SEC36.Body

Thrust, Kinematics and Hydrocarbon Migration in the Middle Magdalena Basin, Colombia, South America

GCSSEPM FPetroleum Sy

Luisa Fernanda RolónDepartment of Geology and GeographyWest Virginia UniversityMorgantown, West Virginiae-mail: [email protected]

Juan LorenzoDepartment of Geology and GeophysicsLouisiana State UniversityBaton Rouge, Louisianae-mail: [email protected]

Allan LowrieConsultant Geologist238 F.Z. Goss RoadPicayune, Mississippi 39466e-mail: [email protected]

Darío BarreroLa Luna Oil CompanyCalle 100 No. 8ª-55 Torre “C” Of. 504Bogotá,Colombiae-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Petroleum systems commonly develop in large sedimentary wedges. In Colombia, large sedimentarywedges exist along the Pacific active margin, along the Caribbean right-lateral transcurrent margin, andin the Middle Magdalena Valley basin. The Middle Magdalena basin Neogene sedimentary wedge gen-tly laps onto the Precambrian/Lower Paleozoic metamorphic rocks of the west wall of the MiddleMagdalena Valley basin, which is the Central Cordillera. The Central Cordillera is the northern exten-sion of the Andean magmatic arc created by subduction of the Farallon/Cocos plates. This volcanic archas been active, certainly during historic and present times.

The end of Mesozoic-initiated subduction parallel to the Upper and Middle Magdalena Valleybasins triggers the uplift of the Central and Eastern Cordilleras. The Eastern Cordillera, east of the Mid-dle Magdalena Valley, displays abundant reflection seismic evidence of east to west thrusting involvingTertiary and Cretaceous valley sediments during Late Paleocene-Early Eocene, related to Central Cor-dillera uplift. Thrusting continues today to the west of the Eastern Cordillera, at a rate of several cm/year. Low-grade deformation associated with thrusting can nucleate folds and lead to fracturing havingno lateral movement. Such deformation can create non-steady state complex fluid flow at various scales,by opening and closing migration routes through fracture networks. Higher-grade compressional defor-mation, such as shortening across the Middle Magdalena Valley associated with the Eastern Cordillerauplift, inverts former extensional features during the Paleocene and middle to late Miocene. This struc-tural inversion is documented in oil fields within the basin such as La Cira-Infantas giant oil field.

Uneven advance of the thrust and deformation front in a vertical and lateral sense adds greater com-plexity to regional shortening of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin. The advance of the eastern wall(Eastern Cordillera) of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin is not continuous. Portions of the eastern

oundation 21st Annual Research Conference 523stems of Deep-Water Basins, December 2–5, 2001

Thrust, Kinematics and Hydrocarbon Migration in the Middle Magdalena Basin, Colombia, South America

wall advance more rapidly than others as evidenced by the uneven and irregular spacing of Holocenefaults. Irregular deformation rates seen on the surface may also apply to the subsurface. From a petro-leum system perspective, a sedimentary body less deformed than its neighbors may retain its fluidlonger. When local deformation finally occurs, it may be relatively rapid. Fluid expulsion then can bemore energetic than in adjacent areas, and a second phase of hydrocarbon migration takes place.

Introduction

Colombia, located in the northwestern corner of South America (Fig. 1), is bounded by the AndesMountains to the west and the Amazon/Orinoco plain to the east. The Colombian Andes consist of threeseparate ranges; (1) the Western Cordillera, composed of oceanic crust units, and (2) the Central and (3)Eastern Cordilleras, rooted in continental crust. These two contrasting tectonic terranes are separated bythe Romeral suture zone, which extends from the Guayaquil Gulf, in Ecuador, to the Atlantic Ocean innorthern Colombia. (Barrero et al., 1969; Barrero, 1979; Duque Caro, 1984).

