Sequence Stratigraphy - A Global Theory for Local Success/media/Files/resources/oilfield_review/or… ·  · 2010-02-03Peter Vail Rice University Houston, ... The distribution of

Sequence Stratigraphy—A Global Theory for Local Success

S E I S M I C S

No exploration technique flawlessly locates a potential reservoir, but sequence stratigraphy may come close.

By understanding global changes in sea level, the local arrangement of sand, shale and carbonate layers can

be interpreted. This enhanced understanding of depositional mechanics steers explorationists toward

prospects missed by conventional interpretation.

1.0

2.0

3.0

Tim

e, s

ec

0 1milesJack NealRice UniversityHouston, Texas, USA

David RischHouston, Texas, USA

Peter VailRice UniversityHouston, Texas, USA

For help in preparation of this article, thanks to ScottBowman, Marco Polo Software, Houston, Texas, USA;Carlos Cramez and Bernard Duval, TOTAL Exploration,Paris, France; Andrew Hannan, GECO-PRAKLA, Hous-ton, Texas, USA; Ulrich Möller, GECO-PRAKLA, Han-nover, Germany; and John Sneider, Rice University,Houston, Texas, USA.

nA seismic section interpreted to show the sandy interval (yellow) predicted usingsequence stratigraphy. The heavy vertical line shows the well location.

January 1993

0 1miles

Conventional lithologic correlation mapsformation tops by interpreting well log dataalone. It looks at what is there without tak-ing into account how it got there. Sequencestratigraphy combines logs with fossil dataand seismic reflection patterns to explainboth the arrangement of rocks and thedepositional environment. Understandingthe relationships between rock layers, theirseismic expression and depositional envi-ronments allows more accurate prediction

of reservoirs, source rocks and seals, even ifnone of them intersect the well (above).

Sequence stratigraphy is used mainly inexploration to predict the rock compositionof a zone from seismic data plus distant,sparse well data. It also assists in the searchfor likely source rocks and seals. Expertsbelieve that as more people learn the tech-nique, it will become an exploitation toolfor constraining the shape, extent and conti-nuity of reservoirs.

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Sequence Stratigraphy, Seismic Stratig-raphy—How Many Stratigraphies CanThere Be?Stratigraphy is the science of describing thevertical and lateral relationships of rocks.1These relationships may be based on rocktype, called lithostratigraphy, on age, as inchronostratigraphy, on fossil content,labeled biostratigraphy, or on magneticproperties, named magnetostratigraphy.

Stratigraphy in one form or another hasbeen around since the 1600s. In 1669,Nicholaus Steno, a Danish geologist work-ing in Italy, recognized that strata areformed as heavy particles settle out of afluid. He also recognized that some stratacontain remnants of other strata, and somust be younger. This conflicted with thewidely held view that all sediments weredeposited during the flood at the time ofNoah. Steno developed three principles thatform the basis of all stratigraphy—youngerlayers lie on top of older layers, layers areinitially horizontal, and layers continue untilthey run into a barrier. His work was neitherwidely publicized nor remembered and isoften credited to James Hutton (1726-1797)or Charles Lyell (1797-1875).

For 300 years after Steno, stratigraphersworked at unraveling the history of theearth, correlating fossils from one continentto another, assigning names, ages and even-tually physical mechanisms to the creationof rock layers. By 1850, most of the majorgeologic time units had been named. By1900, most layers had relative ages, androck types had been associated with certainpositions of the shoreline, which wasknown to move with time. Fine-grainedrocks such as siltstones and shales wereassociated with calm, deep water, andcoarse-grained, sandy rocks with energetic,shallow environments.

At the turn of the century, shoreline move-ment was attributed to tectonic activity—therising and falling of continents. This viewwas challenged in 1906, when EduardSuess hypothesized that changes in shore-line position were related to sea levelchanges, and occurred on a global scale; hecalled the phenomenon eustasy.2 However,Suess was not able to refute evidence pre-sented by opponents of his theory—in manylocations there were discrepancies betweenrock types found and types predicted by sealevel variation.

In 1961, Rhodes W. Fairbridge summa-rized the main mechanisms of sea levelchange: tectono-eustasy, controlled bydeformation of the ocean basin; sedimento-eustasy, controlled by addition of sediments

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to basins, causing sea level rise; glacio-eustasy, controlled by climate, lowering sealevel during glaciation and raising it duringdeglaciation. He recognized that all thesecauses may be partially applicable, and arenot mutually incompatible. He believedthat while eustatic hypotheses apply world-wide, tectonic hypotheses do not and varyfrom region to region. Fairbridge summa-rized the perceived goal at the time: “Weneed therefore to keep all factors in mindand develop an integrated theory. Such anideal is not yet achievable and wouldinvolve studies of geophysics, geochemistry,stratigraphy, tectonics, and geomorphology,above sea level and below.”3

This brings us nearly to the present. In1977, Peter Vail at Exxon and several col-leagues published the first installments ofsuch an integrated theory.4 Vail developed anew kind of stratigraphy based on ideas pro-posed by L. L. Sloss—the grouping of layersinto unconformity-bound5 sequences basedon lithology—and by Harry E. Wheeler—the grouping of layers based on what hasbecome known as chronostratigraphy.6

Vail’s approach allowed interpreting uncon-formities based on tying together global sealevel change, local relative sea level changeand seismic reflection patterns. Thismethodology, named seismic stratigraphy,classifies layers between major unconformi-ties based on seismic reflection patterns,giving a seismically derived notion of lithol-ogy and depositional setting.

