Science in Ancient Times. Stone Age THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF TOOL-MAKING Only primates use "tools" in the real sense of the word. The finer muscle structure.

Science in Ancient Times

Stone Age

THE BIOLOGICAL BASIS OF TOOL-MAKINGOnly primates use "tools" in the real sense of the word.The finer muscle structure of the nervous mechanism set

them apart from other primates.The advanced functional anatomy of the human hand led

to the origin of tool-making.The larger and more efficiently organized cerebrum of

man allowed him to slowly grope towardsupplementing his natural tools.Man's earliest natural tools were his hands and his teeth.

EARLY STONE TOOLS The first tools ever were of stone.The earliest stone tools were pebbles already preshaped

by nature and simply picked up from a river bedThe earliest stone tool were called eoliths because they

date from the Eolithic or earliest Stone age.The Eolithic period was over a million years ago.One hundred thousand years ago, man started to make

more specialized tools:pear-shaped "hand axes", scrapers, knives, pointed

stones, etc.

THE USE OF FIRE Man's earliest conquest was fire. Man's first use of fire came from fires found in nature (e.g. forest

fires). The percussion method was discovered by man only during

Paleolithic times (one million to 8000 BC). Fire was used to warm man's body and to cook food. The birth of cooking led to many advances such as increasing the

range of foodstuffs of man, the preservation of some foods through drying, and baking. Cooking led to the invention many things such as suitable

containers, kitchen utensils and other things. Many industrial processes involving heat, such as metallurgy,

pottery, and brewing used the accumulated experience of prehistoric cooking.

ADVANCES IN STONE TOOLS By 15000 BC more differentiated and better tools were

being made in Europe and the Near East.As more suitable stones for tool-making were found,

flaking techniques became widely used.Flint, obsidian, or fine-grained lava could be used for

flaking.The 'burin', of which over twenty types were used by the

early nomadic food gatherers, has a narrow chisel edge which is produced through flaking.

We must remember, however, that man also used materials such as wood, bone, and ivory for tool-making.

THE BEGINNINGS OF MINING Good flaking stones are not too common.This led to the digging of vertical shafts into the

limestone for 30 to 400 feet to reach flint noduleswith better flaking qualities.By the dawn of the Bronze Age (About 2500 BC),

flint mining became a separate profession,with miners living on the spot year round.Another early product to be mined was salt.

TECHNOLOGY AND ASPECTS OF EARLY SOCIETY The emergence of flint, salt, and semi-precious stones, as well as sea-shells

from the East led to the emergence of trade over relatively long distances. This developing trade is just one of the signs that society was changing, and

with it, technology. For technology is a social product in this sense, that it is one of the

interacting factors in a society, which in those early days was still very much limited by its food supply pattern.

Early food-gatherers and hunters devised a full range of tools directed toward their foraging, hunting, and fishing.

The creation and cultivation of graphic and plastic arts also emerged. Man engraved tools and weapons on the walls of his cave with incised lines

or pecking. He also sculpted. Rock, mud, ivory, antler, and stone, were modeled in the

round or in relief. In these early societies, there was no specialization or division of labor.

THE DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALSBy Magdalenian times (17000-8000 BC) the dog

was already domesticated, and probably the first reindeer, goats, and sheep have been

tamed.During the Neolithic Age pigs, cattle, horse and

the onager were domesticated too.Animals were domesticated for economic

purposes.They were bred because of their meat, hides, or milk.

THE BEGINNINGS OF AGRICULTURE Man's need to free himself from the limitations of vegetable food

supplied by nature in the wild state led him to agriculture. Cereals probably originated from the cultivation and cross-breeding

of wild grasses growing in Syria and the highlands to the north, that is, in the Fertile Crescent running from the egyptian border along the Arabian desert to the delta of the Euphrates and the Tigris.

From 8000 BC onwards, the Fertile Crescent played its role as the center of agriculture.

