units (Figs 5 and 12B). Largeburrows, up to 0Æ2 m deep, may locally descendfrom the sharp lower boundary of the facies intothe underlying muddy sediment of Facies D1(Fig. 5). The outcrop conditions prevent obser-vation of the lateral variability of the facies.Macrofauna has not been observed withinFacies D2.

Facies D3: Oyster conquinaFacies D3 consists of packed oyster layers up to50 cm thick (Maritaggi, Isola di Capo Rizzuto andApriglianello sections; Figs 3, 4 and 12A), con-taining some pectinid shells, and exhibits hecto-metre-scale to kilometre-scale lateral extension.Shells are well-preserved and disarticulated, andare arranged chaotically (Fig. 12A). The matrixconsists of medium to coarse-grained quartz



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sandstone. Thicker intervals show an indistinctsub-horizontal stratification. Facies D3 is locallypresent within Facies D1 (Apriglianello andMaritaggi sections; Figs 3 and 4).

Facies D4: Reef cavity fillFacies D4 fills an irregular fracture, ca 1 m wide,crossing the rigid algal reef body of Facies A1 atthe Maritaggi section (Fig. 3). Decimetre-scaleclimbing cross-sets are present locally in thefracture fill, which is composed of verycoarse-grained quartz sandstone (Fig. 3). Gentlydownward-curving lamination characterizes theuppermost part of the fill (Fig. 3). The outcropconditions preclude determination of the lateralextent of the fracture.

Facies D5: Sand wavesSand waves are confined within a narrow belt,8 km long and up to 1 km wide, between the Isoladi Capo Rizzuto village and the Sant’Anna area(Figs 2 and 7). In the former locality, sand wavesare particularly well-developed where the rigidcarbonate deposits of Facies A1 are lacking,probably because of erosion (Isola di Capo Rizz-uto section, Figs 3 and 12A).

Facies D5 consists of coarse to very coarse-grained quartz sandstone with locally dispersedgranule clasts and exhibits large-scale planarcross-stratification characterized by sets 0Æ3 to2 m thick (Sant’Anna, Maritaggi and Isola diCapo Rizzuto sections; Figs 3 and 12A). One tothree superimposed large sets have been ob-served. Foresets are angular to tangentiallybased, inclined up to 35�, and locally deformed(Fig. 3). Convex-up oyster valves and wholecardid shells are present locally along the fore-sets (Fig. 3). Mud drapes and bioturbation areabsent. The sets show a predominant directiontowards the north/north-west, with a minorsouth/south-east component (Fig. 11), and com-monly overlie a coarse-grained sandstone carpetup to 20 cm thick, locally overlying a one clastthick layer formed by abraded rhodoliths (Fig. 3).This carpet may show an internal undulatelamination. The lower and upper boundaries ofthe facies are erosional. At the Sant’Anna sec-tion, Facies D5 overlies the algal reefs of FaciesA1, which are flattened at the top (Figs 3 and 7).At the Isola di Capo Rizzuto section, sand wavesalternate with Facies D1 and D3, and show anoverall upwards increase in set thickness (Figs 3and 12A). The upper sand wave is overlain bythe marine sediments of Facies B2 in the samesection (Figs 3 and 12A).

Facies D6: Carbonate mudstoneFacies D6 is present in the Vrica 1 section only,and consists of well-cemented carbonate mud-stone, ca 10 cm thick, containing scatteredrounded siliciclastic granules and showing ametre-scale lateral extent (Fig. 4). Its boundariesare sharp and erosional. The facies containsbrackish water gastropods, bivalve and echinoidfragments, and rare benthonic foraminifera.

Interpretation of facies association DFacies association D is thought to characterize acomplex suite of environments dominated bystressed conditions and locally strong currents.The stressed conditions are revealed by the oligo-typic fauna assemblages recognized in Facies D1and D3, which suggest a brackish estuarine, bay orbarred lagoonal setting. In particular, it is verylikely that Facies D1 was deposited in a shelteredenvironment, such as a lagoon-bay or an estuarinecentral-basin (Dalrymple et al., 1992), locallysubjected to currents, as indicated by the presenceof current ripple cross-lamination. The preserva-tion of the tephra layer in the Maritaggi sectionreveals quieter conditions in more protected areas.Euryhaline faunal assemblages dominated byoysters (Stenzel, 1971) are thought to reflectrelatively more open bay/estuarine settings char-acterized by slightly hyposaline conditions andhigher wave energy (Pufahl et al., 2004; Dalrym-ple & Choi, 2007). The thin sand packages ofFacies D2 present in the Margherita section couldrepresent either washover-fan deposits or thedistal fringes of small bayhead deltas passingupward into inner bay/lagoonal or estuarinecentral basin finer-grained sediments (Zaitlinet al., 1994). The absence of marine fauna inFacies D2 suggests the second interpretation. Theobserved vertical repetition of Facies D2 and D1might be related to an autocyclic mechanismleading to episodic delta shifting.

The oyster conquina characterizing Facies D3 issimilar to the oyster biostromes described byPufahl et al. (2004) in the Pliocene of the MurrayBasin (Australia), which have been recognizedonly along the axis of estuaries. In general, FaciesD3 and the coarser-grained intervals of Facies D1,characterized by oyster accumulations and localevent beds, resemble the shallow gulf settings ofthe Pliocene Murray Basin (Australia) (Pufahlet al., 2004). Facies D4 is inferred to be related totidal and/or storm-induced currents transportingsediment into the narrow fracture penetratingolder reef deposits (Zecchin et al., 2004b). Thelateral confinement within the fracture enhanced



flow power and determined the development ofbedforms.

The observed features suggest that Facies D5 isthe product of the migration of large bedformsunder the action of strong currents. The develop-ment of such currents, which were able to movecoarse sediment as bedload, might be linked tothe presence of local constrictions as straits,enhancing the flow power (Phillips, 1984; Colella& D’Alessandro, 1988; Zecchin, 2005). Alterna-tively, both tidal resonance and an irregular seafloor may be responsible for the development ofstrong shelf currents, producing large sand waves(Payenberg et al., 2006; Suter, 2006). In thepresent context, the incision of a modest valleyinto older reef and shoreface deposits during aphase of sub-aerial exposure is considered to bethe main factor allowing the development of atopographic irregularity. This development issuggested by the elongated areal distribution ofFacies D5 and by the abrupt interruption, just atthe Isola di Capo Rizzuto village, of the relativelyuniform reef buildup (Facies A1), which isreplaced by deposits of facies association D.It is suggested that after the drowning of thepreviously exposed area, shelf currents wereconstricted within the valley and large sandwaves migrated either upslope or downslope.A very similar case was illustrated by Payenberget al. (2006) in a drowned Late Pleistoceneincised valley of east Australia. A marine settingfor the larger sand waves is suggested also by thesuperposition of fully marine sediments (FaciesB2) above Facies D5 in the Isola di Capo Rizzutosection. Sand waves probably migrated in thefront of a funnel-shaped estuary (Berne et al.,1993), as demonstrated by the closeness betweenlarge sand wave sets and fine-grained bay/estua-rine sediments of Facies D1 in the area of theSant’Anna and east Cutro sections (Figs 3 and 7).Smaller sand waves (i.e. ca 0Æ5 m thick) areinferred to have developed in an estuarine set-ting, as suggested by their vertical alternationwith other facies of association D (Figs 3 and12A).

