Section Review 1
Key Terms communication stakeholders electronic commerce
(e-commerce)Summary Effective communication is a critical factor in
the business world: you must be able to make your messages
understood, and they must function to move people to action or to
change their ways of thinking. If your effort at communication
succeeds, you increase productivity, and in order for it to
succeed, you must be able to anticipate problems, make decisions,
coordinate work flow, supervise others, develop relationships, and
promote products and services. Another important effect of good
communication is a positive impression on the stakeholders all the
various elements within and without your organization that have an
interest in its success including customers, clients, and
investors. Poor communication is not only ineffective; it can make
a bad situation worse. The characteristics of effective
communication are as follows: It provides practical information
such as how something is done, why a method has been changed, what
the cause of a problem is and how it can be solved, how far along a
project is, or why a particular piece of equipment is
necessary.
It is based on facts and evidence rather than opinions. It
employs specific details and concrete language, and it covers all
sides of an issue, not just the most favorable one.
It uses a wide variety of means to make information as clear and
concise as possible, including visual and graphic media.
It focuses on a specific audience, indicating what is to be done
by or for that audience.
It is often persuasive in nature, recommending products,
service, or courses of action to customers, clients, employers, or
employees. The most effective persuasive messages indicate specific
benefits to the reader.
A key concept in the writing of effective messages is revision;
throughout the course, you will be reminded that no message is
complete until it has been proofread and revised, usually more than
once.Communication has a particular bearing on the challenges in
todays workplace. Technological advances such as e-mail, voice
mail, faxes, pagers, and the Internet have dramatically changed the
nature of personal and professional communication, making
communications faster, more frequent, and wider in scope. It is
amazing that it is now possible for people on opposite sides of the
world to communicate in a matter of seconds.This revolution in
technology makes it necessary to communicate even more effectively
and efficiently. Good writing skills not just in formal letters but
in e-mails and memoranda are more important than ever. So are good
verbal skills, for audio and video media are used with increasing
frequency. Intranets- private corporate networks based on Internet
communication- make organizational in-house communication more
effective than ever. And extranets the extension of private
networks to outsiders such as suppliers make it faster. Many
business today are taking advantage of this technology in order to
conduct electronic commerce (e-commerce) - the buying and selling
of goods and services over the Internet.Globalization is another
factor affecting communication: the typical market today is the
entire world, not just the town where a business is located. More
and more Americans work for multinational employers, and foreign
companies and investors are increasingly prevalent in the U.S.
Moreover, the workforce in the U.S. now consists of people from a
wide variety of cultural and ethnic backgrounds. Indeed, ethnic
minorities have become so well established in some parts of the
country that they are no longer minorities. Globalization and
diversity make good communication even more important, as
businesses must deal with differences in law, customs, and
languages.Another important change affecting communication is the
shift from the traditional command-and-control management structure
to one based on collaboration and teamwork. This approach has
advantages when quick decisions based on multiple factors are
required. But it also has some disadvantages when different
interests, goals, and functions compete.Outline I. Effective
communicationA. PersuasionB. Increased productivityC. Effect on
stakeholdersII. CharacteristicsA. PracticalB. FactualC. VariousD.
Audience-centeredE. PersuasiveIII. RevisionIV. Modern workplaceA.
Technological advancesB. Efficiency and effectiveness1. Good
writing skills2. Good verbal skillsC. Electronic commerceV.
Globalization and diversityA. Multinational employersB. Cultural
and ethnic diversityVI. Teamwork and collaboration
Section Review
Key Terms internal communication instant messaging and chat
formal communication network videoconferencing informal
communication network telenet external communication Internet
telephony telecommute file transfer protocol (FTP) e-mail
discussion mailing lists Usenet newsgroupsSummary Every employee in
a company is a part of the communication chain. Regardless of your
position high or low you have information that others will need,
and others have information you will need. Every link in the chain
is important.Internal communication occurs just within the
organization, and it is important that every member of the
organization be aware of what is going on and communicate what he
or she observes in order to head off potential problems. Internal
communication is often effected by phone, e-mail, fax, memo, or
intranet. Internal communication is necessary if the job is going
to be done; it helps all company personnel understand the
organizations mission.Internal communication is both formal and
informal. A formal communication network is usually illustrated by
a flowchart, with the company executives at the top, managers in
the middle, and employees at the bottom. Information flows down,
up, and across the structure. High level decisions flow down from
the people who make them to the people who put them into effect.
Important information such as problems, trends, opportunities for
improvement, grievances, and performance ratings flow upward from
the mid-level managers to the executives. And communication is in
constant flow diagonally and laterally from one department to
another.The formal communication network is the way information is
intended to flow, but, of course, much information is passed
through an informal communication network a grapevine, as it were.
Just in the course of daily conversation, people at all levels of
an organization are constantly communicating information; about 80%
of it has to do with business, and 75 to 95% of that information is
accurate. The grapevine cant be controlled from the top; so it is
important that managers take it into account and indeed use it to
their advantage to both receive and send information informally.
But when official information needs to be imparted, it is important
that it not be spread just by the grapevine.External communication
is, of course, the communication with entities outside the
organization- customers, vendors, distributors, competitors,
investors, the media, and the government. As with internal
communication, some external communication is formal and some
informal. Formal external communication is in the form of letters,
reports, memos, oral presentations, and websites. It is especially
important that these forms be constructed well, for they are
frequently the first impression of the organization that an
outsider gets. Indeed, it is so important for certain messages to
be just right that they are produced by a special public relations
team within the organization.Often the public relations team is
called in to respond to a crisis an environmental accident,
sabotage situation, labor strike, product failure, major
litigation, or change in management. Standard procedure in such
instances is for the organization to communicate immediately,
honestly, and frequently. Failure to do so especially if there is
implication of a cover-up can be disastrous to a companys image.
Just as informal communications are effective within an
organization, so are they when dealing with external elements.
Every member of an organization has external contacts that are
important source of information and that give outsiders an
impression of the organization overall. Much of a high-level
managers job involves networking with his or her counterparts in
other organizations, but a lot of it also includes getting feedback
from real people.There is no more effective source of this sort of
real world communication than the Internet, and anyone undertaking
a career in business will certainly be expected to be
Internet-savvy. The instantaneous sharing of textual and visual
information has resulted in dramatic changes in the way companies
operate internally and externally. Employees can now telecommute,
that is, work away from the office, whether at home or while
traveling. And the Internet has been especially effective in
transacting business with other organizations throughout different
parts of the world. The Internet provides a variety of options to
enhance communication. The most familiar is e-mail, in the form of
either a simple text message or one with complex files attached.
Discussion mailing lists, or listservs, are groups which you join
in order to receive messages from all other members of the group.
Usenet newsgroups are websites which you access with a news reader
program. Anyone can read the messages posted to the site; you dont
have to be a member.Instant messaging and chat provide real-time
opportunities for communication with individuals or groups. And
telenet enables you to access other organizations' computer
networks even if your computer is not a permanent part of the
network.The Internet also provides opportunities for visual and
audial communication from a distance. Videoconferencing is being
used as an alternative to face-to-face meetings. Internet telephony
enables professionals to communicate by phone over the Internet at
much less cost than over conventional phone lines. Another
advantage of the Internet is the ability to download and upload
large amounts of information through file transfer protocol
(FTP)Outline I. The communication chainII. Internal communicationA.
Formal communication network1. Vertical flowchart2. Diagonal and
lateralB. Informal communication network1. The grapevine2. Official
communicationsIII. External communicationA. Formal communicationsB.
Public relations teamC. NetworkingIV. The InternetA.
TelecommutingB. Discussion mailing listsC. Usenet newsgroupsD.
Instant messaging and chatE. TelenetF. VideoconferencingG. Internet
telephonyH. FTPSection Review
Key Terms encoding communication barriers communication channel
perception medium selective perception decode noise feedbackSummary
Communication is a dynamic, transactional (two-way) process. It
involves both the sender and the receiver of a message and includes
six steps:1) The idea someone (the sender) has an idea and decides
to share it.2) Encoding - the sender decides all of the factors to
be used in communicating the idea words, gestures, format, medium,
tone, and style.3) Transmission the sender transmits the idea
through a communication channel (writing, speaking, and visual) and
a medium (telephone, letter, e-mail, and face-to-face
conversation); the factors affecting channel and medium are
location, time, and formality.4) Receiving the person to whom the
message is directed receives it.5) Decoding the receiver decodes
the message (hears, reads, sees, and understands it).6) Feedback
the receiver responds (with words, gestures, expressions, or lack
of any of them), indicating that he or she has or has not
understood the message.However, the communication process is not as
linear as this description might seem: Feedback functions as a sort
of loop the sender and receiver each revising and responding to the
message until it is more-or-less understood. This being the case,
you should be careful not to put too much into any one message.