Europe gave the world two new cereals, oats and rye. Rice did not come from the Orient until about 1000 BC. Man also grew plants for fibers for textiles and rope making, and for

extraction of oils and dyestuffs. The advent of agriculture brought more of less permanent

settlements.

BUILDING The coming of permanent settlements led to early forms

of building.Earlier men had been satisfied with simple windbreaks,

seeking more permanent shelters such as caves only for longer stays.

The earliest European houses were tent-like constructions.

Gradually pole or frame constructions were developed.The advent of metal tools made possible the building of

log houses in the forest regions.Building construction largely depended on the local

materials available.

THE URBAN REVOLUTION Technological developments during the Neolithic Age

gradually led to a regular production of surplus foodstuffs, which supported what has been called the "Urban Revolution."

In the Near East after 600 B.C. some farming villages slowly developed into urban centers dominating an agricultural area.

Trade was no longer in luxuries alone; the farmers brought their surplus grain and food to the city, where skilled, full-time craftsmen traded the articles which they had produced for the food they needed.

TRANSPORT Despite an increase in trade, transport was still very primitive. Most early shipping was merely river transport through very primitive

crafts and few designs havesails. Sailing along the coasts of the open seas was seldom risked. The technological improvements of land transport was even slower. For a very long time, trade was limited to what men or pack animals

could carry on their backs. From 7000 BC onward, sledges were in use for heavy loads such as

the stones used for Stonehenge. On early tablets found at Uruk in Mesopotamia(3500 BC) we see

pictures of sledges on four wheels. True wheeled vehicles are not found until the days of the Sumerian

royal tombs(after 3000 BC).

MAN AT THE DAWN OF HISTORY Writing, the most astonishing invention of pre-history, an invention that divided the

very epochs of ancient man, took place about 3500 BC. The earliest documents were cuneiform clay tablets. Cuneiform writing consisted of wedge-shaped marks incised on wet clay, a material in

which the Tigris-Euphrates Valley abounded. Almost at the same time, the Nile Valley also witnessed the beginnings of writing by

brush dipped in ink or dye on papyrus. With the beginning of the written record--itself a triumph of technology--we pass from pre-historical to historical times. Contemporaneous with the invention of writing was to be the beginning of metallurgy. With the beginnings of metallurgy, the Stone Age of man comes to an end. With the beginnings of writing, prehistory comes to an end. With the beginnings of agriculture, man's parasitism on nature gives way to co-

operation with nature. Technology thus made possible the beginnings of civilization in the great river valleys

of the Near East, in Mesopotamia and Egypt.

Bronze Age

Civilizations in the River Valleys

Egypt – valleys of the NileMesopotamia (modern Iraq) – valleys of

the Twin Rivers, Euphrates and Tigris

Developed different social and political systems

Developed differing technologiesDeveloped different social attitudes

Civilizations in the River Valleys

MesopotamiaPessimistic in philosophyGreat fear of demons and evil spirits

EgyptLoved the good things in life

RISE OF MESOPOTAMIA

Sumerians (3000 BC)Consisted of city-states -> believed to belong to

the god or goddess of that cityArose a temple economy

RISE OF MESOPOTAMIA

Assyrian & Babylonian Empires (2000 BC)Temple workshops gave way to guilds of free

craftsmenProduced articles which made commercial

contract between Mesopotamia and other places like Syria, Asia Minor, Iran, Bahrein, and the Arabic Coast.

RISE OF EGYPT

Originally inhabited by independent tribes -> established its own water province

United under powerful pharaohs (2000BC)Protected by desertsTrading contracts existed Both free craftsmen and temple

workshops existed

LEARNING

Temple school (clerks, officials, priests)“order of things as established by the

gods in the beginning”Religious mysteriesMathematics -> simple computations

ROLE OF THE CRAFTSMEN

Pottery-makingManufacture of textiles

Woked on glass, metals, stone, wood, leather, oils and fats, luxury foods

Employed as specialists in large engineering projects

WATER WORKS FOR IRRIGATION

EGYPTBasin irrigationEstablished water-houses in each

provinceBuilt nilometers (graduated wells

connected with the river)

WATER WORKS FOR IRRIGATION

MESOPOTAMIABasin irrigationConditions were different: Tigris-

Euphrates carried 5x more silt (salt and gypsum) than the Nile.

