1.1 - DNA and the Genetic CodeStudents:1. Relate the organs
involved in the human reproductive system to their functions1.
Identify that genetic information is transferred as genes in the
DNA of chromosomes.1. Outline how the Watson-Crick model of DNA
explains:2. The exact replication of DNA2. Changes in genes.1.
Recall evidence Watson and Crick used to determine structure of
DNA.Watson and Crick specialised in interpreting previous data of
others, not researching new facts for themselves. In order to make
the double-helix model of DNA, they put together the following
information: DNA was a large, long, thin molecule composed of units
called nucleotides, made of the four different nitrogenous bases of
adenine (A), guanine (G), cytosine (C), Phoebus Levene stated that
the four bases were arranged in a repeating pattern. Linus Pauling
stated that DNA had a helial or a spiral structure. Maurice Wilkins
and Rosalind Franklin showed markings and photographs of DNA that
confirmed the theory that DNA had indicated that the DNA's shape
was that of a helix. Erwin Chargaff indicated that the amounts of
guanine in DNA is equal to adenine, and the amount of cytosine is
equal to thymine.Watson and Crick had put this information together
and built the model of DNA that we currently use, the double helix,
in February 1953.1. Describe the basic structure of a nucleotide
and the double helix.Nucleotide
A nucleotide is a basic unit of nucleic acids made of three
components: A nitrogenous base A five-carbon sugar A phosphate
group.Double HelixA double helix is made of: A pair of
sugar-phosphate chains, joined together by nucleotides. Nucleotides
in the middle.1. Relate nucleotides to genes and chromosomesGenes
Nucleotides, with its four bases, make up the 'ladder rungs' of a
strand of DNA. A gene is a length of DNA that has a specific
pattern for its base pairs (eg. AGTTCGTTGA), which make up the
characteristics of the gene. Nucleotides are part of what creates a
gene, alongside the sugar phosphate strands.Chromosomes Chromosomes
are strands of DNA, and the length of the strands varies from
organism to organism. Chromosomes are made of genes. Nucleotides
make genes, which make chromosomes.1. Recall and name the five
nucleotides and describe complementary base pairing in DNA and
RNA.Nucleotide Names Adenine (A) Guanine (G) Cytosine (C) Thymine
(T) Uracil (U)Complementary Base PairingRNA Adenine pairs with
Uracil, Guanine pairs with Cytosine.DNA Adenine pairs with Thymine,
Cytosine pairs with Guanine.1. Describe the main processes involved
in mitosis and meiosis, including replication.Mitosis1. Chromosomes
of cell condense and appear.1. Nuclear membrane of cell
dissolves.1. Centrioles (the things at the end of the cells like
the North Pole) form, and produce spindle fibres.1. Chromosomes
form a single line down the cell (lining up along the equator).1.
Spindle fibres extend towards the centrometre (the middle dot of
the chromosomes), forming the longitude-like lines.1. Chromosomes
are then separated at centrometres, and move towards the end of
their respective cell.1. The cells separate completely, and the
nuclear membranes of the cells form again.
Meiosis1. Chromosomes condense and become visible.1. Chromosomes
are doubled, and attached by centrometres and begin to create
spindle fibres.1. ologous pairs of chromosomes line up together at
the middle of the cell, and centrometres are attached to the
spindle fibres.1. Homologous pairs of chromosomes separate, and
move towards the ends of each cell, pulled by the spindle fibres.1.
Cells separate.1. Chromosomes line up at the equator of the cell
once again, and connected by spindle fibres. 1. Chromosomes
separate at the centrometre and move to separate ends of each
cell.1. Cells separate completely, and haploid cells form.1.
Nuclear cell membranes form again.
1. Compare and contrast the processes of meiosis and
mitosis.SimilaritiesDifferences
Both processes start with a diploid cell. Both processes start
the same way, where chromosomes are condensed, and doubled. Both
processes dissolve the nuclear membranes of the cell when
chromosomes line up against the equator of the cell, and form the
membranes again when all daughter cells have been made. Mitosis
results in two daughter cells, whereas meiosis results in four
daughter cells. Mitosis has only one round of genetic separation
and cellular division, while meiosis has two. Daughter cells as a
product of mitosis are diploids where daughter cells of meiosis are
haploids. The daughter cells of meiosis are not necessarily
identical to each other, unlike mitosis. Mitosis occurs in all
organisms, however meiosis can only occur in humans, animals,
plants and fungi. The purpose of mitosis is for general cell
reproduction, growth and repair of the body. The purpose of meiosis
is genetic diversity through sexual reproduction.
