Semantic 1

MEANING AND GRAMMAR

PEPPER

Presented to

Fulfilment semantics assigment that guided by

Mis ika Nurianti

..........................................................................................................................

THE STATE OF ISLAMIC COLLEGE( STAIN) PAMEKASAN

TARBIYAH DEPERTMENT

ENGLISH TEACHING LEARNING PROGRAM

MARCH 2011

Acknowledgment

By saying Alhamdulillah, all praise be to Allah SWT, who always guidance

and blessing make possible me to finish my assignment in due time.

I would like to thank and appreciate to ell of those who have sincerely and

continually helped in finishing my pepper, especially miss ika nuriyanti as my lecture

that always giving guidance.

My pepper that has title “ Meaning and Grammar” written by some reference,

and I hope my pepper can help the reader to understand about meaning and grammar

easier. Even though I have try as well as possible, but writer know that this pepper

not perfect yet, so I hope critic and advice from the reader to make it greater then

before.

And the last writer say thank you to every body who helped me to finished my

pepper. I hope this pepper give you new knowledge, amin.

Pamekasan, 2011, march 21

Writer

CONTENT

Cover

Acknowledgment

Content

Chapter I: Introduction

A. Background

B. Short term problem

C. Purpose

Chapter II: Content

A. Definition of meaning

B. Relationship of meaning

C. Definition of grammar

D. Grammar category

E. Relationship meaning and grammar

Chapter III: Closing

A. Conclusion

Chapter I

A. Background

Linguistic is the study of language that how language can change trough time

and relationship among language. Linguistics have some branches and one of them is

semantic, that roughly, semantic is study of meaning, how words an sentences are

related to the ( real and imaginary) object. They refer to and the situation they

describe.

We not enough just saw in dictionary if we want get the definition of

something because every dictionary has their own interpretation. Sometimes we

misunderstanding what the speaker mind with what we catch it, so we must know

some address of meaning to understood it.

Meaning has some relationship, are: Synonym, antonym, homonym and

entailment. And it not lose from grammar because every word has meaning and some

word can be a sentence, to understand what the sentence mean, it need grammar too

and grammar can change the meaning that has resut semantic change. So in this

pepper we will explain about meaning, grammar, category of grammar and

relationship meaning.

B. Short term problem

1. What is the definition of meaning?

2. What is meaning relationship?

3. What is the definition of grammar?

4. What Grammar category?

5. How is relationships meaning and grammar?

C. Purposes

1. We want to know what is the definition of meaning

2. We want to know what kind of meaning relationship

3. We want to know what is the definition of grammar

4. We want to know what kind of Grammar category

5. We want to know how is relationship meaning and grammar

Chapter II

MEANING AND GRAMMAR

A. Definition of Meaning

Semantics, roughly is study of the meaning words and sentences. Although

most people do not confused about the nature of meaning, but very view would

find a price explanation of it easy to give. Because meaning is very highly

complex, multifaceted phenomenon, and any complete explanation of it must

account for a surprisingly wide variety of different facts, so we must discuss some

of the kind of things an explanation of meaning must address

-Dictionary Explanation

Dictionary is widespread, many people may have many the impression that a

word’s meaning is simply its dictionary definition. A little though should show that

there must be more to meaning than this. It is true when some one wants to find out

what a word means, an easy and practical way to do it is look to dictionary. Many

people feel that dictionary definition a word more accurately represent the word

than does individual speaker’s understanding of the word. Some dictionary are

relatively perspective, other more descriptive, but all must face the fact that a word

means what people use it to mean. In other word, a word meaning is determined by

the people who use the word, not by a dictionary.

For example, one English dictionary defines divine as ’being or having nature

of a deity’, but defines deity as’ divinity’. An example like this is specially graphic,

but essential the some problem hold for any dictionary style definition. Dictionary

are written to be of practical aid to people who already speak the language, not to

make theoretical claims about the nature of meaning.

-Mental Image

If a word’s definition is not all there is to its meaning. One possibility is that a

word’s meaning includes mental image. This is an attractive idea in many ways

because words often do seem to conjure up particular mental images. Different

people has different mental images from another people it caused of mental image

cant be all there is to ward’s meaning, any more than a dictionary definition can be.