The canals and ditches had to be cleaned frequently.

WATER WORKS FOR CITIES

Drew their water from the riversIn hilly countries: springs and wells

Shaft was dug in the middle of the town to a horizontal sloping tunnel

Assyrian King Sennacherib -> 1st to build a long-distance water supply

Wooden bailer shadoof

WATER WORKS FOR CITIES

400 BCArchimedian screwWheel of potsCompartment wheel moved by oxen

PROCESSING OF RAW MATERIALS

Crushing, pressing, grindingUsing the feetBag pressSaddle quernRotary quern (2000 BC)Fermentation (alcoholic beverages)

Barley, winedate wine, palm wine (concocted by adding

honey)

TRANSPORTATION

Mainly by waterVehicles with solid wheels and rimmed w/

nails or strips of leather (3000 BC)War chariots (1500 BC)Taming of camels (1000 BC)

TRANSPORTATION

Egypt: canoes and rafts made of bundle of reeds-> evolved to larger boats

Mesopotamia: skin-float, quffa (or coracle)

THE BUILDING ARTS

Brick and stoneMesopotamia

Rammed or kneaded claySun-dried bricks made in oblong or rectangular

wooden moldsCorbelling –> kiln-baked

bricks

THE BUILDING ARTS

MESOPOTAMIATower of Babel

Hanging Gardens of Babylon

THE BUILDING ARTS

Egyptnatural stone -> major building

Pyramid of King Zoser at Saqqarah (2600 BC)Great Pyramid of King Khufu

Reed bundles, mud-bricks,

sun-dried bricks -> housesKiln-baked bricks

were rarely used

Iron Age

The civilization of the Iron Age, was less orderly and peaceful than that it replaced, but it was also more flexible and rational .

The Origins of Iron Age Cultures

The barbarians who overran the bronze age cultures of the ancient east had been unable to form stable states in their own homelands.

But in the latter half of the second millennium B.C. these conditions were achieved through the penetration and transformation of barbarian clan societies through the influence of the class economies of the cities with their emphasis on private property, chieftainship, and weapon production.

The Impact of the Discovery of Iron

Where and how iron was first made in quantity is still a mystery.

The first iron used was the native iron from meteorites, but this was too rare to be anything but a precious metal.

The first iron smelted from its ores was probably a by-product in gold making and must have been even rarer.

Iron in usable quantities seems to have first been smelted from the ore somewhere south of the Caucasus by the legendary tribe of Chalybes.

The wide distribution of iron and the ease of iron working ended the monopoly of civilization of the old river empires of Egypt and Babylonia.

The Metallurgy of Iron

The iron used in antiquity, indeed up to the fourteenth century A.D. in Europe, was made by a process of low-temperature reduction by charcoal in a small, hand-blown clay furnace.

The technique of iron-making was totally different from that of copper.

Once established, however, it required nothing but the simplest equipment and could be quickly taught or picked up.

Iron had one serious disadvantage: it could not be melted for lack of sufficient blast to the furnace, and casting was therefore reserved for bronze.

Iron did not displace bronze; it merely supplemented it for common purposes.

The iron made by the bloomery and forging processes was a wrought iron or very mild steel: it was tough but relatively soft.

Much harder true steels were known – chalybs from the Chalybes, ferrum acerrum, sharp iron, acier – but their method of manufacture was kept a deep secret among the tribes of smiths.

The world of science was not to know it until the work of Reaumur in 1720.

The best steels were those made by the Chinese – seric iron – and by the Indians, whose wootz steel was exported to made the famous damascened blades.

Good steel was so rare and highly prized that the swords made out of it were deemed to be magical.

The great mobility of the horsemen and the sea peoples and their abundance of new weapons made it difficult for the old empires to put up an affective military resistance.