The Middle Magdalena Valley (MMV) basin lies between the Central Cordillera to the west and the

Eastern Cordillera to the east. Covering a total area of over 30,000 km2, the basin extends southwest-wards for some 500 km with an average width of 60 km (Fig 1). The sedimentary history of the MiddleMagdalena Valley basin starts in the late Triassic with the deposition of continental deposits followedby Cretaceous marine carbonate-siliciclastic sediments and thick sequences of Paleogene to Recentmolasses. The continental Paleogene-Neogene molasses consist of six unconformity-bounded units(Suarez, 1996).

The Triassic to Neogene kinematics of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin are important becausethey place constraints on the tectonic evolution of the basin as well as of this entire Andean portion ofColombia. In addition, the basin kinematics provide a strong basis for understanding the generation,migration and distribution of hydrocarbon discoveries in the region and for enhancing successful explo-ration of additional oil and gas reserves.

We interpret a Triassic-Lower Cretaceous extensional event in the central part of the MiddleMagdalena Valley, accompanied by graben formation and abundant normal faults that control synriftdeposition (Fig. 2). This event is followed by a period of compression/transpression deformation alongthe western and eastern edges of the basin. The compressional event starts during Campanian time andcontinues until the Recent. Major pulses of thrust formation occur during Paleogene and middleMiocene time, during which a great number of former extensional features are inverted. The non-uni-form advance of the thrusts favors formation of traps of different ages, alters migration paths, andchanges the locations of active pods of source rocks.

The concepts expressed in this paper are based on the interpretation of more than 10,000 km of seis-mic reflection profiles; the analyses of surface geology maps; well data; and stratigraphic sectionsmeasured along the eastern edge of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin; plus the interpretation of excel-lent radar images. In addition, we summarize some of the results of multidisciplinary regional studies inthe Middle Magdalena Valley basin carried out by several oil companies (i.e., Ecopetrol-Exxon, 1994;Amoco, 1997).

Regional Geologic Setting

The geologic history of the northwest corner of the South American plate (SOAM) is complex dueto the accretion of alloctonous terranes to the continental margin since Permian time. Three majoroblique collisions with micro-plates, during Permian, Maastrichtian, and Miocene time, result in com-plex compression/transpression deformation of the crust and sedimentary cover. A major and longperiod of extension/transtension occurs during Triassic to Lower Cretaceous time as a result of thebreak-up of Pangaea. Subsequent diachronous oblique subduction creates a compressional/transpres-sional tectonic regime starting in Campanian time, as a result of collision of island arcs and/or oceanicplateaus of the Farallon Plate, with the South American plate continental margin. The most recent colli-sion happens during the Middle Miocene, when the Panama Island Arc accretes to the northwest cornerof South American plate (Barrero, 1979; Duque-Caro, 1984).

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Figure 1. Map of Colombia showing location of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin and Romeral suture zone.

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Thrust, Kinematics and Hydrocarbon Migration in the Middle Magdalena Basin, Colombia, South America

Figure 2. Map of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin showing major oil fields, Triassic graben, major faults limiting thebasin, and location of seismic lines.

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Basin Evolution

Development of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin begins in the Late Triassic during the break-upof Pangaea. Early Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous sediments were deposited in a northwest-southeaststriking graben structure now underlying the upper Cretaceous to Neogene sedimentary cover in thecentral sector of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin (Etayo et al., 1969; Etayo, et al., 1983; Ecopetrol-Exxon, 1994). The northern and southern sectors of the Middle Magdalena Valley represent the shoul-ders of this graben undergoing erosion (Fig. 2). The synrift sequence consists of volcaniclastics, fluvialsandstones, and mudstones of Early Jurassic to lower Berriassian age, and a thick interval of marine car-bonate-siliciclastic rocks interbedded with minor amounts of evaporitic rocks. This synrift continental-marine sequence is represented by the Giron, Los Santos, Cumbre, Rosablanca, and Paja formations. Abreak-up unconformity near the top of the Paja formation separates the synrift from the post-riftsequence (Rolon and Carrero, 1995). Seismic reflection profiles document large displacements, up to6000 feet, along planar normal faults, within the graben (Ecopetrol-Exxon, 1994; Barrero and Sanchez,2000). These faults normally strike northwest-southeast and northeast-southwest and can result in adominant block-faulted structural style having a zigzag pattern in some areas. Recognizing the presenceof this structural style in a given area is of prime importance for understanding the generation andmigration of hydrocarbon from local, active pods of source rocks.