For example, For a students, the word lecture will probably be associated with

an image one person standing in front of black board and talking, and may also

includes thing like the backs of the heads of one fellow’s students. The image

associated with the word lecture in the mind of the professor, however, is more

likely to consist of an audience of students sitting in rows facing forward, in may

include things like the feel chalk in one’s hand. A lecture as seen from a teacher’s

perspective is actually quite a bit different from a lecture as seen from a students’

perspective.

-Meaning and Reference

One thing worth noting is that language is use talk about thing in out side

world, and many world and many words same to stand for( refer to) actual object

or relation in the word. It seem reasonable, than, to consider the actual thing a word

refers to , that is, its referent, as one aspect of the meaning

-Meaning and Truth

Any one who knows a sentences’ meaning knows the conditions under which

it would be true, they call it truth condition. The truth conditions of sentence relate

it to the world, but in some what different way than ordinary, real world reference

relates particular word or expression to the world. For example sentence about

santa clause, for instance, do have truth condition, event hough the word santa

clause have no real world referent.

-Meaning and Language use

The condition under which a sentence is true, meaning is probably also

determined in part by the condition under which the sentence maybe used.

Question are used differently from assertion, orders are use differently from

wishes, and soon. By the specifying the kind of practical situation that must exist in

order for a speaker to use a particular types of utterance (or speech act) many facts

about meaning associated with the particular speech act type maybe made explicit

B. Meaning Relationship

Among the most studied types of semantic relationship between words are

synonym, antonym, homonym and entailment.

A. Synonym: Two words are synonymous if they have the same meaning, such as

sofa and couch. Some people would say that no two words have exactly the same

meaning in case, but it is clear that pairs of words like that ones above are

understood the same way most of time.

B. Antonym: The words are in dome opposite in meaning. Words that exhibit this

types of antonymous relationship are knowing as contradictory or complementary

pairs. For example, married and single. Another type of antonym is scalar

antonym, also called gradable pairs is two words in a pair stand for opposite ends

of scale of temperature, size, high, etc.

C. Homonym: Two different meaning that share the same form. Homonym rise to

kind of ambiguity known as lexical ambiguity, where the sentence can be

interpreted two different ways depending on which of two homonyms s chosen.

For example, [flawr] it is mean that [flower and flour], [nayt], [knight and night]

and etc.

D. Entailment: When one meaning hold, another meaning necessarily holds. For

example, if something is mare it must be a horse and if something is horse it must

be necessary be animate. On other hand, if something is not a horse, it can not be

mare; if something is not mate, it can not be a horse.

C. Definition of grammar

Grammar is the science which treats of the principles of language; the study of

forms of speech, and their relations to one another; the art concerned with the right

use and application of the rules of a language, in speaking or writing.. Many people

feel that dictionary definition a word more accurately represent the word than does

individual speaker’s understanding of the word. Some dictionary are relatively

perspective, other more descriptive, but all must face the fact that a word means

what people use it to mean. In other word, a word meaning is determined by the

people who use the word, not by a dictionary.

Grammar is the study of all the contrasts of meaning that it is possible to

make within sentences. The 'rules' of grammar tell us how. By one count, there are

some 3,500 such rules in English."

(David Crystal, The Fight for English. Oxford Univ. Press, 2006)

According to the structuralist point of view, grammar is the study of the rules

governing the use of a language. That set of rules is also called the grammar of the

language, and each language has its own distinct grammar. Grammar is part of the

general study of language called linguistics.

The subfields of grammar are phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, and

semantics. In traditional terms, grammar includes only morphology and syntax.

Linguists recognise a number of types of grammar.

1.Prescriptive grammar - an attempt to tell the users of the language how to use it in

order to speak correctly. This is the sense in which "I didn't do nothing" is bad

English grammar.

2. Descriptive grammar - an attempt to describe the language as it is being used,

regardless of whether it is considered correct or not. In many dialects, people say "I

didn't do nothing"; a descriptive grammar of such dialects would accordingly treat

that sentence as grammatical and provide rules that account for it. Likewise a

descriptive grammar of formal English would provide rules accounting for "I didn't

do anything."

3. Teaching grammar - a combination of prescriptive and descriptive approaches with

the aim of teaching a language to children and foreigners. In teaching grammars it

is often necessary to simplify in order to achieve success, as neither the

prescriptive nor the descriptive approaches are logical or easy to understand in all

details.

