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BGh" rich !"t rich"r $h"n a hdro!"n halid" or $at"r is add"d to anal"n" or aln"% th" hdro!"n atom bonds to th" carbon atom $ithin th"doubl" bond that already has more hydrogen bonds(
GEOMETRIC
ISOMERS
• a ci3 i3om"r has both all !roups on th" sam" sid" of th" mol"cularstrucutr"
CH3 CH3 C F C cis-2-butene
H H
• a !ran3 i3om"r has all !roups on th" opposit" sid" of th" mol"cularstrucutr"
CH3 H C F C trans-2-butene
H CH3
>?<+ES
DE&INITIONa hdrocarbon that contains at l"ast on" carbon-carbon tripl" bond@ !"n"ralformula% CnH/n-/
NAMING
pr"fi2 r"f"rrin! to numb"r of carbons in th" lon!"st continuous chain that
contains the triple bond A B--n"• all !roups ar" nam"d in alphab"tical ord"r% numb"r"d from th" "nd that is
po$-m"r – a mol"cul" of lar!" molar mass that consists of man r"p"atin! subunits call"dmonom"rs@ t$o tp"s& addition and cond"nsation
monom"r – a mol"cul" or compound usuall containin! carbon and of r"lati#"l lo$ mol"cular$"i!ht and simpl" structur" $hich is capabl" of con#"rsion to polm"rs bcombination $ith its"lf or oth"r similar mol"cul"s or compounds
im"r – a mol"cul" mad" up of t$o monom"rs
ADDITION PO(*MERS
ai!ion po$-m"r – a polm"r form"d $h"n monom"r units ar" lin"d throu!h additionr"actions@ all atoms pr"s"nt in th" monom"r ar" r"tain"d in th" polm"r
al"n" A al"n" polm"r
C F C A C F C – C – C – C – C – or – C – C –
n
• l"ss r"acti#" than th"ir monom"rs% b"caus" th" unsaturated al"n" monom"rs ha#" b""ntransform"d into saturated carbon s"l"tons of alan"s
po$-"3!"r – a polm"r form"d b cond"nsation r"actions r"sultin! in "st"r lina!"s b"t$""nmonom"rs
dialcohol A dicarbo2lic acid pol"st"r 'dim"r* A $at"r
, , , , H, – CH/ – CH/ – ,H A C – C – , – CH/ CH/ – , – C – C – A / H/,
n
H, ,H
po$-ami" – a polm"r form"d b cond"nsation r"actions r"sultin! in amid" lina!"s b"t$""nmonom"rs@ also no$n as a n-$on
diamin" A dicarbo2lic acid polamid" 'dim"r* A $at"r
H H , , H H , , + – CH/ – + A C – C – + – CH/ – + – C – C – A / H/,
n
H H H, ,H
COMPOUNDS O& (I&E
pro!"in – a lar!" compl"2 mol"cul" mad" up of on" or mor" chains of amino acids 'an amino!roup and carbo2l !roup attach"d to th" sam" carbon atom*
> p"rform a $id" #ari"t of acti#iti"s in th" c"ll% includin! muscular !ro$th% c"llularr"pair% and s"r#" as buildin! blocs for all bod tissu"
, > +H – CH – C >
n
R
car<o-ra!" – a compound of carbon% hdro!"n% and o2!"n% $ith a !"n"ral formula C2'H/,*
> a maor sourc" of food "n"r!% includin! su!ars% starch"s% and c"llulos" > produc"d throu!h photosnth"sis in plants > pro#id"s an "Dui#al"nt amount of "n"r! as an "Dual mass of fatt acids
#a! – no$n ch"micall as a triglyceride 'an "st"r of thr"" fatt acids $hich ar" lon!-chaincarbo2lic acids and on" !lc"rol mol"cul"*
> s"r#"s as a stora!" sst"m% r"s"r#" suppl of "n"r!% and insulation
!lc"rol A fatt acids fat 'tri!lc"rid"*
H , , /
H – C – ,H H, – C – R H – C – , – C – R H – C – ,H H , H – C – ,H H – C – , – C – R
nuc$"ic aci – h"r"ditar information stor"d in all li#in! c"lls from $hich th" information can
b" transf"rr"d@ th" chi"f tp"s b"in! J+> and R+> > J+> is cr"at"d from four diff"r"nt nucleotides 'monom"r consistin! of a ribos"su!ar% a phosphat" !roup% and on" of four possibl" nitro!"nous bas"s*
> carri"s th" !"n"tic information that "ncod"s prot"ins and "nabl"s c"lls tor"produc" and p"rform th"ir functions