We may suspect that military failure was an index of lack of support from the people of older civilizations.

Further, the Iron Age people, once they settled down, showed themselves capable of building prosperous agricultural or trading communities on fruitless land.

The basically bronze age culture, though profoundly changed by iron age techniques, has retained its continuity right down to our own time.

Axe and Plough

The substitution of new cultures for old meant certain losses of continuity, but it also meant the sweeping away of much accumulated cultural rubbish and the possibility of building much more effective structures on the old foundations.

Pirates are symbols of destructiveness.

Woodmen with their axes and peasants with their iron-shod ploughs amply made up for the destruction.

The earlier use of metal was essentially for the luxury products of city life and for arming a small elite of high-born warriors.

Bronze was always too expensive.

Iron, however, though originally and for many centuries, inferior to bronze, was widely distributed and could easily be produced and worked locally by village smiths.

The effect of the abundance of iron was to open whole new continents to agriculture:

- forest could be cut down

- swamps could be drained

- resulting fields could be ploughed

Ships and Trade

Another feature of the Iron age that was to be incalculable importance to human thought; and particularly to science, was the use of the sea-ways in spreading culture much more rapidly than the old overland routes could possibly do.

With greater facilities for ship-building provided by iron tools, there were better and larger ships and more of them.

The breaking up of the sea empire was the signal for a great period of piracy and sacking cities.

Only places near the sea could get the full advantage of iron age culture.

In countries far removed from it, the Iron Age certainly brought greater possibilities for agriculture and warfare.

Land transport in bulk could not begin to be economical until the development of efficient horse harness in the Middle Ages.

Iron Age Cities

Politics

In its early stages the Iron Age meant a return to a smaller scale of economic unit.

By the fifth century B.C., with the spread of slavery, much larger cities were possible.

The first cities were formed by the agglomeration of a dozen or so villages.

The Iron Age was the first in which commodity production becomes a normal and indeed an essential part of economic activity.

Another social economic feature of the Iron Age was the use of slaves not merely, as of old, for service but also as a means of producing for the market.

The Iron Age city became, almost from its inception, a well placed centre for manufacture and trade.

Against these advantages was set the much-increased danger of war.

Nevertheless, the small Iron Age city was both simpler and freer than the old river valley city.

In this way, the Iron Age city gave rise to politics and created out of political struggles between the classes in the cities, the successive forms of oligarchy, tyranny, and democracy.

Money and Debt

One great social invention that provided both for the expansion and the internal instability of iron age civilization was that of metallic money.

Metal by weight had been used as currency in the old empires.

Money, which soon became the measure of every other value, turned all established social relations into those of buying and selling.

For the poor, the existence of money was negative, they lived in a state of chronic debt.

Oppression of the poor is as old as civilization itself.

Nevertheless, there were real differences between the forms it took in the old civilizations and those in the Iron Age:

- In the earlier case it was gradual and partial.

- On the Iron Age, they were potentially far more independent.

Money power, reforms and revolutions were the background theme of the city history.

The Alphahabet and Literature

An Iron Age development of importance for the origin of science was the vulgarization of the elaborate system of writing – hieroglyphics and cuneiform – of the ancient empires.

As its symbolism was based on sound it could be applied to all tongues and at the same time it opened the world of intelligent communication to a far wider circle that of the priests and officials of the old days.

Writing ceased to be confined to official or business documents and a literature of poetry, history, and philosophy began to appear.

Naturally, poetry and prose narratives themselves in the form of epics and sagas, must have long preceded alphabetic or even hieroglyphic writing, being handed down by bards or professional story tellers.

PHOENICIANSand

HEBREWS

THE PHOENICIANS

The first people to profit by the new conditions of iron age civilization were the Phoenicians of the Syrian coast.

They were helped by their central position between the old great powers of Egypt and Assyria and by the ample use of supplies of good ship-building timber from the Lebanon.