Subsequent seismic stratigraphic studiesin basins around the world produced a setof charts showing the global distribution ofmajor unconformities interpreted from seis-mic discontinuities for the past 250 millionyears.7 An understanding emerged thatthese unconformities were controlled by rel-ative changes in sea level, and that relativechanges in sea level could be recognized onwell logs and outcrops, with or without seis-mic sections. This led to the interdisci-plinary concept of sequence stratigraphy—alinkage of seismic, log, fossil and outcropdata at local, regional and global scales.The integrated theory sought by Fairbridgehad arrived.

This article focuses on the subset ofsequence stratigraphy that includes seismicdata, and so falls under the heading of seis-mic sequence stratigraphy. The techniquehas been shown to work in a variety of set-tings, in some better than others. Attentionhere is on an environment where it hasproved successful—sand and shale deposi-tion on continental margins.

Building BlocksThe concepts that govern sequence strati-graphic analysis are simple. A depositionalsequence comprises sediments depositedduring one cycle of sea level fluctuation—by Exxon convention, starting at low sealevel, going to high and returning to low.One cycle may last a few thousands to mil-lions of years and produce a variety of sedi-ments, such as beach sands, submarinechannel and levee deposits, chaotic flows orslumps and deep water shales. Sedimenttype may vary gradually or abruptly, or maybe uniform and widespread over the entirebasin. Each rock sequence produced by onecycle is bounded by an unconformity at thebottom and top.8 These sequence bound-aries are the main seismic reflections usedto identify each depositional sequence, andseparate younger from older layers every-where in the basin.

Composition and thickness of a rocksequence are controlled by space availablefor sediments on the shelf, the amount ofsediment available and climate. Spaceavailable on the shelf—which Vail calls“shelfal accommodation space”—is a func-tion of tectonic subsidence and uplift and ofglobal sea level rise and fall on the shelf. Forinstance, subsidence during rising sea levelwill produce a larger basin than uplift dur-ing rising sea level. The distribution of sedi-ment depends on shelfal accommodation,the shape of the basin margin—called depo-sitional profile—sedimentation rate and cli-mate. Climate depends on the amount ofheat received from the sun. Climate alsoinfluences sediment type, which tendstoward sand and shale in temperate zonesand allows the production of carbonates inthe tropics.

As an exploration tool, sequence stratigra-phy is used to locate reservoir sands. Indeep water basins with high sedimentationrates, sands are commonly first laid down assubmarine fans on the basin floor (nextpage, “A”) and later as deposits on the con-tinental slope or shelf (next page, “B”). Butas sea level starts slowly rising onto the con-tinental shelf, sands are deposited a greatlateral distance from earlier slope and basindeposits.9 Deposits during this time aredeltaic sediments that build into the basinand deep water shales (next page, “C”). Ifthe sediment supply cannot keep pace withrising sea level, the shoreline migrates land-ward and sands move progressively higherup the shelf (next page, “D”). Once sea

Oilfield Review

nSequence compo-nents in order ofdeposition, frombottom to top. Thesequence beginswhen sea level rela-tive to the basinfloor begins to fall.

The first deposits,sand-rich fans, arelaid down while sealevel is falling to itslowest point (A).

As sea level bot-toms out and beginsto rise (B), sandsand shale aredeposited in fans onthe continentalslope. Submarinechannels with lev-ees may meanderacross the fan.Slumps are common.

The continuingrise in sea level (C)allows wedges ofsediment to buildinto the basin, withsands near theshore, siltstones andshale basinward.

A rapid rise in sealevel (D) movessandiest sedimentslandward as beachesand sandbars.

Sea level thenrises at a lower rate(E), allowing sedi-ments to build basin-ward again. Sandysediments are usu-ally restricted to thenearshore margin.

Colors follow aconvention used byVail. In order ofdeposition, basinfloor fans are yel-low, slope fans arebrown and subma-rine slumps are pur-ple. River deltasthat build out dur-ing low relative sealevel are pink. Rocksassociated withhigher relative sealevel—and usuallyless likely to besandy—are greenand orange. Withinevery part of asequence, sand-prone zones areyellow.

E

DaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaBAaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaCaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaa0

0

0

0

0

Submarinecanyon

Basinfloor fan

Channeland levee

SlumpFan lobe

Barrier barDelta

Maximumsea level

Reworked shore sands

Marsh

Minimumsea level

aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaJanuary 1993

level reaches a maximum for this cycle,sands will build basinward as long as sedi-ment remains available (left, “E” ). Thesequence ends with a fall in relative sealevel, marked by a break in deposition. Thesequence repeats, however, as long as thereis sediment and another cycle of rise andfall in relative sea level that changes theshelfal accommodation space (see “ADetailed View of Sequence Stratigraphy,”next page).