The absence of mud drapes in Facies D5 isinferred to be due to the action of very strongcurrents that were able to remove the finer-grained sediment. The observed shift in themigration direction of the sand-wave sets, fromnorth/north-west to south/south-east and viceversa, may be related to various causes. Inparticular, combined tidal and fluvial changes inestuarine settings (Berne et al., 1993), seasonalchanges in wind-driven currents (Harris, 1991),

and the influence of storm-induced currents(Field et al., 1981), may lead to periodic migra-tion reversals of large dunes. The sand carpetlocally present at the base of the sand-wave setsmay be interpreted as a basal lag, mostly com-posed of reworked material (Zecchin, 2005).

The alternation between Facies D1, D3 and D5in the Isola di Capo Rizzuto section, and theupward increase of set thickness of Facies D5,testify to an energy increase with time, high-lighted by the development of progressivelystronger currents separated by quieter phases.Facies D6 is more difficult to interpret. It might bedeposited in small brackish ponds characterizedby very scarce clastic sedimentation, and period-ically receiving intra-basinal bioclastic debrisduring storms.

Continental facies association (E)

Facies association E is well-represented in thelandward part of the terrace deposits, and showsgreat thickness variations from 0Æ5 m (at TreChiese) to 17Æ5 m (at Serra Mulara) (Figs 5 to 7).Relatively thick continental deposits also charac-terize the Papanice area and they thin bothnorthward and eastward (Fig. 7). At Serra Mulara,the thickness of the continental deposits and theirlateral variation recognized by the field surveyprovide evidence of a broad valley (Fig. 7). FromSerra Mulara to the north, the Cutro Terrace iscomposed entirely of continental sediments(Fig. 7).

Facies E1: Horizontal-bedded conglomerateFacies E1 is composed of clast-supported boul-der-size conglomerate, with both crystalline andcalcareous clasts, to pebbly sandstone, organizedto form erosively based, normally graded beds upto 0Æ75 m thick (Margherita, Serra Mulara andSerra Curta sections; Figs 5, 6 and 13A). Coarsesand matrix is present. Beds are tabular tolenticular, show a lateral continuity at the scaleof tens of metres, and form up to 2Æ4 m thickunits. Clast imbrication, indicating unidirectionalflow, is common. A basal coarser-grained lag ispresent in some cases. Deposits generally arereddish to brown in colour. Very rare, highlyfragmented, weathered and oxidized bivalveshells are found at the Serra Mulara section(Fig. 6). Well-preserved fossils are absent.

Facies E2: Planar cross-stratified conglomerateFacies E2 consists of clast-supported, pebble-sizeto cobble-size planar cross-stratified conglomerate



containing both crystalline and calcareous clasts,with sets up to 0Æ7 m thick and a coarse sandmatrix (Serra Mulara and Serra Curta sections;Figs 6 and 13A). Foresets are inclined up to 20�.The facies has a reddish to brown colouration andis commonly associated with Facies E1 (Figs 6and 13A). Very rare, highly fragmented, weath-ered and oxidized bivalve shells are found at theSerra Mulara section (Fig. 6). Well-preservedfossils are absent.

Facies E3: Channellized conglomerate andsandstoneThe facies is composed of brown, pebble-sizeconglomerate of variable lithology to coarse-grained quartz sandstone, organized to formfining-upward units up to 2 m thick showing avariably irregular channellized base (Manca delVescovo 1 and Tre Chiese sections; Fig. 5). Thecoarsest fraction is usually present at the lowererosional contact as a lag. The deposit is eitherstructureless or may show lateral accretion as

visible in the Manca del Vescovo 1 section(Fig. 5). Fossils are absent.

Facies E4: Sandstone with gravel sheetsFacies E4 is composed of very fine-grained sand-stone to granule-size gravel with occasional oneclast thick granule-size to pebble-size conglo-merate sheets, forming upward-fining units up to5 m thick with an erosional base (Papanice,Margherita and Serra Mulara sections; Figs 3, 5and 6). Occasional lenses, up to 0Æ25 m thick,composed of pebble-size gravel may be present(Papanice section; Fig. 3). Granules dispersed inthe finer-grained intervals are very common(Serra Mulara section; Fig. 6). The sediment maybe either well-sorted or may contain a siltyfraction. In the former case the sediment islighter, whereas in the latter case it is slightlyreddish or brownish and may contain dispersedcentimetre-scale caliche nodules (i.e. at thePapanice section; Fig. 3). Rare cross-stratificationis found, while fossils are absent.

A

B C

Fig. 13. (A) Coarse-grained braided fluvial deposits (Facies E1 and E2) at Serra Curta (see Fig. 6), in the extremenorthern part of the Cutro Terrace. (B) Palaeosol (Facies E7a) containing vertically elongated caliche nodules andseparating upper beachface (Facies C4a) from fluvio-lacustrine deposits (Facies E6) in the Manca del Vescovo 2section. (C) Palaeosol (Facies E7a) containing root traces (circled) in the east Cutro section. The palaeosols in (B) and(C) mark a sub-aerial unconformity between the Cutro 1 and Cutro 2 cycles (see text). Hammer for scale is 28 cm long.



Facies E4 may overlie horizontal-bedded(Facies E1) or planar cross-stratified (Facies E2)conglomerate packages and may be capped bymostly mud deposits (Facies E5) (Margherita andSerra Mulara sections; Figs 5 and 6). At the SerraMulara section, the facies shows thickness vari-ations at the hectometre-scale suggesting a broadchannellized shape.

Facies E5: Silt with sandstone laminae andlensesThe facies is composed of grey silt beds up to 1 mthick locally containing sparse granules, centi-metre-thick sandstone laminae and sandstonelenses up to 15 cm thick (Serra Mulara section;Fig. 6). Fossils are absent. The facies is commonlyfound above Facies E4 (Fig. 6).