The post-rift phase of the graben is characterized by the formation of a vast margin sag due to ther-mal subsidence that together with global eustatic sea level changes during Late Aptian-Middle Albiantimes creates accommodation space throughout northwest South America. The post-rift sequence startsin the Middle Magdalena Valley basin with deposition of carbonates and shales of the Tablazo Forma-tion, followed by repeated sedimentation of shale and limestone sequences intercalated with some ofcoarse clastic sediments. These sediments belong to the Simiti, La Luna, and Umir formations. TheUmir Formation is overlain by paralic to fluvial deposits of the Paleocene Lisama Formation. Duringthe post-rift phase, the dominant deformation style is still normal faulting but less pervasive than duringthe synrift phase. At the end of Cretaceous time (Campanian-Maastrichtian), the Western Cordilleraoceanic terrane, collides with the South American plate across an active subduction zone west of theancestral Central Cordillera. This oblique collision causes development of regional strike-slip move-ments in a northeast-southwest direction (Fig. 3). Major faults like the right-lateral transcurrentPalestina, Cimitarra and Ibague faults cross the Middle Magdalena Valley basin and modify the previ-ous extensional style (Fig. 2). The central and northern part of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin aredominated by a transpressional structural deformation triggered by a restraining step over of the right-lateral transcurrent Palestina fault (Feininger, 1970; Feininger et al., 1975; Barrero and Vesga 1976;Barrero, 2000; Gutierrez, 2001).

The Campanian-Maastrichtian collision generates uplift of the Central Cordillera, as the MiddleMagdalena Valley becomes the west flank of a collision-related foreland basin, which extends eastwardas far the Orinoco plain (Dengo and Covey, 1993; Ecopetrol-Exxon, 1994). The depositional axis of thislarge foreland basin is in the central area of the present-day Eastern Cordillera (Villamil and Restrepo,1997; Villamil, 1999). Coeval with the uplift of the Central Cordillera, a major compressional eventtakes place and produces east-verging thrusting within the Middle Magdalena Valley basin. This eventalso triggers deformation in the foothills of the present-day Eastern Cordillera (east edge of the MiddleMagdalena Valley basin) by the formation of west-verging thrusts. This first phase of compressiondecreases in intensity by early Eocene. As a result, a regional unconformity known as the middle Eoceneunconformity develops and largely peneplanes the cores of the large folds formed by thrusting (Fig. 4).

By early Miocene about 20 Ma, a second major compressional event begins as a consequence of thecollision of the Central America Island arc with the northwestern edge of South American plate. Thiscollision causes uplift of the thick sedimentary pile deposited east of the Middle Magdalena Valley andgenerates the Eastern Cordillera. A thrust belt having west-vergence develops in the western foothills ofthe young Eastern Cordillera and extends into the Middle Magdalena Valley basin (Figures 4, 5 and 6).

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Thrust, Kinematics and Hydrocarbon Migration in the Middle Magdalena Basin, Colombia, South America

Figure 3. Major thrust and transcurrent faults in the Middle Magdalena Valley basin. Red colored faults are surface trace

of faults. Black colored faults are subsurface location of thrust at the Middle Eocene unconformity level.

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he line shows the core eroded by the middle

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tion after Alfonso and Hernandez (1997).

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iel, Barrero and Caceres (1998).

