8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
1/48
1
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
2/48
Narration:Thispresentationisanoverviewoftheissueofclimatechangeforforestryprograms.T eo jectivesaretopresentt e in s etweenc imatec angean orestsan toi enti yways
toaddressclimatechangeissueswithinexistingforestryprograms.Wealsodevelopaconceptual
frameworkabout
the
linkages
between
forestry
and
climate
change.
This
conceptual
framework
willhelptoanalyse thepossiblewaystointegrateclimatechangerelatedactivitiesintoforestry
programs.
2
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
3/48
Narration:Thepresentationconsistsofsixparts.Presentationoftheoutline.
1Brief
introduction
to
the
difference
between
adaptation
to
and
mitigation
of
climate
change
2and3.Linksbetweenforestryandmitigation/adaptation
4.Policies
5.Conceptualframework
6.Groupwork
3
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
4/48
Narration:Bothforestedandagriculturallandscapesprovideavarietyofecosystemserviceswhichcaneitherbeenhancedandprotectedbymanagementorcanbedegraded. Ecosystemscanstorecarbonintreesandotherbiomassaswellasinthesoil. Inclimatechangeterms,thisiscalledmitigationbecausebettermanagementresultsinloweremissionsorinincreasedremovalofcarbonfromtheatmosphere,thusloweringtheCO2intheatmosphere.Atthesametime,thesesamelandscapescanprovidebenefitsthatincreaseresiliencytoclimatechange.Suchadaptation
benefitsinclude
improved
storage
and
release
of
water,
maintained
local
and
regional
rainfall
patternsanddiversifiedeconomicopportunitiesthroughagriculturalproducts,timber,nontimberproductsandtourism. Thesesamelandscapescanalsoprovideservicessuchasbiodiversitymaintenanceandplaceswherelocalpeopleupholdculturalorreligiousvalues.Theservicesandlandscapesarethemselvesvulnerabletoclimatevariabilityandchange,suchasincreasedriskofforestfires.Thusforestoragriculturalmanagementitselfneedstobeadaptedto
.
Bothforestedandagriculturallandscapesprovideavarietyofecosystemserviceswhichcaneitherbeenhancedandprotectedbymanagementorcanbedegraded. Ecosystemscanstorecarbonintreesandotherbiomassaswellasinthesoil. Inclimatechangeterms,thisiscalledmitigation
becausebetter
management
results
in
lower
emissions
or
in
increased
removal
of
carbon
from
the
atmosphere,thusloweringtheCO2intheatmosphere. Atthesametime,thesesamelandscapescanprovidebenefitsthatincreaseresiliencytoclimatechange.Suchadaptationbenefitsincludeimprovedstorageandreleaseofwater,maintainedlocalandregionalrainfallpatternsanddiversifiedeconomicopportunitiesthroughagriculturalproducts,timber,nontimber productsandtourism. Thesesamelandscapescanalsoprovideservicessuchasbiodiversitymaintenanceandplaceswherelocalpeopleupholdculturalorreligiousvalues.Theservicesandlandscapesarethemselvesvulnerabletoclimatevariabilityandchange,suchasincreasedriskofforestfires.Thusforestoragriculturalmanagementitselfneedstobeadaptedtobecomemoreresilient.Intherestofthispresentation,wewillreviewmitigationandadaptationasitrelatesto
, .thepresentation,ourmainmessageisthatontheground,thesamemanagementaction,like
settingup
local
community
fire
patrols,
will
both
provide
mitigation
benefits
through
reduced
emissionsfromdeforestation,andwillbringadaptationbenefitsthroughgreaterclimateresiliencytolocalcommunitiesfromcontinuedregulationoflocalwatersupplies.
4
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
5/48
5
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
6/48
Narration:First,youwilllearnaboutthecarboncycleattheglobalscalebeforedownscalingtot e orestsca e.To ay,t euseo ossi ue sisresponsi e oranemissiono 7.2 i iontonneso
carbonperyear;4.1billiontonnesaccumulateintheatmosphere.Theunaccumulated carbon
2.2billion
tonnes
per
yearis
absorbed
by
the
oceans.