1. Determine complementary sequences from a template
strand.GTCAATCGTGTACATThe complementary sequence to this would
be:CAGTTAGCACATGTAAs A (Adenine) pairs with T (Thymine) and C
(Cytosine) pairs with G (Guanine).Identify the advantages of
meiosis in the genetic diversity of a species. Gives species a
better chance of survival, as if there are many different
characteristics within the same species, there will be a greater
chance that a few will survive if unpredictable drastic changes
occur.1. Use a genetic code to predict an amino acid sequenceIf the
genetic code was AUG CAG GUA CAG CGthe amino acid sequence would
beMet/Start Glutamine Valine Glutamine Arginine.1. Explain the
difference between genetic and chromosomal mutationsGene Mutations
A gene mutation is a permanent change in the genetic code that
makes up a gene. These mutations may be able to be rectified by
enzymes. Gene mutations can have three different effects: The
genetic code differs, however there is no change to the amino acid
sequence, as some amino acids have multiple possible code.
Therefore, there is no change to the polypeptide (chain of x
amounts of amino acids) The genetic code differs, and changes more
than one amino acid in the polypeptide. This alters the structure
and functionality of the polypeptide to varying degrees. Sequence
is changed, and includes an earlier stop codon. This changes the
structure, function and length of the polypeptide dramatically.NB:
a codon is a group of three nucleotides which form a unit of
genetic code in a DNA or RNA molecule.Chromosomal Mutations A
mutation involving a long segment of DNA, a chromosome. It is any
change in the structure of a chromosome, and can include the
addition, subtraction or inversion of chromosomes. Deleted sections
of chromosomes may attach to other chromosomes, disrupting both the
broken chromosome, and any that the mutated chromosome latches
onto. Examples include Tri-21 Down Syndrome, where the person will
have three of chromosome 21 instead of the usual two.1. Explain why
Mendel's work in genetics is so highly respected.Through many
experiments, Mendel had formulated the Laws of Inheritance through
the cross-breeding of many generations of peas with contrasting
qualities. These laws had lead towards the development of the
Punnett Square. These developments have helped further genetic
research, and helps predict the characteristics of offspring
accurately and easily. 1. Explain the laws of segregation and
independent assortment.The laws of inheritance are:1. Law of
Segregation0. Alternate versions of genes, called alleles, cause
genetic variation in organisms.0. For one characteristic, the
zygote always inherits two alleles, one from each parent.0. The
dominant allele only requires one parent to possess it for it to be
apparent in the zygote, whereas the recessive allele needs to be
present in both parents for it to show in the child.0. The two
members of a gene pair, the alleles, separate from each other in
the formation of gametes. Half of the gametes carry one allele, and
half of them carry the other one. eg. mother is Bb, therefore half
of the gametes will be B and other half will be b. If father is bb,
then half will be b and other half will be b. If B from mum joins
with b from dad, then baby will be Bb. The dominant gene will then
take over, and the baby will have the phenotype B, and the genotype
Bb.1. Law of Independent Assortment1. The genes for different
characteristics are considered differently when gametes are made.
Traits are transmitted to offspring independently of each other.eg.
if you cross a GGyy with a ggYY, G and Y will be punnet-squared
separately.1. Describe the differences between genes and alleles,
genotype and phenotype, homozygous and heterozygous, and dominant
and recessive.GenesGenes are the sequence of nucleotides found in
DNA.AllelesEach of the two or more alternative forms of a gene that
determines a certain characteristic of an organism.GenotypeThe
genetic makeup of an organism (eg. BB, bb, or Bb)PhenotypeA set of
observable characteristics of an organism. (eg. brown eyes, blue
eyes, long-stemmed, short-stemmed, etc.)HomozygousWhere the
genotype of an organism has two of the same
allele.HeterozygousWhere the genotype of an organism has two
different alleles.DominantThe stronger allele that only needs to be
present in one parent to show up in the child.RecessiveThe weaker
allele that needs to be present in both parents to show up in the
child.1. Define autosome and allosome.AutosomalAny chromosome that
is not an allosome (sex-chromosome). In a pair of autosomal
chromosomes, both will appear to be identical. Humans have 22 pairs
of autosomes, and are chromosomes 1 - 22.AllosomeA sex-chromosome.
