ر م ت ؤ م ل ا ي م ل عا ل ا ع ب سا ل ا از ج ع لإ ل ي م ل ع ل ا ي ف# ن% را لق ا ة ن س ل وا ؤم ل ع زض الإABSTRACT The word “Earth” is mentioned in the Holy Qur’ an 461 times to describe the whole planet, its outer rocky cover or the soil section on top of that cover. Verses of geological interest amidst this large number exceed 11. Only a few of such verses are quoted here which testify to the Divine purity of this revealed book. These are: 1- Verse (LXXXVI: 12) which plainly states that our planet is deeply faulted, a fact proved very recently to be a characteristic of our planet. 2- Verse (LII:6) which describes certain seas to be physically set on fire, a fact recently proved to characterize all present-day oceans and some seas that are experiencing sea-floor-spreading. 3- Verse (LXXVIII: 7) which describes mountains as pegs (or pickets). In as much as the largest length of the picket is buried in the ground and the least of it shows on the surface and its function is fixation; modern Earth Sciences have proved the same for mountains. 4- Verses (IXiIII:3); (XV: 19); (XVI: 15); (XXII:31); (XXIVII:61); (IXXXIE: 10); (XLI: 10); (L:7); (LXXVII:25-27) and (LXXIX:32) which emphasize that the main role of mountains is the fixation of the Earth, lest it should shake with us. 5- Verse (LVII: 25) which testifies to the celestial (extra-terrestrial) origin of iron in our planet (at least) by emphasizing that it was 1
SCIENTIFIC FACTS REVEALED IN THE GLORIOUS QUR'AN (SELECTED EXAMPLES FROM THE AREA OF EARTH SCIENCES)
BY Dr. Z.R.M. EL-NAGGAR
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في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم
ABSTRACTThe word “Earth” is mentioned in the Holy Qur’ an 461 times to describe
the whole planet, its outer rocky cover or the soil section on top of that
cover. Verses of geological interest amidst this large number exceed 11.
Only a few of such verses are quoted here which testify to the Divine purity
of this revealed book. These are:
1- Verse (LXXXVI: 12) which plainly states that our planet is deeply
faulted, a fact proved very recently to be a characteristic of our planet.
2- Verse (LII:6) which describes certain seas to be physically set on fire, a
fact recently proved to characterize all present-day oceans and some seas
that are experiencing sea-floor-spreading.
3- Verse (LXXVIII: 7) which describes mountains as pegs (or pickets). In as
much as the largest length of the picket is buried in the ground and the least
of it shows on the surface and its function is fixation; modern Earth
These verses also indicate that the outer rocky cover of the earth has been
spreading out and accreting since the early phases of creation of the earth,
through intensive volcanic activity. Through such activity both the
atmosphere and the hydrosphere of the earth have been outgassed, its
lithosphere has been built and rifted into separate plates, its lithospheric
plates have been set in constant movement and mountain building
(orogenesis) has been progressing to halt such movement and stabilize the
24
في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علومlithospheric plates as well as the whole planet. The stabilization of
lithospheric plates by mountains is effected by their sinking deeply into the
zone of weakness of the Earth (the asthenosphere) as wooden pegs sink into
the ground to stabilize the corners of a tent. Such process of stabilization
cannot take place without the presence of a viscous, plastic material under
the outer rocky cover of the Earth, into which the mountains’ “roots” can
float. In as much as the ship casts its anchor into the anchorage of a port to
avoid the dangers of rolling and swaying by winds and waves, the Glorious
Qur’an uses the term “Rawasi” (moorings or firm anchors) to describe
mountains. Such firm anchors not only stabilize the litho spheric plates, but
also the whole planet in its spinning around its own axis (nutation,
recession, etc).
The Quranic foretelling of these facts more than 14 centuries ago is a clear
testimony of the fact that this Noble Book is the word of the Creator in its
Divine purity and that Prophet Mohammad (PBUH) is His fmal messenger.
In an authentic saying, this noble Prophet is quoted to have said that:
“When Allah created the Barth it started to shake and jerk, then Allah
stabilized it by the mountains”. This unlettered Prophet lived at a time
(between 570 and 632 C. B.) when no other man was aware of such facts,
which only started to unfold by the beginning of the twentieth century, and
was not finally formulated until towards the very end of this century.