Rather, focus on one main idea and use the back-and-forth feedback
aspect to provide additional information and detail.Ideally, when
the message is decoded the sender and the receiver both respond to
the meanings of the words and other communication cues in the same
way. But this is where the communication process sometimes breaks
down. One of the great issues in postmodernist communication and
literary theory is that people do not assign the same meanings to
words (and gestures and expressions) as other people. This is
particularly evident when people from two different cultures try to
communicate. And there are other factors as well which can result
in communication barriers.Communication theorists refer to any
impediment to the process as noise. Noise, of course, can be an
auditory distraction such as a lawn mower outside the window of a
classroom. But it can also take the form of perceptual and language
differences, restrictive environments, distractions, deceptive
communication tactics, and information overload.Restrictive
environment refers to intentional impediments in the communication
chain, particularly the feedback loop. Organizations are most
typically subject to this when they intentionally limit
communication; if executives and managers use a command-and-control
style, information is passed down the chain but not back up. In
contrast to this technique is the best practices approach, one in
which employees are encouraged to communicate their ideas and
suggestions. The idea behind the best-practices approach is that
the person actually doing to job has valuable knowledge of how it
can best be accomplished. Miscommunication is sometimes intentional
- the result of deceptive tactics, or spin. When an organization
exaggerates the benefits of a product or idea, provides inaccurate
statistical information, covers up or leaves out negative
information, or states opinion as fact, it is using deceptive
tactics. Distractions are another kind of noise that can interfere
with communication. Physical distractions are bad phone-line
connections, poor acoustics, or illegible text. They can also be
factors that affect the receiver such as uncomfortable seating,
poor lighting, and health problems. Emotional distractions can be a
factor too whether they be the emotions of the sender or of the
receiver.Information overload results from being bombarded with
volumes of information. The average office worker receives over 200
messages in one form or another every day. It has become
increasingly more difficult, but still vital, to determine what
information is valuable and what is not.Our perception of the
reality around us is based largely on sensory experience what we
see, hear, touch, etc. When two people experience the same event
such as hearing the same words they may or may not perceive it in
the same way. All perception, or, rather, interpretation of
perception, is based on prior experience. Therefore, when we
interpret sensory experiences, we try to put them into the pattern
of perception we have already developed, and sometimes we distort
the experience in order to make it fit. This barrier to
communication is called selective perception.Obviously, then, the
closer the experiences of the sender and the receiver, the closer
the perception of the message. Thus cultural factors have a strong
impact on the communication process. Moreover, language itself has
a strong impact: even though two people speak the same language,
they might not have the same associative meanings with
words.Round-the-clock accessibility is a result of modern
technologys impact on communications. Cell phones, pagers and voice
mails, intranets, and e-mail have all made it possible, and
virtually necessary, to stay in contact with the job 24 hours a
day, seven days a week.Outline I. Communication processA. IdeaB.
EncodingC. Transmission1. Channel2. MediumD. ReceivingE. DecodingF.
FeedbackII. Communication barriersA. Noise1. Restrictive
environments2. Deceptive tactics3. Distractionsa. Physicalb.
Emotional4. Information overloadB. Selective perceptionSection
ReviewKey Terms topic main idea direct approach indirect
approachSummaryIn the United States and Canada, a well-organized
message is generally linear in development, proceeding point by
point directly and clearly. Poorly organized messages are often
characterized by the following: Taking too long to get to the point
not stating the purpose until well into the message. Including
irrelevant material putting in details that are either unnecessary
or too specific Mixing up ideas putting information in the wrong
paragraph or section of the message Omitting necessary information
leaving out specific details such as make, model and price; time
and date; particular problemsGood organization is essential in a
business letter to avoid wasting the readers time and jeopardizing
goodwill. In addition, poorly organized messages can result in
misinterpretation, which can be costly. Good organization results
in expediency, and time is money. A good organizational plan can
save the writer time and work, obviating false starts and wasted
effort. Moreover, a well-organized plan can enable the company to
delegate responsibilities by dividing a task among several
writers.Even more important, a well-organized message is easier for
the reader to understand and thus respond to positively.
Organization, combined with diplomacy, will enhance the writers and
the organizations credibility. Saving the readers time is another
important consideration, for, as noted above, time is money. A
well-organized message is concise and relevant, providing only what
the reader wants or needs to know.Good organization is achieved
largely through attitude recognizing and accepting the need for a
plan and through technique knowing how to organize information
effectively. The steps to effective organization are: defining the
main idea, limiting the scope, grouping supporting points, and
selecting a direct or an indirect approach to message sequence.The
subject of a business message is sometimes called the topic, and
the statement or assertion the writer makes about the topic is
called the main idea. (In a traditional college research paper, it
is called the thesis.) Often the main idea is easy to impart, but
in messages in which the writer is trying to persuade an audience
or in which there is bad news to convey, the writer needs to
develop a main idea that will establish a good relationship with
the audience by focusing on common interests and advantages.Once
the writer has determined the main idea, he or she should limit the
scope of the message. Scope means the general length and the amount
of detail. Two considerations in determining and limiting the scope
are time available and audiences expectation. No matter what the
scope is, the message should consist of only three or four major
points maybe five, but no more. Rather than introduce new points,
the writer can expand the scope by developing the points he or she
has already chosen. Ultimately, the scope is determined by the
subject, the audiences prior knowledge of the topic, its response
to the message, and the writers credibility. After determining the
scope, the writer must provide the appropriate structure in which
to present ideas and supporting evidence. An outline is an
excellent and sometimes indispensable tool for structuring a
business message. The basic outline formats use numbers or letters
to identify major points and indented points to show similarities
in status. Another way of structuring a message is to create an
organization chart with main ideas and subordinate ideas arranged
visually by divisions according to priority.The main idea indicates
what the readers should do or think and why they should do so. It
is supported by three to five key points which serve one or more of
the following purposes: to inform with factual material to describe
a process to describe an object to persuade or collaborate to give
a historical accountEach of these key points must in turn be
supported with evidence; the more evidence provided, the more
likely will the audience be persuaded. And it is a good idea to
vary the evidence as the assertion is developed, switching from
statistical data to anecdotal accounts, from authoritative
references to physical description. Another important consideration
is the sequence in which the key points will be presented. Since
most business messages in the U.S. and Canada follow a linear
pattern of development, they can be presented in one of two ways:
Direct approach (deductive) the main idea supported by the evidence
Indirect approach (inductive) the evidence first, leading up to the
main ideaIf the audience is likely to be receptive, the direct
approach works better. On the other hand, if the audience is
resistant to the message, the indirect approach saving the main
idea until last is advised. This rule of thumb notwithstanding,
sometimes it is better to use the direct approach when the news is
bad: it is all a matter of the type of message (i.e., the purpose),
its length, and the audiences likely reaction.The most common types
of business correspondence are routine messages, good-news
messages, and goodwill messages. These messages are direct and easy
to understand. The main idea should be stated immediately and then
developed by evidence in the body or the message.Bad-news messages,
on the other hand, require a bit of finesse. It might seem that the
direct approach is always best, but business messages do more than
just impart information; establishing goodwill with a potential
customer, supplier, or contributor is always desirable. Thus, the
opening of a bad-news message should be a bit indirect, with the
bad news stated in the body and justified by the reasons for it.
This approach is not considered unethical or manipulative; it is
simply a matter of considering the feelings of a reader who is
about to be let down and trying to make the situation a little
easier. Persuasive messages are perhaps the most challenging of
business correspondence. An audience that has to be persuaded is
not naturally receptive, and thus the writer must get the reader to
consider something contrary to his or her inclination. Persuasive
messages begin by focusing the readers attention on a problem or
need and then stimulating interest in it. The main idea then offers
a solution to the problem or gratification of the need. The message
ends with a call to action and a cordial closing.Outline I. Poorly
organized messagesA. Unclear main ideaB. Irrelevant materialC.
Mixed up ideasD. Missing informationII. Good organizationA.
ExpediencyB. Cost effectivenessC. Delegation of responsibilityD.
Positive reader response1. Conciseness2. RelevanceIII. Steps in
effective organizationA. Define the main ideaB. Limit the scope1.