They led the way in:TradeExploiting sea transportThe alphabet

They remained too tied to the continuity of their culture with the old Babylonian civilization to do more than adapt it to the conditions without generating much that was new.

THE JEWS

They were at the very centre of warring peoples.

They have no resources of overseas trade.

Their independence always remained precarious and was only saved in the end as a national entity by the evolution of a cultural tradition or law written in a book –the Bible

Their independence, liberty, and democracy became indissolubly associated in their religion.

In this the Jews were unique in the ancient world, and the influence of their religion and their sacred books was to prove of enormous importance to the subsequent development of civilization.

THE BIBLE: LAW and RIGHTEOUSNESS

The Hebrew Bible is far more than a collection of ancient history and legend.

It is a book with a moral, full of propaganda expressed as a poetry.

The propaganda of the Bible is essentially popular in that in stresses the ideas of the law and of righteousness.

Righteousness, in the Bible, is largely a protest against the abuses of the rich and powerful who, then as now, were addicted to falling into foreign ways of oppression.

The Jews were the first people we know of to fight for an idea and the wars of Maccabees testified to their fanaticism and militancy.

The Bible has, directly in Christianity and indirectly through the Koran in Islam, often serve as the inspiration and justification of popular revolutionary movements.

GENESIS

It is one aspect of the Bible that has most affected science.

The early books of the Bible are versions of old Babylonian and ever early Sumerian creations.

They represent an attempt to account for the origin of the world and man.

Genesis

The world came into existence from a primeval chaos of water, The heaven, earth, air and other objects and forces are a result of the union of the male and female gods of chaos.

Babylonians: younger gods used force to conquer nature

Egyptians: gods are powerful without being violent

These myths soon became the essential justification of the covenant between God and His people and therefore beyond examination and criticism.

Later still, because they were part of the sacred books of the Jews, these myths have come down to us as a literal divine revelation to accepted on faith.

THE GREEKS

The most successful in the exploitation of the new conditions of the Iron Age were the Greeks.

They had double advantage of being more removed from the conservative influence of the older civilizations while being able to make extensive use of their traditions.

The Greeks were the only people to take over the bulk of the learning that was still available after several centuries of destructive warfare and comparative neglect in the ancient empires of Egypt and Babylonia.

They took that knowledge and with their own acute interest and intelligence they transformed it into something at the same time simpler.

CLASSICAL CULTUREClassical Culture was synthetic; it made

use of every element of culture which it could find in the countries it occupied and with which it came into contact.

It was not however a mere continuation of these cultures.

The great contributions of classical culture were in political institutions, particularly demorcracy, and in natural science, especially mathematics and astronomy

THE BIRTH of ABSTRACT SCIENCE

The unique character of Greek thought and action resides in just that aspect of their life which we have called the scientific mode.

By this I do not mean simply the knowledge or practice of science but the capacity to separate factual and verifiable from emotional and traditional statements.

In this mode we can distinguish two aspects: that of rationality and that of realism.

In losing their original culture, the Greeks did not and could not take over the cultures of the countries in their entirety.

They selected from foreign cultures what seemed to them to matter.

THE ECONOMIC BASIS of the GREEK CITY

The early Greeks were able to exploit their local resources to the full with all the intensity and simplicity that are possible only in a compact city.

In these circumstances there were rapid and even violent economic and political changes, while tradition, though never lost, was at a discount.

Institutions and divinities became less important and more attention was concentrated on men.

THE SEPARATION of SCIENCE from TECHNIQUE

The technical developments made in the early Iron Age, and especially by the Greeks before Alexandrian period, were not innovations as fundamental as those of the Bronze Age.

The use of iron led directly to the improvement of all hafted tools.

It also made possible the use of hinge.

These all arise with ease with which iron bars may be bent over in a loop and then welded to form a hole for a haft or peg.

Later, through the marriage of Greek mathematics and Egyptian or Syrian techniques, came the most important developments.

Of chemical inventions the most important is that of blown glass first made in Egypt.

The technical advances of the Iron Age did not affect the learned in the same way as had those of the early Bronze Age.