(continued on page 56)

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1. For a review:Schoch RM: Stratigraphy: Principles and Methods.New York, New York, USA: Van Nostrand Reinhold,1989.

2. Suess E: The Face of the Earth, vol 2. Oxford, England:Clarendon Press, 1906.

3. Fairbridge RW: “Eustatic Changes in Sea Level,” inAhrens LH, Press F, Rankama K and Runcorn SK (eds):Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, vol. 4. London,England: Pergamon Press Ltd. (1961): 99-185.

4. Vail PR and Mitchum RM: “Seismic Stratigraphy andGlobal Changes of Sea Level, Part 1: Overview,” inPayton CE (ed): AAPG Memoir 26 Seismic Stratigra-phy—Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration(1977): 51-52.Mitchum RM, Vail PR and Thompson S: “SeismicStratigraphy and Global Changes of Sea Level, Part 2:The Depositional Sequence as a Basic Unit for Strati-graphic Analysis,” in Payton CE (ed): AAPG Memoir26 Seismic Stratigraphy—Applications to Hydrocar-bon Exploration (1977): 53-62.Vail PR, Mitchum RM and Thompson S: “SeismicStratigraphy and Global Changes of Sea Level, Part 3:Relative Changes of Sea Level from Coastal Onlap,” inPayton CE (ed): AAPG Memoir 26 Seismic Stratigra-phy—Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration(1977): 63-82.Vail PR, Mitchum RM and Thompson S: “SeismicStratigraphy and Global Changes of Sea Level, Part 4:Global Cycles of Relative Changes of Sea Level,” inPayton CE (ed): AAPG Memoir 26 Seismic Stratigra-phy—Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration(1977): 83-98.Vail P, Todd RG and Sangree JB: “Seismic Stratigraphyand Global Changes of Sea Level, part 5: Chronos-tratigraphic Significance of Seismic Reflections,” inPayton CE (ed): AAPG Memoir 26 Seismic Stratigra-phy—Applications to Hydrocarbon Exploration(1977): 99-116.Sangree JB and Widmier JM: “Interpretation of Depo-sitional Facies From Seismic Data,” Geophysics 44(February 1979): 131-160.

5. An unconformity is a surface separating younger fromolder layers, along which there is evidence of erosionor a significant break in deposition.

6. Sloss LL: “Sequences in the Cratonic Interior of NorthAmerica,” Geological Society of America Bulletin 74(1963): 93-113.Wheeler HE: “Time Stratigraphy,” American Associa-tion of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 42, no. 5 (May1958): 1047-1063.

7. Haq BU, Hardenbol J and Vail PR: “Chronology ofFluctuating Sea Levels Since the Triassic,” Science 235(1987): 1156-1166.

8. In some cases the unconformity may correlate later-ally with a conformity. A conformity is a surface thatconforms to those above and below it, with no evi-dence of erosion or nondeposition.

9. In the case of the Gulf of Mexico, a 100-m rise in rel-ative sea level would cause a 150-km landward shiftof the shoreline:Matthews RK: Dynamic Stratigraphy. EnglewoodCliffs, New Jersey, USA: Prentice-Hall, Inc. (1984):394.

A Detailed View of Sequence Stratigraphy

The components of depositional sequences are

called systems tracts. Systems tracts are divided

into three groups according to relative sea level

at the time of deposition—lowstand at low rela-

tive sea level, transgressive as the shoreline

moves landward, and highstand at high relative

sea level. Systems tracts are depositional groups

that have a predictable stratigraphic order and

predictable shapes and contents. A close look at

systems tracts, their geometries and lithologies,

shows how sequence stratigraphy can be used to

foretell reservoir location and quality.

Each systems tract exhibits a characteristic log

response, seismic signature and paleontologic

fingerprint, and performs a predictable role in the

oil and gas play—reservoir rock, source rock or

seal. Gamma ray (GR) and spontaneous potential

(SP) logs are expected to read low in sands and

high in shales. Resistivity logs show the reverse,

reading high in hydrocarbon-filled sands and low

in shales.

Apparent layering interpreted on seismic sec-

tions—called stratal patterns—is determined by

tracing seismic reflections to their terminations.

The termination is categorized by its geometry

and associated with a depositional style. Fossils

are described by their abundance, diversity and

first or last occurrence, allowing dates to be deter-

mined based on correlation with global conditions.

Starting with the lower lowstand systems tract

at the bottom of a sequence, basin floor fans are

typically isolated massive mounds of well-sorted

grain flows or turbidite sands1 derived from allu-

vial valleys or nearshore sands (next page, “A”).

Log responses are blocky, with a sharp top and

bottom bracketing clean sand. Seismic reflec-

tions curve down and terminate on the underlying

sequence boundary—a feature called down-

lap—while the top may form a mound. The low-

stand facies makes an excellent reservoir, with

porosity often over 30% and permeability of sev-

54

eral darcies.2 It may be overlain by a thin clay-

rich layer that can act as a seal, but more often it

is overlain directly by the next depositional unit.