Available time2. Audiences expectationC. Provide structure1.
Outline2. Organization chartD. Support the main idea1. Informing2.
Describinga. Processb. Object3. Persuading4. Giving historical
accountE. Provide evidenceIV. Sequence of key pointsA. Direct
approach1. Deductive2. Audience favorableB. Indirect approach1.
Inductive2. Audience skepticalV. Most common business messagesA.
RoutineB. Good-newsC. GoodwillVI. Bad-news messagesVII. Persuasive
messagesSection Review
Key Terms style connotative meaning compound-complex sentence
tone abstract word topic sentence active voice concrete word
transitions passive voice cliches boilerplate jargon functional
words simple sentence content words compound sentence denotative
meaning complex sentenceSummaryAfter making an outline, the writer
should put it aside for a day or so in order to go back and look at
it more objectively. The outline is not cast in stone, and it is
likely that the writer will add, delete, and re-arrange ideas as he
or she begins composing the message. Composition entails giving
creativity free reign. It isnt important at this stage to get every
word spelled correctly or even to finish every sentence. Editing is
the next stage in the process; the important thing at this point is
to get down idea.Style and tone are important considerations in
composing a business message. Style is the way an individual uses
the language; tone is the overall impression he or she creates
formal, informal conversational, and so on. Most business messages
effect a conversational tone; good writers are conscious of being
sensible, logical, and objective and of providing sufficient detail
and examples to support their assertions. In particular, writers of
business messages should be careful to avoid the following:Pompous,
obsolete language pompous means stiffly formal, and it is often
characterized by phrases and expressions that are now considered
stilted or obsolete.Intimacy it is not a good idea to get too
personal with the receiver of a business message unless one knows
the person well already. Details about the readers personal life,
as well as other peoples personal lives, have no place in
professional correspondence.Humor nothing falls flatter than
unsuccessful attempts at humor, and there is a very fine line
between what one person finds funny and another does not,
especially when the two are from different cultures. Humor is best
avoided altogether in business messages.Preaching and bragging -
nothing turns people off more quickly than being preached to. And
bragging about ones accomplishments, whether in person or in
correspondence, is an obvious social and professional faux pas.A
writer often has to adapt his or her tone to the situation,
changing from conversational to formal, or the other way around,
depending on the circumstances. In most business situations,
though, the preferred idiom is known as Plain English, the level of
the language that can be understood by just about anyone with an
eighth- or ninth-grade education. Plain English does have some
limitations - it does not entail the vocabulary necessary for
scientific research, and it falls a bit short in expressing strong
feelings or personal insights. Moreover, it does not incorporate
the variety of cultures and dialects that make up the English
language. But in general it is an effective way of avoiding some of
the misunderstanding that can result from nuances of usage and
meaning.As a rule, the active voice is more direct and precise than
the passive voice. The active voice emphasizes the doer of an
action (Jack threw the ball), whereas the passive voice emphasizes
whom or what the action was done by (The ball was thrown by Jack.)
Both have their uses, but, as noted above, the active voice is
generally preferred in vigorous, concise, and easily understood
communications.Diction means word choice, and the writer should be
conscious of choosing the best words for the intended effect.
Functional words are those whose meanings do not change
prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and pronouns but even so the
writer needs to be sure to use them correctly. Content words such
as nouns, verbs, adjective, and adverbs are often subject to
interpretation, and so the writer needs to be sure to choose words
carefully to impart the intended meaning.For example, content words
often have both a denotative, or literal, meaning and a
connotative, or figurative, meaning. The denotative meaning is the
one given by the dictionary; the connotative meaning is the one
that results from the readers response to the word usually positive
or negative. Another consideration in choosing the right word is
its abstractness or concreteness. Concrete words refer to physical
objects; abstract words to ideas, concepts, or characteristics.
Concrete words are more specific and less likely to be
misconstrued, but business messages often employ abstract terms as
well for example, morale, productivity, quality, motivation, and
promise. When discussing abstract ideas in the business world, the
writer should use specific, concrete words whenever possible to
obviate misinterpretation.Some more suggestions with regard to
diction are as follows:Use strong words nouns and verbs rather than
modifiersUse familiar words familiar to the reader, that is.Avoid
cliches like the plague (get it?)Be careful when using jargon
technical terms and professional jargon have their place in
business messages, but awareness of the audiences level of
understanding is essential here.Just as important as diction in
business messages is sentence structure. And a general
understanding of the syntax of English is a valuable tool. There
are four types of sentences, discussed in detail with examples in
the text: A simple sentence has one main clause. A compound
sentence has two main clauses joined by a conjunction or separated
by a semicolon. A complex sentence has one main clause and at least
one subordinate clause. And a compound-complex sentence has two
main clauses and at least one subordinate clause. In complex
sentences the relative position of the main clause and the
subordinate clause determines the relative importance of the ideas
being expressed. If the subordinate clause is put at the end of the
sentence, the main idea of the sentence is emphasized. If the
subordinate clause is put at the beginning, the main idea is
de-emphasized. Good writing is characterized by a variety of
sentence types and emphasis of ideas.Style the writers personal
touch is another consideration. Most business correspondence is
characterized by a straightforward, relatively simple style, one
that the audience will find clear and easy to understand rather
than entertaining. Emphasizing the key ideas in a business message
is an obvious way of bringing them to the readers attention.
Emphasize the main ideas by putting them at the beginning of the
sentence (i.e., writing in the active voice and making the main
idea the subject) and by giving the more important ideas more space
that is, developing or describing them in more detail. Just as
words are combined into sentences, sentences are combined into
paragraphs. The three essential considerations in paragraph writing
are unity, coherence, and development. A good paragraph contains a
topic sentence - which establishes unity - developed by various
types of supporting sentences. The writer achieves coherence by
arranging ideas in a logical order and by using transitions to link
sentences and paragraphs. There are five basic ways to develop
paragraphs: illustration, comparison and contrast, cause and
effect, classification, and problem and solution. The method the
writer chooses depends, naturally, on the purpose of the message
and the audience. Finally, business messages sometimes employ a
device known as a boilerplate a pre-written paragraph or other
block of text incorporated into the text that is being custom
written to suit the needs of a particular audience. Outline I.
Before composingA. Review outlineB. Revise as neededII. First
draftA. Dont edit yetB. Shape message1. Style2. Tone3. Sentences
and paragraphsIII. Style and toneA. Style use of language1.
Forceful or objective2. Personal or formal3. Colorful or dryB. Tone
overall impression1. Conversational2. Sensible, logical,
objectiveIV. Obsolete and pompous languageA. Avoid intimacyB. Avoid
humorC. Avoid preaching and braggingV. Plain EnglishA. 8th 9th
grade levelB. Endorsed by government and organizationsC.
Limitations of Plain English1. Lacks scientific precision2.
Ineffective for expressing intense feeling and personal insight3.
Does not embrace cultural dialectsVI. Active and passive voiceA.
Active1. The subject performs the action2. Vigorous, concise,
understandableB. Passive1. The subject is acted upon2. Cumbersome,
wordy, vague3. Sometimes effective in creating you attitudeVII.
DictionA. Functional and content wordsB. Denotative and connotative
meaningsC. Abstraction and concretenessVIII. Words that
communicateA. Strong words1. Nouns and verbs2. Not adjectives and
adverbs B. Familiar wordsC. ClichesD. JargonIX. Effective
sentencesA. Types of sentences1. Simple2. Compound3. Complex4.
Compound-complexB. Sentence style1. Voice2. Emphasis3. Length4.
Lists and bulletsX. Coherent paragraphsA. Paragraph elements1.
Topic sentence2. Developmental sentences3. Transitional elementsB.
Paragraph development1. Illustration2. Comparison/contrast3. Cause
and effect4. Classification5. Problem and solutionC.
BoilerplatesSection Review
Summary E-mail is a more convenient and generally less formal
medium than the business letter, but organization and writing style
are still important considerations.Most e-mail software includes
the message of the original e-mail in any return, but for the sake
of conciseness and convenience, the writer of the return e-mail can
edit the original message to include only the relevant parts i.e.,
the parts to which the reply e-mail are addressed.As a rule,
e-mails messages should be limited to one screen, if possible. If
not, the most important information should be included first, and
subsequent information should be included in descending order of
important.The tone of e-mail can be as informal as that of a
conversation or as formal as that of a traditional business letter,
depending, naturally, on the audience and the purpose. If a writer
is going to use e-mail and it is almost unavoidable not to he or
she must know how to use it correctly to avoid embarrassing
situations such as sending the message to an unintended recipient.