In a pair of allosomal chromosomes, the appearance will not be
identical. Humans have one pair of allsomes, and are chromosomes X
and Y.1. Use a Punnet Square and appropriate genetic notation to
predict possible outcomes of monohybrid, test and sex-linked
crosses.MonohybridThe genetic cross between two individuals that
are heterozygous (hybrid) for one (mono) particular characteristic
(or gene).Test CrossWhen an individual with the dominant phenotype
(the characteristic that can be seen), but with an unknown genotype
(Tt or tt) is crossed with a recessive individual. This is because
dominant characteristics can be either homozygous or heterozygous,
however recessive characteristics are able to be both. Therefore,
by crossing an unsure dominant-characteristic-possessing genotype
with a recessive genotype, one will be able to tell whether the
specimen possessing the dominant characteristic is heterozygous or
homozygous.1. Use probability to explain differences between
predicted and actual outcomes of monohybrid crosses.If brown eye
colour is dominant to the blue eye colour, a monohybrid cross
between the two characteristics would result in 25% BB, 50% Bb and
25% bb. However, parents may have 4 children that all possess the
bb genotype, contradicting the calculated outcome of the monohybrid
cross.1. Provide specific examples of traits which are influenced
by a combination of genotype and environment. Handedness Presence
of Freckles Appearance of Hair Tongue Rolling1. Explain why boys
are more likely to inherit an X-linked trait than girls.0. In order
for a newborn to be male, they must possess the X and Y
chromosomes, however females need two X chromosomes. 0. If a male
inherits an infected X chromosome from his mother, he will not have
any perfectly-functional copy of the chromosome to overwrite the
defective part of the X-chromosome.0. Girls, however, have two X
chromosomes. If they possess an irregularity in one of them and
have another perfectly-functional X chromosome, there is less of a
chance tha they will inherit the irregularity in the chromosome.0.
Therefore, boys are more likely to inherit X-linked traits as they
only possess one X-chromosome.1. Interpret and analyse basic
pedigrees to determine the form of inheritance.Analysing Pedigrees
If neither parent possesses a characteristic, however it shows in
their offspring, this characteristic must be recessive.eg. Rr x Rr
can equal rr. If both parents possess a characteristic and some of
their children have it, then it must be dominant.eg. Rr x Rr can
equal Rr or RR If both parents possess a characteristic however
their children do not, it must be dominant.Difference with Pedigree
and Punnett Square Punnett Square shows the possible genotypes of
the offspring, and the percentage of chance for each genotype
inherited. Pedigree shows who inherits what, and the
characteristics of a family.1. Describe specific examples where
improvements in technology has lead to increased genetic
understanding.0. Technology had helped sequence fruit fly DNA and
discover genomes of many other species, and had also helped lead to
the discovery of restriction enzymes and DNA ligases. Used by
Thomas Hunt Morgan in the 1920s.1. Compare and contrast restriction
enzymes and DNA ligases and provide specific examples for their
use.Restriction Enzymes First extracted form DNA in the 1960s. Only
found in bacteria. Proteins that can cut DNA at specific base
sequences, allowing genetic modification. Natural role is to
protect bacteria from foreign DNA, which is then cut up into many
pieces and destroyed. Are called restriction enzymes as they
'restrict' the growth of other organisms by destroying their DNA.
Restriction enzymes are specific for each sequence, however, and
therefore humans are constantly finding new ways to create more
restriction enzymes. This is because the more restriction enzymes
can be controlled, the more ways there will be to manipulate DNA.
Used as 'scissors' in DNA manipulation.DNA Ligases Discovered in
1960s. Found in all organisms, not just bacteria. Attach, or link
pieces of DNA together. Less specific than restriction enzymes. Can
be used on a number of different sequences. Vital for normal DNA
replication, part of main enzyme group responsible for repairing
damage to DNA and mutations. Used as 'glue' for DNA manipulation.1.
Define the term transgenic and provide specific examples of
transgenic organisms that benefit humans.0. Transgenic organisms
are organisms with new, inserted genes from restriction enzymes and
DNA ligases.0. Genes from other organisms are cloned inside
rapidly-multiplying bacteria0. Genes are cut out of the bacterial
chromosomes.0. Fresh, healthy genes are in1serted into faulty genes
to treat diseases.0. Process is called gene therapy, and creates
transgenic organisms.0. Examples include replicating the human gene
that creates insulin, and inserting it into someone who has
diabetes. As the DNA of the person with diabetes now has
recombinant (basically recombined) DNA, the body is now able to
produce insulin.1. Prepare a logical argument on an issue, such as
GM Foods, etc, using scientific evidence to support views.GM
FoodsGM plants are plants that have been modified to enhance
desired traits, an example being increased resistance to
herbicides, or increased nutritional content.GM foods are a
potential threat to biodiversity as they replace the many types of
natural varieties of plants with only one type, the one which is
genetically engineered. Also, they may pose unknown health risks to
those who consume them. Another criticism of GM foods is that they
may accidentally transfer genes to other species, and that they may
contaminate non-GM plants of the same species through natural
cross-pollination.However, GM foods can be beneficial to humans as
they may be able to become more prolific in breeding, and have
increased nutritional value. This benefits both the economy and
general human health.1. Identify possible benefits of and concerns
about a particular gene technology.Gene TherapyAdvantages Can treat
many diseases that are related to mutations in genes. Therefore,
gene therapy is able to save many lives.Disadvantages Processes are
relatively new to humans, and are life-threatening, and is
