Sentence Patterns - IIHS Learner Management System

" INTRODUCTION

In Topic 8, you have learnt the forms of two grammatical constituents of a sentence, i.e. phrases and clauses. Topic 9 will now extend on what you have learnt to cover the functions of these constituents in a sentence. You will learn how to parse a simple sentence into their respective constituents and then analyse them in terms of form and function. Though the focus of the constituent analysis will be on simple sentences, some examples of complex sentences will also be illustrated. The constituent analysis will be confined to the seven sentence patterns proposed by Quirk and Greenbaum (1990); and Biber, Conrad and Leech (2002).

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99

Sentence Patterns

By the end of this topic, you should be able to:

1. Analyse the constituents of a sentence in terms of form andfunction;

2. Identify the subject and predicate of a sentence;

3. State the elements that make up the subject of a sentence;

4. Identify the constituents that make up the predicate of a sentence;

5. Parse a sentence into its respective constituents; and

6. Differentiate the seven sentence patterns based on the types ofverbs used.

LEARNING OUTCOMES

Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)

TOPIC 9 SENTENCE PATTERNS 204

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE

A simple sentence, which is made up of a single clause, can be parsed into two major constituents, i.e. SUBJECT and PREDICATE. The subject, which usually stands first, and which answers the question „who‰ or „what‰, is the topic of the sen tence. The predicate, which usually comes after the subject, answers the question: „What does the sentence tell us about the subject?‰ Diagrammatically, you can show the two major constituents of a simple sentence as follows:

You can see that the subject has a noun phrase (NP) as its form, while the predicate has a verb phrase (VP) as its form. Therefore, in terms of function, the two major constituents are the subject and the predicate but in terms of form, the two constituents are the noun phrase and the verb phrase.

9.1



No. SUBJECT PREDICATE

1. The headmaster or the senior assistant will chair the meeting.

2. To err is human.

3. Smoking cigarettes can ruin your health.

4. What you say may hurt his feeling.

5. Whoever tried succeeded.

The subject of a sentence is not confined to a single noun phrase. Two or more noun phrases may be coordinated to form a compound subject (also called coordinated subject) as in (1). In (1), the noun-phrase subject is made up of two noun phrases joined by a coordinating conjunction „or‰. Refer to Topic 7 for the list of coordinating conjunctions that can be used to join noun phrases. The subject may not be in the form of a noun phrase. In (2) and (3), the subjects take the forms of a non-finite clause. In (2), the subject is a to-infinitive clause in form but in (3) it is an -ing participle clause in form. In (4) and (5), the subjects are in the form of finite clauses. Both are also referred to as noun clauses.

ACTIVITY 9.1

Given below are more examples of sentences that have been parsed intotheir subjects and predicates. What can you say about the structure of the subject?

ACTIVITY 9.2

You have seen that the subject of a sentence need not be a noun phrase.Another question is whether the subject should always come before theverb group in the verb phrase. Study the sentences below and identify the subjects. What can you say about their subjects?

1. Here comes Ali.

2. Located beside the market is a big cinema.

3. There is a book on the table.

4. Have they had their dinner?

5. Where do you work?



In (1) and (2), the subjects (i.e. Ali, a big cinema) do not come before the verb group in the verb phrase. (1) and (2) are examples of subject-verb inversion in which the verb groups are moved before the subjects. In (3), the subject (i.e. a book) also comes after the verb group. Likewise, in question forms, the subjects (i.e. they, you) appear immediately after the auxiliary verbs as in (4) and (5).

ACTIVITY 9.3

Parse the following sentences into Subject (S) and Predicate (P).

1. The bell has rung.

2. His younger brother became a soldier.

3. The blind old man told us the whole story.

4. En. Raman sold his car to my sister.

5. Those beautiful houses belong to him.

6. The cat which is lying on the mat loves dogs.

7. How he was murdered remains a mystery.

8. My mother enjoys sewing and gardening.

9. Nothing will make him repent.

10. The man who wears a red shirt is my neighbour.

11. On to the field ran the horses.

12. John, Peter and I would work together.

13. That he is still alive after so many days is a miracle.

14. The next passenger train to arrive was from Singapore.

15. A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush.

16. Down came the heavy rain.

17. Walking along this stretch of road is unsafe.

18. Every man is the architect of his own fortunes.

19. All the items belonging to the college must be returned.

20. The clothing sold in the next shop is much cheaper.

21. No one but you can solve this problem.



BASIC SENTENCE PATTERNS

In this section, you will learn how to conduct an analysis of the constituents that make up the PREDICATE. The analysis will only be confined to simple sentences. Concentrating on those constituents that are normally obligatory, you can usefully distinguish seven basic sentence patterns in English. The activities below will sensitise you to the constituents that make up each of the seven basic sentence pattern in terms of form and function.