The To:, Cc:, and Bcc: fields are used to send messages directly to
a recipient or recipients, to send a courtesy copy of a message to
an additional recipient or recipients, or to send a blind courtesy
copy to an additional recipient or recipients respectively. (Note:
some business professionals regard sending a blind courtesy copy
(Bcc) as unethical.)E-mail, like all other business messages,
should be composed for the ease of the reader. Special
considerations include line length and text wrapping, as well as
font styles. Naturally, the general rules of composition apply
paragraphs should be unified, coherent, and well developed - and,
of course, concise(Note: It is something of a fashion to disregard
spelling and mechanics when using e-mail, but in professional
communication these conventions are as important in e-mail as in
formal letters.) An informative subject line is a distinctive
feature of e-mail. Because business professionals receive so many
e-mail messages, they frequently screen them based on 1) sender, 2)
subject, and 3) scanned message. If the subject line does not get
the readers attention in a genuine and informative way, the sender
might delete the message without reading it.The subject line should
tell the reader more than just the general topic of the message; it
should describe or classify the message as specifically as possible
within the 25 to 40 characters available. When an e-mail message is
exchanged back and forth several times, the subject line should be
revised periodically to reflect updates in the message.Adding a
salutation or greeting to an e-mail helps establish the tone of the
message to follow. A traditional salutation such as Dear Professor
Ingersol establishes a formal tone, while a less formal Hi Marty
implies a personal relationship which will be reflected in the rest
of the message. Similarly, both the traditional Sincerely your, as
well as the simpler Thanks or Regards, are used in e-mail. (Note:
international correspondence usually calls for the more formal
tone.)To close the e-mail, the writer can simply type his or her
name on the last line or create a signature file which will
automatically include the writers name, organization, mailing
address, fax number, and so on. In addition, a digital copy of ones
signature can also be attached which will, in some instances, have
the same legal effect as a handwritten signature.Outline I. E-mail
organization and toneA. Reply1. Including original message2.
Editing original message for relevanceB. Screen1. One screen if
possible2. Important information first, if not bad newsC. Tone
formal or informalII. Intended recipientsA. To:, Cc:, and Bcc:
optionsB. Line length and wrapped textC. Conventional spelling,
capitalization, and mechanicsIII. Parts of an e-mailA. Subject
line1. Purpose2. RevisionB. Salutation establishing tone1. Formal2.
ConversationalC. Closing1. Formal2. ConversationalD. Signature1.
Typed2. Signature file3. Digital signatureSection Review 5
Key Terms hyperlinksSummary Writing for the web is different
from writing for any other medium: the writer must gain the
audiences attention and make the main points immediately. Web
readers needs result from the volume of information available and
their expectation that it be available immediately. Because there
is so much information available and Web readers are able to scan
many pages at one sitting, reading Web documents is likely to be
cursory rather than thorough. Therefore, it is vital that the
reader be able to ascertain main ideas at a glance.Additionally,
when read thoroughly, Web documents take more time than hard
copies. Reading text on a monitor is about 25 percent slower than
on paper. The glare from the screen is hard on the eyes, and
scrolling from one screen to the next takes time.Web texts often
include hyperlinks, which enable the reader to move from one
document, webpage, or even website to another and back again in a
nonlinear fashion. This three-dimensional aspect of moving into,
out of, and all round various websites gives the reader a
tremendous advantage in terms of locating information. But it also
makes it hard for the reader to determine the depth and scope of
the information. Thus it is important for web writers to use a well
organized and reliable hyperlink structure.Coordinating the
navigational elements of hyperlinked websites takes skill and
effort. First, the writer must plan hyperlink navigation as part of
the original concept of the project. As always, it is essential to
be conscious of the audiences needs in this case, the path the
reader will follow to find information. The writer should be
familiar with the linked websites in advance to know what is
included and to avoid duplication of information.Second, it is
important that the reader be in control that he or she be able to
explore alternatives and choose the most viable course. An
effective hyperlinked web document can include a search engine, a
site map, and an index or table of contents, usually found at the
top, at the bottom, or on the side of the webpage.Third, the writer
must be sure that the links are effective. Hyperlinks can be in the
form of words, phrases, sentences, and even graphics. Graphical
links, though, can present a problem in that they slow down the
loading speed of a webpage. In addition, some readers turn off the
graphics capability of their computers to speed up download time;
they need to be accommodated by text versions of graphic pages, as
indeed do visually handicapped readers.Composing a webpage message
requires some attention to style and format. Corporate webpages are
often characterized by dull and sometimes vague writing. A good
visual design is an asset to web messages, but well thought-out and
composed substantive content is just as important as in any other
medium.An important characteristic of the web is that it is
immediately accessible to a global audience. That being the case,
the tone of messages on the web must be appropriate for readers who
might not be fluent in English. Usually the tone of web
correspondence is somewhat less formal but not overly familiar.
Also, idioms and jargon can be misleading, so the writer must be
careful not to confuse or offend.Localizing is an interesting
technique for suiting web material to the needs of the audience.
This entails more than just translating the text into the language
of the reader; local norms such as currency, weights and measures,
time, and some customs are also tranlated. Providing localization
for web material requires a greater in-depth understanding of the
audience than normal and entails considerable effort.Reading
information online is difficult, other audience needs
notwithstanding. It is helpful to arrange information, if possible,
in screen-sized, theme-related chunks that can be accessed in any
order. Each of these chunks becomes a separate webpage, and
webpages can be linked to other webpages to provide complete but
manageable accessibility to the subject.Although linked, these
webpages should be compehensible as separate entities. One of the
advantages of hyperlinked text is that it can be accessed in any
order the reader chooses. However, too many hyperlinks make
accessing information difficult. If information can be presented
clearly and concisely on one webpage, it isnt necessary to provide
additional hyperlinks.With regard to conciseness, webpages should
be about 50 percent shorter than printed texts. If possible, a web
article should be limited to one computer screen; if that is not
possible, then three at the most. If the material cannot be limited
to three screens, it should not be randomly divided into different
webpages; rather, the writer should attempt to find logical
patterns of division to avoid linear interruption as much as
possible.Many readers print online documents and read from the hard
copy rather than the screen. Web writers need to accommodate this
preference by providing print-ready versions of their online
documents. The document should include the file size to help the
reader determine the download time and the URL so that it will
appear in the printed version.Because writing for the web requires
the most important information to be placed first, using an
inverted pyramid style, a familiar technique to journalists, is an
effective method. The main idea appears first and the points follow
in decreasing order of importance. Thus the reader can find the
most important information easily and then read as much or as
little of the rest as he or she wishes.Outline I. The Web: A unique
mediumA. Conventional guidelinesB. New challengesII.
Characteristics of reading onlineA. CursoryB. DifficultC. Nonlinear
and interactive (hyperlinked)D. Three dimensionalIII. Difficulties
of reading onlineA. Scope and depth of materialB. Inconsistent
nature of online contentIV. Well-organized hyperlink structureA.
Plan navigational pattern1. Readers likely path2. Writers own
efforts v. other sitesB. Give readers control1. Options2. Site
maps, etc.C. Make graphic links effective1. Slower load time2. Text
alternativesV. Design v. contentVI. Writing for global audiencesA.
Lighter, less formalB. Jargon and idiomC. Localized sites1.
Language, norms, currency, weights2. Cultural differencesVII.
Information chunksA. Self contained webpagesB. Accessible in any
orderC. LinkedVIII. Concise but comprehensive coverageA. Nonlinear
webpagesB. Only necessary hyperlinksC. Reduced length of textD.
Logical division into webpagesE. Printable versions1. File size2.
URLIX. Inverted pyramid styleA. Journalists techniqueB. Main idea
firstC. Descending order of importanceSection Review
Key Terms cultural diversity culture ethnocentrism cultural
context high-context culture low-context culture
stereotypingSummary Intercultural communication is the process if
sending and receiving messages between people whose cultural
backgrounds lead them to interpret verbal and nonverbal signs
differently. It is largely the result of two current trends: market
globalization and a multicultural workforce. Market globalization
means the increasing tendency of the world to act as one market.
Advances in travel and technology have made it possible for people
from all over the world to collaborate from their home offices.