therefore a controversial issue. Treatment regarding body
(somatic1. Describe how computers and advanced technology is
critical in genetic sequencing and coding.0. Computer usage is
vital as it enables:1. The comparison of DNA between individuals of
the same and different species1. Can help determine changes in DNA
over time1. Establish evolutionary relationships1. Identify the
type of mutation that results in Cystic Fibrosis and describe how
it is inherited. Autosomal recessive trait Predominantly affects
children Most common type of mutation is a mutation in the CFTR
gene of chromosome 7. The mutation results in the delta F508
allele, which causes a deletion of three base pairs at position 508
of the CFTR gene sequence. Deletion of three base pairs at position
508 prevents the codon for phenylalanine from obtaining its normal
position in the protein, coded by the genes. Having two copies of
the gene of this mutation inherited from parents is the main cause
of cystic fibrosis.1. Relate improvements in technology and the
scientific understanding to the treatment of cystic fibrosis
Improvements in technology and scientific understanding has
increased the lifespan of those with cystic fibrosis by 20 - 30
years, with developments from the 1960s. With current treatment,
victims are also able to live normal lives. Improvements in
technology which allow scientists to view genes would have
contributed to this, as it would have allowed them to actually
discover the CFTR gene.1. Suggest possible ethical issues
associated with detection and treatment of cystic fibrosis Gene
therapy, a possible solution for cystic fibrosis, has a high chance
of resulting in death as its development is still in the early
stages. Even if successful, the effects are short-lived and
benefits are quickly reversed.1. Discuss the significance of the
human genome project An international effort to determine the
sequence of the human genome, and identify the genes it contains.
It has allowed researchers to being to understand how a person is
built. As researchers discover more regarding the functions of
proteins and genes, better medicines can be made, and improvements
in biotechnology and the life sciences will be seen.1. Describe
some benefits and problems and some social and ethical issues of
using biotechnology including the following:0. GM FoodsBenefits
Food will have enhanced traits, such as increased resistance to
herbicides, or higher nutritional content. It will be easier on
farmers to produce the crop.Problems Poses a threat to biodiversity
as the natural number of varieties of one species of plants will be
replaced with only one type. If something happens to this
particular type of GM plant variety, the species of plant will not
be able to be eaten anymore. GM foods may cause health issues.
Accidental gene transfer may occur between species, through natural
cross-pollination.Social and Ethical Issues The lives of people who
consume GM foods may be at risk. Genetic modification makes food
'unnatural'. Transgenic SpeciesBenefits Transgenic animals are able
to provide medical benefits to humanity. Transgenic animals are
potentially able to create more profit. Examples of this include
cows being made to create more milk, or pigs being made to build
muscle mass more easily so that more food will be made.Problems The
species being treated are at risk of death, should a mutation
occur. The creation of transgenic species could potentially lead to
the creation of a new disease that humanity has not developed a
treatment method for.Social and Ethical Issues Animals are only
made transgenic so that they may benefit humans in some way,
however little thought or care is given to the animal being
treated, and therefore the creation of transgenic species can be
said to be akin to exploitation of animals. Putting foreign objects
from animals into humans may be dangerous towards humans as well as
animals. DNA FingerprintingBenefits Assists law enforcements powers
in solving crimes. Provides medical practitioners with information
needed to determine hereditary diseases. Allows parents and
children to find their relations to other possible family members.
Makes identification of a person much easier.Problems Accuracy
depends solely on quality of lab equipment, and the experience and
skill of the personnel in the laboratory. Errors in DNA
fingerprinting can lead to discrimination, or in the worst case -
wrongful conviction.Social and Ethical Issues There is a lack of
privacy if the DNA if the doctor is not careful with the
information. May be carried out without permission of all people
involved, resulting in an invasion of privacy. Artificial
SelectionBenefits Artificial selection is able to produce the
traits that are considered desirable in a species. Artificial
selection, or selective breeding, is able to grow crops that grow
faster over time, and produce a larger yield when
harvested.Problems New defective traits could be born to the
organisms that have been artificially selected. Varieties of
organisms are lost. New organisms may not be able to resist against
diseases the original organisms would be able to.Social and Ethical
Issues Some believe that artificial selection may be 'playing with
life', or 'usurping the plans of nature'. CloningBenefits Parents
without eggs or sperm will be able to create an embryo that is
still genetically related to them. Couples of the same sex will be
able to have children with their traits in them. Parents that have
lost a child will be able to have a child 'returned' to them as a
clone. Endangered animals will no longer be endangered as they will
be able to be cloned. Organs that are problematic will be able to
be replaced with cloned organs.Problems Cloning is highly unsafe,
as 95% of animal cloning has ended in failure. Cloned organisms
often have a life expectancy that is considerably lower. Cloning is
detrimental to genetic diversity. As the diversity in the genes of
organisms decrease, so too will adaptability.Social and Ethical
Issues If a human is cloned, discrimination may ensue, and they
will always be compared to the 'real' one of them. Humans leave
their genetic information everywhere simply by walking around.