Thrust, Kinematics and Hydrocarbon Migration in the Middle Magdalena Basin, Colombia, South America

These two compressional events produce high topographic relief that is rapidly eroded and depos-ited within the Middle Magdalena Valley basin. Thus, the post-rift basin fill is covered by a Paleogenemolasse sourced in the Central Cordillera and a Neogene molasse sourced from both the Central andEastern Cordilleras (Suarez, 1996). Compressional/transpressional deformation initiated during Campa-nian time proceeds at different rates and with different orientations today (Villamil, 1999; Barrero,2000; Gomez, 2001). Recent studies using 3-D seismic data document a Late Miocene-Pliocene strikeslip deformation in the area of La Cira-Infantas giant oil field (Gutierrez, 2001).

Thrust Systems

The Middle Magdalena Valley basin is bounded to the north and south by major right-lateral tran-scurrent faults known as the Palestina and Ibague faults, respectively (Figs. 1, 2, and 3). The west wallof the basin is an east-verging thrust system rooted in the Precambrian basement of the foothills of theCentral Cordillera. In contrast with this thrust belt the east wall of the basin has a more complex struc-tural style, consisting of a west-verging thrust belt superposed by a swarm of high to low angle invertednormal faults generally dipping toward the east. These inverted normal faults develop during Holocenetime and are the main contributors to the uplift of the Eastern Cordillera (Ecopetrol-Exxon, 1994; Coo-per et al., 1994; Barrero, 2000). However, here we are mainly concerned with the role of the thrustingevents as a prime trap-forming mechanism. The cumulative oil production of the Middle MagdalenaValley basin to date is over 1.6 billion barrels of oil. Eight MMBO has been produced from traps formedby east-verging thrusts (i.e. La Cira-Infantas field) and some 480 MMBO from traps associated withwest-verging thrusts. Other structural styles account for over 320 MMBO produced in the basin (Fig. 3).

East-Verging Thrust Belt

Extensive surface geologic mapping along the eastern foothills of the Central Cordillera(Feininger et al., 1975; Barrero and Vesga, 1976), documents Precambrian to Lower Paleozoic rocksthrust over the Paleogene sequence of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin. Therefore, the thrusts arerooted in the basement of the Central Cordillera. They advance toward the center of the MiddleMagdalena Valley climbing the stratigraphic section along major ramps in the Jurassic and Cretaceoussection to finally reach the middle Eocene unconformity (Figs. 4 and 5). The transport direction of thesethrusts is in general east-southeast and they piggyback fragments of the Triassic-Lower Cretaceous gra-ben sequence. These thrusts seen in seismic lines are consistent with the regional crustal detachmentbelow the Middle Magdalena Valley basin first proposed by Dengo and Covey (1993). The generalgeometry of these thrust slabs is of the fault-bend fold type, resulting in formation of large asymmetricfolds with a moderate dipping back limb and a steeper forelimb (i.e., Cachira Arch, La Cira-Infantas).This geometry has been well documented by Gutierrez, 2001. A similar geometric model has beeninvoked for the origin of the Natagaima arch, in the Upper Magdalena basin (Barrero, 2000;Cediel et al., 1998).

West-Verging Thrust Belt

The west-verging thrust belt is a 50 km-wide and 350 km long thrust and fold belt that forms the eastwall of the basin. The thrusts are rooted in the eastern Cordillera basement and extend within the basinas far as the Magdalena River (Figures 3 and 6).

The belt is currently the target of intense exploration for hydrocarbons. To date the thrust-fold struc-tures of this belt have produced over 480 MMBO and we consider it under-explored. Thrust geometry inthis belt seems to be controlled by the stratigraphy. There are at least three major detachment levels thathave been documented in seismic reflection profiles (Barrero, 2000). The lower detachment is withinthe Jurassic; the intermediate detachment is almost always localized in the shaly sequence of the Creta-ceous Paja Fm. And the upper detachment level generally occurs in the claystone of the PaleogeneMugrosa Formation. (Gomez, 2001).