Products can be produced in countries with low-cost labor and then
distributed all over the world. Competition is on the rise as
business look for new international markets. The first way to go
global is to reduce the cultural and language barriers between
companies and customers, and one way to do so is through the use of
Websites that accommodate these differences. Interaction with
people from different cultures is on the rise, even through
communication media other than the Internet. The United States has
become the most demographically diverse country in the world. By
2010, half the population of the U.S. will be made up of ethnic
minorities. The cultural diversity that results is dramatically
changing the way business communication takes place, making it
necessary for managers to communicate with and motivate employees
and at the same time maintain cooperation and harmony among them.
In order to do so, companies have to develop a sense of cultural
sensitivity. Culture is a shared system of symbols, beliefs,
attitudes, values, expectations, and norms for behavior.
Subcultures are recognized groups within cultures ethnic,
religious, and, in the business world, professional groups that
have their own customs and idiom. Examples of subcultures within
the U.S. are Mexican Americans, Mormons, wrestling fans, Russian
immigrants, disabled individuals, Harvard graduates, and
uncountable other groups. Cultural idioms, the ways in which
members of a culture express themselves, are learned directly and
indirectly from other members of the group. The first way to
communicate with people from different cultures is to recognize the
tendency to judge people according to your own cultures standards
i.e. to overcome ethnocentrism. The communication process entails
the encoding and decoding of messages. Miscommunication occurs when
cultural differences result in the decoding of messages in
unexpected ways. Assuming that people will see things the way we
see them often leads to cultural misunderstandings four areas
contextual, ethical, social, and nonverbal. Cultural context refers
to the pattern of physical cues, environmental stimuli, and
implicit understandings that help people within a culture
understand each other. But outside the culture, cultural context
can result in misunderstanding. In high-context cultures the
nonverbal context is more important than the words. The speakers
gestures and tone of voice provide cues that help the receiver
discover the meaning indirectly. In low-context cultures, verbal
communication takes precedence. The burden of communication is on
the speaker rather than the listeners, and both speaker and
listener are conditioned to respond to syntactical patterns such as
chronological order and cause-effect relationships to infer
meaning. In business these differences in context affect the way
people make decisions, solve problems, and negotiate.In low-context
cultures such as the United States and Germany, people try to make
decisions quickly and efficiently. They focus on the main issues
and the leave the details to be worked out later. In high-context
cultures, such as Greece, focusing on the details is taken to be a
sign of honesty and openness; ignoring the details is regarded as
evasive. In the U.S. again, a low-context culture business is
usually transacted through competition and some confrontation.
However, in China, a high-context culture, open conflict and debate
are regarded as bad form. In low-context cultures, Germany and
Canada for example, business negotiations are considered
impersonal. But in Japan negotiators prefer to establish social
relationships first, personal and long-term ties that will result
in successful relationships in the future. Ethical and even legal
issues can arise from cultural context. In low-context cultures the
written word is tantamount to a binding contract, but in
high-context cultures, a personal pledge is regarded as a point of
honor and is more important than a legal contract. The cultural
foundations of laws can result in totally different ways of
interpretation. Under English common law, on which the British and
American legal systems are based, a person is innocent until proven
guilty. But in Mexico and Turkey, whose legal systems are based on
the Napoleonic code, the reverse is true. Similarly, bribery is
considered not only unethical but even illegal in the U.S., but in
Kenya, China, Russia, Mexico, and the Middle Easy, it is an
accepted method of making sure that things are done right. The best
way to avoid ethical conflicts in intercultural communication is to
follow four basic principles: Seek mutual ground be flexible and
willing to compromise.
Dont be judgmental recognize and accept cultural
differences.
Be honest see things as they are, and accept the
differences.
Respect cultural differences acknowledge the other persons needs
and preserve his or her dignity.Social etiquette is an important
consideration in recognizing and respecting cultural differences.
Informal rules, which are learned through observation and
inference, are the basis of how one is supposed to behave, but
sometimes they are difficult to explain. This is where cultural
sensitivity becomes an important consideration. Among the issues
that recur are the following: Attitude toward materialism In the
U.S. hard work is associated with success, and success is often
measured by material acquisition. Other countries consider leisure
more important.
Gender roles In the U.S. and Western Europe, women have come to
be regarded as mens equals in the business and professional worlds.
In Latin America and Eastern Europe, and especially in the Middle
East and East Asia, this is not the case.
Social status Professional status in the U.S. is often indicated
by the location and furnishings of ones office; in other countries,
the office is unimportant. Titles also reflect status, but in this
case more so in other countries than in the U.S. In America most
professional are addressed by the courtesy titles Mr. or Ms. In
China titles are more reflective of a persons actual function
Chairman or Manager, for example.
Manners Social customs are often regulated by manners, and what
is considered good manners in one culture is bad manners in
another. Making small talk about the weekend is common in the U.S.,
but asking what someone did on the weekend would be regarded as
intrusive in cultures in which business and private lives are kept
separate.
Time Executives from low-context cultures see time as limited,
and consequently they focus on specific tasks. Executives from
high-context cultures, on the other hand, see the business day as
more flexible and focus more on forming interpersonal relationships
than on meeting deadlines.As has been noted, nonverbal
communication is very much a part of the mores of any culture, and
being able to interpret nonverbal signals is important in
recognizing and accommodating culture differences: Personal space
The five feet of distance that usually separates Americans and
Canadians when transacting business, is uncomfortably close for
Germans or Japanese and uncomfortably far for Arabs and Latin
Americans. When the distance is increased or decreased, people
might feel uncomfortable without really knowing why.
Body language People in the U.S. and Canada indicate no by
moving their heads back and forth while people in Bulgaria indicate
no by moving their heads up and down. Exposing the sole of the shoe
is regarded as an insult by many people in the Middle East.
Communicating with people from different cultures means
overcoming ethnocentrism, the natural human tendency to regard ones
own culture as superior. At the same time, it is important to avoid
stereotyping when trying to understand different cultures the
tendency to predict other peoples behavior or characteristics on
the basis of their cultural identification. The Japanese, for
example, often stereotype Americans as aggressive, direct, self
indulgent, and extravagant. While some stereotypes are relatively
accurate, it is important not to let your desire to avoid
ethnocentrism cause you to see people as members of cultures rather
than as human beings. Outline I. Intercultural communicationA.
Market globalizationB. Multicultural workforceII. Cultural
contextA. High-context culturesB. Low-context culturesC. Legal and
ethicalD. SocialE. NonverbalIII. Overcoming ethnocentrismA.
StereotypingB. Accepting human beingsSection Review 3
Key Terms idiomaticSummary To overcome ethnocentrism, you will
need to study the cultures of people with whom you communicate,
overcome language barriers, and develop strong oral and written
intercultural skills. If you are gong to work with people from a
particular culture, you should learn as much as you can about them.
Books, articles, and personal contacts are all good ways of
learning about a cultures history, religion, politics, values, and
customs. There are several helpful Websites as well that will help
you understand not only general culture issues but also specific
points of business and professional protocol. Seemingly similar
gestures and customs can have different meanings in different
cultures. For example, a handshake in Spain should last from five
to seven up-and-down strokes, whereas in France more than single
stroke is too much. But dont expect to be able to pass yourself off
as a native of another culture, no matter how much you study it.
Rather, just make the effort to show you are aware of cultural and
individual differences by following these guidelines: Assume that
others are different dont hold people to your own culture
standards.
Take responsibility for communication learn the language, if you
can.
Withhold judgment as with any communication situation, wait
until you have heard the message before you jump to
conclusions.
Show respect learn what the signs of respect are and show that
you know them.
Empathize as always, put yourself into the position of the
person you are communicating with.
Tolerate ambiguity know and accept the fact that communication
will not be easy.
Look beyond the superficial heres another one that applies to
all communication situations, not just intercultural.
Be both patient and persistent know that intercultural
communication takes time; dont give up.
Recognize your cultural bias cultural bias is natural; the key
is to understand it.
Be flexible be prepared to change both habits and attitudes.
Look for common ground once gain, this is good advice in any
communication situation.
Send clear messages be ready to tolerate ambiguity, but avoid it
as much as possible,
Treat people as individuals avoid cultural stereotyping.
Know when to be direct and when to be indirect.
Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis put it to the
test.These general guidelines will help in any communication
effort, intercultural or not. But there are even stronger issues,
such as the language barrier. More and more peo0ple throughout the
world are learning English as a second language, and many of them
are coming to the U.S. Recent statistics show that 18% of the
population of the U.S. now speak some language other than English
at home. In California, the number is 40%. The language spoken most
commonly in the U.S. after English is Spanish, then French, German,
Italian, and Chinese. Only 32% of Internet users read English.