In these cases, the basin floor fan acts as a

hydrocarbon migration pathway. Fossil content is

minimal, since deposition rates are often very

high. Basin floor fans derive their hydrocarbon

from previous sequences.

In areas of high deposition rate, the major

component of the lower lowstand systems tract is

the slope fan complex. Slope fans can be exten-

sive and can exhibit several depositional styles,

depending on the vertical gradient of the slope

face and on the sediment source (next page, “B”).

The complex may include submarine channels

with levees, overbank deposits, slumps and

chaotic flows. Log responses commonly are cres-

cent shaped. A sharp base within the crescent

commonly indicates sand in a channel, with a

bell shape indicating fining upward as the chan-

nel is abandoned. On the other hand, channels

may fill with mud. On seismic sections, leveed

channels in the fan show a characteristic mound

with a slight depression in the top. Sand-filled

channels make excellent exploration targets, but

may be difficult to track.3 Sands flowing over

channel levees may be deposited as overbank

sheets and alternate with shales, creating sub-

parallel reflectors. Such sands can provide

stacked reservoirs with porosities of 10 to 30%,

but are usually very thin. Slumps from shelf edge

deltas create a chaotic or jumbled pattern—

“hummocky” in interpreter’s vernacular—easily

identifiable on seismic data. Hydrocarbon

sources for channel and overbank reservoirs are

deeper sequences. Seals are provided by a

widespread “condensed” section of shale, a thin

layer representing prolonged deposition at very

low rates that comes with the rise in sea level.

The sealing shale also contains abundant marine

fossils used for dating.

Part of the upper lowstand, the prograding

wedge complex derives its name from shallow-

ing-upward deltas that build basinward from the

shelf edge and pinch out landward at the preced-

ing shoreline (next page, “C”). Log response

shows more sand higher in the section and less

sand basinward, indicating a coarsening upward.

The seismic signature shows moderate- to high-

amplitude continuous reflectors that downlap

onto the basin floor. This depositional unit often

contains ample sand, especially near the sedi-

ment source. Updip seals are typically poor, how-

ever, and structural trapping is required for hydro-

carbon accumulation.

The transgressive systems tract represents

sedimentation during a rapid rise in sea level

(next page, “D”). The shoreline retreats landward,

depriving the basin of sediment. SP and gamma

ray logs show a fining upward. Retreat of the

shoreline gives rise to seismic patterns that

appear to truncate basinward. In practice, this

systems tract is commonly thin, and such pat-

terns are usually imperceptible on typical seis-

mic sections. Basal transgressive sands derived

from reworked lowstand sands can be excellent

reservoirs, except where shell fragments may

later cement the sands. Shoreface sands will fol-

low strike-oriented trends.

The top of the transgressive systems tract is

the limit of marine invasion, and is called the

maximum flooding surface. Widespread shale

deposition results in a condensed section. Abun-

dant fossils provide ages and well ties across the

seismic section. This clay-rich layer shows low

resistivity and high gamma ray readings. The

seismic pattern of this surface is downlap, which

becomes conformal—parallels adjacent reflec-

tors—basinward, and disappears above the shelf.

This surface is usually a very continuous reflec-

tor. At the shelf edge, it can commonly be identi-

fied by changes in reflection patterns above and

below.

Oilfield Review

nComponents of sequences, their log responses, and predicted and observed seismic reflection patterns.

Layers deposited during highest relative sea

level are known as the highstand systems tract

(above, “E”). Early highstand sediments are usu-

ally shaly. The late highstand complex, deposited

as the rise in sea level slows, contains silts and

sands. Some late highstand sediments are

deposited in the open air as fluvial deposits.

Gamma ray and SP responses show a gradual

decrease in gamma ray, indicating coarsening

upward associated with decreasing water depth.

Seismic reflections are characterized by sig-

55January 1993

GRor SP ResistivityaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaABCDE Seismic

reflection patterns Seismic exampleDeposition

cross section

moidal—S-shaped—stratal patterns, similar to

prograding wedge reflections. There may be

deltaic and shoreface sands at the top of the sec-

tion, but in general, this systems tract has poor

reservoir sands, and updip seals are uncommon.

Fossil abundances diminish as the marine envi-

ronment becomes restricted to the deeper parts

of the shelf.

1. A turbidite is a rock deposited from sediment-laden watermoving swiftly down a subaqueous slope.

2. Sangree JB, Vail PR and Sneider RM: “Evolution of FaciesInterpretation of the Shelf-Slope: Application of the NewEustatic Framework to the Gulf of Mexico,” paper OTC5695, presented at the 20th Annual Offshore TechnologyConference Proceedings, Houston, Texas, USA, May 2-5,1988.

3. Sometimes channels can be seen in slices of 3D seismicvolumes, but sequence stratigraphic studies are not com-monly done on 3D data. An exception is the studydescribed on page 62.