4. Generative grammar - A technical linguistic term. A generative grammar for a

particular language specifies, for each string of words, whether or not that string

constitutes a grammatical sentence in that language. It does not provide a set of

rules for constructing or parsing sentences.

D. Grammar Category

A grammatical category is a semantic distinction which is reflected in a

morphological paradigm. Grammatical categories can have one or more exponents.

For instance, the feature [number] has the exponents [singular] and [plural] in

English and many other languages. (See grammatical number.) The members of

one category are mutually exclusive; a noun cannot be marked for singular and

plural at the same time, nor can a verb be marked for present and past at the same

time. Exponents of grammatical categories are often expressed in the same position

or 'slot' (prefix, suffix, enclitic, etc.). Some examples of this are the Latin cases,

which are all suffixal: rosa, rosae, rosae, rosam, rosā. ("rose", in nominative,

genitive, dative, accusative, ablative)

For example, in English, the grammatical number of a noun such as bird in:

A. The bird is singing.

B. The birds are singing.

is either singular or plural, which is expressed overtly by the absence or

presence of the suffix -s. Furthermore, the grammatical number is reflected in verb

agreement, where the singular number triggers is, and the plural number, are.

Grammatical categories are often expressed by affixes, but clitics and particles are

also common.

E. Relationship Between Meaning and Grammar

The semantics system, like all other aspect of it grammar, is subject to change

over time, As a result, the meaning of a words do not always remain constant from

one period of the language to the next. Whatever the under laying source, only

certain type of change seem to occur with any frequency. Some of the most

common types include:

1. Semantic Extension

Extension meaning occur when the set of appropriate contexts for a word

increase. These are frequently the result of the organising from the specific case to

the class of which the specific case is a member.

For example, docga and dog. This type would be the change in the meaning

undergone by the old English and modern English. In OE docge refered to a

particular breed of a dog, while in modern usage it refers to the class of dogs as a

whole. Thus the set context. in whish the word maybe used has been ectended from

the specific case ( a particular breed of dog) to general class (all dogs or dog in

general).

2. Semantic Reduction

Reduction occur when the set of appropriate context or referents for a word

decreases. For example, the old English word hund, but in modern hound. A

semantic reduction has resulted its current, less general, meaning.

3. Semantic Elevation

Semantic elevation occur when a word takes on somewhat grander

connotation over time. For example, the word knight in old English oniht or

oneoht, originally meant’ youth’ or ‘military follower’- relatively powerless and

unimportant people. The meaning of knight has since been elevated to refer to

people of a some what more romantic and impressive status. The middle English

equivalent of squire was used to refer to a knight’s attendant, t5he person who held

his shield and armor for him. In modern English, a squire is a country gentlemen or

large landowner. Thus the meaning of square has changed rather drastically over

time, acquiring a socially more positive meaning.

4. Semantic Degradation

Semantic degradation are the opposite of semantic elevation; they occur when

a word acquires a more pejorative meaning over time. The word silly is a

particularly interesting example of semantic degradation because the social force of

the word has almost completely reversed. In middle English silly mean something

a kind to ‘ happy, blessed, innocent’, it now is more on par with ‘foolish, inane,

absurd. Thus the connotation of silly has gone from strongly positive to strongly

negative in a matter of a few centuries.

Chapter III

Conclusion

Although there is much more to be said about the nature of meaning, but we

can few thing that should be clear: Meaning is provided by a community of native

speaker, not by some special authority like a dictionary or grammar book. The

meaning of an expression is not just a definition compose of more word in the same

language, since ultimately the meaning of some word would have to be known in

order to be understand definition. The meaning of an expression is not just mental

image, since mental image seem to vary from person to person more than meaning

does, since mental image tend to be only of typical or ideal example of thing the

symbolize, and since not all word have corresponding mental image. The meaning of

a world involve more than just the actual things the word refers to, since not all

expression have real word referents, and substituting expression with ideal referent

for each other sentence can change the meaning of the sentence as a whole. Knowing

the meaning of sentences involving knowing the condition under which it would be

true, so we must explaining the sentence in part by explaining it truth condition.

Knowing the meaning utterance also involving knowing how to use it, so condition

on language use also form an important aspect of meaning. So meaning is a complex

phenomenon involving relationship between a language and the mind of speaker,

between language and practical use it is put.