People may take this genetic information and clone others without
their permission. Human and animal rights are at stake, and some
people believe that cloning is an act against higher deities.
Genetic EngineeringBenefits Genetic engineering of plants leads to
better nutritional values, and plants may even be able to grow on
lands where the conditions would be too harsh for an un-genetically
modified plant. Generally, plants will possess better traits and
benefit humanity. Humans will be able to change the traits of their
children, giving their children traits that are considered
superior.Problems Species being genetically engineered are at risk
of death, should a mutation occur. The genetic engineering of
species could potentially lead to the creation of a new disease
that humanity has not developed a treatment method for. Detrimental
to genetic diversity, and adaptability.Social and Ethical Issues
People believe that genetic engineering is against the will of
God.
CHEMISTRYYY
Chemical reactions involve rearranging atoms to form new
substances; during a chemical reaction mass is not created or
destroyed.Students: Recall that all matter is composed of atoms and
has mass Identify a range of compounds using their common names and
chemical formulae Construct word equations from observations and
written descriptions of a range of chemical reactions Deduce that
new substances are formed during chemical reactions by rearranging
atoms rather than creating or destroying them Balance a range of
common chemical equations1. Explain that all matter is made up of
atoms which have mass, and that atoms of different elements have
different structures.
1. Compare and contrast word and chemical equations.Word
Equations. Equations that summarise the changes in a chemical
reaction through the use of words.An example of this is sodium +
water --> sodium hydroxide + hydrogen.Chemical Equations.
Equations that summarise the changes in a chemical equation though
the use of symbolsAn example of this is 2Na (s) + 2H2O (l) -->
2NaOH (aq) + H2 (g)1. Compare and constrast ionic and molecular
compounds.Ionic CompoundsIonic compounds contain both metal and
nonmetal elements. The metal atoms donate their valence electrons
to the non-metal atoms, causing the metal atoms to form positively
charged cations. Accepting the electrons causes the non-metal atoms
to form negatively charged anions. The difference in charge forms
ionic bonds between ions. Ionic bonds are relatively weak and often
break when the compound is dissolved in water. The number of
electrons donated or accepted determines the charge of the ion,
which in turn influences the ratio of atoms in the compound. Ionic
compounds list the metal element first in the name, followed by the
non-metal element name. However, the non-metal name is altered
slightly so that it always ends in ide. For example, oxygen becomes
oxide; chlorine becomes chloride; and sulfur become sulfide.
Polyatomic ions (ions made up of a combination of more than one
atom and usually more than one element) take on their own specific
name, which may not necessarily end in ide. Ionic compounds usually
form hard and brittle crystal lattices. The chemical formula of an
ionic compound indicates the ratio of different elements in the
compound.Molecular Compounds Molecular compounds contain two or
more different non-metal elements. The different atoms share
electrons in their valence shells and form strong covalent bonds.
The number of electrons required to make the valence shell of each
atom stable determines the number of electrons shared and the ratio
of elements involved in the compound. Molecular compounds form
discrete molecules, so the numbers in the chemical formula indicate
the exact number of atoms required for each molecule. Molecular
compounds are named according to the number of each element in the
compound. There are a number of rules involved in naming molecular
compounds. The element listed first is found further left on the
periodic table than the other element. For example, carbon is
listed first in any compound containing carbon and oxygen. The
ending of the second element name is changed to ide. Numerical
prefixes indicate the number of atoms of each element If there is
only one atom of the first listed element, the prefix mono is
dropped.0. Appropriately name and write formula for basic/common
compounds.