However,
aterrestrial
sink
of
1billion
tonnes isstillmissing.Deforestation,mainlytropical,emits1.6billiontonnes.Thismeansthat
2.6billiontonnesofcarbonareabsorbedbythebiosphereeveryyear.
Thisabsorptionistheresultofexpandingforestsindevelopedcountries,theenhancementof
ecosystemproductivitybyhigheratmosphericCO2concentrations,andalongergrowingseason
innorthernlatitudes.
6
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
7/48
Narration:TogiveaclearerideaofwhatatonofCO2is,herearesomeexamplesofemissionsrom ai y i e.
7
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
8/48
Narration:Attheforestscale,forestsaffectthecarboncycleintwoways.First,aforest,likeany, . , .
waytovisualizeastockofcarbonistothinkofthebiomassstoredintheecosystem.Almost50%
ofthe
dry
biomass
is
carbon.
If
the
dry
biomass
of
atree
is
2tonnes,
then
it
contains
around
1tonne ofcarbon.Atropicalwetforestcanstoreupto430tonnes ofcarbonperhectareinthe
abovegroundbiomass.
Second,aforestisasetofcarbonfluxes.Usingsunlightasasourceofenergy,theleavesabsorb
carbondioxidefromtheatmosphereandtransformitthroughtheprocessofphotosynthesis.The
whenbranchesorleavesfalldownanddecompose.OtherfluxesarereturningCO2tothe
atmospherethroughrespirationandsoilmineralisation.Productsexportedfromtheecosystem
alsoaffectcarbonfluxes.Amongthesefluxes,thosethatinterestusmostaretheonesbetween
theatmosphereandthebiosphere.Thedifferencebetweeninbound,photosynthesis,and
outboundfluxes,respirationandmineralisation,isthenetabsorptionflux.
8
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
9/48
Narration:Whenanecosystemabsorbscarbondioxide,thecarbonstockincreasesandclimatec angeisre uce .W encar on ioxi eisre ease intot eatmosp eret ecar onstoc
decreasesandclimatechangeincreases.
Stockandfluxaretwoimportantvariables,buthowaretheylinked?Ifthestockincreases,it
meansthattheecosystemabsorbscarbon.Thisfactcomesfromthemassconservationlaw.As
anexample,ifyourbankaccountisgrowing,itmeansthereismoremoneyenteringthangoing
out.Inthecaseofagrowingecosystem,thenetbalanceoffluxisaninboundflux.Itmeansthat
CO2isremovedfromtheatmosphere,theatmosphericconcentrationofgreenhousegas
emissionsisdecreasedandclimatechangeisreduced.Inthatcase,theprocessiscalledcarbon
fixation,absorptionorremovalandtheecosystemiscalledacarbonsink.Conversely,ifthestock
decreases(forinstanceinadecayingorburningforest),anoutboundfluxwillincrease
atmosphericgreenhousegasemissionsconcentrationsandincreaseclimatechange.Theprocess
iscalled
carbon
emission
and
the
ecosystem
is
called
acarbon
source.
9
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
10/48
Narration:Afterthesebasicdefinitionsofstocksandfluxes,youcanimaginetheevo ut ono car onstoc un er erentmanagement. arts to representt eevolutionofabovegroundcarbonstocksindifferentecosystems.Matcheachcarbon
stockgraph
with
its
description
to
the
right.
Then
share
your
answers.
Quizanswers:First,themostsimpleones.Nonforestedlandhasconstantlevelsoflowcarboncontent:6.
Conservedprimaryforesthasconstantlevelsofhighcarboncontent:2.
Whenforestisconvertedtononforestedlandusethecarboncontentabruptlychanges,
fromhigh
carbon
content
before
the
conversion
to
low
carbon
content
after:
5.
Whenaforestisconvertedtoa lantation thehi hcarboncontentbeforetheconversionabruptlydropsthenbuildsupagain:3.(Notethatthecarboncontentattheendcouldbehigherorlowerthanthelevelbeforeconversion)
Plantationestablishedonnonforestedlandandharvestedregularlyhaslowcarboncontentatthebeginningthencycles:1.
Unsustainablymanagedforestbeginswithhighcarboncontentthatgraduallydecreases:.