9.2.1 Sentence Pattern I: S V

9.2

ACTIVITY 9.4

The following sentences have been parsed into their respective Subjects and Predicates. What is common among the predicates? What type of verb is used in each sentence?

Function Subject Predicate

(1) My head aches.

(2) All the girls cried

(3) The train has arrived.

(4) He was sleeping

(5) May and Jane might have left.

Form Noun Phrase Verb Phrase

22. The headmaster accompanied by two teachers attended the meeting.

23. The double-storey bungalow near my house has been advertised for sale.

24. Situated along this river is a row of low-cost houses.

25. We saw the boy running towards your office.



• All the predicates in the form of verb phrases are made up of only a verb group (Vgp), i.e. aches, cried, has arrived, was sleeping, might have left, and will be coming. All the verbs are intransitive and can therefore stand on their own. This sentence pattern is made up of a subject (S) and a verb (V) in terms of function and can be written as S V. In terms of form, it is made up of a noun phrase (NP) and a verb group (Vgp) and can be written as NP Vgp. Given below is an example of the constituent analysis of the sentence pattern.

S V

" The sun is shining.

NP Vgp

9.2.2 Sentence Pattern II: S V Od

ACTIVITY 9.5

Can you provide more examples of the above sentence pattern?Analyse them in terms of form and function.

ACTIVITY 9.6

The following sentences have been parsed into their respective Subjects and Predicates. What is common among the predicates? What type of verb is used in each sentence? Can you parse the predicates into their respective constituents in terms of form?


(1) She had lost the keys

(2) They opened the door.

(3) Alice likes black coffee.

(4) My brother has been keeping the money.

(5) We could have arrested the suspects.

(6) All the guests love my cooking.




• Unlike Sentence Pattern I, in which the verbs in the predicates are intransitive, the verbs in the predicates in Sentence Pattern II are transitive. You have learnt in Topic 2 that a sentence with a transitive verb needs an object to complete it. More specifically, the type of transitive verb used in Sentence Pattern II is called Monotransitive Verb, which requires only a single object called Direct Object. This sentence pattern is therefore made up of a subject (S), a verb (V) and a direct object (Od) in terms of function. In terms of form, it comprises a noun phrase (NP), a verb group (Vgp) and another noun phrase. Given below is an example of the constituent analysis of the sentence pattern.

S V Od

" The lecturer has scolded the students.

NP Vgp NP Without an object, the sentence is ungrammatical as in the following example.

" *The lecturer has scolded. (Ungrammatical)

ACTIVITY 9.7

Can you parse the sentences above into their respective constituents interms of form and function? Provide more examples of your own and analyse them. Find out how your dictionary indicates this type of sentence pattern.



9.2.3 Sentence Pattern III: S V Cs

• Can you recognise the verbs used in the above sentence pattern? They are all

intensive verbs (i.e. is, appeared, seems, has become, remained and are). You have learnt in Topic 2 that an intensive verb (also called a copular or link/linking verb) associates an attribute with the subject of a sentence. The attribute is expressed by a complement and since it refers to the subject, it is called a Subject Complement (i.e. beautiful, very confident, ready, our new branch manager, a secret and hers).

• As can be seen from the examples, the subject complement is either an

adjective phrase (AdjP) or a noun phrase (NP). In (1), (2) and (3), the subject complement is an adjective phrase, while in (4), (5) and (6), it is a noun phrase. Therefore, in terms of function, Sentence Pattern III consists of a subject (S), a verb (V) and a subject complement (Cs), but in terms of form, it comprises a noun phrase (NP), a verb group (Vgp), and an adjective phrase (AdjP) or a noun phrase (NP). The constituent analysis of Sentence Pattern III can be illustrated as follows:

ACTIVITY 9.8

The following sentences have been parsed into their respective Subjects and Predicates. What is common among the predicates? What type of verb is used in each sentence? Can you parse the predicates into their respective constituents in terms of form?


