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Albert GattLIN1180 SemanticsLecture 12In this lectureWe focus on tense and grammatical aspectProgressive/non-progressivePerfective/imperfective

Aspect across languages

Interaction of grammatical aspect and lexical aspect (Aktionsart)Part 1Tense as a deictic systemA general characterisation of deixisDeictic expressions rely on the context of utterancedeictic demonstrative pronouns: this, that, thosedeictic place expressions: here, there

Relevant features of the context:physical contextpersons involved in communicationtime

Tense as deicticClassic distinction between:pastpresentfuture

Relies on the relationship in time between the event talked about and the time of utterancetherefore, the reference point is usually the act of speakingGraphical characterisationtime of utterancepastpresentfutureI see the moon.I am seeing the moon.I saw the moon.I was seeing the moon.I will see the moon.I will be seeing the moon.Tense across languagesEnglish:usually marks tense using auxiliary verbsI seeI am seeingI will be seeing

Maltese:can mark temporal distinctions on the main verbnara (I see), rajt (I saw)uses particles for fine-grained temporal distinctionsse nara (I am going to see)Tense vs grammatical aspectProgressive aspect:I listen (non-progressive)I am listening (progressive)

Note: tense is distinct from grammatical aspect! Both examples are in the present tense.

Past/Present/Future rely on the relationship between the time of an event and the moment of speaking.PerfectWe can often locate an event in the present/past/future, and use it as a reference point for another event.

When you called, I had finished my work.Main reference point: now, moment of speakingTwo events: you called and I had finished my workRelationship to moment of speaking: Both in the past.Relationship to eachother: Within the past time, one occurs before the other.

When you called, I had finished my worktime of utterancepast (yesterday evening)presentfutureyou calledfinish workmain reference point for past tense is the time of utterancetime of finish work acts as reference for you calledPerfect aspect in EnglishEmphasises temporal relationship to a secondary reference point

Present perfect: I have eatenthe event of eating has terminated by the time of speaking

Past perfect: I had eaten (before I left)event of eating has terminated by the time of leavingtime of leaving is related to the time of speaking using the past

Future perfect: I will have eaten (by the time you arrive)event of eating will terminate by the time something else happenssecondary event is related to the time of speaking in the future

Reichenbachs theory of timeHans Reichenbach (1966):proposed a theory to account for both simple and perfect tenses

System uses three different times:actual event time (E)reference time or time to which event is related (R)utterance time (= moment of speaking) (U)Simple presentpastpresentfutureE = R = UExample: I sleepReference time, utterance time and event time are the same Simple pastpastpresentfuture UExample: I slept E before U (therefore past) R = E (no secondary relation)E = RSimple futurepastpresentfutureUExample: I will sleepE is after U (therefore future) R = E (no secondary relation)

E = RPresent perfectpastpresentfutureR = UExample: I have slept E before U (therefore, event understood as having already occurred) R = U basically relating a past event explicitly to the present

EPast perfectpastpresentfutureRExample: By the time you arrived, I had slept E before U R before U R after E relating a past event explicitly to another event that occurred after it, but also in the past

EUFuture perfectpastpresentfutureRExample: By the time you arrive tonight, I will have slept U before E (therefore future) U before R E before R Relating a future event explicitly to another event in the future which occurs after it

EUSummaryTense is deictic, and requires reference to the time of speaking to be determined.

Distinction between:simple tensesperfect tenses

Reichenbachs model uses three temporal parameters to describe the semantics of different tenses.Grammatical aspectPart 2Tense vs AspectTense is about the location of an event in time. (Tense as deictic)

Aspect has to do with the temporal distribution or contour of an event (Comrie, 1976).

Aspect is independent of tense.

Lexical vs. grammatical aspectLexical aspect (Aktionsart):an inherent property of the semantics of verbs (sentences)related to the type of situation under discussion cf. lectures 10 & 11

Grammatical aspect:ways of specifying the temporal contour of an event using grammatical meansGrammatical mechanismsRussian:perfective/imperfectivemarked inflectionally

On ital pismoHe read.PAST.IMPERFa letterHe was reading a letter

On proital pismoHe read.PAST.PERFa letterHe read a letter

Grammatical mechanismsMalteseperfective/imperfectivemarked inflectionallyQara ittra.read.3MSg.PERFa letterHe read a letter

Jaqra ittra.read.3MSg.IMPERFa letter.He reads a letter

Grammatical mechanismsMalteseprogressive/non-progressivemarked using aspectual particles

Jaqra ittra.read.3MSg.IMPERFa letter.He reads a letter

Qed jaqra ittra.PROGread.3MSg.IMPERFa letter.He is reading a letterGrammatical mechanismsEnglish:progressive/non-progressivemarked inflectionally on main verb and auxiliary

I went to the pub.I was going to the pub.A preliminary classificationThe perfective: definitionThe perfective aspect involves a view of a situation as a whole. I.e. it implies:a beginninga middlean end

NB: viewing the situation as a whole does not imply that the event is completed (i.e. finished).