10
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
11/48
11
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
12/48
Narration:Inthisexample,GraphArepresentsa degradedpasturewithlowandconstantcar onstoc .Grap Brepresentsa orestp antation,w ic is estroye or urntregu ar y.
ComparingthecarbonstocksunderthetwoscenariosshowsthatthereismorecarboninB.The
differencewith
A
is
the
amount
of
carbon
that
does
not
contribute
to
climate
change
if
we
choosetocreateaplantationinadegradedpasture.
Tounderstandhowlandusecontributestoclimatechangemitigation,youcancomparethese
scenarios.Inthisexample,GraphAisa degradedpasturewithalowandconstantcarbonstock.
GraphBisaforestplantationthatisdestroyedorburntregularly.Thecomparisonofcarbon
stocksunderthetwoscenariosshowsthatthereismorecarboninB.Thedifferencewith(A)is
theamountofcarbonthatdoesnotcontributetoclimatechangeifwechoosetocreatea
plantationinadegradedpasture.Thefactthatthestorageintheplantationisnotpermanent
doesnotmeanthatthereisnocontributiontoclimatechangemitigation.Temporarystorage
canreduce
the
concentrations
of
greenhouse
gases
during
afixed
period
of
time.
12
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
13/48
Narration:Althoughscientistsdebatewhetherornotundisturbedforestsarecarbonsinks,theyagreet att ese orestss ou econserve rat ert anconverte toot eruses.
Wehaveseenthatagrowingecosystemisacarbonsink.Undisturbedforestsaremoreorlessin
equilibrium,astheirbiomasscannotgrowindefinitely.Ifthecarbonstockisfairlyconstant,the
ecosystemisnotasinkanymore.Thisisasimplifiedview,andmanyscientificdebatesrevolve
aroundthispoint.Infact,currentfluxmeasurementsshowthatundisturbedforestsaresinks,
mainlybecauseofCO fertilisation,recuperationfrompastdisturbances,orproblemsofspatial
sampling.Thefutureofthesesinksisalsohighlydebated:Withclimatechangeimpacts,will
undisturbedforestsbecomeasource?Inanycase,evenifanundisturbedforestdoesnotabsorb
greenhousegasesfromtheatmosphere,itisbettertoconserveitthantoconvertittoother
uses(seenextslide).
13
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
14/48
Narration:Aprimaryforeststoreslargequantitiesofcarbonandshouldbeconservedrathert anconverte toa orestp antation.
Wehaveseenthataprimaryforestusuallyhasalargercarbonstockthanaplantation,although
itmaynotabsorbasmuchcarbonfromtheatmosphereastheplantationdoes.Primaryforest
hasalargecarbonpoolandalowsequestrationrate.Aplantationhasasmallercarbonpooland
ahighsequestrationrate.Doesthismeanthataprimaryforestisuselessforclimatechange
mitigation,andabetteroptionwouldbetoreplaceitbyagrowingplantationthatabsorbs
carbon?Theansweris,no.Theimportantfactisthatprimaryforestsstoreagreatquantityof
carbon,sodestroyingthemforotheruseswillreleasealotofcarbondioxideintothe
atmosphere.ComparingalternativesA(primaryforest)andB(conversionofaprimaryforesttoa
plantation)showsthatBwouldreleasemorecarbonintotheatmosphere,makingagreater
contributiontoclimatechange.
14
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
15/48
Narration:Forestproductsstorecarbonoveralongperiodoftime.Buttheirmaincontributiontoc imatec angemitigationist roug su stitution.Forestpro uctscansu stitute orot er
materialssuchassteeloraluminium,whoseproductionemitsalargequantitiesofgreenhouse
gases.Forest
products
can
also
substitute
for
other
energy
sources
such
as
oil,
coal
or
gas.
Fuelwood emitsfewergreenhousegasesthanfossilfuelsdo,aslongasthefuelwood is
sustainablymanagedandthetechnologyfortransformingitintoenergyisefficient.
Wementionedpreviouslythatforestproductsstorecarbon.Infact,forestproductscanstore
carbonoveralongperiodoftimeforexample,inabuildingmadefromwoodbuttheirmain
contributionisthroughsubstitution.Forestproductscansubstituteforothermaterialsuchas
steeloraluminum,whoseproductionemitsalargequantitiesofgreenhousegases,orusesother
energysourcessuchasoil,coalorgas.