There is a wide range of fluency among ESL users; so you have to be
careful when using idiomatic English. As a rule, languages dont
translate with word-to-word correlations; every language has its
idiomatic expressions phrases that have figurative meaning but dont
translate. For example, how would a non-native speaker of English
respond to the suggestion that he eat a hot dog? Be careful to
avoid these figurative expressions, using instead words whose
denotative meanings are clear. Pronunciation and accent can have a
dismaying effect on non-native speakers. Similarly, we native
speakers can have a hard time understanding the pronunciation of
colleagues who speak English as a second language. To facilitate
communication, here are some suggestions: Listen carefully learn
from experience.
Expect to understand dont create a psychological block.
Create a relaxed atmosphere be friendly, and make it clear you
are trying to understand.
Create a relaxed atmosphere be friendly, and make it clear you
are trying to understand.
Rephrase questions ask the speaker to use different words.
Ask the speaker to write the messageVariations in tone and
frequency of speaking are other considerations. People in some
cultures speak more loudly or softly than in others. And in some
cultures silence is regarded as a virtue in communication. The key,
of course, is to match your communication style with the needs and
expectations of your audience. If a direct, confrontational
approach is the norm, then use it. If written communication is
preferable to oral, then write. But recognize, too, that written
communication in other cultures is invariably more formal than in
the U.S. Be sure to formalize your tone to the proper degree, while
not allowing it to sound unnatural or stilted. While English is the
most widely used language in the world, the language of business is
always the language of the customer. Therefore, you have three
choices when communicating with people who dont speak English:
learn their language, use an interpreter, or teach them English.
Learning another language is a good idea, whether you are going to
live and work in another country or just visit. And, indeed, it can
go a long way to earning the respect and appreciation of people in
the U.S. whose native language is not English. Learning the
language, or even just a few phrases, shows respect for other
peoples culture. Using a translator is necessary in some
situations, and experienced translators are useful in interpreting
not only the meanings of words but also the cultural contexts. Be
sure to meet with translators in advance and make sure they
understand the nuances of what you are trying to impart. Also, if
possible have a back-translator on hand to translate back into
English what the translator has put into the other language. More
and more companies are recognizing the value of providing English
instruction for their employees. Doing so has resulted in enhanced
production and fewer accidents and grievances. As you develop your
understanding of other cultures and the language barriers that
interfere with communication, you will have to decide whether oral
or written channels will be most effective. As noted above, there
are notable differences in letter-writing styles among members of
different cultures, most being more formal than in the U.S. For
example, business letters from Japanese writers typically begin
with an observation about the weather, followed by an inquiry into
the health of the recipient, then a note of thanks for past
services or patronage, and only after all that comes the main point
of the letter. For your own part when you are writing to people
from different cultures, use the following guidelines: Write in
plain English dont use two words when one will do.
Be clear use specific, concrete terms rather than figures of
speech.
Follow the prescribed format for addresses.
Cite numbers carefully use figures (27) rather than spelled-out
numbers (twenty-seven).
Avoid slang, jargon, buzzwords, abbreviations, and acronyms.
Be concise use shorter and simpler sentences.
Use short paragraphs no more than eight to ten lines.
Use helpful transitions - first, second, third, ... in addition,
consequently, etc.It is easier to read and write a foreign language
than to engage in a conversation. But sometimes there is no
alternative to a face-to-face contact. In those instances, when you
are speaking English to people who have difficulty with it, follow
these guidelines: Try to eliminate noise speak slowly and clearly,
and make one point at a time.
Observe and use body language but remember that a gesture in one
culture might mean something different in another.
Use repetition and examples to make sure your meaning is
understood.
Dont talk down to the other person dont think that talking
louder or over-enunciating will make a difference, and dont blame
him or her for not understanding.
Use objective, accurate language avoid hyperbolic expressions
such as fantastic, fabulous, or awesome.
Learn foreign phrases and expressions Greeting people in their
own language will show your interest in their culture and
willingness to accommodate.
Adapt your conversational style to the other persons if the
other person is direct, be direct.
Check frequently for comprehension stop from time to time to
make sure you are being understood.
Clarify what will happen next make sure you and the other person
agree on what has been said. Follow up with a memo or letter
confirming the decisions that have been made.Outline I. Learning
about other culturesA. Books, articles, personal contactsB.
WebsitesII. Awareness of cultural differencesIII. Language
barriersA. English as a second language1. Idiomatic usage2.
Pronunciation and accent3. Variation in tone and speaking
frequencyB. The language of the customer1. Learning the language2.
Using a translator3. Teaching them EnglishIV. ChannelsA. WrittenB.
OralSection Review
Key Terms solicited proposals request for proposalf unsolicited
proposals internal proposals external proposalsSummary Reports
serve a wide variety of purposes in the workplace, their essential
function being to provide objective information and analysis. The
type of report used depends on five factors: Source Frequency
Target audience Length Intent A report may include some or all of
these factors, depending on its purpose. Most reports fall
generally into one of six categories: monitor/ control, policy/
procedure, compliance, progress, problem-solving, and
proposal.Monitor/control reports fit into the larger category of
informational reports. They provide data that enable managers to
head off problems that might occur down the line and to establish
guidelines for future action. They require close attention to
detail, accuracy, and honesty. Examples of monitor/control reports
are strategic planning and annual budgets, sales reports, corporate
annual reports, and scouting reports. Other monitor/control reports
provide an account of what happened at a conference or convention
or on a trip. A summary report provides specific information about
a situation, publication, or document but does not go into detail
about background or provide examples.Policy/procedure reports
answer questions about, naturally, policies and procedures. They
provide specific, objective information about organizational
guidelines, regulations, and standards. Sometimes the information
they provide is permanent; other times these reports are position
papers on particular issues.Compliance reports confirm that an
organization is abiding by required or regulated standards, usually
imposed by the government. The report is often written in response
to specific questions; sometimes it is produced by filing out a
form. Progress reports indicate how much of a project has been
completed and how much is left to complete. Sometimes they take the
form of scheduled interim reports followed by final reports when
the undertaking has been completed. All of the above reports are
essentially informational in nature. But other reports require
analysis and sometimes recommendations. These reports provide
accurate, objective information, but they then go farther to
persuade the reader to accept a decision, solution, or change.
Typical of analytical reports are problem-solving reports; these
generally take the form of recommendations based on research and
analysis of alternatives. When they involve consideration of
several alternatives, they are called feasibility reports; when
they entail justification of an action that has already been
performed, they are called, naturally, justification
reports.Proposals are special types of analytical reports that
involve persuasion. They follow the process of analyzing the
audiences needs, providing a solution, and explaining why the
solution should be effected. Solicited proposals are prepared in
response to a need advertised by either an external organization or
an internal component, usually managerial, of your own
organization. Proposals solicited by external organizations, such
as the government, often take the form of a request for proposal, a
formal invitation to submit a bid for contracted work and a
detailed explanation of when and how the work must be
done.Unsolicited proposals are initiated by the person or
organization requesting consideration, not by the organization
needing the work done. If you write one of these proposals, the job
description and criteria are not already determined; rather, you
must persuade the reader that there is a need and that you can
fulfill it.Unsolicited proposals can be either internal or
external. Internal proposals are requests for some change within
your own organization - a change in policy, procedure, or
organization or requests for additional resources personnel,
equipment, or funds. Because the readers of these proposals
sometimes feel threatened by changes, the reports have to be
carefully crafted to reflect the best interest of all
involved.External proposals are used to persuade current customers,
potential customers, or government agencies of the need for some
change or action. They are different from internal proposals in
that they are 1) more formal, 2) legally binding, and 3) reflective
of an organizations competence and integrity.As with all types of
business messages, the three-step writing process is the best way
to organize your report or proposal. The steps are already familiar
planning, writing, and completing. However, because of the
persuasive nature of business reports and proposals, you might need
to give a bit more attention to your purpose and audience.Outline
I. Determining types of reportsII. Informational reportsA.
Monitor/controlB. Policy/procedureC. ComplianceD. ProgressIII.
Analytical reportsA. Problem-solving1. Feasibility2.
JustificationB. Proposals1. Soliciteda. Request for proposal2.
Unsoliciteda. Internal b. ExternalIV. Three-step writing processA.