(1) The dress on display is beautiful.

(2) She appeared very confident.

(3) Our breakfast seems ready.

(4) Mr. Samuel has become our new branch manager.

(5) The results of the study remained a secret.

(6) Most of the houses in this area

are hers.




"

S V Cs

The soup tasted really delicious. NP Vgp AdjP

"

S V Cs

This has proven a good investment. NP Vgp NP

Without a subject complement, these sentences are ungrammatical as in the following examples:

" *The soup tasted. (ungrammatical)

" *This has proven. (ungrammatical)

ACTIVITY 9.9Can you parse the sentences above into their respective constituents interms of form and function? Can you provide more examples of your own and analyse them? Find out how your dictionary indicates this type of sentence pattern.



9.2.4 Sentence Pattern IV: S V A

• Again, the predicates in this sentence pattern consist of intensive verbs (i.e. is,

have been, was, lasted, seems and fallen). However, unlike in Sentence Pattern III, each intensive verb is followed by a prepositional phrase (i.e. in the next building, to Australia, on Sunday, in shock, in excellent health, or into disuse), which functions as an adverbial. Sentence Pattern IV is thus made up of a subject (S), a verb (V) and an adverbial (A) in terms of function. In terms of form, the constituents are a noun phrase (NP), a verb group (Vgp) and a prepositional phrase (PP). The constituent analysis of Sentence Pattern IV can be illustrated as follows:

""

S V AYour money is on the table. NP Vgp PP

ACTIVITY 9.10

The following sentences have been parsed into their respective Subjects and Predicates. What is common among the predicates? What type of verb is used in each sentence? Can you parse the predicates into their respective constituents in terms of form? How is this sentence pattern similar and different from Sentence Pattern III?


(1) My office is in the next building.

(2) None of us have been to Australia.

(3) The first meeting was on Sunday.

(4) The victim appeared in shock.

(5) He seems in excellent health.

(6) These methods had fallen into disuse.




The adverbial in this pattern is obligatory, without which the sentence is ungrammatical as in the following example.

" *Your money is. (ungrammatical) Obligatory adverbials usually express place or direction (e.g. in the next building, to Australia) and time (e.g. on Sunday) although they can express manner (e.g. in shock, in excellent health, into disuse). Some intransitive verbs also require an adverbial to be grammatically complete, as in the following examples:

" En. Sharif lives in London. (Incomplete: *En Sharif lives.)

" He was leaning against the wall. (Incomplete: * He was leaning.)

" This road leads to the forest. (Incomplete: * This road leads.)

" The baby lay on the bed. (Incomplete: * The baby lay.)

Obligatory adverbials can also be in the form adverb phrases as in the following examples.

" Mary is outside.

" Her job interviews were yesterday.

ACTIVITY 9.11

Can you parse the sentences above into their respective constituents interms of form and function? Can you provide more examples of your own and analyse them? Find out how your dictionary indicates this type of sentence pattern.



9.2.5 Sentence Pattern V: S V Oi Od

" You must have realised that the verb groups used in this sentence pattern are transitive as in Sentence Pattern II. However, the transitive verb group in each sentence is followed by two noun phrases. For example, in (1), the two noun phrases after the verb group are her and the wrong file. This type of transitive verb is called Ditransitive Verb. The first noun phrase (i.e. her) functions as an Indirect Object (Oi) and the second noun phrase (i.e. the wrong file) functions as a Direct Object (Od). In terms of form, Sentence Pattern IV is thus made up of a noun phrase (NP), a verb group (Vgp) and another two noun phrases, and in terms of function, it is made up of a subject (S), a verb (V), an indirect object (Oi) and a direct object (Od). An example of constituent analysis of this sentence pattern is given below:

""

S V Oi Od The guest handed the receptionist her room key.

NP Vgp NP NP

ACTIVITY 9.12

The following sentences have been parsed into their respective Subjects and Predicates. What is common among the predicates? What type of verb is used in each sentence? Can you parse the predicates into their respective constituents in terms of form? How is this pattern similar and different from Sentence Pattern II?


(1) He could have given her the wrong file.

(2) The company bought everyone a watch.