E - THE DESCENT OF IRON FROM OUTER SPACE [THE
CELESTIAL (EXTRA-TERRESTRIAL) ORIGIN OF IRON]
The Glorious Qur’an contains a distinct “Surah” (Chapter) entitled “Al-
Hadeed” (= The Iron) which emphasizes in one of its verses (Verse #25) the
following two facts:
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في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم 1- That iron was sent down to Earth i.e. it is of a celestial (extra-
terrestrial) origin, and
2- That iron is mighty strong and has many benefits for mankind.
This Qur’anic verse reads:
"… and We (Allah) sent down iron wherein there is mighty strength and
many benefits for mankind...*) (LVII:25).
We now know that iron is the most abundant element in the total
composition of the Earth (>35% of its total mass) and the fourth abundant
element in its crust (5.6%). This observation has led to the logical
conclusion that the majority of the Earth’s iron must be hidden below its
crust (i.e. within both its cores and mantles). If this is the case , how could
this element be sent down to Earth as stated in the above mentioned
Qur’anic verse? And how could it have penetrated from the outer crust of
the Earth to its inner zones of mantle and core?
To answer these questions, the Earth must be treated as part of the total
cosmos from which it was separated, not merely as an isolated entity. In this
context, recent cosmological discoveries have proved that
1- Hydrogen (the simplest and the lightest known element) is by far
the most abundant element in the observed universe.
2- This predominant, universal hydrogen is followed in abundance by
helium (the second in the periodic table of elements) which is less abundant
than hydrogen by a factor often.
3- These two, simple nuclei of hydrogen and helium constitute the
greatest percentage of the observed universe, while heavier elements are
only represented by traces that do not exceed 1-2% of its total mass, and
are locally concentrated in certain heavenly bodies.
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في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم
These fundamental discoveries have led to the important conclusion that
hydrogen nuclei are the basic building blocks from which all the other
elements were and are currently being created by the process of nuclear
fusion. This process (of the nucleosynthesis of elements by nuclear fusion) is
self-sustaining, highly exothermic (i.e. releases excessively large quantities
of energy) and is the source of the very hot and glowing nature of all stars.
Nuclear Fusion within our sun mainly produces helium, with a very limited
number of slightly heavier elements. The percentage of iron in the sun is
estimated to be in the order of 0.0037%. Knowing that the Earth as well as
all other planets and satellites in our solar system were actually separated
from the sun, which does not generate iron, another question was raised:
Where had the immense quantity of iron in our Earth come from?
Our sun is a modest star, with a surface temperature of 6,000°C, and an
inner core temperature of about 15,000,000°C. Such figures are far below
the calculated temperatures for the production of iron by the process of
nuclear fusion (which exceeds 5 X l0 K). Consequently, other sources much
hotter than the sun were sought for as possible sites for the generation of
iron in the observed universe. One of the suggested sources of excessive heat
was the “Big Bang” explosion of the initial singularity from which our
universe was created (cf. Bott, 1982). However all speculations about this
event suggest that shortly after the “Big Bang” matter was in such an
elementary stage that only hydrogen and helium (with possible traces of
lithium) could have been generated. Again, if any traces of iron were
produced at that stage, iron would have been more evenly distributed in the
observed universe, which is not the case.
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في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم
One second after the “Big Bang”, the temperature of the early universe is
calculated to have been in the range often billion degrees Celsius. At this
stage, the early universe is visualized to have been in the form of a steadily
expanding, huge cloud of smoke, mainly composed of elementary forms of
both matter and energy such as neutrons, protons, electrons, positrons (anti
— electrons), photons and neutrinos. Radiations in the form of photons
from this very hot early stage of the universe had been predicted by Gamow
and others (1948) to be still in existence around the observed universe,
coming from all directions with equal intensity. This prediction was later
proved to be true by both Peuzias and Wilson (1965) through their
discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation corning from all
directions in the observed universe with equal intensity, together with a
remnant temperature reduced to only a few degrees above the absolute zero
(- 273°C).