0. Construct word and chemical equations based on reactionsEg.
CH4 + O4 --> CO2 + 2H2O Methane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon
Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)2C4H10 + 13O2 --> 8CO2 +
10H2OButane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen
Monoxide (g)C5H12 + 16O --> 5CO2 + 6H2OPentane (g) + Oxygen (g)
--> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)C2H5OH + 3O2
---> 2CO2 + 3H2OEthanol (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide
(g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)HSO + NaCO3 ---> NaSO4 + HO +
COSulfuric Acid (aq) + Sodium Carbonate (aq) ---> Sodium
Sulphate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)2HNO3 + MgCO3 -->
Mg(NO3) + HO + CONitric Acid (aq) + Magnesium Carbonate (aq)
---> Magnesium Nitrate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)HSO4
+ MgCO3 --> Mg(SO4) + HO + COSulphuric Acid (aq) + Magnesium
Carbonate (aq) ---> Magnesium Sulphate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon
Dioxide (aq)0. Explain the law of conservation of mass with
specific examplesThe law of conservation of mass states that the
total mass of the reactants must be equal to the total mass of the
products of a chemical reaction.When the products of a chemical
reaction are not allowed to escape, the mass of the products is the
same as the reactants at the start. An example of this is:Acetic
acid (vinegar) + sodium bicarbonate sodium acetate + carbon dioxide
+ water.7. Balance simple chemical equationsEg. CH4 + O4 --> CO2
+ 2H2O Methane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) +
Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)2C4H10 + 13O2 --> 8CO2 + 10H2OButane (g)
+ Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide
(g)C5H12 + 16O --> 5CO2 + 6H2OPentane (g) + Oxygen (g) -->
Carbon Dioxide (g) + Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)C2H5OH + 3O2 --->
2CO2 + 3H2OEthanol (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon Dioxide (g) +
Dihydrogen Monoxide (g)HSO + NaCO3 ---> NaSO4 + HO + COSulfuric
Acid (aq) + Sodium Carbonate (aq) ---> Sodium Sulphate (aq) +
Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)2HNO3 + MgCO3 --> Mg(NO3) + HO +
CONitric Acid (aq) + Magnesium Carbonate (aq) ---> Magnesium
Nitrate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)HSO4 + MgCO3 -->
Mg(SO4) + HO + COSulphuric Acid (aq) + Magnesium Carbonate (aq)
---> Magnesium Sulphate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide
(aq)Chemical reactions involve rearranging atoms to form new
substances; during a chemical reaction mass is not created or
destroyed.Students: Classify compounds into groups based on common
chemical characterisics Investigate a range of types of important
chemicals that occur in non-living systems and include energy
transfer, including: Combustion Reation of acids including metals
and carbonates Corrosion Precipitation Neutralisation
Decomposition8. Identify the key chemical properties of the acids
and basesProperties of AcidsProperties of Bases
Danger LevelCorrosive and poisonousCaustic and poisonous
Taste SourBitter
FeelIf strong, corrosiveSlipperyCaustic if strong
Effect on Litmus PaperTurns redTurns blue
Substance Released in SolutionHydroxide (H+)Oxide (OH-)
Can NeutraliseBases - Gives Salt and WaterAcids - Gives Salt and
Water
React with MetalsTo give Salt and Hydrogen GasNo Reaction
React with CarbonatesGives salt and CO2No Reaction
1. Recall the indicator colours and pH values associated with
acids and basesSubstances with a pH of a lower number are acids,
and substances with a higher pH are alkalis.
0. Predict the products of neutralisation reactions, reactions
between acids and metals, and between acids and carbonates.Acid +
Base (or Alkali) ---> Metal Salt + WaterEg. 2HCl + 2NaOH --->
2NaCl + 2H2OHydrochloric Acid (aq) + Sodium Hydroxide (aq) --->
Sodium Chloride (aq) + Water (l)Acid + Metal ---> Metal Salt +
Hydrogen GasEg. Mg + 2HCl ---> MgCl2 + H2Magnesium (s) +
Hydrochloric Acid (aq) ---> Magnesium Chloride (aq) + Hydrogen
(g)Acid + Carbonate --> Metal Salt + Water + Carbon DioxideEg.
HSO + NaCO3 ---> NaSO4 + HO + COSulfuric Acid (aq) + Sodium
Carbonate (aq) ---> Sodium Sulphate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon
Dioxide (g)0. Identify that combustion can occur at different
rates, but still release energyWhen metal elements react with
oxygen, a metal oxide is formed. Combustion is Metal + Oxygen Metal
Oxide.In the case of very reactive metals, this reaction is rapid
and produces a lot of heat. For example, if magnesium metal is
briefly exposed to a flame or is heated, it will start to react
with the oxygen in the air, producing a brilliant white light. For
moderately reactive metals like iron, the reaction still produces
heat but it is slow.13. Predict the products of combustion,
corrosion and oxidation reactions.Complete CombustionWhen ignited
with plentiful supply of oxygen, hydrocarbons undergo complete
combustion to produce water, carbon dioxide and a large amount of
energy.Hydrocarbon + excess oxygen carbon dioxide +
waterExample-Methane + Oxygen = Carbon dioxide + water + energyCH4
+ 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O + energyIncomplete CombustionIf there is