Planning, writing, completingB. Extra attention to purpose and
audienceSection Review
Key Terms problem factoring hypothesisSummary As with any
written business message, the best way to produce a report is to
follow the three-step writing process: planning, writing, and
completing. The steps are not different, but the purpose and
audience analysis components require special attention in a
proposal. The three-step writing process is covered in detail in
chapters 4, 5, and 6; below are some observations about the
additional elements that pertain to writing reports and
proposals.The planning stage of reports and proposals consists of
three steps: analyzing the situation, gathering information, and
adapting the information to the audiences need.Planning a written
business message always entails determining the purpose and
analyzing the audience, but when you write a report you should
include the additional step of analyzing the situation, of
determining whether a formal written message is the best medium or
whether the situation might be handled more tactfully by a phone
call, e-mail, or conference. If you decide that the written medium
is best, then you must decide whether an informational report or an
analytical report will better suit the purpose.If you determine
that the nature of the report is analytical, then the next step is
to define the problem specifically. Sometimes the problem will have
already been defined; in other instances, you must determine that
it actually exists and then communicate this through persuasion to
you reader. Several questions you might consider in this analysis
are: What needs to be determined? Why is this issue important? Who
is involved? Where is the problem located? How did it start? When
did it start?One you have defined the problem, the next step is to
engage in problem factoring essentially identifying a cause/effect
situation. This is usually accomplished through inductive reasoning
observing effects and from them inferring causes. This inference or
speculation of the cause is called a hypothesis, which, once it has
been formulated, must then be tested.Once you have formulated a
hypothesis, the next step is to determine a statement of purpose:
the problem statement tells what you are going to analyze; the
statement of purpose tells why you are doing so. The easiest way to
write a purpose statement is to use an infinitive phrase (to plus a
verb followed by an object) for example, to identify... to
explain... to submit... to inform... to persuade...The statement of
purpose for an analytical report is sometimes more inclusive than
for an informational report. It might be written as several
infinitive phrases such as to analyze... evaluate... and
suggest....The more specific your statement of purpose, the easier
it will be to stay on task. If the report has been solicited or
authorized, be sure the check the statement of purpose with the
authorizing entity to make sure you have understood the
instructions.When you have nailed down your purpose statement, you
should next prepare a preliminary outline. This will give you an
overview of your report from the beginning to the end its key
points, the order in which they will be presented, and the amount
of detail to be included. Of course, the final outline will likely
be somewhat different from the preliminary, as you will make
changes and adjustments as you proceed. But having a preliminary
overview is invaluable. Much of the change reflected in the final
outline will be based on conclusions resulting from your research.
As you find out more information, you add some ideas and eliminate
others. There are two basic outlines formats alphanumeric and
decimal. It doesnt matter which one you use as long as you are
consistent. Also, the format of the outline can be descriptive
(topical) or informative (talking), depending on the nature of the
information and the way it will be used.After you have produced a
preliminary outline, you should prepare a work plan to help you
coordinate and monitor your undertaking. It can range from a
relatively simple list of the steps to a more formal and detailed
statement of exactly what is to be done and when. This more formal
work plan is likely to include the following Statement of the
problem Purpose and scope Discussion of tasks Description of
results Review of assignment, schedules, and costs Follow-up plans
Preliminary outlineOutline I. Three-step writing processA.
PlanningB. WritingC. ComposingII. Planning reports and proposalsA.
Analyzing the situationB. Gathering informationC. Adapting the
informationIII. Analyzing the situationA. Appropriate mediumB.
Informational or analytical?IV. AnalyticalA. Define the problemB.
Problem factoring1. Cause/effect2.HypothesisC. Statement of
purpose1. Infinitive phrase2. ConfirmationD. Preliminary outlineE.
Work plan1. Informal2. FormalSection Review
Key Terms paraphrase plagiarism mean median mode correlation
conclusions recommendationsSummary The next step after you have
analyzed the situation and determined the best way to proceed is to
start gathering information. As with any other writing project, the
best appproach is to plan first. And often the best way to plan is
simply to start browsing through infroamtion, in libraries and
bookstores or online, to get a general idea of what has already
been written on your topic.As you are gathering ideas about your
topic, be sure to clarify the assignment. If you are doing the
project for someone else, check with him or her to make sure you
both agree on what is to be done; if you are doing the project for
yourself, make sure your purpose is clear and specific. Then begin
narrowing down the information you have gathered, identifying the
best sources. Most research projects involve the use of secondary
sources, information that has been written by others based on their
own experience or research. There is a wide variety of sources of
secondary information on any topic in the business world, including
information provided by specific companies or an entire industry
(NAICS), and data on statistics, trends, and business-related
issuesInformation which does not come directly from specific
companies or industries can often be researched in the library.
Among the sources available are business books electronic databases
newspapers periodicals directories almanacs and statistical
resources government publicationsThe most popular and convenient
source of information on business and industry is, of course, the
Internet. But it is important to note that Internet information is
not screened and, thus, is not always reliable. You need to
evaluate any online information you find and consider its
reliability. One good screening source for Internet information is
the Internet Public Library at http://www.ipl.org.Among the
documents you can find there are company profiles, trade data,
business news, corporate tax and legal advice, small-business
information, forms and documents, financial reports, job postings,
and publications.To find information about a particular company,
you might go to its website. In addition, you can find recent news
releases about companies from PRNewswire at www.prnewswire.com) and
Business Wire at www.businesswire.com. Of course, the web does have
it limitations; so to fine tune your search you should use a
well-known commercial search engine. These tools are reliable
because they are usually well maintained and updgraded. The
disadvantage of search engines is the volume of unrelated material
they can generate; therefore, be sure to consider the strategies
listed in Checkouts: Improving Search Results.Sometimes you have to
go to primary sources to find the information you need. One of the
most common primary sources is an original document a sales report,
memo, balance sheet, income statement, brochure, newsletter, etc. A
lot of this information can be found in company databases. The
information you find can be used as a secondary source summarized
by someone else or as a primary source analyzed by you and compared
with similar information from other sources.Another way of using
primary sources for gathering information is to make formal
observations to watch employees performing their jobs or customers
using a product. Still another method is to conduct experiments.
But because these methods require careful quantifiable analysis,
they are often expensive and time consuming.One of the most
frequently used methods of collecting information in business is to
survey people with relevant experience and opinions. Surveys must
be reliable and valid to be useful: a reliable survey produces
identical results when repeated; a valid one measures what it is
intended to measure.The first step in creating a survey is to
develop a questionnaire. To be effective, it should be short,
relevant, and easy to understand. The optimal time for completing a
questionnaire is 10 to 15 minutes. The important considerations in
designing survey questions are the following: Questions should be
easy to tabulate or analyze numbers, if possible. Leading questions
should not be used. Questions should ask only one thing at a time.
The survey should be pretested by a sample group.Because getting
people to respond to a survey is sometimes frustrating, a 10 to 20
percent response rate is usually considered good. To increase the
chances of getting a response, be sure to make it easy for the
respondents to complete the survey and return it. Internet surveys
are becoming increasingly popular because of their convenience, low
cost, and high response rate. Interviews are effective if you need
to get specific information directly from the most authoritative
source. Their disadvantages are that they must be planned carefully
and that they take time. Because the interviewer is expected to
control the discussion by asking specific questions, you need to be
sure to plan those questions well. Planning an interview is like
planning any other sort of business communication: determine the
purpose, analyze the audience, formulate a main idea, and then
decide on format and style.Good interviews, like good business
messages, have an opening, a body, and a close. The opening is used
to engage the person being interviewed and give him or her some
idea what to expect. The body includes the actual questions. The
close summarizes the points that have been articulated and
establishes goodwill with the person being interviewed.The answers
you get in an interview will depend largely on the questions you
ask, the way you ask them, and in some cases the race, gender, age,
education, and social status of your subject. Be especially careful
about sensitive issues that are ethically questionable or
confidential. A good way to obviate an uncomfortable situation is
to provide a set of questions a day or so before the actual
interview. Open-ended questions give the person being interviewed
more opportunity to reveal feelings, provide information, and offer
opinions. Closed-ended questions are easier to respond to and give
the interviewer more control. Restatement questions focus on the
earlier answers of the person being interviewed and give him or her
the opportunity to expand. Whatever the type of question you use,
be sure it is relevant, concise, and easy to understand. The
following guidelines will be useful: Consider the sequence of the
questions. Decide which questions are most important, and focus on
them. Make sure your questions seem intelligent. Vary the pacing by
using different types of questions - open-ended, closed-ended, and
restatement. Limit the number of questions about 20 per half hour.