It was particularly because they were essentially improvements and not radical innovations that they did not strike our imagination.

ARCHITECTURE

CONTENT and METHOD IN GREEK SCIENCE

Modern science is directly derived from Greek science, which provided it with an outline, a method, and a language.

All the general problems from which modern science grew were formulated by the Greeks.

Unfortunately, they thought that they have solved it in their own particular logical, beautiful, and final way.

STAGES in the DEVELOPMENT of GREEK SCIENCE

The history of Greek science may conveniently be split into four major phases:The Ionian PhaseThe Athenian PhaseThe Alexandrian PhaseThe Roman Phase

Rome Rome and the and the

Decadence Decadence of Classical of Classical

ScienceScience

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Hellenistic empires collapsed in Hellenistic empires collapsed in anarchy as Rome came into power. The anarchy as Rome came into power. The latter gained advantage by establishing latter gained advantage by establishing itself in Italy, which was then a farming itself in Italy, which was then a farming country with good climate and plenty of country with good climate and plenty of timber, and growing and healthy timber, and growing and healthy population.population.

It also experienced same class It also experienced same class struggle as Greek cities did.struggle as Greek cities did.

That is, in the form That is, in the form of rivalry between of rivalry between patricians and patricians and plebeians.plebeians.

• and the policy of extending and the policy of extending Roman citizenship first to Roman citizenship first to Italians and later on, to Italians and later on, to other provincials making other provincials making Rome a territorial State Rome a territorial State dominated by slave-owners dominated by slave-owners and wealthy merchants.and wealthy merchants.

The strength of the Empire wasThe strength of the Empire was

Its army by which the Empire Its army by which the Empire had been won and defended against had been won and defended against barbarians. They were managed by barbarians. They were managed by imposing and collecting enough imposing and collecting enough taxes to keep them from mutinying taxes to keep them from mutinying and choosing another emperorand choosing another emperor

It was also effectively a loose It was also effectively a loose federation of cities managing federation of cities managing themselves and profiting for their themselves and profiting for their mutual trade from the Pax Romana.mutual trade from the Pax Romana.

The best land of The best land of the countryside the countryside was farmed by was farmed by slave gangs from slave gangs from the villas of the the villas of the wealthy.wealthy.

The pagi or rustic The pagi or rustic communes were left communes were left to the natives to the natives (pagans) who were (pagans) who were following their own following their own tribal customs later to tribal customs later to become the peasants become the peasants of the Middle Ages of the Middle Ages and to give their name and to give their name to the country or pays to the country or pays or to newly settled or to newly settled colony and freed colony and freed slaves from villas.slaves from villas.

Effects to CultureEffects to Culture

Too late to save Greek civilizationToo late to save Greek civilizationAdded nothing significant but rather Added nothing significant but rather

picked up some general ideas on Greek picked up some general ideas on Greek philosophyphilosophyElder Cato hated Greek scienceElder Cato hated Greek scienceCicero found much to praise in the philosophy Cicero found much to praise in the philosophy

of Aristotle and Platoof Aristotle and PlatoDecay of scienceDecay of science

More application of existing knowledge was done, More application of existing knowledge was done, especially in public works and architecture.especially in public works and architecture.

Restrictive participation on market and abundant Restrictive participation on market and abundant slave labor gave no incentive for development of slave labor gave no incentive for development of industry.industry.

Development of the arch and the arched vault as Development of the arch and the arched vault as needed on large basilicas.needed on large basilicas.

Though yet a science, agricultural writings like Though yet a science, agricultural writings like Georgics are necessarily limited to recordings of Georgics are necessarily limited to recordings of peasant practice and grim reminders of estate peasant practice and grim reminders of estate management based on slave labor.management based on slave labor.

Roman LawRoman Law

It is said to be anything but a scientific attempt at It is said to be anything but a scientific attempt at securing fair dealing between man and man: it is securing fair dealing between man and man: it is frankly concerned with preserving the property frankly concerned with preserving the property of those fortunate enough to have acquired it.of those fortunate enough to have acquired it.