Meaning has relationship too, are: synonym, antonym, homonym, and

entailment. We call it synonym if it has same meaning in two words, antonym if the

word has opposite meaning, homonym if two different meaning that share the same

form, and entailment, when one meaning hold another meaning. And it does not lose

from grammar as well as we know that grammar is Grammar is the science which

treats of the principles of language; the study of forms of speech, and their relations

to one another; the art concerned with the right use and application of the rules of a

language, in speaking or writing that it has some category.

Meaning has an interesting relationship because the change that happen to the

grammar can be semantic change in it consist of some resource are; semantic

extensions, semantic reduction, semantic elevation, and semantic degradation.

REFFERCE

1.R. Hurford,james, dkk. 2007. “Semantic a course book”. Cambridge.

2. Jasnnedy, stefany ( aditor). 1994.”Language file”. Columbus: Ohio state university

press.

3. Based on WordNet 3.0, Farlex clipart collection. © 2003-2008 Princeton University, Farlex Inc

Sebuah kategori gramatikal adalah perbedaan semantik yang tercermin dalam

paradigma morfologi. kategori gramatikal dapat memiliki satu atau lebih eksponen.

Misalnya, fitur [angka] memiliki eksponen [tunggal] dan [jamak] dalam bahasa

Inggris dan banyak lainnya. (Lihat nomor gramatika .) Anggota satu kategori yang

saling eksklusif, kata benda tidak dapat ditandai untuk tunggal dan jamak pada saat

yang sama, juga tidak dapat kata kerja ditandai untuk hadir dan masa lalu pada saat

yang sama. Eksponen kategori gramatikal yang sering dinyatakan dalam posisi yang

sama atau 'slot' ( awalan , akhiran , enklitika , dll). Beberapa contoh dari ini adalah

kasus Latin , yang semuanya suffixal: ros a, ae ros, ae ros, ros am, ros ā. ("Naik",

dalam nominatif , genitif , datif , akusatif , ablatif )

Sebagai contoh, dalam bahasa Inggris , dengan jumlah gramatikal dari sebuah benda seperti burung dalam: Burung itu adalah menyanyi. S burung bernyanyi.

adalah baik tunggal atau jamak, yang dinyatakan secara terbuka oleh ketiadaan atau kehadiran s-akhiran. Selain itu, jumlah gramatikal tercermin dalam perjanjian verba , dimana jumlah tunggal pemicu adalah, dan jumlah jamak, adalah.

kategori gramatikal sering dinyatakan dengan afiks , namun clitics dan partikel juga umum.

Grammar - Definisi Artikel ini adalah tentang tata bahasa dari perspektif linguistik. Untuk aturan

tata bahasa Inggris lihat gaya penulisan bahasa Inggris .

Menurut sudut pandang strukturalis, tata bahasa adalah studi tentang aturan yang mengatur penggunaan bahasa . Bahwa seperangkat aturan juga disebut tata bahasa, dan bahasa masing-masing memiliki tata bahasa sendiri yang berbeda. Grammar adalah bagian dari studi umum yang disebut bahasa linguistik .

The subbidang tata bahasa yang fonetik , fonologi , morfologi , sintaksis , dan semantik .

Secara tradisional, tata bahasa hanya mencakup morfologi dan sintaksis .

Ahli bahasa mengenali sejumlah jenis tata bahasa. Preskriptif tata bahasa - upaya untuk memberitahu pengguna bahasa bagaimana menggunakannya untuk berbicara dengan benar. Ini adalah rasa di mana "Aku tidak melakukan apa-apa" adalah tata bahasa Inggris buruk. Tata bahasa deskriptif - upaya untuk menggambarkan bahasa seperti yang sedang digunakan, terlepas dari apakah itu dianggap benar atau tidak. Dalam banyak dialek, orang berkata "Saya tidak melakukan apa-apa", sebuah tata bahasa deskriptif dari dialek tersebut sesuai akan memperlakukan kalimat itu sebagai gramatikal dan memberikan aturan bahwa account untuk itu. Demikian juga tata bahasa deskriptif bahasa Inggris formal akan memberikan aturan akuntansi "Aku tidak melakukan apa-apa." Pengajaran tata bahasa - kombinasi dari pendekatan preskriptif dan deskriptif dengan tujuan pengajaran bahasa untuk anak-anak dan orang asing. Dalam pengajaran tata bahasa seringkali diperlukan untuk mempermudah untuk mencapai keberhasilan,