Oilfield Review

Relative sea level

Age, Ma

Layer number

3 2 1 0

0

40

80

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35

Distance, km

Dep

th, m

0 15

0

100

200

300

400

500

30

Expected gamma ray, SP

and resistivity responses

Lithologies indicated by logs

Gamma rayor SP Resistivity

Sand

Shale

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

diversity and abundance are measured ver-sus depth, which is converted to seismictravel time for easy comparison with theseismic section. Fossils of planktonic (float-ing) organisms are more widespread thanthose of benthic (bottom-dwelling) organ-isms and are therefore more useful in estab-lishing regional time correlations. However,in shallow-water environments, benthic fos-sils are used because nearshore conditionsmay be too variable for planktonic fossils.

Fossils are also indicators of relative sealevel. High fossil counts, or peaks, are asso-ciated with shales deposited during low sed-imentation. Such conditions occur in thebasin during time of high relative sea level,but also in deep water between fan depositsand outbuilding delta deposits (page 58,top). Two shale sections are expected withineach sequence, one at the top of the slopefan and the other at the maximum floodingsurface, associated with the furthest land-ward position of the shoreline. Biostratigra-phy also holds the key to paleo-bathymetry—a measure of topography ofthe ancient ocean floor—needed to interpret

which was the direction of the sedimentsource. Layers dip and thicken to the south.

Initially, seismic data and logs were inter-preted independently to identify sequencesand their bounding unconformities. Log-derived boundaries were compared withthose from seismic data and the interpreta-tion refined iteratively. Detailed seismicinterpretation began with the most easilyinterpreted reflection patterns, and waspieced together—working upward, down-ward and back toward the wells—respect-ing the stratigraphy suggested by thesequence model.

Logs from wells on the seismic lines wereconverted from depth to time using thenearest check shot—here, 3 miles [4.8 km]away.11 Sands interpreted on spontaneouspotential, gamma ray and resistivity logswere associated with seismic reflections atthe well and tracked along the seismic sec-tion. Shales indicated by logs were noted forcorrelation with fossil data from cuttings.

Next was integration of biostratigraphy.12

Fossils from cuttings help identify and dateboundaries of each rock sequence. Fossil

Components of a sequence may berepeated or missing, depending on localconditions and the rate of sea level change,but the basic sequence structure is pre-dictable. Computer-generated models ofsequence cycles are used to show theeffects of sea level change, sediment supplyand depositional profile (below).10 Theseinputs can be varied to test their relativeimportance, or to produce stacks ofsequences in an attempt to match real data.

Searching for Sand—A Case StudySequence stratigraphy was applied in 1992in the East Breaks area, offshore Texas (nextpage, top). Data included a two-dimen-sional (2D) seismic line and logs from sevenwells. The seismic line was processed forstructural imaging (see “Structural Imaging:Toward a Sharper Subsurface View,” page28) and the structural interpretation usedfour other lines to view the basin as a whole(see “Going for the Play: Structural Interpre-tation in Offshore Congo,” page 14). In thiscase, the big picture shows a basin con-trolled by normal faulting to the north,

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nSequences simu-lated using ScottBowman’s tech-nique, showing allthe components onpage 53. Inputs areinitial basin shape,sedimentation rateand relative sealevel. Geologic timelines are numberedfrom 5 to 35, oldestto youngest. Thesequence begins at5. Expected logresponses are plot-ted at ten locations.The left curve is SPor gamma ray, theright curve resistivity.

the depositional environment. Paleodepth isderived from benthic fossils with knowndepth habitats (next page top, right curve).Knowing water depth helps to interpret deepor shallow water rock types and expectedlayer thicknesses.

Once seismic, log and biostratigraphicdata are combined, a final, color-codedinterpreted section is made. Very highamplitude reflections may be highlightedwith hatching. These so-called bright spotsare analyzed for anomalies in amplitudevariation with offset associated with hydro-carbons (see “Hydrocarbon Detection WithAVO,” page 42). In the East Breaks exam-ple, the most promising prospect is a large,sandy basin floor fan. Shales interpretedabove and below could provide seal andsource rock, respectively.

Overcoming Limitations of SequenceStratigraphySequence stratigraphy has proven useful forpetroleum exploration, but it is commonlymisapplied.13 There is controversy overwhether the technique can be applied tocarbonate systems since it was designed toexplain sand-shale systems. Some expertsmaintain that sequence stratigraphy is easierin carbonates because carbonates areextremely sensitive to sea level change.14

There is unanimous agreement, however,that low sedimentation rates often pose spe-cial problems. When sedimentation rate ismoderate to high, layers within a sequenceare tens to hundreds of meters thick, com-fortably within the resolving power of a typ-ical seismic wave (next page, bottom). But

when sedimentation rate is low, severalsequences might fit within a seismic wave-length. Sequence stratigraphy cannot beconfidently applied here, but it has beendone countless times. A useful interpretationin thinly-bedded regions requires abandon-

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Fossils

3.0

Dep

th, f

t

3000

4000

5000

6000

Tim

e, s

ec

1.0

2.0aaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaaA

B

C

D

E

SP

H. sellii

C. macintyrei

G. miocenica

D. tamalis

0 1miles

ForamNanno

nEast Breaks, offshore Texas, seismic line with sequence components interpreted in color, SP log and fossil abundance curves. Blockdiagrams from page 53 point to representative examples on the section. This seismic section has nine sequences. Sequence componentsshown are not necessarily from the same sequence, which is why D appears stratigraphically above E.