insufficient oxygen to ensure complete combustion then incomplete
combustion occurs.During incomplete combustion the products carbon
monoxide and carbon in the form of soot may be produced as well as
water. Hydrocarbon + limited oxygen carbon monoxide +
waterExample-4CH4 (g) + 5O2 (g) = 2CO (g) + 2C (s) + 8H2O
(g)CorrosionCorrosion reactions are most commonly seen as metals
reacting with the oxygen and moisture in their surroundings to
produce metal oxides.Metal + water + oxygenrustThe rate of
corrosion is different for different metals. For example, zinc
corrodes much more quickly than iron, whereas gold corrodes much
more slowly. The rate of corrosion of. a metal will also change
depending on the conditions.OxidationOxidation is the gain of
oxygen.For example, in the extraction of iron from its ore:
The transformation from iron (II) oxide and carbon monoxide into
iron and carbon dioxide involves the addition of three more oxygen
atoms, an example of oxidation.0. Explain how precipitation
occurs.Displacement and precipitation reactionA displacement
reaction is the swapping of ions in the compounds of two soluble
salts. AB + CD AD + CBSometimes one of the new salts formed is
insoluble. This is known as a precipitate, and this formation is
known as precipitation. 0. Compare and contrast decomposition and
displacement reactionsIn decomposition, the atoms of a compound are
separated to form two or more products. The reaction can be
generalised as: AB A + BAn example of this is when copper sulfide,
is roasted at high temperatures, produces copper metal and releases
sulfur dioxide gas as the sulfur reacts with oxygen from the
atmosphere.A displacement reaction is the swapping of ions in the
compounds of two soluble salts. AB + CD AD + CB0. Classify
different types of reactions as either combustion, acid reactions,
corrosion, precipitation, neutralisation or
decompositionCombustionMethane (g) + Oxygen (g) --> Carbon
dioxide (g) + Water (aq) + EnergyCH4 + 2O2 --> CO2 + 2H2O +
energyAcid + Metal ---> Metal Salt + Hydrogen GasEg. Mg + 2HCl
---> MgCl2 + H2Magnesium (s) + Hydrochloric Acid (aq) --->
Magnesium Chloride (aq) + Hydrogen (g)Acid + Carbonate --> Metal
Salt + Water + Carbon DioxideEg. HSO + NaCO3 ---> NaSO4 + HO +
COSulfuric Acid (aq) + Sodium Carbonate (aq) ---> Sodium
Sulphate (aq) + Water (l) + Carbon Dioxide (g)PrecipitationSilver
Nitrate (aq) + Sodium Chloride (s) --> Silver Chloride (aq) +
Sodium Nitrate (aq)AgNO3 + NaCl --> AgCl +
NaNO3NeutralisationEg. 2HCl + 2NaOH ---> 2NaCl +
2H2OHydrochloric Acid (aq) + Sodium Hydroxide (aq) ---> Sodium
Chloride (aq) + Water (l)DecompositionCalcium Hydroxide (aq) -->
Calcium Monoxide (aq) + WaterCa(OH)2---> CaO + H2OSodium
Hydroxide (aq) ---> Sodium Oxide (aq) + WaterNaOH ---> Na2O +
H2O0. Identify reactants and products based on chemical properties
and other characteristicsTesting for Hydrogen Gas:Equipment: 2 *
test tubes Test tube rack Diluted acid Magnesium strip Match
Measuring cylinderSteps:1. Measure about 5ml of diluted acid with
the Measuring cylinder and pour into one of the test tubes1. Place
the test tube with acid on the test tube rack.1. Drop the magnesium
strip into the test tube with the acid and immediately place the
other test tube over the test tube with the acid and the magnesium
strip. 1. Wait about a minute for the bubbling to stop. The bubbles
indicate hydrogen gas and due to it being less dense than air, it
will rise to the top of the second test tube.1. Remove the test
tube on the top and be careful not to flip if over. While keeping
the test tube face down, light a match and place it under the test
tube. Tilt the test tube slightly on an angle and a distinctive
squeaky pop should be heard with the matching going off.Hydrogen
gas is less dense than air and will rise to the top of the test
tube to the second test tube and remain there. When the test tube
is tilted the hydrogen gas will move to the flames directly below
the test tube and due to hydrogen gas being very combustible, the
pop sound comes from the small explosion formed by the burning of
hydrogen with oxygen. Testing for Oxygen GasEquipment: 1. Splint1.
Match 1. Oxygen 1. Test tubeSteps:1. Isolate oxygen in a test
tube1. Burn a splint and blow out the fire so that the splint is
glowing red at the end but not on fire.1. Place the splint inside
the test tube with oxygen and it will rekindle This is due to the
splint combusting as combustion occurs at maximum rate when oxygen
is at its purest state. The reason why the splint doesnt rekindle
in normal air is due to the hydrogen being less pure than the pure
oxygen in the test tube.Testing for Carbon DioxideEquipment: 1.
Limewater 1. Test tube1. StrawSteps:1. Pour limewater into the test
tube1. Place straw in the test tube and blow on it1. Change of
colour of the limewater to a milky texture will indicate carbon
dioxide.Lime water is a solution of calcium hydroxide and if carbon
dioxide is bubbled through it,a solid precipitate of calcium
carbonate is formed.Calcium carbonate is chalk or limestone,and it
is this that makes the lime water cloudy.Identify some examples of
important chemical reactions that occur in living systems and
involve energy transfer, including respiration and reactions
involving acids such as those that occur during digestion.1.