The thrusts are generally concave upward in profile and flatten with depth. They gradually cut upthrough the stratigraphic section and bifurcate upwards into numerous splays near the surface. Transport

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direction varies from west-northwest in the central sector to a more northwesterly direction in the south-ern sector of the basin. This clockwise rotation is also observed at the scale of individual structures.Individual thrusts translate displacement between each other either through a transfer zone or a swarmof right-lateral tear faults. Thrust advance is uneven and has not been continuous. Portions of the belthave advanced more rapidly than others probably due to the existence of local buttresses created by theJurassic-Lower Cretaceous extensional deformation. Fault-bend folds as well as fault-propagation foldsare common in this highly prospective thrust belt (Fig. 6). This multi-deformed west-verging thrust beltalong the east wall of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin, is interpreted to consist of an early deforma-tion phase of a forward breaking thin-skinned thrust system partially concealed below the middleEocene unconformity. Latter reactivation of some of these thrusts generates a break-back sequence, welldocumented in both seismic reflection profiles and in the field (Restrepo et al., 1999a; Restrepo et al.,1999b; Barrero, 2000).

Hydrocarbon Generation

Geochemical and petrophysical analyses, which include surface samples, well cuttings, oil samples,fluid inclusion analyses and samples from oil seeps indicate the existence of oils derived from calcare-ous and siliciclastic facies (Ecopetrol-Exxon, 1994; Amoco, 1997; Ramon and Dzou, 1999; Mora,2000). A section at the base of the Simiti and top of the Tablazo formations (average TOC of 2–3%) anda basin-wide section over 200 feet thick of the La Luna Formation (greater than 3% TOC) are the twomajor sources in the basin (Ecopetrol-Exxon, 1994; Amoco, 1997). The limestones and shales of theBarremian Paja Formation are considered by some authors as a secondary hydrocarbon source in thebasin (Barrero and Sanchez, 2000).

The maturation of the La Luna and Tablazo-Simiti is described from burial history models on LaCira structure (Fig. 7) and off-structure (Fig. 8) along the eastern wall of the Middle Magdalena Valleybasin (Dickey, 1992). It is a common belief that the source rocks are widespread over the entire basin.However, regional mapping has demonstrated that the La Luna source rock and to a major degree, theTablazo-Simiti source rocks are preserved in lows on the flanks of large thrust slabs (Ecopetrol-Exxon,1994; Barrero, 2000). The La Luna is thin (150m) on top of Eocene structures and very thick (700m)below the stack of thrust sheets in the eastern wall of the basin. Both source rock intervals are preservedin the lows of Jurassic grabens.

These source rocks are presently generating gas beneath the Opon structure and light oil west of theOpon gas field in the Guayacanes Block of the La Luna Oil Company. Geochemical and geophysicaldata support “local” generation as opposed to generation in the foothills of the Eastern Cordillerabeyond the eastern boundary of the basin. The hydrocarbon generated in local pods of source rocks aswell as along the east wall of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin has been trapped in fluvial sandstoneof the Paleogene Esmeraldas, Mugrosa, and Colorado formations. A small percentage has been stored inCretaceous carbonate fractured reservoirs and paralic sandstones of the Paleocene Lisama Formation.The reservoirs are protected by intraformational seals and by a widespread regional top seal called LaCira Shale. The overburden sequence in the basin corresponds to 3000–10000 feet of continentalmolasse deposits known as the Real Formation. (Figures 7 and 8).

Hydrocarbon Migration

Previous articles on the structural development of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin stress the ideaof two separate major orogenic pulses and therefore two different episodes of thrust development. Inthis paper we propose, based on the analysis of the structuring of major oil fields in the basin (Provin-cia-Payoa, La Cira-Infantas, Casabe, Lisama, and Colorado Oil fields), that thrust formation proceedson both walls of the basin from Late Cretaceous time until today.

East verging and west-verging thrust have been advancing in an uneven fashion and at different dis-placement rates. Therefore, some areas have undergone a higher degree of deformation than others (Fig. 3).

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ablazo Petroleum System reaches peak oilickey (1992).