Thefigureshowsthatthegreenhousegasbalanceoffuelwood isbetterthanfossilfuelbecause
carbondioxide
absorption
occurs
when
the
wood
is
produced.
However,
some
conditions
must
befulfilledforfuelwood toaidinmitigatingclimatechange.First,theforestresourcemustbe
, . ,
technologyfortransformingwoodintoenergymustbeefficient.
15
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
16/48
Narration:Manyforestactivitiescontributetoclimatechangemitigation.Carbonstockscanbeincrease t roug p antationsoragro orestry.Existingstoc scan econserve t roug re ucing
deforestation.Thesetwoactivitiesrelatetocarbonsequestrationintheecosystem.Emissions
causedby
forest
activities
can
be
reduced,
for
example,
by
using
less
energy
or
fertiliser
in
forest
operations.Biomaterialsandbioenergy canbeproducedtosubstitutematerialsorenergythat
generategreenhousegases.Thelasttwoactivitiesrefertoenergyrelatedemissions.
Thebenefitoftheseactivitiesisthedifferencebetweenthegrowingstockandthebaseline,as
showonthegraph.
Inthiscase,thebenefitofconservingisestimatedwithreferencetothedegradationor
deforestationscenario.3.Emissionscausedbyforestactivitiescanbereduced,forexample,by
usinglessenergyorfertilisersinforestoperations.4.Biomaterialsandbioenergy canbe
producedtosubstitutematerialsorenergythatgenerategreenhousegases.
Thefirst
two
activities
refer
to
carbon
sequestration
in
the
ecosystem,
while
the
last
two
refer
to
energyrelatedemissions.
16
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
17/48
Narration:Sofartheinternationaldiscussionsaboutclimatechangeandforesthavedealtmostlywit mitigation.T e in s etweena aptationan orestsareun erestimate .W y
First,adaptation
has
received
less
attention
than
mitigation
because
it
is
more
alocal
or
national
issuewhilemitigationisaglobalone.Ifaforestprojectreducesdeforestation,itwillbebeneficial
tothewholeworld.Ifaforestprojectincreasesincomeforvulnerablecommunitiesorprotects
waterquality,itwillproducelocalbenefits.Forthisreason,mitigationhasbeenaddressed
extensivelyattheinternationallevel,andfinancialmechanismsthatpromotemitigationare
beingcreated.
Otherreasonswhyadaptationisneglectedrelativetomitigationarerelatedtothedifficultyof
measuringtheimpactsofanadaptationproject. Thereisawaytomeasuremitigation:by
comparingthetonnes ofcarbondioxideintheatmosphere.Withadaptationeffortsthereare
alsouncertaintiesaboutunderlyingvulnerabilityandimpacts.
However,therearetworeasonswhichjustifyconsideringforestsinadaptation:1.Forestsprovide
,
2.Adaptationisimportantforforestsbecausetheyarevulnerabletoclimateimpactsthemselves.
Youwilllearnmoreaboutthesetworeasons.
17
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
18/48
Narration:Forestsareimportantforadaptation:theyprovidegoodsandecosystemservicesthatarecrucia or oca an g o apopu ations,especia yint econtexto c imatec ange.
Thefirst
reason
for
including
forests
into
adaptation
is
that
forests
are
important
for
adaptation.
Forestsproducegoodsandecosystemservicesthatarecrucialforlocalandglobalpopulations,
especiallyinthecontextofclimatechange.
18
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
19/48
Narration:AUSAIDprogramme implementedintheharshenvironmentofNigerresultedingreener an scapest at ave ooste t e iversityo oo sourcesan ive i oo s,re uce
povertyandincreasedresilience.
A15yearcommitmentbyUSAIDinNigersupportedaprocessofreforminlandmanagement
thatresultedinover4millionhectaresofNigerbeingvisiblygreenerandcoveredwithmore
treesnowthaninthe1970s. Byenablingincreaseddiversityoffoodsourcesandlivelihoods,
thesetreeshelpedfarmersmoveoutofpovertyaswellassurviveregularlyoccurringdroughts
andlocustswarms,suchastheonethatdevastatedNigerin2005.Thetreesprovideanalternate
sourceoflivelihoodduringsuchdifficulttimesthroughthesaleoffirewood,buildingmaterials,
rope,dye,andmedicines.Treesalsoprovidefooddirectlysuchaspodsandfruitsaswellas
fodder.Thetreesalsomayhelpprotectcropsfromhightemperaturesandhighwindsduring
droughts.