Compare and contrast acids and bases, and provide examples of weak
or strong acids.Properties of AcidsProperties of Bases
Danger LevelCorrosive and poisonousCaustic and poisonous
Taste SourBitter
FeelIf strong, corrosiveSlipperyCaustic if strong
Effect on Litmus PaperTurns redTurns blue
Substance Released in SolutionHydroxide (H+)Oxide (OH-)
Can NeutraliseBases - Gives Salt and WaterAcids - Gives Salt and
Water
React with MetalsTo give Salt and Hydrogen GasNo Reaction
React with CarbonatesGives salt and CO2No Reaction
0. Describe how acids and bases aid in digestionAcidsGastric
acid is mostly hydrochloric acid (HCl), potassium chloride (KCl)
and sodium chloride (NaCl). It has a pH of 1.43.5. The hydrochloric
acid has several important jobs, including reducing the number of
bacteria in the food, and dissolving leftover nutrients. The main
role of the stomach is to digest proteins. In the acidic
environment produced by gastric acid, a substance called pepsin
digests most proteins. BasesIn the next stage of digestion, the
breakdown of fat, the food travels to a basic environment.0.
Compare and contrast the chemical reactions involved in aerobic and
anaerobic respiration
Aerobic RespirationAerobic respiration needs oxygen. It is the
release of a relatively large amount of energy in cells by the
breakdown of food substances in the presence of oxygen: Glucose +
oxygen carbon dioxide + waterC6H12O6 + 6O2 6CO2 + 6H2O A rounded,
roughly rectangular structure. Mitochondria are tiny organelles
found in the cell cytoplasm. Aerobic respiration happens all the
time in animals and plants. Most of the reactions in aerobic
respiration happen inside mitochondria in cells.Anaerobic
respiration Unlike aerobic respiration, anaerobic respiration does
not need oxygen. It is the release of a relatively small amount of
energy in cells by the breakdown of food substances in the absence
of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration in muscles Anaerobic respiration
happens in muscles during hard exercise: Glucose Lactic Acid
C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 Glucose is not completely broken down, so much less
energy is released than during aerobic respiration. There is a
build-up of lactic acid in the muscles during vigorous exercise.
The lactic acid needs to be oxidised to carbon dioxide and water
later. This causes an oxygen debt - known as excess post-exercise
oxygen consumption (EPOC) - that needs to be repaid after the
exercise stops. This is why we keep on breathing deeply for a few
minutes after we have finished exercising.21. Compare and contrast
the reactions of respiration and photosynthesisThe overall word and
chemical equations for photosynthesis are: Carbon dioxide + water
glucose + oxygen 6CO2 + 6H2O C6H12O6 + 6O2 The overall word and
chemical equations for anaerobic respiration are:Glucose Lactic
Acid C6H12O6 2C3H6O3 The overall word and chemical equations for
aerobic respiration are:Glucose ethanol + carbon dioxide +
energyC6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 + energyRespiration generally
transforms substances from glucose, while photosynthesis transforms
substances into glucose amongst other substances.22. Identify
whether energy is released or required by respiration and
photosynthesisEnergy is released through respiration, but is used
by photosynthesis.Students: Classify compounds into groups based on
common chemical formulae Investigate a range of types of reactions
that occur in non-living systems and involve energy transfer,
including: Combustion The reaction of acids including metals and
carbonates Corrosion Precipitation Decomposition23. Classify the
reactions involved in the production of steel from iron ore as
either combustion, acid reactions, corrosion, precipitation,
neutralisation or decompositionReaction 1Carbon + oxygen carbon
dioxide C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) This is a combustion reaction.Reaction
2 Calcium carbonate calcium oxide + carbon dioxide CaCO3(s) CaO(s)
+ CO2(g) This is a decomposition reaction. Reaction 3Carbon +
carbon dioxide carbon monoxideC(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g)This is a
reduction reaction.Reaction 4Carbon monoxide + iron oxide iron +
carbon dioxide3CO(g) + Fe2O3(s) 2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)This is a
precipitation reaction.Reaction 5Iron(III) oxide + sulfuric acid
iron(III) sulfate + waterFe2O3(s) + 3H2SO(aq) Fe2(SO4)(aq) +
3H2O(l)This is a neutralisation reaction.24. Explain that the
products formed in each stage use the same atoms present in the
reactants.As the equations above have been balanced, it is evident
that the products in each stage are the same atoms in the
reactants, that have been rearranged as a result of the chemical
reaction.25. Name each compound and write its formula
correctly.