(3) The agency has found her a maid.

(4) I must send her some flowers.

(5) The new lecturer from the UK

taught us Linguistics.

(6) My mother will make me a cake.




" There is a variation for this sentence pattern. Instead of putting the indirect object in front of the direct object, it is possible to put it in a Prepositional Phrase (PP) that comes after the direct object as illustrated by the example below:

"

S V Od Oi The guest handed her room key to the receptionist.

NP Vgp NP PP

The prepositional phrase (i.e. to the receptionist) is the indirect object. In the above example, the prepositional phrase is introduced by the preposition to. The preposition for is used with certain ditransitive verbs, as the following examples show:

"

S V Oi Od The manager has left his secretary an important

message. NP Vgp NP NP

"

S V Od Oi The manager has left an important

message for his secretary.

NP Vgp NP PP

However, for some ditransitive verbs, the indirect object almost always comes in front of the direct object rather than being introduced by to or for, as indicated by the following examples:

1." They promised her a reward. (NOT: *They promised a reward to/for her)

2." The teacher asked the pupils a question. (NOT: *The teacher asked a question to/for the pupils)

3." Parents should allow their children some freedom. (NOT: *Parents should allow some freedom to/for their children.)



9.2.6 Sentence Pattern VI: S V Od Co

In this sentence pattern, the predicate is made up of a transitive verb group (i.e. made, found, will keep, elected, consider or calls), followed by a noun phrase (i.e. the public, the new manager, the fruits, him or her) and an adjective phrase (i.e. extremely mad, friendly, fresh) or another noun phrase (i.e. the new president of the club, a helpful student, or Molly). This type of verb is called Complex Transitive.

ACTIVITY 9.13

Can you parse the sentences above into their respective constituents interms of form and function? Can you provide more examples of your own and analyse them? Find out how your dictionary indicates this type of sentence pattern.

ACTIVITY 9.14

The following sentences have been parsed into their respective Subjects and Predicates. What is common among the predicates? What type of verb is used in each sentence? Can you parse the predicates into their respective constituents in terms of form? How is this pattern similar and different from Sentence Pattern V?


(1) That made the public extremely mad.

(2) We found the new manager friendly.

(3) The fridge will keep the fruits fresh.

(4) The students elected him the new president of the club.

(5) All the teachers consider Mani a helpful student.

(6) Everyone calls her Molly.




In terms of form, this sentence pattern consists of a Noun Phrase (NP), a Verb Group (Vgp), an Adjective Phrase (AdjP), or a Noun Phrase (NP). In terms of function, it comprises a subject (S), a verb (V), a direct object (Od) and an object complement (C0). It is called the object complement because it describes the object. Examples:

In (1), the adjective phrase, i.e. crazy, refers to the direct object, i.e. me, and in (2), the noun phrase, i.e. Andrew, refers to the direct object, i.e. the newly born baby. Given below are examples of the constituent analysis of this sentence pattern.

"

S V Od Co

They are driving me crazy.NP Vgp NP AdjP

"

S V Od Co The parents have named the newly born baby Jimmy.

NP Vgp NP NP

ACTIVITY 9.15

Can you parse the sentences above into their respective constituents in terms of form and function? Can you provide more examples of your own and analyse them? Find out how your dictionary indicates this type of sentence pattern.



9.2.7 Sentence Pattern Vii: S V Od A

Like Sentence Pattern VI, this sentence pattern also consists of a complex transitive verb group (i.e. can put, referred, stood, must have placed, treated or will take), followed by a noun phrase (i.e. your computer, the students, the decorative lamp, the ladder, or the tourists). However, after the noun phrase, you have either a prepositional phrase (i.e. on the desk, to their grammar errors, or near the entrance) or an adverb phrase (i.e. there, very well or around). These constituents function as adverbials and they are obligatory because removing them will make the sentences incomplete and ungrammatical or change the meaning of the verbs.

ACTIVITY 9.16

The following sentences have been parsed into their respective Subjects and Predicates. What is common among the predicates? What type of verb is used in each sentence? Can you parse the predicates into their respective constituents in terms of form? How is this pattern similar and different from Sentence Pattern VI?


(1) You can put your computer on the desk.

(2) The teacher referred the students to their grammar errors.

(3) She stood the decorative lamp near the entrance.