Three superimposed layers of cultural history:Three superimposed layers of cultural history:Old tribal custom (Roman family system)Old tribal custom (Roman family system)City and merchant law (cash and recovery of dept)City and merchant law (cash and recovery of dept) Imperial Administration (prerogative of the prince)Imperial Administration (prerogative of the prince)

Law of NatureLaw of Nature

From the time of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) the From the time of Hadrian (A.D. 117-138) the whole economy began to breakdown.The army whole economy began to breakdown.The army became an increasing but necessary burden. To became an increasing but necessary burden. To avoid the taxes, the villas became economic centers avoid the taxes, the villas became economic centers and trade more limited to luxuries.and trade more limited to luxuries.

By the 3By the 3rdrd century B.C., if not earlier, century B.C., if not earlier, knowledge that is not used to gain further knowledge that is not used to gain further knowledge does not remain. It decays and knowledge does not remain. It decays and disappears. Nobody needed nor wanted to read the disappears. Nobody needed nor wanted to read the volumes until no one can understand them.volumes until no one can understand them.

Thought turned once more to mysticism Thought turned once more to mysticism and religion to escape the wicked world. It had, and religion to escape the wicked world. It had, though, an elaborate intellectual foundation.though, an elaborate intellectual foundation.

Their common intellectual feature was Their common intellectual feature was reliance on inspiration and revelation as a reliance on inspiration and revelation as a higher source of truth than the sense or even higher source of truth than the sense or even than reason. Sarcastically, as Tertullian than reason. Sarcastically, as Tertullian expressed it, “I believe because it is absurd.”expressed it, “I believe because it is absurd.”

Although the rule of nominally Roman Although the rule of nominally Roman Emperors in Constantinople was to last another Emperors in Constantinople was to last another thousand years, the empire belonged to a new thousand years, the empire belonged to a new age.age.

The BarbariansThe Barbarians

East absorbed its barbariansEast absorbed its barbariansIn the West, there was something like a general In the West, there was something like a general

economic collapse of which the barbarian economic collapse of which the barbarian invaders took advantage.invaders took advantage.

It is said that barbarians had better agricultural It is said that barbarians had better agricultural techniques than the Romans – they were, at techniques than the Romans – they were, at least, able to cultivate the fertile and heavy soils least, able to cultivate the fertile and heavy soils of western Europe which the Romans neglected.of western Europe which the Romans neglected.

Everything of culture that depended on large-Everything of culture that depended on large-scale material organization was lost.scale material organization was lost.

The Legacy of the Classical WorldThe Legacy of the Classical World

Improvement in the Improvement in the irrigation and road-makingirrigation and road-making

New styles in New styles in monumental architecturemonumental architecture

Town planningTown planning Social sciencesSocial sciences Greek mathematicsGreek mathematics Greek astronomyGreek astronomy

Astrological predictionsAstrological predictions CalendarCalendar Indifferent mapsIndifferent maps Art of the navigatorArt of the navigator

Natural HistoryNatural History Discursive cataloguesDiscursive catalogues

Techniques minus the Techniques minus the scalescale

Great spread of civilizationGreat spread of civilization Hellenism blended with old Hellenism blended with old

native culture of East and native culture of East and in West, the prestige of the in West, the prestige of the lost learning served to tame lost learning served to tame the barbarians of Europethe barbarians of Europe

Natural scienceNatural science

The end

Pre-Socratic period * nature more impersonal than that of

previous civilizationThales - similar views of the universe as

that of the ancient civilization but with the disappearance of the sun-god

Anaximander - suggested fire as the fourth basic element; he said that the heavens were concentric about the earth; and living creatures rose from moist element as the sun evaporated them.

Anaximenes- difference between elements were quantitative

Pre-Socratic con’t.Heraclitus - the idea of retribution to

explain the world orderPythagoras and the Pythagorean

School*founded a school devoted to a life of

mathematical speculation*his name bears the rule for the right

triangle*first to show the relation between

the sound and the length of a string*numbers provide the conceptual

model of the universe. They are forms and images of natural objects.