During the first three minutes of the histoiy of our universe, the neutrons
are believed to have either decayed into protons and electrons, or combined
with other neutrons to produce deuterium (or heavy hydrogen), which
could combine to form helium. In its turn, helium nuclei could partly fuse
to produce traces of lithium (the third element in the periodic table), but
nothing heavier than this element is believed to have been generated as a
result of the “Big Bang” explosion (cf. Weinberg, 1988; Hawking, 1990;
etc.). Consequently, all of the universal hydrogen and most of the helium
are believed to have been created immediately after the “Big Bang”, while
the rest of the universal helium is believed to have been steadily generated
from the burning of hydrogen in the interiors of “Main-Sequence Stars”
like our Sun. After the “Big Bang” explosion gravitation is believed to have
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في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم
pulled together clouds of smoke to form giant clusters of matter. Continued
contraction of these eventually increased their temperature due to the
interaction of colliding particles and the pressures created by the large
gravitational attraction. As the temperature approached 15 million degrees
Celsius, the electrons in the formed atoms were ripped off to create a
plasma state. Continued contraction proceeded until the particles in the
plasma moved with such high velocities that they began to fuse hydrogen
into helium, producing stars with enough energy to generate an outward
push (pressure) that reached equilibrium with the inward pull of gravity.
Most recently, elements heavier than lithium have been proved to be
currently synthesized by the process of nuclear fusion in the cores of
massive stars (at least ten times the mass of our sun) during their late stages
of development. Such massive stars are seen burning helium to carbon,
oxygen, silicon, sulphur, and finally into iron. When elements of the iron
group are produced, the process of nuclear fusion cannot proceed any
further. Elements heavier than iron (and its group of elements) are believed
to have been created in the outer envelopes of supergiant stars or during
the explosion of novae in the form of supernovae.
Consequently, it has been proved that stars are cosmic ovens in which most
of the known elements are created from hydrogen and br helium by the
process of nuclear fusion. At the same time the staggering energy of stars
comes form this process of intra-stellar nucleosynthesis of elements, which
involves the combining of light elements into heavier ones by nuclear fusion
(nuclear burning). This process requires a high speed collision which can
only be achieved at very high temperatures. The minimum temperature
required for the fusion of hydrogen into helium is calculated to be in the
range of 5, 000, 000°C. With the increase in the atomic weight of the
29
في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم
element produced by nuclear fusion, this temperature increases steadily to
several billions of the degrees. For example, the nuclear fusion of hydrogen
into carbon requires a temperature of about one billion degrees Celsius.
Burning (fusing) hydrogen into helium occurs during most of the stars’
lifetime. After the hydrogen in the star’s core is exhausted (i.e. fused to
helium), the star either changes into a Red Giant then into a dwarf or
changes into a Red Supergiant, then into a Nova, when it starts to burn
helium, fusing it into progressively heavier elements (depending on its
initial mass) until the iron group is reached. Up to this point, the process of
nucleosynthesis of elements is highly exothermic (i.e. releases excessive
quantities of energy), but the formation of the iron group elements and of
elements heavier than this group is highly endotherniic (i.e. requires the
input of excessive quantities of energy). The explosions of Novae in the form
of Supernovae result from the exhaustion of the fuel supplies in the cores of
such massive stars and the burning of all elements there into the iron
group. Heavier nuclei are thought to be formed during the explosions of the
Supernovae.
The nucleosynthesis of the iron group of elements in the inner cores of
massive stars such as the Novae is the final stage of the process of nuclear
fusion. Once this stage is reached, the nova explodes in the form of a
supernova, shattering its iron core to pieces that fly into the universal
space, providing other celestial bodies with their requisite iron. With this
analysis the celestial (extra-terrestrial) origin of iron in both our Earth and
the rest of the solar system is confirmed (cf Weinberg, 1988; Hawking,
1990; etc).