Figure 7. Burial history diagram for Tablazo and La Luna Petroleum Systems. Shading represents the oil window. The Tgeneration about 60 Ma. The La Luna petroleum system did not experience peak oil generation until 10 Ma. Modified from D

Figure 8. Burial history diagram of a sedimentary section at the east wall of the Middle Magdalena Valleybasin some 50km east of La Cira Oil Field. Shading represents the oil window. The Tablazo and La LunaPetroleum Systems reach peak oil generation during Eocene Time. Modified from Dickey (1992).

Areas that have undergone low-grade deformation are later deformed at fast rates resulting in the reacti-vation of older faults and/or fractures sets. This highly dynamic process, spanning about 60 Ma, isresponsible for a very complex fluid migration history. If we entertain this concept, then new hydrocar-bon plays might be discovered in a basin that in our understanding has been only moderately explored.

Recent geochemical analysis on samples from the Casabe-199 well show that expelled hydrocar-bons (primary migration) from the Albian Tablazo-Simiti section amount to over 400 equivalent barrelsper acre-foot and over 180 equivalent barrels per acre-foot for the La Luna (Mora, 2000). Secondarymigration in the Middle Magdalena Valley basin follows the buoyancy and groundwater flow mecha-nisms proposed by Demaison and Huizinga, 1994, Mathews, 1996 and Hindle, 1997. In the MiddleMagdalena Valley basin, several oil fields show a close if not direct relation of reservoir to source (i.e.,Casabe, La Cira-Infantas). In this case, where no sealing rocks lie above the source rock, the petroleumhas migrated vertically from source rock to the reservoir, by buoyancy mechanisms. However in otherfields (Provincia-Payoa, Lisama and Opon) the reservoirs rest upon thick sections (Lisama, Umir) ofrocks which are seals (Fig. 9). For these oil fields, we propose a mechanism of vertical migration alongthrust planes or open fracture networks, related to thrusting. Production from fractured carbonate reser-voirs does exist in the northern sector of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin. Long distance migrationin the basin is demonstrated by the occurrence of a large accumulation of oil in Neogene reservoirsclose to the west wall of the basin where nearby mature source rocks are not present (Velasquez-Nareoil fields). It is believed that this oil has been generated in large active pods of source rocks on the eastwall of the basin, and oil has traveled laterally a distance of about 60km from east to west. These Neo-gene reservoirs have been charged by a distant source rock that is significantly older and deeper.

The large pods of active source rocks of the MMV basin lie buried by two or three stacked thrustsheets that have pushed the major two source intervals of the Middle Magdalena Valley basin downthrough the oil window.

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Thrust, Kinematics and Hydrocarbon Migration in the Middle Magdalena Basin, Colombia, South America

Figure 9. Petroleum system chart for the Middle Magdalena Valley basin, showing stratigraphy and major tectonic events.From Barrero and Sanchez (2000).

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Conclusions

The Middle Magdalena Valley basin is a multi-history broken-foreland basin that develops on top ofa northwest-southeast trending graben (Central Sector) and on its north and southern shoulders. It is nota classic back-arc basin as postulated by most authors. (Schamel, 1991; Dengo and Covey, 1993;Cooper et al., 1995; Ecopetrol-Exxon, 1994; Montogmery, 1992).

East and west-verging thrusts develop almost coevally, although west-verging thrust displacementhas been more active during Neogene time.

Uneven advance and rotation of the individual thrust and deformation front as well as different dis-placement rates favor opening of fractures and reactivation of normal faults, thus creating complexmigration pathways and facilitating long-distance migration.

Structural stacking by break-backward thrusting greatly increases the generation of hydrocarbons,as different source rocks enter the oil window in response to burial beneath successive thrust sheets.

Major petroleum accumulations in the basin are related to three different migration mechanisms:

1. Vertical migration by buoyancy forces to reservoirs that rest over the pod of mature source rock.This is an example of short-distance migration.

2. Vertical migration, with some lateral component, along fault planes. Reservoirs are in moderate ver-tical proximity of the pod of mature source rock.

3. Long-distance migration of hydrocarbons from older and deeper mature source rocks to a more shal-low and younger reservoir. The favored migration mechanism is groundwater flow.

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