Thisfarmerled,selfsustaining,landscapelevelinvestmentintreecoverwasaccomplishedby
reformin the le al framework to ive farmers ri hts and access over trees combined with
promotionoflowcost,effectivetechnologies. Overtime,theGovernmentofNigersforesterto
farmerrelationshipwaschangedfromoneofenforcementtooneofexpertiseandservice
delivery. Theapproachwasbasedonnaturalregenerationwhichischeaper,moresustainable,
andmoreusefultofarmersthanlargereplantingprograms.
19
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
20/48
Narration:In additiontotheimportanceofforestsforadaptation,anotherpointisaboutoftheimportanceo a aptation or orests.In ee , orestsarevu nera etot eimpactso c imate
change.Theyarevulnerabletodirectandindirectstresses,withconsequencesonproductivity,
biodiversity,carbon,
soil
protection
(i.e.
loss
of
goods
and
ecosystem
services).
20
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
21/48
Narration:Thesetwomodelsshowthatclimatechangecouldaffectvegetationdistributionandincreaset eris o iresinsomeregionso t eUnite States.
ExampleofsomepotentialimpactsofclimatechangeonecosystemsintheUS.
Left:predictionofchangesinvegetationdistributionunderdifferentclimatechangescenarios.
FortheUKMOglobalcirculationmodel,thereisastrongreductionintheareacoveredby
southeastmixedforestsandtemperatedeciduousforestsandanincreaseofgrasslandarea.
Right:increaseinfireprobabilityinCalifornia.
21
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
22/48
Narration: Forestsandlandscapescanbemademoreresilientthroughavarietyofchangesinmanagementpractices.Atthelowestscaleandinmanagedsystems,wecanchoosespeciesorvarietiesthatarebetterabletodealwithincreasedtemperatures,orperiodsoffloodingor
periodsofdrought.Atthestandlevel,wecanimplementpracticesthatreducerisksoffire,insectoutbreaksorwindfallsthreatsthatareincreasingduetoclimatechange.Actionsatthislevelcouldincludethinning,prescribedburns,adjustingharvestingschedulesandincreasedpatrolling.These
changes
may
require
adaptations
to
the
associated
processing
ifthe
species
or
the
size
of
woodproductshavechanged.Atthelandscapelevelandparticularlyfornaturalecosystemswithhighbiodiversity,wemayneedtochangethebordersofourparksormanagementareastoallow
forspeciestochangetheirrangesandtomoveseasonally. Corridorsbetweennaturalareascanalsoallowthisflexibility. Inparticular,inlocationswherethereareareasofhigheraltitudeweneedtocreatewaysforspeciestomoveupinaltitudetoavoidtemperaturechanges.Finally,
ecosystems. Theeffectivenessofthesemeasures,particularlyconsideringtheriskandexpense,makesthemcontroversial.
Atthelowestscaleandinmanagedsystems,wecanchoosespeciesorvarietiesthatarebetter
able
to
deal
with
increased
temperatures,
or
periods
of
flooding
or
periods
of
drought.
Atthestandlevel,wecanimplementpracticesthatreducerisksoffire,floodsandinsectoutbreaksthreatsthatareincreasingduetoclimatechange. Actionsatthislevelcouldincludethinning,prescribedburns,adjustingharvestingschedulesandincreasedpatrolling. Thesechangesmayrequireadaptationstotheassociatedprocessingifthespeciesorthesizeofwoodproductshavechanged.
Atthelandscapelevelandparticularlyfornaturalecosystemswithhighbiodiversity,wemayneedtochangethebordersofourparksormanagementareastoallowforspeciestochangetheirrangesandtomoveseasonally. Corridorsbetweennaturalareascanalsoallowthisflexibility. Inparticular,inlocationswherethereareareasofhigheraltitudeweneedtocreatewaysforspeciestomoveupinaltitudetoavoidtemperaturechanges.