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في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم
NUCLEOSYNTIIESIS OF ELEMENTS AND THE EVOLUTIONARY DEVELOPMENT OF STARS AS A SUPPORTING EVIDENCE FOR THE EXTRA
- TERRESTRIAL ORIGIN OF IRON:The nucleo synthesis of elements takes place in the inner cores of stars
according to their initial masses as well as to how much mass they lose
along the way of their development. This has been proved by following the
thermonuclear reactions in the cores of the Main Sequence-Stars”, as
follows:
A “Main Sequence Star” with an initial mass close to that of our sun starts
with the fusion of its hydrogen nuclei to produce helium. Then the gradual
increase in the amount of the produced helium nuclei pushes the remaining,
non-fused hydrogen nuclei outwardly in the form of a burning hydrogen
front around a helium core. In this core, gravity dominates over the
outward pressure, leading to the further contraction of the helium nuclei
and the further expansion of the outward, burning hydrogen front, and
hence this “Main Sequence Star” changes into what is known as a “Red
Giant”. Further contraction of the “Red Giant’s” helium core and
expansion of its outer burning front, will cause a mild core collapse and
eventually will lead to the depletion of its mass to about 20% of the original
mass, changing it into what is known as a “White Dwarf’ (the size of the
Earth but the mass of the sun). With subsequent slow gravitational
contraction, shrinking, cooling and dimming, the “White Dwarf’ changes
into what is described as a “Brown Dwarf’ or a “Black Dwarf’. This
process of core collapse, gradual shrinking, cooling and darkening is the
natural result of a winning inward pull of gravity over a decreasing
outward push of the fusion process due to the consumption of its hydrogen
fuel.
31
في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم
Similar to the light stars, massive “Main Sequence Stars” (ten or more
times the mass of our sun) also pass by the “Red Giant” phase (where they
are described as “Red Supergiants”, but they have a quite different
evolutionary path. Shrinking of the helium core of a “Red Supergiant”
creates greater forces that restart its nuclear fusion, with a much larger
gravitational pull to the centre of the core (due to its greater mass) and
much more active internal collisions. The combined effect of contraction
and collision results iii tremendously high temperatures capable of the
gradual generation of progressively heavier atomic nuclei such as carbon,
oxygen, silicon and iron through the process of nuclear fusion. A mature
massive star will have an iron core surrounded outwardly by shells of
silicon, oxygen, carbon, helium and hydrogen. When the “Red
Supergiant’s” core is changed into carbon, excessive quantities of energy
are released, and these lead to the outward push of a second burning front
of helium towards the first and enveloping hydrogen front.
With the following contraction of the carbon core, fts temperature rises
excessively to allow the fusion of the carbon nuclei into a chain process that
passes by magnesium, followed by aluminium, then silicon.
The silicon core changes gradually into heavier nuclei during similar
episodes of contraction of the core and expansion of the surrounding fronts,
releasing more energy and changing the “Red Supergiant” into a “Nova”,
where iron starts to form. The generation of iron in the core of the “Nova”
starts to consume its energy, because the fusion of silicon into iron is highly
endothermic (i.e. consumes excessive quantities of energy). As the core of
the “Nova” changes into iron, it explodes in the form of a “Supernova”,
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في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم
ejecting its gaseous envelopes and shattering its core to pieces that fly out
into space to reach other celestial bodies that need iron. During its space
journey, iron may fuse with one or more of the elementary particles that fill
the universe to form heavier nuclei.
When the core of the “Red Supergiant” becomes eventually changed into
iron (and its group of elements) the process of nuclear fusion will cease to
function since the nuclear structure of iron does not allow its fusion to
heavier elements as this fusion requires the input of excessive quantities of
energy. With the cessation of the process of nuclear fusion, the outward
pressure of the “Red Supergiant” will vanish, and it will immediately go
through a process of rapid gravitational collapse (in less than a second)
which will lead to the rising of its temperature to 100 billion degrees Celsius
and hence described as a “Nova”. Since the nucleons (protons and
neutrons) present in this collapsing star are being forced very close
together, they create a tremendous repulsion of the positively charged
nuclei from one another. This repulsion causes the star’s core to recoil into
an unimaginable and immeasurable explosion which is known as a
“Supernova”. Fragments released from this explosion fly out into space to
eventually form new stars, planets and other celestial bodies. The nuclei of
isotopes with masses heavier than those of the iron group of elements are
believed to be produced and distributed throughout the universe by such
explosions, which put the processed stellar materials back into the
interstellar medium for the next generation of stars to use. In a supernova
explosion, neutrons bombard nuclei and build up very heavy elements such
as gold, uranium, etc.