Facies E6: Fining-upward sandstoneto siltstoneFacies E6 consists of medium-grained quartzsandstone to siltstone organized to form 0Æ75 to2 m thick fining-upward units showing a tabularshape at the hectometre-scale (Manca del Vescovo2 section; Figs 5, 13B, 14A and 14B). These unitshave a flat erosional base and are stacked to formdeposits up to 4Æ5 m thick (Fig. 5). Much thinnerdeposits are truncated by Facies E1 or E3 (Mancadel Vescovo 1 and Margherita sections; Fig. 5).Sand intervals are yellow to orange, whereassiltstones are grey. The facies is structureless ormay show an indistinct flat lamination in thelower part of the sandstone intervals (Figs 13B,14A and 14B). Rare vertical burrow traces arepresent. The finer-grained intervals contain anassociation composed of fresh water ostracods,gastropods and oogons, while tree remains andbones and teeth of Cervus elaphus have beenfound in the sandier intervals (Manca delVescovo 2 section; Figs 5, 14A and 14B).

Facies E7: Pedogenized depositThis facies consists of altered sediment devel-oped at the expense of previously accumulateddeposits, and is found at the top and in somecases in the middle of the sections (Figs 3 to 6,13B, 13C and 14A). It ranges between silt tocoarse-grained quartz sandstone containing avariable amount of clay minerals, with a thick-ness that varies from 0Æ2 to a maximum of 3 m inthe Vrica area (Facies E7a; Figs 3 to 6, 13B and13C). The colour varies between reddish andbrown. Primary sedimentary structures are totallyobliterated. Centimetre-scale caliche nodules areabundant locally; they may be vertically elon-

gated and aligned to form a 10 to 20 cm thickhorizon (i.e. at the Manca del Vescovo 2 section;Figs 5 and 13B). Rootlets are common locally (i.e.at the east Cutro section; Figs 3 and 13C).

A variant of this facies consists of a pebble-sizeconglomerate of variable lithology with a sandymatrix, characterized by clasts covered with a

A

B

Fig. 14. (A) Fluvio-lacustrine deposits (Facies E6)overlying beachface deposits (Facies C4a) and a con-glomerate with clasts covered with a calcareous film(Facies E7b) in the Manca del Vescovo 2 section. Note aCervus elaphus jaw (circled). Pole for scale is 90 cmlong. (B) Detail of C. elaphus jaw shown in (A).Hammer for scale is 30 cm long.



very thin white calcareous film (Facies E7b)(Fig. 14A). The conglomerate forms a rigid pave-ment up to 5 cm thick, extending laterally on ametre-scale, and is concentrated mostly in a fewcentimetre-deep depressions (Fig. 14A). FaciesE7b has been recognized in the Manca delVescovo 2 section only (Fig. 5).

Interpretation of facies association EThe observed features indicate that facies associ-ation E is representative of a continental setting,characterized by various environments. In partic-ular, Facies E1 and E2 are interpreted as a sheet-flow deposit forming longitudinal bedforms, andlinguoid and transverse bars, respectively (Miall,1996; Bridge, 2006; Sabato & Tropeano, 2008), ina high-energy and broad fluvial stream that waspossibly ephemeral, thus periodically favouringpedogenetic processes. The fragmented shells areinferred to be reworked from shallow-marinePliocene units, located a few kilometres inland.Ephemeral, high-energy streams, called ‘fiumara’are characteristics of modern and recent Cala-brian coasts (Sabato & Tropeano, 2008). Facies E3,instead, was accumulated in small fluvial chan-nels marked at the base by a channel lag.

Facies E4 is inferred to record a decrease in flowenergy conditions following the deposition ofmostly conglomerate deposits (Facies E1 to E3),which are represented only sporadically by thingravel sheets and lenses. The facies resemblesunconfined distal braid plain deposits (Miall,1996; Zecchin et al., 2006) which have been sub-jected to pedogenetic processes where flows wereephemeral. The deposits may also represent lowerenergy conditions in proximal settings. At SerraMulara, the deposit is inferred to represent part ofthe fill of a broad valley crossed by high-energystreams. The finer-grained Facies E5, which occursabove the fining-upward sandstones of Facies E4,represents a channel plug to overbank depositrecording the final phase of gradual abandonmentof the stream (Miall, 1996). Sandstone lensesrecognized within the facies represent minorchannellization above the overbank deposits.

A particular case is that of Facies E6, which ischaracteristic of the Manca del Vescovo area(Fig. 7). The features of this facies suggest phasesof river floods that gradually decreased, leading tothe deposition of fine-grained sediment in pondsor small lakes developed in the overbank areas(Bridge, 2006). Bones and plant debris weretransported by rivers during the more energeticphases, and accumulated within overbank depos-its, while a fresh water ostracod and gastropod

association was living during the quieter periods.Facies E6 developed behind the bay/lagoon arearepresented by facies association D, and thereforeis thought to represent a mixed fluvio-lacustrineenvironment dominated by small coastal lakesand ponds in the more low-lying areas (Fig. 7).During river floods, these received abundantsandy sediment that buried mammalian bonesand plant debris (Milli & Palombo, 2005).

Facies E7 represents both the modern soil devel-oped at the top of the terrace deposits and apalaeosol within such sediments, marking a depo-sitional hiatus. The soil marking the top of theterrace deposits is best developed and locallythickest, as it started to form once the terrace hademerged. The presence of caliche nodules in FaciesE7a and of a calcareous film around the clasts ofFacies E7b is the result of soil development in anarid or semi-arid climate, which favoured theprecipitation of pedogenetic carbonate.

The thickness variations of facies association Eare inferred to be linked to the local physiographyand sediment supply rates; this is most clearlyevident at Serra Mulara, whose continental sed-iments accumulated in a broad valley (Fig. 7). Tothe south, the relatively thick continental sedi-ments observed in the Papanice area (Fig. 7) aretentatively interpreted as the distal part of analluvial fan, here represented mostly by distalbraid plain deposits of Facies E4.

SEQUENCE STRATIGRAPHY

Two small-scale cycles (Cutro 1 and Cutro 2), andtheir bounding and internal stratal surfaces arerecognizable in the Cutro Terrace deposits. Thesedeposits are described below and illustrated inFigs 7 and 15.

Stratal surfaces

Sub-aerial unconformityThe sub-aerial unconformity (SU) is a diachro-nous surface marking the top of forced regressivedeposits, and it corresponds to the sequenceboundary following the systematics of Hunt &Tucker (1992), Helland-Hansen & Gjelberg (1994)and Plint & Nummedal (2000).

A SU is recognizable at the top of the CutroTerrace deposits across the whole area (Figs 3 to 7and 15) and is characterized by pedogenesis ofvarying degrees, typified by Facies E7a. AnotherSU is recognized within the terrace deposits andseparates the two cycles in the internal (north-



western) part of the terrace (Figs 7 and 15). Inaddition, a third SU represents the base of theterrace sediments in the northernmost area,where the terrace is made only of continentaldeposits (Figs 6 and 7).