Edit the questions before you ask them.In addition to face-to-face
interviews, online and e-mail interviews are being used with
increasing frequency. The advantage to these is the delayed time
factor: they give the person being interviewed a chance to think
through the answers more carefully and provide more useful
information.After you have gathered sufficient information, it is
time to evaluate your sources. Among the questions you should
consider are the following: Is the source reliable and honest?
Could the source be biased? What was the original purpose for the
information? Is the source authoritative? Where did the source get
the information? Can the information be verified? Is the
information current? Is the information complete? Does the
information stand up to close scrutiny?After you have evaluated
your source material, decide whether or not you have enough
information by answering the questions you developed at the
beginning of your project. Incorporating research material into
your report or project requires some care and skill. For the most
part you will be using your own words to paraphrase or summarize
the information you have found. A good paraphrase is shorter than
the original text, it is in your own words, and it does not alter
or distort the meaning of the original text. Occasionally, when the
language of the original source is especially relevant or
compelling, you will use direct quotations. However, you should use
these quoted passages sparingly. In either case, whether you use
paraphrase or direct quotations, you must document your sources,
including tables, charts, diagrams, song lyrics, and so on. Failure
to do so constitutes plagiarism. The various methods of
documentation footnotes, endnotes, and parenthetical citation are
explained in Appendix B of the original text.In some cases it is
not enough just to document your sources; you must also abide by
the copyright laws by requesting permission to use certain
information. Under the fair use doctrine this is required when your
use of the material would interfere with the original authors
benefiting from the result. In some instances you will have to pay
a fee to use copyrighted material. Of course, material that is
regarded as common knowledge is not copyrighted; indeed, it does
not even have to be documented.After you have compiled your
information and decided what must be documented, you will begin the
process of analyzing it and interpreting your findings. Statistical
data, in particular, are open to a wide range of interpretation and
must be presented in the most useful manner. One method of
analyzing statistical data is to determine the mean the sum of all
the items in a group divided by the number of items. Another useful
statistic is the median the midpoint in a series of numbers. And
still a third is the mode the number that occurs more frequently in
a series than any other.Another method of interpreting data is to
find a trend a steady pattern in a series of events over a period
of time. Once youve found a trend, the next step is to find a
cause. One example is a correlation a statistical relationship
between two variables. Correlations are not always reliable methods
of establishing a cause-effect relationship, however. After you
have analyzed your data and put them in an easily understood form,
it is time to draw conclusions. The measure of a sound conclusion
is that it 1) fulfills the original statement of purpose, 2) is
based strictly on the information included in the report, and 3) is
the logical result of a pattern of reasoning. Of course, all
conclusions are subject to further interpretation and different
perspectives.Conclusions in a report are often followed by
recommendations suggestions of what to do with the information and
conclusions presented. In some reports, a recommendation is not
called for and thus is inappropriate. However, when you are asked
to make recommendations, be sure to do so without bias,
assumptions, or the influence of personal values. Credible
recommendations must be based on factual information, good
analysis, and logical conclusions. Outline I. Gathering ideasA.
Browsing libraries, bookstores, and web sitesB. Clarifying the
assignmentII. Secondary sourcesA. Specific companies and
industriesB. LibrariesC. The Internet1. Screening2. Company
websitesIII. Primary sourcesA. Company databasesB. Formal
observations1. Surveys 2. QuestionnairesC. Interviews1. Planning2.
Organization3. Sensitive issues4. Types of questionsa. Open-endedb.
Closed-endedc. Restatement5. Online and email interviewsIV.
Evaluating sourcesA. ReliabilityB. PurposeC. AuthorityD.
VerificationE. Currency and completenessV. Incorporating research
material in the reportA. ParaphraseB. QuotationC. PlagiarismD.
CopyrightVI. Analyzing and interpreting researchA. Statistical
data1. Mean2. Median3. ModeB. Trends and correlationsVII. Drawing
conclusionsVIII. Making recommendationsSection Review 10
Summary Any effective business communication must be audience
centered. The first consideration with a report is to choose the
appropriate channel and medium. Sometimes you can write just a memo
or an email; other times you will need to write a formal letter.
And in some instances, the best channel is oral rather than
written.Oral reports are effective when you want immediate feedback
or when a nonverbal component will make the audience receive the
report more favorably. Sometimes oral reports are used in place of
written reports; sometimes they are used in conjunction. Chapter 13
will cover oral reports in more detail.Most written reports are
produced because the information they cover is long or complex and
must be laid out carefully, or because a written record might be
needed for future reference. Electronic reports have become
increasingly popular because of their speed, accessibility, and
versatility.A critical factor in a successful report is a good
relationship with the audience. Several methods of establishing it
are as follows: Use the you attitude Keep the tone positive
Establish your credentials Be polite Avoid biased language Reflect
the company image.Outline I. Centering on audienceA. Channel and
mediumB. Good relationshipII. Selecting channel and mediumA. Oral
reportsB. Written reportsC. Electronic reportsIII. Establishing a
good relationshipA. You attitudeB. Emphasizing the positiveC.
Establishing credibilityD. Being politeE. Avoiding biased
languageF. Reflecting the company imageSection Review
Key Terms team free riders brainstorming participative
management high cost of coordination emergence problem-solving
teams group dynamics reinforcement task forces self-oriented roles
collaborative message committee team-maintenance roles virtual
teams task-facilitating roles Groupthin orientation hidden agenda
conflictSummary A team is a unit of two or more people who work
together to achieve a goal. And like it or not, teamwork is very
much the way of the business world. Teams achieve the highest level
of improvement in performance, and collaboration leads to
creativity through participative management i.e., a sense of
ownership in an undertaking and in the decision-making to effect
it.Teams can be classified as formal, in which case they often
become a permanent part of the structure of the organization, or
informal (also called ad hoc), in which case they are formed only
for a particular purpose and then disbanded. Examples of ad hoc
teams are problem-solving teams and task forces, in which
representatives from different departments and other organizational
elements are brought together to focus on a common problem. An
example of a formal team is a committee, particularly a standing
committee, which is formed to deal with a recurring issue.Virtual
teams, composed of members from different organizations and often
times different geographic locations, can be either formal or
informal. They communicate via technology, sharing ideas without
having to be in physical proximity. Teamwork and collaboration have
advantages and disadvantages. Among the advantages is the old adage
that two or more heads are better than one. This is true in terms
of several factors: Breadth and depth of knowledge and
information
Diversity of views
Support through ownership
Higher performance through mutual purpose and accountabilityThe
chief disadvantage is that collaborating takes more time and effort
than working independently. Other disadvantages are as follows:
Groupthink a situation in which the integrity of the group is
maintained even at the cost of the right decision.
Hidden agenda Individuals are often motivated by factors other
than the accomplishment of the goal, such as displaying power,
avoiding effort, and even attracting the attention of
co-workers.
Free riders Some team members are unproductive because they are
not individually accountable for the success of the
undertaking.
High cost of coordination Teamwork is often more costly in terms
of time and money than individual efforts.
The professional and personal interactions that occur within a
team are called group dynamics. Sometimes the group dynamics work
naturally, but more often they have to be coordinated and
controlled by unstated rules called norms. Examples of norms would
be the assumption that it is acceptable to be ten minutes late for
a meeting or that e-mail should be used for communicating with
other team members rather than the phone.The dynamics of a team
often result in members playing certain identifiable roles.
Self-oriented roles are assumed by members who have personal
agenda, or at least needs, that take precedence over the common
goal. These members are the least productive and, indeed, can be
counterproductive. Team members who assume team-maintenance roles
focus on the actual process of the collaboration, encouraging other
members to work together and actually coordinating tasks. Members
who assume task-facilitating roles are more focused on the goal and
keep the team from becoming too involved in the process rather than
the solution.These roles are not usually assigned; rather, they are
naturally assumed as a result of the members status within the
group. Among the variables that can determine status are competence
in the field, educational level, past successes, position within
the organization, social standing, education, age, gender, and even
personal attractiveness. These factors can have an unsettling
effect on a collaborative effort, and the team may have difficulty
in focusing on its goal until roles and status have been
stabilized.Once a team has been established and the roles more or
less determined, the decision-making process can begin. There are
five stages: Orientation personal interaction and establishment of
roles and norms
Conflict definition of the issues and individual positions
Brainstorming airing of the options and discussion of the pros
and cons
Emergence development of a solution, even if it is not supported
100%
Reinforcement acceptance of the common goal and assignment of
tasksConflict is inherent in the nature of teamwork, and it can
have both positive and negative results. On the positive side,
conflict forces individuals to look at issues in a different way,
to see possible implications that might not have been evident and
to use creativity in solving problems