Finally,ecologists
are
exploring
the
possibilities
of
relocating
natural
species
or
creating
new
ecosystems. Theeffectivenessofthesemeasures,particularlyconsideringtheriskandexpense,makesthemcontroversial.
22
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
23/48
Narration:Asyouconsideractionstoreduceclimatevulnerabilities,youneedtoconsiderhowt eyintegratewit actionstoincreaseormaintaincar onstorage.Anintegrate an scape
managementapproachrecognises thelinkagesbetweenagricultureandforestsandbetween
mitigationand
adaptation.
Improvingagriculturalproductivitycanreducepressuresfordeforestation,thusloweringcarbon
dioxideemissions. Inadditiononeofthekeywaystoincreaseagriculturalproductivityis
throughsoilconservationandincorporationoftreesthroughagroforestry practices. Onereason
t esepract ces ncreasepro uct v ty st att ey ncreasewater n trat onan o nga tyo
soilswhichisitselfanadaptationtofutureclimateimpacts.
Andhowdowepayforallthis? Manypeopleareexcitedaboutthepotentialofcarbonmarkets,
thesubjectofthenextpartofthispresentation.
23
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
24/48
Narration: Internationalagreementsemphasise mitigationratherthanadaptation.Letsexaminet ewaysinw ic orestsareconsi ere un ert eseagreements.
Inthissectionwelookathowforests,especiallytropicalforests,havebeenincludedinclimate
changepolicies.ThemaininternationalagreementsonclimatechangearetheUNFCCC,adopted
in1992,andtheKyotoProtocol,elaboratedin1997.TheProtocolwascomplementedbyother
decisionstakenbytheConferenceoftheParties(CoP),e.g.theCoP7inMarrakeshin2001.
Comparedtomitigation,adaptationisnotwelladdressedininternationalagreements.
AdaptationismentionedintheFrameworkConvention,specificallyregardingthenational
communicationswhichmustincludesectionsonimpactsandadaptation.LeastDeveloped
CountriesmustalsodevelopNationalAdaptationProgrammes ofActions(NAPAs)toassesstheir
vulnerabilityandproposeadaptationprojectideas.
24
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
25/48
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
26/48
Narration:UndertheKyotoProtocol,industrialised countriescommittedtoreducetheirgreen ousegasemissionstoanaverage95%o t eir1990emissions, etween2008an 2012.
Underthetreaty,countriesmustmeettheirtargetsprimarilythroughnationalmeasures.
However,the
Kyoto
Protocol
offers
them
additional
means
of
meeting
their
targets
by
way
of
threemarketbasedflexiblemechanisms:EmissionsTrading,JointImplementationandtheClean
DevelopmentMechanism.
ThebasicprinciplesoftheKyotoProtocolaresummarised inthisslide.
First,developedcountriesthathaveratifiedtheKyotoProtocol(orAnnexIcountries)are
committedtoreducetheirgreenhousegasemissionsin20082012to95%oftheir1990
emissions.Commitmentsarenotallthesame(e.g.8%reductionfortheEuropeanUnion).
Second,three
flexibility
mechanisms
were
defined:
Emission
Trading
(trade
of
excess
allowances
betweenAnnexIcountries),JointImplementation(JI,tradeofcarboncreditsbetweenanAnnex
,
(CDM,tradeofcarboncreditsbetweenanAnnexIcountryandaprojectlocatedinanonAnnexI
country,inotherwords,adevelopingcountry).Forestsareincludedinthenationaleffortsof
AnnexIcountries.Projectbasedmechanisms(JIandCDM)involveenergyandforestryprojects.
26
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
27/48
Narration:UndertheCleanDevelopmentMechanism,theonlyeligibleforestryprojectsare . ,
projecthasbeenaccepted.
UndertheCleanDevelopmentMechanism(CDM),theonlyeligibleforestryprojectsareafforestation andreforestationprojects.TheseprojectsmustimplementaforestonlandthathasnotbeenforestedsinceDecember31,1989forreforestationorfor50yearsforafforestation.Asetofwelldefinedyetcomplexrulesmustbefollowedbytheprojects.Amongotherissues,therulesconcern:Additionally:onlyprojectsthatwouldnothavebeenimplementedwithouttheCDMareeligible.Baseline:onlythedifferenceofcarbonbetweentheprojectandthebaselineorbusinessasusualiscredited.Methodologies:aprojectmustfollowanapprovedmethodologyforassessingitsbaseline,calculatingitscarbonstorage,etc.