The SU recognized within the terrace sedi-ments is marked by a palaeosol (Facies E7a andE7b), and typically juxtaposes shallowing-up-ward shoreface and beachface sediments (below)with paralic sediments of facies association D(above), which pass laterally into continentalsediments (facies association E) towards thenorth-west (Figs 3 to 5, 7, 12B, 13B, 13C and14A). This surface is reworked seaward by aravinement surface (RS, see below) (Figs 7 and15). In the Isola di Capo Rizzuto area, the same SUcuts algal reefs (Facies A1) of the lower cycle andis overlain by facies association D deposits of theupper cycle (Figs 3, 7 and 15). In the northern

study area, the SU bounding the base of theterrace deposits marks the onset of alluvial sedi-mentation after a prolonged phase of sub-aerialexposure affecting the basement claystones, and itis reworked seaward by the basal RS (Fig. 7).

Ravinement surfaceThe ravinement surface (RS) is produced byerosion of the substrate by waves (wave ravine-ment surface, Swift, 1968; Demarest & Kraft, 1987;Nummedal & Swift, 1987; Hwang & Heller, 2002;Cattaneo & Steel, 2003) or by tidal currents inestuarine settings (tidal ravinement surface; Allen& Posamentier, 1993) during the marine trans-gression. The RS is typically overlain by trans-gressive lags and/or shell concentrationsaccumulated in the context of onlap duringtransgression (Kidwell, 1991; Naish & Kamp,1997; Kondo et al., 1998). Another feature of the

Fig. 15. Three-dimensional fence panel illustrating the sequence-stratigraphic interpretation of the Cutro Terracedeposits (see also Fig. 2 for location of the sections and Fig. 7 for facies distribution). The Cutro 1 and Cutro 2 cyclesand stratal surfaces are represented. Note that the boundary between TST and HST in the proximal part (to the north-west) of the Cutro 2 cycle is very uncertain, and that the SU separating the two cycles in this part of the terrace isinterpreted as being merged with a maximum regressive surface (see text). FRST, forced regressive systems tract;HST, highstand systems tract; TST, transgressive systems tract.



RS is its common association with the substrate-controlled Glossifungites ichnofacies, which isindicative of firm non-lithified substrates (Pem-berton et al., 1992).

In the Cutro Terrace deposits, a first RS trun-cates the basement, juxtaposing the marine ter-race sediments upon the Cutro Clay, and a secondone represents the boundary between the twocycles in distal (southern) locations (Figs 3 to 5,7, 8B and 15). The basal RS is interpreted to havereworked a previous SU developed on the base-ment claystones. These RSs are marked locally bythe lag deposits of Facies B1 or those at the base ofFacies D5, and by the skeletal concentrations ofFacies B2, the latter being interpreted as onlapshell beds (Figs 3 to 5 and 8B). In the Vrica 2section (Figs 4 and 7), the second RS is alsomarked by decimetre-scale vertical burrowspenetrating into the underlying deposits andforming a Glossifungites ichnofacies.

A different situation is that of the Isola di CapoRizzuto area, where only the second cycle ispresent and a master RS is inferred to lie at thebase of the thicker sand wave interval (Facies D5)(Figs 3 and 7). In this case, the RS is interpreted tohave been produced mostly by strong currents,possibly controlled by tides, as suggested by thelandward termination of Facies D5 in front of anestuarine area (Figs 3 and 7). This surface passeslaterally into a RS produced by waves in a typicalshoreface-shelf setting, as suggested by the fullymarine facies recognized in both Vrica 1 andVrica 2 sections (Figs 4 and 7).

Maximum flooding surfaceThe maximum flooding surface (MFS) is consid-ered here to be a surface that separates transgres-sive from regressive strata (Catuneanu, 2006), andit is close but does not necessarily coincide withthe surface marking the end of the shorelinetransgression and the maximum water depth(Abbott & Carter, 1994; Abbott, 1997; Carter et al.,1998). The chosen definition of MFS is geo-metrical, as it corresponds to a downlap surface(Carter et al., 1998; Zecchin, 2007).

In the Cutro Terrace deposits, MFSs are noteasily recognizable; they are interpreted at the topof transgressive onlap shell beds (Facies B2) or lagdeposits (Facies B1), or to coincide with RSswhere transgressive deposits are absent (Figs 3 to5, 7 and 15). Generally, MFSs are not clearlyrecognizable in backbarrier and continentaldeposits. A peculiar case is that of the southern-most sections, where the sand wave package(Facies D5) lies above a RS (Figs 3 and 7).

As the sand wave interval is interpreted to havebeen deposited during highstand conditions (seebelow), the MFS in this location is inferred tocoincide with the RS.

Basal surface of forced regression andregressive surface of marine erosionThe basal surface of forced regression (BSFR) is aconformable to scoured surface bounding the baseof all marine deposits accumulated during relativesea-level fall (Hunt & Tucker, 1992; Catuneanu,2006). The regressive surface of marine erosion(RSME) is due to wave action in shallow-marinesettings during relative sea-level lowering, and itjuxtaposes sharp-based forced regressive shorefac-es upon shelf sediments (Plint, 1988; Helland-Hansen & Gjelberg, 1994; Plint & Nummedal, 2000;Catuneanu, 2006). The RSME commonly corre-sponds to the base of shallow-marine forcedregressive deposits as it easily reworks the BSFR.

An RSME is clearly recognizable in the southernpart of the Cutro Terrace deposits, within the lowerof the two cycles (Figs 3, 7 and 15). In particular,this surface is evident where algal reef deposits(Facies A1) are overlain erosionally by shorefacedeposits (Facies C1 to C3), whereas it consists of asharp contact between distal (below) and proximal(above) clastic sediments where reefs are absent(Figs 3 and 7). Towards the north, in the Vrica area(Figs 7 and 15), the RSME is not clearly developed,and the sediments overlying the algal reefs consistof relatively distal, burrowed bioclastic sandstones(Facies C1b) lacking prominent wave-generatedstructures (Fig. 4). The base of these sandstonesdoes not document deep erosion of the reefs.Further to the north-west, within the more prox-imal part of the marine terrace sediments, theRSME is absent (Figs 7 and 15).

The disappearance of the RSME in the proximalpart of the marine deposits may be considerednormal, as the RSME forms only where a markedcontrast between a flatter shelf gradient and asteeper shoreface gradient is produced due to thebasinward migration of the shoreface zone duringbase-level fall (Plint & Nummedal, 2000; Catu-neanu, 2006). In the proximal area, therefore, thebase of forced regressive deposits corresponds withthe BSFR, which is placed within a successionshowing a gradual shallowing-upward trend andconsequently is unrecognizable (Figs 7 and 15).

Small-scale cycles

The recognized stratal surfaces sub-divide theCutro Terrace deposits into two small-scale



cycles, called Cutro 1 and Cutro 2 (Figs 3 to 5 and15). Both cycles are clearly recognizable in themiddle to southern part of the terrace, whereasthey become indistinguishable in the northern-most part (i.e. in the Serra Mulara and Serra Curtasections; Figs 6 and 7).