T E X A S L O U I S I A N A

East BreaksGreen Canyon

kmmiles0 100

0 161

G U L F O F M E X I C O

January 1993

10. Bowman SA and Vail PR: “Computer Simulation ofStratigraphy,” American Association of PetroleumGeologists Bulletin (1993): in preparation.

11. A check shot is a wireline survey that checks theseismic travel time from the surface to a chosendepth in a well. Depths are chosen from logs. A geo-phone is conveyed by wireline to the desired depthand a seismic source is set off at the surface. Thetravel time is recorded and doubled to compare withthe surface seismic travel time.

12. For an integrated biostratigraphic study:Bell DG, Selnes H, Bjorøy M, Grogan P, Kilenyi Tand Trayner P: “Better Prospect Evaluation withOrganic Geochemistry, Biostratigraphy and Seismics,”Oilfield Review 2, no. 1 (January 1990): 24-42.

13. Posamentier HW and James DP: “An Overview ofSequence Stratigraphic Concepts: Uses and Abuses,”in Posamentier HW, Summerhayes CP, Haq BU andAllen GP (eds): Stratigraphy and Facies Associationsin a Sequence Stratigraphic Framework, Interna-tional Association of Sedimentologists Special Publi-cation, 1992.

14. Vail P, Audemard F, Bowman SA, Eisner PN andPerez-Cruz C: “The Stratigraphic Signatures of Tec-tonics, Eustasy and Sedimentology—An Overview,”in Einsele G et al. (eds): Cycles and Events in Stratig-raphy. Berlin, Germany: Springer-Verlag (1991):617-659.

Oilfield Review

ing small-scale features and concentratingon larger scale, longer term processes thatcontrol the generation of sequences.

With this in mind, Vail and coworkersproposed a hierarchy of stratigraphic cyclesbased on duration and amount of sea levelchange.14 Duval and Cramez at TOTALExploration worked with Vail to providesubsurface examples and to expand theapplication to hydrocarbon exploration.15

The hierarchy assigns frequencies to themechanisms of eustasy enumerated by Fair-bridge (page 52), viewed in light of platetectonics (next page, top). The first-ordercycle, which is the longest, tracks creationof new shorelines resulting from thebreakup of the continents. Although thisbreakup does not follow a cycle, it has hap-pened twice, with a duration of over 50 mil-lion years. The second-order cycle is land-ward and basinward oscillation of theshoreline that lasts 3 to 50 million years.This oscillation is produced by changes inthe rate of tectonic subsidence and uplift,caused by changes in rates of plate motion.Both first- and second-order cycles maycause changes in the volume of the oceanbasins resulting in long-term variations inglobal sea level. The third-order cycle is thesequence cycle, lasting 0.5 to 3 millionyears. Fourth- and higher order cycles maybe correlated with periodic climatic changes.

The following example, with its lowdeposition rate, approaches the limit ofinterpretation in terms of third-order cycles.It comes from the Outer Moray Firth basinin the UK sector of the North Sea, where theinitial basin shape, tectonic activity andvariation in the rate of deposition add atwist to the interpretation (pages 60-61).

Stratigraphic interpretation of the last 65million years of sediments in the OuterMoray Firth is more difficult than in the Gulfof Mexico because slower deposition in theCentral North Sea resulted in thinner units,many of which cannot be resolved by seis-mic waves. During this period, the OuterMoray Firth has 17 sequences totaling 5000feet [1524 meters] of sediments (pages 60-61, middle and bottom), compared to theGulf Coast, with 10 sequences totaling 9000ft [2750 m]. In the North Sea, however,depositional processes juxtaposed a varietyof lithologies, providing reliable calibrationpoints for accurate conversion of logs from

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nTypical Gulf ofMexico fossil abun-dance peaks andpaleodepth curve.Fossil abundancecurves based onanalysis of cuttingsfor foraminifera—protozoa with cal-careous externalskeletons—andnannofossils, abroad category ofextremely small,usually algal fossils.Peaks indicate thepresence of shalesat the top of theslope fan complex(brown) and atmaximum sealevel (green). Theright curve indi-cates fossil habitatdepth, in whichdark blue is deepwater and lightblue is shallower.

nHigh (top) and low (bottom) sedimentation rates, shown on synthetic sequences. Thebasic shape of each layer follows the initial basin shape, but layer thickness varieswith sedimentation rate. Only thick layers can be resolved with seismic methods.

Plankton

Foramabundance

Nannofossilabundance

Paleodepth

Dep

th, f

t

G. miocenica

H. emaciatum

H. sellii

C. macintyrei

D. brouweri

D. brouweri “A”

D. pentaradiatus

D. tamalis

(?) R. pseudoumbilica

3000

5000

7000

9000

11000

13000

1 6 30ft x100

Distance, km

Dep

th, m

Dep

th, m

High sedimentation rate

Low sedimentation rate

0

600

0

0 30 60

0

600

30 60

59

Distance

1 order Continental breakup

2nd order— Movement of shoreline

3rd order— Sequence cycle

4th+ order— Parasequence cycle (periodic)

> 5

0 M

a3-

50 M

a0.