33
في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم
Some of the remaining cores of the very largest types of the “Red
Supergiants” can form “Neutron Stars” if the intense pressure from the
gravitational attraction can result in a fast core collapse that forces
electrons to combine with or be assimilated into nearby protons, forming
neutrons. Such “Neutron Stars” can either be non pulsating or pulsating
(Pulsars).
Another possibility for the heaviest cores of exploding supernovae is their
very fast core collapse with so much gravitational attraction and escape
velocity that even light cannot be liberated from their immeasurable
gravitational pulls, hence these disappear as “Black Holes”. Black Holes are
produced when the mass of the core of the Red Supergiant is greater than 4
times the mass of the sun. In this case, even nuclear “pressure” cannot halt
the collapse of the core, and gravity ends it into a Black Hole.
An ACE (Advanced Composition Explorer) spacecraft was launched in
August, 1997 to detect many of the heavier isotopes which have been
originated and are currently generated during the formation, evolution and
subsequent explosion of stars. The comparative number of different
isotopes found in any galaxy is believed to be related to the life cycle of the
massive stars in that galaxy. The chemical composition of our Earth and of
the rest of our solar system, of the whole galaxy, and indeed of the observed
universe at large, has been changing and rearranging throughout the
billions of years since their creation.
These very recent discoveries have led to the logical conclusion that on
separation from the sun, the primitive Earth was no more than a heap of
34
في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم
ash, containing nothing heavier than the elements aluminium and silicon.
Then, this heap of ash was bombarded by a great shower of iron meteorites.
This bombardment caused the heap of ash to heat up rapidly by the heat of
settlement of the impacting bodies and their trapping energy, by gravity
compression and by the excessive heat emanation from the decaying of their
accompanying radioactive elements.
As the temperature of the primitive Earth exceeded the melting point of
iron (2000°C), this and other heavy elements such as nickel started to melt,
developing megadrops that penetrated the heap of ash, reaching its centre
to form its mainly iron - nickel core. This process has changed the primitive
Earth from a more or less homogeneous heap of ash to a distinctly zoned
body of seven earths established on the basis of seismological data as
follows.
1-An inner solid core with great density (10 - 13.5 gm/cm and a radius of
1170km, being mainly composed of iron and nickel, with minor quantities
of lighter elements such as sulphur.
2-An outer molten core of a similar composition, with a thickness of
2300km (from the depth of 2900km to the depth of 5200km). Both the inner
and outer cores of the Earth constitute about 31% of its total mass.
3-6 - Four layers of mantle, separating the Earth’s core from its crust (from
an average depth of about 20km to a depth of 2900km)and constituting
about 68% of the total mass of the Earth. These mantle layers are in the
form of four shells about 28 80km thick, extending from the base of the
Earth’s crust (the Mohorovivic Discontinuity or the Moho) to the upper
limit of the molten outer core. These shells are composed of hot, solid rocks,
which under excessive pressures exhibit the ability to flow.
35
في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم
7- The Earth’s crust constituting about 1% of its total mass with an average
thickness of 20km (about 5km for the oceanic crust and 35km for the
continental crust, which greatly thickens under high mountains), being
mainly composed of light silicates with relatively low melting points.
This differentiation of the Earth’s material represents the most significant
event in the history of our planet, without which it could have never been
inhabitable. It led to the formation of its distinctive zones, with an outer
rocky cover (lithosphere), the eventual rifting of the lithosphere and the
onset of the dynamism of the Earth in the form of plate tectonics and the
mountains’ building movements. With the onset of the Earth’s dynamism,
continents were formed, both the atmosphere and the hydrosphere of the
Earth were outgassed from within its interior and lithospheric plates were
progressively stabilized by the building of mountains.
The above-mentioned discussion proves beyond doubt the celestial (extra-
terrestrial and extra-solar) origin of iron in our solar system. This fact is
further substantiated by the calculated energy for the production of one
single atom of iron which is about four times the total energy of the entire
solar system.