Pythagoras con’t*The universe was divided into earth,

cosmos and olympos-these bodies are spherical-heavenly bodies move in circular

and uniform motion-noble bodies move slower than the

less noble ones* The idea that the earth is the center

of the universe evolvedEmpedocles - theory of organic

evolution

The Atomists (Democritus)

*the universe consists of indivisible atoms that move in the void

*man is the microcosm of the universe

*their cosmology is entirely mechanistic, all things were pre-determined

*they did not use human analogies. For them, wrong doers are punished not for vengeance but a deterrence for further commission of crime.

Natural Philosophy in AthensAnaxagoras - Ionian philosopher who

believed heavenly bodies were of the same quality as the earth and not divine as what Pythagoreans believed

craft and philosophical traditions were separated while society grew and differentiated

Socrates -chief philosopher of the time. To him the task of the philosopher was the ordering of man and human society. He devoted his time to the problems of an ethical and political nature.

Athens con’t.Plato - founded the Academy- he suggested any philosophy is

subordinate to ethics and politics- the universe was an uncreated

chaos, the ordering being done by a creator who has a rational design of the world.

Eudoxus - unified quantitative astronomy with cosmological interpretations

Aristotle - the heavenly bodies were arranged outwards from the earth

-absolute diferrence between heavenly and terrestrial bodies

Aristotle con’t.

- motion is maintained so long as the body was in direct contact with a continuously operating mover

-the idea of a prime mover and the nonexistence of vacuum

- to him there are four causes of all natural processes: material, formal, efficient and final

- the first to embark upon extensive empirical inquiries

- he set up the Lyceum

The Alexandrian PeriodThe museum of Alexandria was founded as a

research and teaching instituteArchimedes - made devices as screws,

apparatus for astronomical purposes; he discovered bouyancy and relative densities; he originated method for deducing pi

Euclid - systematized geometryAristarchus - the earth moved around the sunErastosthenes - measured the size of the

earth; earth as a globe with poles and an equator; made a map of earth marked with latitudes and longitudes

Hipparchus - observational astronomy

Alexandrian con’t.Ptolemy - adopted and developed

the Hipparchus system of eccentrics and epicycles; he put forward the so-called geocentric theory, that is, the earth as the center of the universe

ROMAN EMPIRE- main contributions were

a)formulation of Roman law; b) formation of public medical science; c) building of aqueducts and roads; d) Julian calendar; e) systems of Ptolemy and Aristotle were given Christian and theological dress

Medieval Period 500-1450 A.D.

cultural advances in Persia and Syria, India and China

Hellinistic culture (science and art) flourished in Constantinople

wandering tribes and barbaric invasion of Europe

feudal system of economic orderphenomenon of organized religion worldwide

Medieval Period con’t.

activity in science was directed to the dominant religious mode, thus the universe was considered a theological universe

establishment of Islamic empire and the invasion of the Arabs

medieval world was a theological physical world of spheres - spheres of sun, moon, and planets above which is the great sphere of fixed stars and heaven beyond

earth is the center of the universe

Summary of Achievements of Ancient Science (4000 B.C- 500 A.D.)

Mathematics: arithmetic, geometryAstronomy: movement of heavens; shape

and size of earth; earth-centered universeMechanics - spring bow, lever,wheel, pulley,

wedgeDynamics - resisted motion, sound as

vibrationPneumatics/heat - bellows, pumps,

ArchimedesMagnetism -magnetsOptics - shadows, mirrors, plane and curved

Summary of Achievements during the Medieval and Arabic Period (500-1450 A.D.)

Mathematics - Arabic numbers ; algebra

Astronomy - navigational astronomyMechanics - horse harness, gearing,

water and windmills, clocks, pumpsDynamics - motion of the projectileMagnetism and electricity - compassOptics - lenses, eye spectacle