(4) The intruder must have placed the ladder there.

(5) The stepmother treated the children very well.

(6) I will take the tourists around.




Examples:

" You can put the computer ( ungrammatical)

" The stepmother treated the children. (Change in meaning – giving a treat) In terms of form, Sentence Pattern VII is made up of a noun phrase (NP), a verb group (Vgp), a prepositional phrase (PP) or an adverb phrase (AdvP). In terms of function, it is made up of a subject (S), a verb (V), a direct object (Od) and an adverbial (A). Given below are examples of the constituent analysis of the sentence pattern.

"

S V Od A The little

girl has placed the kitten in the box.

NP Vgp NP PP " "

S V Od AYou should stand the syringe upright. NP Vgp NP AdvP

Table 9.1 provides a summary of the seven basic sentence patterns you have learnt so far.

Table 9.1: Summary of Sentence Patterns in Form and Function

No. Sentence Pattern

Example Function Form

1. S V NP Vgp John is sleeping.

2. S V Od NP Vgp NP The boy kicked the ball.

3. S V Cs NP Vgp AdjP

NP Vgp NP

This computer has become obsolete.

He has become a doctor.

ACTIVITY 9.17 Can you parse the sentences above into their respective constituents interms of form and function? Can you provide more examples of your own and analyse them? Find out how your dictionary indicates this type of sentence pattern.



4 S V A NP Vgp PP

NP Vgp AdvP

Their wedding will be in December.

The fire was everywhere.

5. S V Oi Od

S V Od Oi

NP Vgp NP NP

NP Vgp NP PP

My friend left me a note.

My friend left a note for me.

6. S V Od Co NP Vgp NP AdjP

NP Vgp NP NP

She served the coffee black.

They voted him the chairman of the society

7. S V Od A NP Vgp NP PP

NP Vgp NP AdvP

The guard showed him to the door.

The guard showed him out.

" Obligatory and Optional Adverbials

In (1), the prepositional phrase (i.e. in the room), which functions as an adverbial, can be removed without any real loss of meaning and without causing grammatical incompleteness.

" The children are playing. The adverbial in (1) is therefore optional, unlike the adverbial in (2) which is obligatory. As mentioned in Section 9.2.4, an obligatory adverbial cannot be removed without creating grammatical incompleteness in the sentence, as indicated by the following example.

" *The children are (Incomplete) Obligatory adverbials occur in sentence patterns S V A (e.g. They are staying nearby.) and S V Od A (e.g. He deposited his salary in the bank). However, optional adverbials can be used to expand all the seven basic sentences. They can be placed in different positions within a sentence – in final, initial or medial positions. More than one of them can occur in a single sentence. Optional adverbials add additional information to the sentence, covering a wide variety of

ACTIVITY 9.18

What can you say about the two phrases in bold?

1. The children are playing in the room.

2. The children are in the room.



meanings such as place, time, manner, extent and attitude. (Optional adverbials are bracketed). Examples:

"

(A) S V (A)Sometimes, she sings melodiously.

(AdvP) NP Vgp (AdvP)" "

S V A (A) (A) Alice was here with her uncle yesterday. NP Vgp AdvP (PP) (AdvP)

"Adverbials usually take the form of adverb phrases, prepositional phrases or noun phrases. Examples:

" I will do it very carefully. (Adverb phrase)

" I will do it with special care. (Prepositional phrase)

" I will do it my way. (Noun phrase)

ACTIVITY 9.19

Analyse the constituents of sentences in terms of function. Bracket the optional adverbials and identify the basic sentence pattern from which each sentence is derived.

1. My head aches terribly.

2. They have lost the keys in the field.

3. She bought her mother a new dress for her birthday.

4. Yesterday, the teacher told a story to the children.

5. The weather is getting hotter from day to day.

6. He became the Prime Minister of Malaysia last year.

7. In Malaysia, the students are now on vacation.

8. She always likes coffee black.



• A simple sentence is composed of a subject and a predicate.

• The most common form of a subject is a noun phrase. Two or more noun phrases may also be coordinated to form a compound subject or coordinated subject. The subject of a sentence can also be in the form of a finite or non-finite clause.

• The main constituents of a predicate are verb phrase, object (direct or indirect object), complement (subject or object complement) and adverbial.