Permanence
and
temporary
credits:
as
the
carbon
stored
in
aproject
may
be
released
back
to
theatmosphereincaseoflandusechangeorfire,asafeguardhadbeendefined:CDMforestpro ec scanon y ra e emporarycre s. re scanexp re,an car ons oragecan sappear.TheCDMisquitecomplex,especiallyforforestryprojectswhichfacemorebarriersthanenergyprojects.Duetotransactioncosts,smallprojectswillprobablynotbenefitfromtheCDM,evenwithspecificsimplifiedapproacheshavebeendefinedforsmallscaleactivities.Sofar,fifteenforestryprojects(in12differentcountries)havebeenregisteredundertheCDM.Intotal,therearemorethanregistered2000projectsforemissionsreduction(energy,industry,transportation,waste)undertheCDM.Atthemoment,17methodologiesforforestryprojectshavebeenapproved.Theyhavebeensubmittedbyprojectsunderdesign.Moreprojectsarecurrentl under re aration,sonew ro ectsshouldbeacce tedsoon.
27
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
28/48
Narration:REDDmechanismsusemarketorfinancialincentivestoreducetheemissionofgreen ousegases rom e orestationan orest egra ation.REDDactivitiesareun erta en y
nationalorlocalgovernments,NGOs,theprivatesector,oranycombinationofthese.
Theconservationoftropicalforestsisnotcurrentlyconsideredininternationalagreementson
climatechange,eventhoughtropicaldeforestationrepresentsbetween15and20%ofglobal
emissions.In2005,somecountriesaskedtostartnegotiationsonhowtoincludeavoided
deforestationintheglobalclimateregime.UndertheUNFCCCnegotiations,thisissueisformally
calledreducingemissionsfromdeforestationandorest degradation,orREDDforshort.
Mainissuesunderdiscussionarethelinkswithcapandtradeagreementsandcarbonmarkets,
whattoreward(efforts,reductionscomparedtoabaseline),impactsonsustainable
development,redistributionofbenefitsandtechnicalaspectsofmonitoring.In2007inBali,an
agreementwas
reached
on
the
implementation
of
pilot
actions.
The
World
Bank
has
created
a
fundforfundingREDDpilotactivities(FCPF).Manybilateralinitiativeshavebeendevelopedand
.
Recentlyinthenegotiations,REDDhasbeenbroadenedtoREDD+whichconsidersnotjustthe
reductionofemissionsfromdeforestationandforestdegradation,butratheradoptsaholistic
approachwherebothsourcesofemissionsfromforestsandsequestrationofcarbonintreesand
soilsshouldbetakenintoaccount.REDD+includesforestconservation,sustainableforest
management,enhancementofforestcarbonsinks,afforestation andreforestation,
deforestationandforestdegradation.
28
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
29/48
Narration:Therearetwobasictypesofcarbonmarkets:complianceandvoluntary. Complianceparticularamount. Onewaytheycandothisistobuyoffsetcreditsthatrepresentemissions
reductionsachieved
by
somebody
else.
Voluntary
markets
also
provide
away
to
buy
offsets,
but
thecreditscannotbeusedbycompaniestomeettheirrequirementsundergovernmentemissionsregulations.Someofthesecarbonmarketsworkforforestryprojectsindevelopingcountries,suchastheCleanDevelopmentMechanismorvoluntarymarkets.
Therearetwobasictypesofcarbonmarkets:complianceandvoluntary. Compliancemarketsareestablishedbygovernmentsandrequirecompaniestoreducetheiremissionsbyaparticularamount. Onewaytheycandothisistobuyoffsetcreditsthatrepresentemissionsreductionsachievedbysomebodyelse. Voluntarymarketsalsoprovideawaytobuyoffsets,butthecreditscannotbeusedbycompaniestomeettheirrequirementsundergovernmentemissionsregulations.