The Cutro 1 cycleThe Cutro 1 cycle is bounded at the base by a RSeroding the Plio-Pleistocene Cutro Clay andrecording a first marine ingression that produceda wave-cut platform (Figs 3 to 5, 7 and 15). In thenorthern part of the terrace, where only conti-nental deposits are present (i.e. in the SerraMulara and Serra Curta sections; Figs 6 and 7),the base of the Cutro 1 to Cutro 2 cycle package isrepresented by a SU.

Most of the Cutro 1 cycle is composed of ashallowing-upward, shallow-marine clastic suc-cession (facies association C) passing seawardto the south-east into rigid carbonate buildups(Facies A1), and locally marked at the base by thincondensed deposits (Facies B1 and B2) (Figs 3 to 5and 7). The thickness of the cycle is greater in thenorth-western part of the terrace, reaching 10 m inthe area between Manca del Vescovo and TreChiese (Figs 5, 7 and 15), and thins towards thesouth-east down to a minimum of 1Æ5 m (east Cutroand Sant’Anna sections; Figs 3, 7 and 15). Thecycle also thickens towards the extreme southernpart of the terrace, where large algal reefs arepresent (Figs 3, 7 and 15), which could be relatedto local physiography, as that zone has beenaffected by normal faulting after and possiblyduring the formation of the terrace (Zecchin et al.,2004b). Synsedimentary tectonic activity is sug-gested by the fractures penetrating the rigid algalreef bodies and filled with sediments (Facies D4) ofthe Cutro 2 cycle (Fig. 3). In the southern part of theterrace, from Papanice to Tripani (Figs 3, 7 and 15),the upper part of the cycle consists of sharp-basedshoreface deposits bounded at the base by theRSME, which erosionally overlies algal reefs orrelatively distal clastic sediments.

The Cutro 1 cycle is bounded at the top by a SUthat is reworked in seaward locations by a RS(Figs 7 and 15). The SU is present also in the Isoladi Capo Rizzuto area, where algal buildups wereeroded locally during sub-aerial conditions(Figs 3, 7 and 15).

The Cutro 2 cycleThe Cutro 2 cycle is characterized by moremarked facies heterogeneity than the Cutro 1cycle (Fig. 7) and by a less clear organization in

terms of systems tracts. The Cutro 2 cycle isbounded at the base by an extensive SU that isreworked seaward (to the south-east) by a RS(Figs 7 and 15) and is composed mostly ofestuarine, lagoon-bay and sheltered shallow-marine deposits (facies association D) and conti-nental deposits (facies association E) (Figs 3 to 5and 7). Open-marine sediments (facies associa-tions B and C) are present only in the Vrica area(Figs 4 and 7) and at the top of the Isola di CapoRizzuto section (Figs 3 and 7). Reef deposits(Facies A1) were not recognized in the Cutro 2cycle. The cycle thickness typically ranges be-tween 2 and 5 m, but it reaches 9 m in thePapanice area, where only continental depositsare present (Figs 7 and 15).

In the Vrica 1 and 2 sections (Figs 4 and 7), theCutro 2 cycle shows an organization similar tothat of the Cutro 1 cycle, with a thin lower partconsisting of lag deposits (Facies B1) and shellconcentrations (Facies B2), and a thicker upperpart made of marine sediments (facies associationC) showing a shallowing-upward trend. Awayfrom this distal area, well-defined stratal surfaceswithin the Cutro 2 cycle are not recognizable withconfidence, with the exception of a RS boundingthe base of the thick sand wave interval (FaciesD5) in the Isola di Capo Rizzuto and Maritaggisections (Figs 3, 7 and 15). Towards the interior,between Papanice and Margherita, only a markedaggradational trend of continental and paralicdeposits is recognizable (Figs 5, 7 and 12B).

As noted earlier in the southern part of theterrace, between the east Cutro and Isola diCapo Rizzuto sections, the sediments (faciesassociation D) of the Cutro 2 cycle are inter-preted to fill a small valley a few metres deep,which was incised into the Cutro 1 cycledeposits during a phase of relative sea-level falland sub-aerial exposure (Figs 3 and 7). In theIsola di Capo Rizzuto section, where the terracedeposits are represented by the Cutro 2 cycleonly (Figs 7 and 15), the valley fill shows adeepening upward trend from bay/estuarinesediments (Facies D1) below to open-marineshell-rich deposits (Facies B2) at the top (Figs 3and 12A). The Cutro 2 cycle is bounded at thetop by a SU, coinciding with the present landsurface, across the whole study area (Figs 3 to 5,7 and 15).

Sequence stratigraphic interpretationThe Cutro 1 and Cutro 2 cycles may be considereddepositional sequences bounded by SUs laterreworked distally by RSs (Helland-Hansen &



Martinsen, 1996; Catuneanu, 2006), and showsinternal systems tract differentiation (Fig. 15).The architecture of the cycles matches that ofthe R cycle of Zecchin (2007), which is a metre-scale to decametre-scale marine cycle typified bythin transgressive and thicker regressive deposits.

The condensed deposits of facies association B,bounded below and above by a RS and a MFS,respectively, represent the transgressive systemstract (TST), whereas the thicker shallowing-upward succession composed of facies associa-tions C and A forms the regressive part of thecycles (Figs 7 and 15). In the Cutro 1 cycle, thethick proximal deposits and the distal depositsplaced below the sharp-based shoreface are inter-preted as the highstand systems tract (HST),whereas the sharp-based shoreface is considereda forced regressive systems tract (FRST) boundedat the base by the RSME (Figs 7 and 15). Theboundary between HST and FRST in the proximalarea is conformable and coincides with thetheoretical BSFR (Figs 7 and 15).

Accumulation during forced regressive condi-tions is also suggested by the marked foreshort-ening of the Cutro 1 cycle, from 10 to 1Æ5 m,towards the south-east, with a sharp super-position of nearshore deposits upon more distaldeposits (Figs 7 and 15). This architecture isattributed to base-level lowering and consequentaccommodation decrease with time, and is con-sidered characteristic for forced regression (Pos-amentier & Allen, 1999).

In the Cutro 2 cycle, forced regressive depositsare interpreted to have been accumulated basin-ward (to the south-east), outside of the study area,as the maximum flooding palaeoshoreline of thiscycle is translated further to the south-east thanthat of the Cutro 1 cycle (see below) and, there-fore, only proximal deposits interpreted as TSTand HST are recognizable (Fig. 15). Lowstandmarine sediments (following the systematics ofHunt & Tucker, 1992 and Helland-Hansen &Gjelberg, 1994) are lacking in the preserved partof the cycles, and they are thought to have beenaccumulated further basinward than the FRSTs(Zecchin et al., 2009b).