5-3

Ma

0.01

-0.5

Ma

Basinward

Landward

Incr

easi

ng ti

me

Incr

easi

ng th

ickn

ess

nHierarchy ofcycles, decreasingdownward in theduration of sealevel change andin area of influence.At the top, the first-order cycle lasts atleast 50 millionyears and iscaused by majorchanges in the con-figuration of tec-tonic plates. Thesecond-order cycle,lasting 3 to 50 mil-lion years, is alsocontrolled by platemotion. It involvesmovement of theshoreline landwardand basinward, onthe scale of conti-nents. The whitearea shows thetime in which thereis no rock record,usually due to lackof depostition. Thethird-order cycle, of500,000 to 3 millionyears, is thesequence cycledescribed in themain text. It iscaused by long-term tectonic activ-ity and short-termglobal sea levelchanges. Fourth-and higher ordercycles, of 10,000 to500,000 years, areof shortest duration.They are driven bysea level changescaused by periodicclimatic variation.Cycles of this orderare called parase-quence cycles.

January 1993

15. Duval B, Cramez C and Vail P: “Types & Hierarchyof Stratigraphic Cycles,” presented at the Interna-tional Symposium on Mesozoic and CenozoicSequence Stratigraphy of European Basins, Dijon,France, May 18-20, 1992.

depth to time using synthetic seismograms(right, bottom). In the Gulf of Mexico, thisconversion is typically done with onlynearby checkshots; sands and shales com-monly show periodic alternation with depthat wavelengths that make comparisonsbetween seismic sections and synthetic seis-mograms nonunique.

Stratigraphic study is always preceded bystructural interpretation. In addition, a pale-ogeographic interpretation of the OuterMoray Firth shows that late in the Creta-ceous period—when the sequences understudy began to be deposited—a smoothbasin floor sloped gently from northwest tosoutheast. During a relative fall in sea level,sediments were deposited as slope fans.Their seismic expressions indicate lobeswith channels and some chaotic flows—large-scale slumps with jumbled seismiccharacter. As sea level rose, a wedge of out-building deltas was deposited. Sea levelmaximum is associated with a depositionalhiatus, shown only as a thin line. Depositssynchronous with this surface may be foundon what is now land in Europe, but in thebasin, sediments that correspond to periodsof high relative sea level are rare.

Why are elements of the classic Vailmodel missing from this sequences in thisbasin? One explanation is the competinginfluences of tectonic uplift and sea levelchange. As global sea level rose and fell,continual regional uplift kept the sea fromreaching levels high enough to allow forma-tion of units typical of high relative sealevel. Only once, at the top of the thirdsequence, does a thin layer of high relativesea level sediments appear (orange).Another interpretation is that thin, high rela-tive sea level sediments were deposited, buteroded, and so are not preserved in the sec-tion (pages 60-61, bottom).

Tim

e, s

ec

0

1.0

2.0

A BW E

Synthetic Gamma ray

0 5km

nSynthetic seismo-grams and gammaray logs from twowells tying with theOuter Moray Firthseismic line. Syn-thetics, based onsonic and densitylogs, provide adepth-to-time corre-lation for integra-tion of log, paleoand seismic data.(Courtesy of Amoco UK.)

Tim

e, s

ecTi

me,

sec

Raw seismic

Interpreted seismic

Geologic cross section

0

4

0

4

0

W

6

This section can also be interpreted interms of second-order cycles (page 62, top).The entire set of 17 depositional sequencescan be bracketed by five second-ordercycles, based on physical stratigraphy andbiostratigraphy. Major biostratigraphic gapsexist at the boundaries of each second-ordercycle, and the boundaries can be seen torepresent major changes in the depositionalstyle of basin fill.

Studies in 3DIf the volume of earth in a study area issmall enough, workstations can add a newdimension to sequence stratigraphy. In theGreen Canyon area of the Gulf of Mexico,interpreters concentrated on a fan depositedin a syncline on the continental slope 1 to 2million years ago. Regional sequencestratigraphy was established using 2D seis-mic data and paleontologic control from sixnearby wells. Zooming in on a subset of thisdata, interpreters assembled a series of 2Dpanels for 3D interpretation.

The top and base of the slope fan wereinterpreted over a six-block area (54 squaremiles [138 km2]). The thickest part of theslope fan coincides with the stacked chan-nels that carried shallow-water shelf anddelta sands into deep water, greater than200 m [656 ft] (page 62, middle). A series ofstacked channels, possibly filled with sand,is visible within the slope fan interval.

The goal of this interpretation is to identifyexploration targets. Although lithology of thechannel deposits is difficult to identify in thehorizon slice, geology predicts that the chan-nel will terminate in a sand-rich fan.16 Thechannel was tracked south, and a fan wasdiscovered in the next block of seismic data.