In view of the fact that such knowledge is only a few decades old, and that
the Glorious Qur’an was revealed more than fourteen centuries ago, the
precedence of this Noble Book with the explicit assertion that iron was
physically sent down to Earth is one of the multifarious miraculous aspects
of this Holy Book and a living testimony for both its Divine purity and the
authentic messengerhood of Prophet Mohammad (PBTJH) who received
such Divine revelation.
The Qur’anic account of the celestial origin of iron is coupled by another
miraculous aspect which is represented by the fact that the number of both
36
في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
األرض علوم
the Qur’ anic chapter on iron and of the verse that mentions this element in
the same chapter precisely correspond to both the atomic weight (55.847 or
roughly 56) and the atomic number (26) of iron, respectively.
Indeed the number of Surat Al-Hadeed (the Qur’anic Chapter on Iron) is
“57” and the number of the verse is “25”, but the Qur’an in its text (XV:57)
separates its introduction) Surat Al-Fatihah or the Opening) from the rest
of the Book, and considers the “Basmalah” (In the Name of Allah, The
Most Gracious, The Most Merciful) as a Qur’ anic verse at the beginning of
this Surat (al-Fatihah) and of every other Qur’anic surah where it is
mentioned. Taking this Qur’anic direction into consideration, the number
of Surat Al-Hadeed becomes “56” which is the closest figure to the atomic
weight of iron (55.847), and the number of the verse becomes “26” which is
the exact atomic number of iron. The existence of an iron isotope with the
atomic weight of 57 also fits very well with the current numbering of the
chapter on iron in the Holy Qur’an. The iron (57) isotope is a direct
product of the process of radioactive decay of cobalt (57), while the iron
(56) isotope can be a direct product of the radioactive decay of cobalt (56)
isotope.
As to the mighty strength of iron which the Qur’anic verse describes, we
understand this now by the fact that iron is the most stable element. It has
got the highest binding energy per nucleon and hence is the most stable of
all nuclei because it has the most strongly bound nucleus and the highest
magnetic properties among all known elements. Iron is resistant to
atmospheric corrosion, its melting point is (K3023o)and its boiling point is
(K) 3 023° and it has a density of 7874 kg/m at 293° K. We need excessive
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في العلمي لإلعجاز الســابع العــالمي المؤتمـر
والسنة القرآن
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quantities of energy to fuse silicon nuclei into iron or to split up the iron
nucleus or to add to it. For elements lighter than iron, nuclear fusion
releases energy, but for elements heavier than iron only fission can release
energy. Enough to mention that the process of nuclear fusion in the cores of
massive stars ends at the production of iron, so much so that astronomers
of today claim that the universe is slowly turning to iron. Such unique
qualities of iron are reflected in numerous other physical and chemical
characteristics that are beyond the scope of this paper.
As to its many benefits to mankind, iron has a vital role in making the
Earth inhabitable. The great mass of iron in both the core and the mantle of
the Earth contributes enormously to the generation of the gravitational
force of our planet (g). The constant value of this force is essential for
holding the Earth’s atmosphere, hydrosphere and biosphere. It also
maintains for the Earth an optimum distance from the sun which is
essential for life in general, and for many geological processes to take place
such as the water-cycles, oxygen-cycles and carbon dioxide-cycles, which
are also essential for making our planet inhabitable.
Iron is also an important constituent of both human and many animals’
blood, of all living tissues of plants, animals and human beings. In all green
plants, iron is an important constituent of the chloroplasts which carry out
the function of chlorophyll production. Besides being a vital process for the
life of plants, of both herbivorous and omnivorous animals as well as of all
human beings, this process is the only means of storing the solar energy in
the form of chemical bonds that link chemical compounds together in all
* In each of these paired numbers, the first (or the Roman Number) indicates the number of the Qur’anic chapter (or Surah), while the second (or the Arabic Number) indicates the number of the Qur’anic verse or verses (Ayah or Ayat) in the Surah (chapter).
* MYBP = Million Years Before Present
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forms of living tissues. These chemical bonds are the original sources of all
forms of energy in living beings as well as in many recent and fossil forms
of fuels.
Iron is a highly malleable, tough, silver gray and magnetic metal. It is the
second most abundant metal and the fourth most abundant element in the
Earth’s crust. It has got very many uses such as the production of