The aggrading paralic to continental successionof the Cutro 2 cycle, lying landward of (to thenorth-west) the shallow-marine sediments, isinterpreted as having accumulated during trans-gressive to highstand conditions (Figs 7 and 15).As stratal surfaces are not recognizable withinthis succession, the relative thickness of TST andHST deposits cannot be determined. Followingthis interpretation, the SU bounding the base ofthe Cutro 2 cycle is merged with a maximumregressive surface marking the turnaround fromregression to transgression (Helland-Hansen &Martinsen, 1996) (Fig. 15). However, the presenceof continental sediments accumulated duringlowstand time within valleys (Amorosi et al.,2005), such as at Serra Mulara (Fig. 7), cannotbe ruled out.

On the southern part of the terrace (for exam-ple, in the Isola di Capo Rizzuto section, inter-preted as a valley fill), where the Cutro 2 cycle iscomposed almost exclusively of facies associa-tion D deposits (Figs 3 and 12A), the Cutro 2cycle is thought to be transgressive for a signif-icant part of its thickness (Fig. 15), as suggestedby the observed deepening-upward trend. How-ever, the thick sand wave interval (Facies D5) isinterpreted to have accumulated during thehighstand (Figs 7 and 15), as it probably resultedfrom the migration of large dunes when the areaof the incised valley was already drowned andformed a marine embayment in front of anestuary (see the section entitled Facies andsedimentary environments). The thin, shell-richdeposit (Facies B2) lying at the top of the Isola diCapo Rizzuto section records sediment starva-tion in the shelf area after sand wave migrationceased.

PALAEOGEOGRAPHY

The identification of two transgressive–regressivecycles composing the Cutro Terrace deposits(Fig. 15) has been accompanied by the recogni-tion of the position of two maximum floodingpalaeoshorelines (MFP) corresponding to peak

Fig. 16. Palaeogeographic map of the study area showing the distribution of the mappable features. (A) At the end ofthe Cutro 1 cycle transgression, the shoreline lay towards the north and a large shelf area developed. Algal reefs (FaciesA1) initiated to grow in distal locations since the beginning of the highstand. (B) At the boundary between the Cutro 1and Cutro 2 cycles, the area was sub-aerially exposed and a north-west to north/north-west trending valley crossed thepreviously deposited sediments in the southern zone. (C) An estuarine area, characterized by the accumulation offacies association D sediments, developed during the initial drowning of the incised valley at the onset of the Cutro 2cycle transgression. (D) At the end of the Cutro 2 cycle transgression, the estuarine area had retreated towards thenorth/north-west, and a field of sand waves migrated across the valley floor in front of the estuary.



5 km

Crotone

CapoColonna

Capo Cimiti

Strongoli

Capo RizzutoLe Castella

N

Isola CapoRizzuto

Isola CapoRizzuto

Crotone

CapoColonna

Capo Cimiti

Neto mouth

Strongoli


Crotone

CapoColonna

Capo Cimiti

Neto mouth

Strongoli


Crotone

CapoColonna

Capo Cimiti

Neto mouth

Strongoli


A B

C D

lagoon/bay

Living algal reef

Palaeoshoreline

Fluvio-lacustrine

Sand waves

Recognized andinferred riversInferred activenormal faults

Modern shoreline

Oyster conquina

Land

Old algal reef

Shorefaceand shelf

Shorefaceand shelf

Estuary

Estuary



transgressions during cycle formation (Fig. 16Aand D). Palaeogeographic reconstruction showsthat the Cutro 1 cycle MFP is located in thenorthern part of the terrace, between the SerraMulara-Serra Curta and the Tre Chiese-Marghe-rita sections (Figs 2, 7 and 16A). Although thisMFP is not preserved because of deep erosion bythe recent river network, it is inferred that it hada north-east to south-west trend, as indicated bythe south-eastward direction from proximal todistal facies in the Cutro 1 cycle (Figs 7 and16A). The location that most closely approxi-mates the position of the Cutro 1 cycle MFP isSerra Barbara, placed 2 km east/north-east ofSerra Mulara (Fig. 2), where patches of gravellycoastal sediments locally containing marinebivalves are preserved occasionally. It is inferredthat the MFP was indented landward near SerraMulara, where a relatively deep valley existedbefore the onset of the Cutro 1 cycle transgres-sion (Figs 7 and 16A).

Coarse-grained braided rivers are present north-west of the Cutro 1 cycle MFP, whereas a shallow-marine succession (facies associations B and C) ispresent to the south-east (Fig. 7). Further to thesouth-east, patch reefs of Facies A1 are foundfrom ca 15 km from the MFP, whereas thelandward side of the extensive algal reef showsa roughly north-east to south-west trend and isplaced 17 to 22 km from the MFP (Figs 7 and16A).

The shoreface-shelf area formed during deposi-tion of the Cutro 1 cycle was later exposed duringa relative sea-level lowering, promoting localriver incision (Fig. 16B). The more prominentincision in the study area had a NW-SE to NNW-SSE trend, perpendicular to that of the Cutro 1cycle MFP, and affected both the clastic and thecarbonate reef deposits, most prominently by anabrupt interruption of the reef body at the Isola diCapo Rizzuto village (Fig. 16B). This incisionwaslater transformed into an estuary during theCutro 2 cycle transgression (e.g. Zecchin et al.,2008, 2009a in the Venice area), when faciesassociation D sediments started to accumulate(Fig. 16C). Local accommodation was possiblyincreased by normal fault activity in the Isola diCapo Rizzuto area, later producing prominentfault scarps (Zecchin et al., 2004b). After thecomplete drowning of the valley and of adjacentareas, large sand waves (Facies D5) migratedwithin the incision mostly to the north/north-west (Figs 11 and 16D).

The Cutro 2 cycle MFP shows a general north-east to south-west trend and is located ca 15 km

to the south-east of the Cutro 1 cycle MFP, behindCrotone (Fig. 16A and D). However, the secondMFP was characterized by a greater degree ofcomplexity, with a lagoon-bay area towards thenorth and an estuary to the south, as demon-strated by the measured sections (Figs 7 and 16D).Moreover, a fluvio-lacustrine area developedbehind the lagoon-bay (Figs 7 and 16D).

DISCUSSION

The general architecture of the Cutro Terrace

Typical marine terraces are characterized by awave-cut platform that erodes a previouslyexposed landmass, terminates landward againsta palaeo-coastal cliff and is overlain by thinmarine deposits (Bradley, 1957; Carobene, 1980;Gliozzi, 1987; Keraudren & Sorel, 1987; Andersonet al., 1999; Trenhaile, 2002; Zazo et al., 2003;Zecchin et al., 2004b, 2009b; Lucchi, 2009). Thelandward termination of the terrace has beencalled internal border (Carobene, 1980; Zecchinet al., 2004b) or inner edge (Zazo et al., 2003).These features allow differentiation of true mar-ine terraces from other marine units accumulatedin uplifting settings, the latter being at least inpart transitional with underlying deeper-marinedeposits (Cantalamessa & Di Celma, 2004).