Dep

th, m

7000

16. A horizon is the surface separating two rock layers.In seismic data, a horizon shows up as a reflection.A reflection tracked in a 3D cube of seismic dataand displayed in plan view is called a horizon slice.Depths or times to the reflection are contoured orcolor-coded.

Oilfield Review0

E

0 10km

61January 1993

nComparison of seismic and log data from the Moray Firth, North Sea, including the original seismic line (top), the interpreted line (mid-dle) and the geologic cross section with gamma ray logs. Permian and Carboniferous basement (green) are followed by Jurassic toLower Cretaceous sediments (purple). Both show evidence of rifting during and after deposition. In the Upper Cretaceous, chalk (blue)filled the earlier rifts. The chalk was deposited in open marine conditions, with no land exposed nearby. On the left (west) edge, a Pale-ocene (Danian) chalk debris flow appears as a chaotic zone on top of the earlier chalk. Basin relief was minimal and sea level was highat the onset of the first sequence in the Tertiary. Low relative sea level deposits—slope fans and chaotic flows—are brown (color conven-tion is the same as in the Gulf of Mexico example). River deltas building out during low relative sea level are pink. Sea level maximaappear as thin green lines.

E

Cross section

Horizon slice

17. Posamentier HW, Allen GP and James DP: “HighResolution Sequence Stratigraphy—The East CouleeDelta, Alberta,” Journal of Sedimentary Petrology 62(1992): 310-317.

18. Jacquin T, Garcia J-P, Ponsot C, Thierry J and Vail PR:“Séquences de Dépôt et Cycles Régressif/Transgres-sifs en Domaine Marin Carbonaté: Exemple du Dog-ger du Bassin de Paris,” Contes Rendues del’Académie des Sciences de Paris 315 (1992): 353-362.

19. Galloway WE: “Genetic Stratigraphic Sequences inBasin Analysis I: Architecture and Genesis of Flood-ing-Surface Bounded Depositional Units,” AmericanAssociation of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 73, no.2 (February 1989): 125-142.

20. Sloss LL: “Tectonics—The Primary Control onSequence Stratigraphy: A Countervailing View,” Dis-tinguished Lecture Tours Abstracts, American Asso-ciation of Petroleum Geologists Bulletin 74, no. 11(November 1990): 1774.

21. Hag BU: “Ten Commandments for Sequence Stratig-raphers,” presented at the International Symposiumon Mesozoic and Cenozoic Sequence Stratigraphyof European Basins, Dijon, France, May 18-20,1992.

T E X A S L O U I S I A N A

East BreaksGreen Canyon

kmmiles0 100

0 161

G U L F O F M E X I C O

W E

LowerPaleocene Upper

Paleocene

Lower OligoceneMiddle EoceneLower Eocene

nOuter Moray Firth data reinterpreted in terms of second-order cycles. Basinward movement of the shoreline is orange and landwardmovement is green. Colors correspond to second-order cycles (page 59, top).

nSeismic line and horizon slice from acube of 3D data in Green Canyon, offshoreLouisiana. The top (yellow line) and bottom(red) of a slope fan were interpreted usingsequence stratigraphy. A stack of subma-rine channels can be seen in the seismicline (oval). Normally, channels like thesewould be difficult to track, but in 3D thetask is simple. The 3D data can be flat-tened at the top of the fan, and sliced hori-zontally to reveal a map (bottom). Here, thechannel can be seen to meander fromnorth to south around an emerging saltdome. A slump off the flank of the salt (cir-cle) has fallen into the channel. This chan-nel was tracked to the next block south,where it terminated in a slope fan lobe,predicted to be sandy.

62

Salt

FrontiersSequence stratigraphy continues to evolve.One area of investigation is high-resolutionsequence stratigraphy, which is performedat a higher resolution than seismic wave-lengths, usually with log and outcrop stud-ies. ARCO, TOTAL and Esso scientists per-formed a very high-resolution sequencestratigraphy study on a roadside ditch,which served as an analog of an incised val-ley and delta system. The system measuredonly 50 cm [20 in.] from bottom to top butobeyed the same physical laws as systemshundreds of meters thick.17

Sequence stratigraphy is achieving somesuccess in areas where it was not designedto work. Studies in carbonates show thatalthough the depositional layering patternsare different from sand-shale systems, thetechnique has the power to explain and pre-dict sediment distribution and lithologiccontent.18 Sequence stratigraphy has alsobeen applied with success to nonmarinedeposits in continental basins and in marinebasins isolated from continental sediments.

Sequence stratigraphy, as proposed by theExxon group, is not without controversy.Some alternative schemes to explainsequences place more emphasis on sedi-ment supply19 or tectonic activity.20 What-ever their area of expertise, stratigraphersagree on the main problem in sequencestratigraphy—overextending the model to fitevery study area. Bilal Haq, while at theNational Science Foundation in the USA,compiled ten commandments for sequencestratigraphers21 and Henry Posamentier ofARCO Oil and Gas Company has writtenon the uses and abuses of the technique.13

They approach the subject from differentperspectives, but their message is thesame—where sequence stratigraphy works,use it; if it doesn’t work, the problem is withthe application, not the theory. —LS

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