sebagai baik preskriptif maupun deskriptif pendekatan logis atau mudah untuk memahami semua rincian. Generatif tata bahasa - Sebuah istilah linguistik teknis. Sebuah tata bahasa generatif untuk suatu bahasa tertentu menentukan, untuk setiap string kata-kata, apakah atau tidak bahwa string merupakan kalimat tata bahasa dalam bahasa itu. Ini tidak menyediakan seperangkat aturan untuk membangun atau parsing kalimat.

tata bahasa deskriptif mengambil pendekatan yang penutur bahasa tindak bahasa's grammar bahwa sebagai sebuah konvensi umum saling dimengeri. Pelanggaran tata bahasa membuat seseorang pidato sulit dipahami (seperti dalam "anjing menyalak saya pada waktu yang lama"). Sebagian besar modern linguis menerima bahwa tidak ada orang yang otak fungsi tidak sangat terganggu berbicara ungrammatically dalam pengertian ini.

Tata bahasa yang berkembang melalui penggunaan dan perpisahan populasi manusia. Dengan munculnya tertulis representasi , aturan-aturan formal tentang penggunaan bahasa cenderung muncul juga. tata bahasa formal codifications penggunaan yang dikembangkan oleh observasi . Sebagai aturan menjadi mapan dan berkembang, konsep preskriptif kebenaran tata bahasa bisa timbul. Hal ini sering menciptakan jurang antara penggunaan kontemporer dan yang diterima sebagai benar. Ahli bahasa biasanya menganggap bahwa tata bahasa preskriptif tidak memiliki justifikasi luar selera estetika penulis mereka. Namun, resep dipertimbangkan dalam sosiolinguistik sebagai bagian dari penjelasan mengapa sebagian orang mengatakan "Saya tidak melakukan apa-apa", ada yang mengatakan "Aku tidak melakukan apa-apa", dan ada yang bilang satu atau yang lainnya tergantung pada konteks sosial.

Studi formal tata bahasa merupakan bagian penting dari pendidikan dari usia muda melalui lanjut pembelajaran , meskipun aturan yang diajarkan di sekolah-sekolah bukan merupakan "tata bahasa" dalam arti yang paling ahli bahasa menggunakan istilah, karena mereka sering preskriptif daripada deskriptif.

bahasa direncanakan lebih sering terjadi pada zaman modern. Banyak telah dirancang untuk membantu manusia komunikasi (seperti Esperanto atau yang sangat, yang kompatibel buatan bahasa logika antar Lojban ) atau dibuat sebagai bagian dari sebuah karya fiksi (seperti bahasa Klingon dan bahasa Peri ). Masing-masing bahasa buatan memiliki tata bahasa sendiri.

Komputer bahasa pemrograman memiliki tata bahasa, tetapi tidak menyerupai bahasa manusia sangat banyak. Ini disebut tata bahasa formal . Secara khusus, mereka justru sesuai dengan tata bahasa yang dihasilkan oleh sebuah robot pushdown dengan kompleks perintah sewenang-wenang. Mereka biasanya kurang pertanyaan , seruan , simile , metafora dan fitur lain dari bahasa manusia .

Ini adalah mitos yang bahasa analitik memiliki tata bahasa sederhana daripada bahasa sintetik . Bahwa bahasa memiliki berbagai tingkat kompleksitas gramatikal bisa terbukti keliru dengan menyadari fakta bahwa perubahan kata-kata bukan satu-satunya jenis tata bahasa. Cina sangat tergantung konteks. Dengan kata lain, konteks menyelesaikan peran yang sama seperti kemerosotan dan konjugasi . (Cina memang memiliki beberapa infleksi, dan memiliki lebih di masa lalu.) Latin , yang sintetis, menggunakan afiks dan infleksi untuk menyelesaikan peran yang sama bahwa Cina tidak dengan sintaks . Karena kata-kata Latin cukup (meskipun tidak sepenuhnya) self-contained, sebuah kalimat dapat dibuat dari elemen yang tersebar. Singkatnya, bahasa Latin memiliki kompleks affixion dan sintaks yang sederhana, sedangkan China telah sebaliknya