The results presented here show that one of themain features of the Cutro Terrace is the absenceof both internal border and coastal cliff. Instead, agradual landward transition from marine toparalic and continental deposits is recognizable(Fig. 7). This peculiarity represents a markedcontrast between the Cutro Terrace and theyounger terraces of the area, the latter beingconsidered fully marine terraces bounded at theirlandward margins by a palaeo-coastal cliff. Never-theless, the Cutro Terrace deposits are boundedbelow by a composite unconformable surfacecutting older sediments, consisting of a SU plusRS (Figs 3 to 7), as in other terraced units.

In the Cutro Terrace deposits, the observedlandward transition from shallow-marine sedi-ments to a complex paralic depositional environ-ment, consisting of bays, lagoons and estuaries,resembles that displayed by the Holocene succes-sion located along the north-western Adriaticmargin (Amorosi et al., 1999, 2005; Zecchin et al.,2008, 2009a), despite the subsiding setting char-acterizing the latter. This observation suggests asimilar physiography for both marginal-marinesystems, characterized by a relatively flat shelf



and by the presence of valleys incised during aprevious sub-aerial phase. A major contrastbetween these two successions consists of thepresence of forced regressive deposits in the distalpart of the Cutro Terrace, at least in the first cycle,whereas the proximal locations are composedmostly of TST and HST deposits (Fig. 15).A similar partitioning between TST plus HST inproximal settings and FRST in distal settings hasbeen observed in uplifted shallow-marine tocontinental deposits of the Early PleistocenePeri-Adriatic Basin, central Italy (Cantalamessa &Di Celma, 2004), and may be considered typical inareas characterized by regional uplift (see alsoMcMurray & Gawthorpe, 2000; Nalin et al., 2007;Cilumbriello et al., 2008; Zecchin et al., 2009b).The uplift leads to an amplification of the rate offorced regression (Zecchin, 2007), giving rise to anaccentuated downstep and offlap of subsequentshallow-marine wedges.

The small-scale cycles and their stackingpattern

The composite, cyclical architecture of the CutroTerrace has been recognized previously. Theseearlier works, based on a significantly smallerstudy area, show one to three sedimentary cycles(Zecchin et al., 2004b; Nalin et al., 2007). Presentresults, which consider almost the whole arealextent of the Cutro Terrace, indicate that no morethan two MFPs formed during the terrace evolu-tion (Fig. 16A and D). These results demonstratethat the correct interpretation of the sedimentarycyclicity may be difficult if the study area is toosmall compared with the areal extent of thestudied deposits, and if the stratal surfaces cannotbe correlated for adequate distances.

A major feature of the Cutro Terrace consists of aseaward translation from the cycle 1 MFP to thecycle 2 MFP of ca 15 km; the second cycle isdeveloped seaward with respect to the first one(Figs 7, 16A and 16D). Such architecture may bedue either to a smaller magnitude of the Cutro 2cycle transgression with respect to that of the Cutro1 cycle, or to the effect of regional uplift super-posed on two similar eustatic sea-level cycles. Thelatter hypothesis was supported by Nalin et al.(2007), who speculated that the origin of their threecycles was linked to the glacio-eustatic pulses ofMIS 7Æ5, 7Æ3 and 7Æ1 (from ca 250 to 190 kyr bp,Dutton et al., 2009). Thus, the interplay betweenregional uplift and glacio-eustasy led to a progres-sive seaward and downward translation of succes-sive peak transgressions, producing the long-term

forced regressive trend of the Cutro Terrace depos-its (Figs 17 and 18). Nevertheless, the uplift wasnot so strong as to lead to detachment betweenconsecutive cycles, as occurring in detachedforced regressive deposits (Posamentier & Allen,1999; Ainsworth et al., 2000; McMurray & Gaw-thorpe, 2000), and cycles are stacked vertically(Figs 15 and 18). This effect is unusual in upliftingsettings, as individual glacio-eustatic pulses nor-mally generate a staircase of terraces separated bycliffs (Zazo et al., 2003). Numerical models ofsimulated terraces, assuming an uplift rate of1 m kyr)1 and dissipation of wave energy, showthe development of very similar staircases ofterraces for MIS 7Æ5, 7Æ3, 7Æ1 and MIS 5Æ5, 5Æ3, 5Æ1(Anderson et al., 1999). Despite the comparableuplift rate, in the Crotone area the MIS 5Æ5 to 5Æ1terraces form a staircase not exceeding 6 km inwidth, similar to that simulated by Anderson et al.(1999), whereas the Cutro Terrace is tens ofkilometres wide and is composed of superimposedcycles probably related to individual sub-stages.

This marked contrast may be due to physio-graphic factors. In particular, the transgressionrecorded at the base of the Cutro Terrace couldhave occurred on a very gentle slope resulting

–100

–80

–60

–40

–20

20

0 7·1MIS 7·3 7·5

Sea

leve

l (m

)

160 180 200 220 240 260Age (kyr B.P.)

Cutro 1 cycle

Cutro 2 cycle

40 m

A

B

Fig. 17. (A) Eustatic curve showing the sub-stages ofMIS 7 following Siddall et al. (2003). (B) Relative sea-level curve obtained by adding a constant uplift rate of1 m kyr)1. The Cutro 1 and Cutro 2 cycles are inferredto be related to MIS 7Æ5 and 7Æ1, respectively (see text).



from the emergence of a previous shelf, which hasallowed a marked shoreline retreat and a widetransgressed area (Cattaneo & Steel, 2003). In sucha scenario, the transgression recorded at the baseof the Cutro 2 cycle probably had a shorelinetrajectory (Cant, 1991; Helland-Hansen & Gjel-berg, 1994) with a gradient similar to that of theSU capping the Cutro 1 cycle, resulting in cyclestacking (Fig. 18). This explanation also accountsfor both the absence of coastal cliffs and thedevelopment of lagoon-bay areas (Figs 7 and16D), which are typical of low-gradient settings.Furthermore, it is inferred that the long-termshoreline trajectory between the Cutro 1 andCutro 2 cycles had a very low-gradient orientedseaward and downward, less inclined than thegently sloping surfaces of sub-aerial exposure(Fig. 18). This configuration has allowed theobserved overall aggradation in the more proxi-mal reaches of the terrace despite the long-termforced regressive trend driven by the regionaluplift (Figs 5, 7, 12B, 15 and 18). As underlinedby Zecchin (2007), because of the general condi-tions of long-term forced regression, any individ-ual cycle is less well-preserved in a seawarddirection due to transgressive erosion at the baseof the subsequent cycle (Fig. 18). In contrast tothe Cutro Terrace, the MIS 5Æ5 to 5Æ1 terracesformed on a relatively steep topography (Zecchinet al., 2004b) which forced the individual trans-gressive shoreline trajectories to be less inclinedthan the local topography, resulting in the forma-tion of coastal cliffs that retreated landward, andof separated terraces. Trenhaile (2002) empha-sized that terraces tend to be narrower and havesteeper dips on steeply sloping landmasses.