Perfective and tenseSome languages restrict the application of the perfective to the past tense.suggests that the complete view is only applied retrospectively.

MalteseArabicQara ittra.read.3MSg.PERF letterHe read a letterHarbat al-bintrun away.3FSg.PERF the-girlThe girl ran awayPerfective and tenseIn many languages, perfective aspect is used with different tenses.RussianOn proital pismo (past, perfective)He read a letter

ja ubju tebja (future, perfective)I shall kill youPerfectivity and durationDespite viewing the situation as a whole, the perfective is compatible with an expression of the duration of a situation.MalteseFrenchQrajt sagtejn sa.I read for two whole hoursIl regna trente ans.He reigned for 30 yearsThe imperfective: definitionThe imperfective aspect involves an explicit reference to the internal temporal structure of a situation.

It contrasts with the perfective insofar as it does not view the situation externally, as a whole.A more complete classificationIn many languages, the same form can express more than one imperfective aspect!The habitual aspectViews a situation as recurring indefinitely.EnglishJohn works/worked here.John used to work here.

Simple Past tense in English may have a habitual meaning.Simple present often used with habitual meaning.Habituality in the past can be marked explicitly with used to.Progressive vs. non-progressiveIn the progressive, a situation is marked as ongoing.Again, this is independent of tense.

EnglishJohn read the book. (non-prog, past)John was reading the book. (prog., past)John will be reading the book. (prog., fut.)Non/progressive vs im/perfectiveEnglish does not explicitly distinguish im/perfective.But the English progressive vs. non-progressive distinction seems to correlate with the perfective/ imperfective distinction.

EnglishJohn read the book.(non-progressive + offers a complete view of the situation)John was reading the book.(progressive, also views the situation internally)Non/progressive vs im/perfectiveSome languages distinguish im/perfective and non-/progressive more sharply.SpanishJuan lleg. (perfective)John arrived.

Juan llegaba. (imperfective, non-progressive)John was arriving/used to arrive.(NB: can have progressive or habitual meaning)

Juan estaba llegando. (imperfective + progressive)John was arriving.(progressive only)Non/progressive vs im/perfectiveWith a situation described in the perfective, continuation with the imperfective seems contradictory.Russian?On napisal pismo i ee piet ego. He wrote.PERF a letter and still writes.IMPERF it He wrote a letter and is still writing it.

The anomaly disappears with the use of the imperfective.

RussianMy pisali pismo i ee piet ego.We wrote.IMPERF a letter and stillwriteitWe wrote a letter and are still writing it.

Non/progressive vs im/perfectiveWe can observe the same in English with the progressive/non-progressive forms.This is further evidence that English non-/progressive covers some of the im/perfective distinction.

English?John built a fire escape and is still building it.John was building a fire escape and is still building it.The English progressiveEnglish progressive tends to have connotations of activity, dynamism and volition.She blinked her eyes.The dog was walking.?She was knowing Greek.?She was having blonde hair.

Thus, it tends to be infelicitous with states.The English progressiveThe progressive aspect interacts with situation type (lexical aspect).cf. the activity/accomplishment distinctionWith accomplishments (+telic), the progressive cancels the implication that the end state was reached.

ActivityAccomplishmentJohn ran.John was running.John drew a circle.John was drawing a circle.The imperfective in other languagesIn other languages, the imperfective is compatible with states.E.g. French imparfaitUnlike the English progressive, it does not carry connotations of dynamism.

FrenchLair sentait de jasmin.DEF-airsmell.3SgM.PAST.IMPERF of jasmineThe air smelt of jasmine.The English non-/progressive in futureEnglish uses progressive and non-progressive present for future.

Regular futureI will eat out tomorrow. I will play well tomorrow.

Pres. progressiveIm eating out tomorrow. ?Im playing well tomorrow.

Simple presentI leave tomorrow.?I play well tomorrow.

Simple present and progressive are only felicitous with events which imply volition, can be planned or are certain.This is in line with the connotations noted earlier for the English progressive.