TheKyotoProtocoldefinedthreeflexibilitymechanismsthatinvolvemarkettransactionsunderman a orygovernmen regu a ons. eseare m ss ons ra ng, o n mp emen a onan CleanDevelopmentMechanism.TomeettheircommitmentsundertheKyotoProtocol,theEuropeanUnioncreatedaninternalcarbonmarket,theEUETS(EmissionTradingSystem)thatallowsEUcountriestotradetheiremissions,anditallowsalimitedamountofoffsetstobepurchasedfromdevelopingcountriesthroughtheCDM.Othercapandtradeinitiatives(RGGItheRegionalGreenhouseGasInitiativeintheNortheasternUnitedStates,WRCAItheWesternRegionalClimateActionInitiative,theOregonPowerPlantOffsetProgram,)havedevelopedcarbonmarketsaswell.
DespitethefactthattheCDMdoesallowforestryprojects,theEuropeanETShasnotallowed
forestryCDM
credits
to
be
used
as
offsets,
greatly
reducing
demand
for
forestry
credits
in
the
compliancemarketsandshiftingmostforestandagricultureprojectsovertovoluntarymarkets.
29
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
30/48
Narration:Theshareofforestryprojectswithinthecarbonmarketisverylow.
Incarbon
markets,
transactions
with
projects
are
growing
fast.
The
CDM
is
the
most
important
mechanismintermoftradedvolumes.However,theshareofforestryprojectsoverallisvery
low:lessthan1%ofthetotalinthecaseoftheCDM.Theshareishigherforvoluntarymarkets
(around50%),butvoluntarymarketsrepresentasmallvolumecomparedtotheCDM.
Therearemanyreasonsforhavingalowtransactionvolumewithforestryprojectsincarbon
markets:theabsenceofconnectionbetweentheCDMandtheEuropeanUnionEmissionTrading
System;thedelayinforestrelatedCDMdecisions,whichwastakentwoyearsafterthosefor
energyprojects;thelackofawarenessofmarketsforforestryprojects;andthecomplexityof
forestryprojectsforcarbonestimation,monitoring,andimpactsonsustainabledevelopment.
30
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
31/48
Narration:Voluntarymarketscouldoffergoodopportunitiesforforestryprojects,especiallyift osemar etsusestan ar stoassessan emonstratet equa ityo t eirprojects.
AlthoughvoluntarymarketsrepresentalowertransactionvolumethantheCDM,theycould
offergoodopportunitiesforforestryprojects,whichseemmoreattractivetobuyersinthese
markets.
Anotheradvantageofvoluntarymarketsisthatactivitiesarenotrestrictedtoafforestation and
reforestationasintheCDM.Themodalitiesarenotwelldefinedandmaybesimplerthaninthe
CDM.However,somevoluntarymarketshavebeencriticised forlackofstringencyandfor
sellingairtobuyers.Thatswhymanyorganisations areusingstandardstoassessand
demonstratethequalityoftheirprojects.ExamplesofstandardsaretheClimate,Community,
BiodiversityStandard(CCB)andtheVoluntaryCarbonStandard(VCS).
31
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
32/48
Narration:Sohowdoyoubringthisalltogetheranddesignprogramstoaddressclimatechangean an scapes Int enexts i eweproposeasimp e ramewor t at aysoutmanyo t e
factorsinvolvedinachievingchange.
32
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
33/48
Narration:Hereisasimpleframework.(Walkthemthroughtheframework)
33
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
34/48
Objectivesandspecificquestionstobeaddressed.
Groupswillchoosearealprojectthatpreferablyallgroupmembersknow.Ifpossible,agroup
memberwill
present
the
project
to
the
others.
34
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
35/48
Narration:Hereisanexample.Caseexampletobeshownifthegroupshavedifficultystartingtheexercise
35
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
36/48
Groupsharetheresultofdiscussion.Iftimeisavailable,prepareashortpresentationofthe
in ings.
36
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
37/48
37
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
38/48
38
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
39/48
39
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
40/48
40
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
41/48
41
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
42/48
42
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
43/48
43
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
44/48
44
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
45/48
45
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
46/48
46
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
47/48
47
8/12/2019 schimbare paduri
48/48