Another cause favouring cycle superposition inthe Cutro Terrace might have been a much lowerregional uplift rate at the time of MIS 7 (e.g.

Leonard & Wehmiller, 1992). However, suchevidence is not found, and the average uplift rateof the region is thought to have varied between 1Æ2and 0Æ7 m kyr)1 from MIS 7 onwards (Zecchinet al., 2004b).

Data by Siddall et al. (2003) and Dutton et al.(2009) showed that MIS 7Æ3 was associated with aglacio-eustatic rise of lower magnitude than thoseof MIS 7Æ5 and 7Æ1 (Fig. 17) and this may explainthe recognition of only two cycles in the CutroTerrace. Based on the timing of MIS 7Æ5 and 7Æ1 bySiddall et al. (2003) and Dutton et al. (2009), theCutro 1 and Cutro 2 cycle peak transgressionswould be separated by ca 40 kyr if they wereassociated with these sub-stages (Fig. 17). Assum-ing an uplift rate at the time of the formation ofthe Cutro Terrace of ca 1 m kyr)1 (Zecchin et al.,2004b), comparable glacio-eustatic rises for MIS7Æ5 and 7Æ1, and an optimum depth for red algaegrowth starting from ca 40 m (Nalin et al., 2006),the innermost part of the algal reefs (Cutro 1cycle) would be raised near the position of theCutro 2 cycle MFP during the time intervalseparating the two isotopic sub-stages, supportingthe interpretations presented here (Fig. 16D).

The control of regional uplift and glacio-eustasy on cycle architecture

It is known that the cyclicity of Late Pleistocenemarine terraces is the product of glacio-eustaticfluctuations superimposed on regional uplift(Keraudren & Sorel, 1987; Zazo et al., 2003;Zecchin et al., 2004b, 2009b; Nalin et al., 2007).Both Cutro 1 and Cutro 2 cycles display a marinepart characterized by relatively thin transgressiveand thick regressive intervals (Figs 7 and 15); thatis they correspond to the R cycle architecture ofZecchin (2007). This style of cycle architecture is

Fig. 18. Cartoon of the Cutro 1 and Cutro 2 cycles showing their stacking pattern down depositional dip. Short-termtransgressive shoreline trajectories in each cycle had a gradient similar to the SUs (compare the distal part of the RSswith the SUs), favouring the partial preservation of cycles. The long-term shoreline trajectory between cycles wasdirected seaward and slightly downward, with an inclination lower than that of the SUs. This trajectory has allowedcycle stacking. Part of the cycles (on the right) is not preserved due to recent erosion. RS, ravinement surface; RSME,regressive surface of marine erosion; SU: sub-aerial unconformity.



very common in Middle to Late Pleistocenemarine cycles, because their development hasbeen controlled by high-amplitude glacio-eustaticchanges typified by very rapid rises and slow falls(Bassinot et al., 1994). In particular, this archi-tecture is very common in Mediterranean marineterrace deposits (McMurray & Gawthorpe, 2000;Cilumbriello et al., 2008; Lucchi, 2009; Nalin &Massari, 2009; Zecchin et al., 2009b), as well as inLate Quaternary coastal and shelf deposits accu-mulated in subsiding settings (Hernandez-Molinaet al., 2000; Trincardi & Correggiari, 2000; Zec-chin et al., 2008, 2009a).

In contrast, Pliocene and Early Pleistoceneobliquity-driven glacio-eustatic changes werecharacterized by relatively symmetrical risingand falling curves (Shackleton et al., 1990),which combined with regional uplift result inreduced and increased magnitudes of relative sea-level rises and falls, respectively (Zecchin, 2007).This effect, coupled with a relatively high sedi-ment supply, favours the development of shal-low-marine cycles showing thick transgressiveand thin regressive intervals, as observed in someEarly Pleistocene successions (Cantalamessa &Di Celma, 2004; T cycle of Zecchin, 2007).Formation of such cycles is favoured by relativelyhigh sediment supply rates during transgressionnear the basin margin, high-gradient topography,high-magnitude relative sea-level fall, and byravinement of regressive deposits during a sub-sequent transgressive phase.

The dominance of the R cycle architecture inboth Cutro 1 and Cutro 2 cycles indicates thatregional uplift was not so rapid as to significantlyattenuate the rate of inferred high-magnitudeglacio-eustatic rises. However, the uplift certainlyaccentuated the magnitude of relative sea-levelfalls and led to rapid accommodation decreases,resulting in shorelines that rapidly shifted sea-ward and downward, and in a limited duration forthe accumulation of forced regressive deposits. Incontrast to subsiding settings (Trincardi & Corr-eggiari, 2000), this probably prevented the accu-mulation of very thick forced regressive deposits inthe inner part of the basin margin, as mostsediment was bypassed rapidly to deeper locationsduring the falling stage of the glacio-eustatic curve.

CONCLUSIONS

The Cutro Terrace case study illustrates sequencestratigraphic architecture in uplifting settings aswell as the development of marine to continental

terraces produced by the interplay of regionaluplift and high-amplitude glacio-eustaticchanges. Three major general conclusions can bemade regarding sequence architecture in upliftingsettings:

• The relative thickness of transgressive sys-tems tracts and of regressive deposits (highstandsystems tracts, forced regressive systems tractsand lowstand system tracts) in cycles developedin such contexts is dependent on the rate of eu-static rise with respect to the uplift rate, com-bined with the shape of the relative sea-levelcurve, local sediment supply and local physio-graphy. Various combinations of these parametersmay produce strongly different stratal architec-tures.

• Cycles can be stacked vertically in contextsdominated by high uplift rates, depending on thegradient of the topography undergoing transgres-sion relative to the transgressive shoreline tra-jectories of individual cycles. If the land surfaceand the transgressive shoreline trajectories do notintersect, then cycles are stacked.

• Uplift combined with eustatic fall leads torapid seaward and downward translation of theshoreline during forced regression, producingstrongly progradational forced-regressive depositswithin individual cycles. Lowstand deposits inuplifting settings generally are absent in marginalmarine and shelf contexts, as is the case formarine terraces controlled by high-amplitudeglacio-eustatic changes, and they lie in deeperlocations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was carried out within the CARGProject (official geological cartography of Italy,scale 1 : 50 000) for the geological mapping ofthe Ionian Calabria. We thank Andrea Marche-sini (University of Udine, Italy) for computerelaboration of the geological map. Reviews byWilliam Helland-Hansen and Gary Hampson, andeditorial comments by Peter Swart and GregorEberli significantly improved the manuscript.

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Manuscript received 2 September 2009; revisionaccepted 13 April 2010



Sequence stratigraphy in the context of rapid regional uplift and high-amplitude glacio-eustatic changes: the Pleistocene Cutro Terrace (Calabria, southern Italy

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