• The constituents of the predicate together with the subject combine in seven basic sentence patterns: S V, S V Od, S V Cs, S V A, S V Oi Od (or S V Od Oi), S V Od Co, and S V Od A.

• Adverbials can be obligatory or optional. Obligatory adverbials occur in sentence patterns S V A and S V Od A. Optional adverbials can be added to the basic sentence patterns – either at the beginning, in the middle or at the end of a sentence.

9. The delegates elected Mr. Henry their new chairman in an emergency meeting.

10. He must have placed the stool there without our knowledge. You may wish to present your answers in the following format.

No. Constituent Analysis Basic Sentence Pattern

" " """"



Adverbial

Complex transitive verb

Ditransitive verb

Monotransitive verb

Object complement

Predicate

Subject

Subject complement

Parse the sentences into their respective constituents in terms of form and function. Identify the basic sentence pattern of each sentence and write the answer in brackets. Use the following codes:

Subject S Noun Phrase NP

Verb V Adjective Phrase AdjP

Direct Object Od Adverb Phrase AdvP

Indirect Object, Oi Prepositional Phrase PP

Subject Complement Cs Verb group Vgp

Object Complement Co

Adverbial A

1. It was raining heavily in the evening.

2. That sounds a good idea to me.

3. The young girl can sing this song very well.

4. The football match yesterday was really exciting.

5. All thought him a man of great honour.

6. The fire was everywhere within five minutes.

7. My boss has been very busy lately because of the festival.

8. The queue unexpectedly stretched around the block.



9. They crammed everything into the box.

10. You should have told him the truth earlier.

11. My mother remained silent for a while.

12. He had sent a dozen roses to her on ValentineÊs Day.

13. At the end of the show, we gave him a standing ovation.

14. Everyone in the village considered her trustworthy.

15. Yesterday, the teacher punished him for being naughty.

16. The overnight milk in the bottle has gone sour.

17. The purchase of this property fortunately proved a worthwhile investment.

18. The soldiers trudged non-stop for ten miles that afternoon.

19. The maid kept the baby very quiet in the cot.

20. The company will place the advertisement on its website soon.

Question 1 Based on your understanding of constituent analysis, explain what is wrong with each of the following expressions. Your explanation should include whatever rectification you have made and the constituent analysis used.

(a) The boy kicked

(b) He has lent her

(c) Frank becomes

(d) Both of them live

(e) She has deposited all her savings

(f) You can make him Question 2 Analyse the following sentences in terms of form and function. Then, explain the difference in the function of the prepositional phrase „in the box‰ in the sentences.

(a) I like the cat in the box.

(b) She laid the cat in the box.

(c) We found the cat in the box.



Question 3 Each of the following sentences is ambiguous and has two interpretations depending on the analysis. Explain clearly how you can analyse each sentence differently to give it two different interpretations.

(a) The manager found Mrs Mary a capable assistant.

(b) The old woman hit the man with a stick. Question 4 Explain what is similar and different in the patterns of the following sentences.

(a) We have given the boy a warning.

(b) We proved the boy a liar. Question 5 Identify the prepositional phrases in the following sentence and explain the differences in their functions.

Barry, A.K. (1997). English grammar: Language as human behaviour. Upper

Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Biber, D., Conrad, S. & Leech, G. (2002). Longman student grammar of spoken and written English. Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education Limited.

Jackson, H. (1982). Analyzing English: An introduction to descriptive linguistics. Oxford, England: Pergamon Press.

Klammer, T.P. & Schulz, M. R. (1992). Analyzing English grammar. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Leech, G. & Svatvik, J. (1975). A communicative grammar of English. London, England: Longman.

Quirk, R. & Greenbaum, S. (1990). A studentÊs grammar of the English language. Harlow, Essex: Longman.

The security guards positioned themselves in various parts of the building before the VIPÊs arrival.



Sinclair, J. (ed.) (1991). Collins COBUILD studentÊs grammar. London, England: HarperCollins.

Sinclair, J. (ed.) (1993). Collins COBUILD English grammar. London, England: HarperCollins.

Stern, G. (2000). LearnersÊ grammar dictionary. Singapore: Learners Publishing.

Thomas, L. (1993). Beginning syntax. Oxford, England: Blackwell.


Sentence Patterns - IIHS Learner Management System

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