nitrogenous
phosphate base
sugar
CHAPTER /: ATOMIC THEOR*
THE %OHR ATOMIC THEOR*
• "l"ctrons tra#"l in th" atom in circular orbits $ith Duanti;"d "n"r! – "n"r! is r"strict"d toonl c"rtain discr"t" Duantiti"s
• th"r" is a ma2imum numb"r of "l"ctrons allo$"d in "ach orbit• "l"ctrons Bump to a hi!h"r l"#"l $h"n a photon 'a Duantum of li!ht "n"r!* is absorb"d%
r"sultin! in absorption sp"ctrum 's"ri"s of dar lin"s*• "l"ctrons Bdrop to a lo$"r l"#"l $h"n a photon is "mitt"d% r"sultin! in bri!ht-lin" sp"ctrum
's"ri"s of bri!ht lin"s*
OR%ITS VS? OR%ITA(S
or<i! – /-J path@ fi2"d distanc" from nucl"us@ circular or "lliptical path@ /n/ "l"ctrons p"r orbitor<i!a$ – 3-J r"!ion in spac"@ #ariabl" distanc" from nucl"us@ no path and #ari"d shap" of
r"!ion@ / "l"ctrons p"r orbital@ pr"dict"d b Schrodin!"rs "Duation
@UANTUM NUM%ERS TO DESCRI%E OR%ITA(S
n – principal Duantum numb"r or "n"r! l"#"ll – s"condar Duantum numb"r or subsh"ll ' s% p% d % or f *
m! – ma!n"tic Duantum numb"r 'dir"ction of th" "l"ctron orbit*m2 – spin Duantum numb"r 'can onl b" AT or –T to d"scrib" spin of "l"ctron*
"n"rg-=$""$ iagram – int"rpr"tation of $hich orbital "n"r! l"#"ls ar" occupi"d b "l"ctronsfor a particular atom or ion@ also call"d an orbital dia!ram
"(!(% 9.
2p
2s
1s
R U(ES &OR ENERG*=(EVE( DIAGRAMS
• Start addin! "l"ctrons to th" lo$"st "n"r! l"#"l '1 s* and build up from th" bottom until th"limit on th" numb"r of "l"ctrons for th" particl" is r"ach"d – !" au#<au princip$"
• Go obtain th" corr"ct ord"r of orbitals for an atom% start at th" hdro!"n and mo#" from l"ft
to ri!ht across th" p"riodic tabl"% fillin! th" orbitals@ s"" b"lo$&
32 e- 6s 4f
18 e- 5s
5p
18 e- 4s
8 e- 3s
8 e- 2s
2 e- 1s
4p
3p
2p
4d
3d
n 'primar Duantum numb"r or "n"r! l"#"l*
l 's"condar Duantum numb"r or subl"#"l*
m! 'on" orbital is distin!uish"d from anoth"r at th" sam" subl"#"l*m2 'spin*
• .or anions% add "2tra "l"ctrons to th" numb"r for th" atom( .or cations% do th" n"utral atomfirst% and th"n subtract th" r"Duir"d numb"r of "l"ctrons from th" orbitals $ith th" hi!h"st
principl" Duantum numb"r% n 'i("(% ou $ould r"mo#" th" "l"ctrons from 4 s% rath"r than 3d (*• Each orbital $ill hold a ma2imum of t$o "l"ctrons that spin in opposit" dir"ctions – !"
Pau$i "7c$u3ion princip$"• El"ctrons must b" distribut"d amon! orbitals of "Dual "n"r! so that as man "l"ctrons
r"main unpair"d as possibl" – Hun23 ru$"• Half-fill"d and fill"d subsh"lls ar" mor" stabl" than unfill"d subsh"lls as th" o#"rall "n"r!
stat" of th" atom is lo$"r aft"r th" "l"ctron is promot"d to a lo$"r "n"r! l"#"l&
Predicted Actual
Cr: [Ar] Cr: [Ar]
Cu: [Ar] Cu: [Ar]
4s 3d 4s 3d
E(ECTRON CON&IGURATION
"$"c!ron con#igura!ion – a m"thod for communicatin! th" location and numb"r of "l"ctrons in"l"ctron "n"r! l"#"ls
#"rromagn"!i3m – "2hibit"d b th" m"tals iron% cobalt% nic"l and a numb"r of allos that b"com" ma!n"ti;"d in a ma!n"tic fi"ld and r"tain th"ir ma!n"tism $h"n th"fi"ld is r"mo#"d
paramagn"!i3m – "2hibit"d b mat"rials li" aluminum or platinum that b"com" ma!n"ti;"d ina ma!n"tic fi"ld but it disapp"ars $h"n th" fi"ld is r"mo#"d 'caus"d bunpair"d "l"ctrons*
@UANTUM MECHANIC THEOR*
Buan!um m"canic3 – th" curr"nt th"or of atomic structur" bas"d on $a#" prop"rti"s of"l"ctrons@ also no$n as $a#" m"chanics
H"i3"n<"rg unc"r!ain!- princp$" – it is impossibl" to simultan"ousl no$ "2act position andsp""d of a particl"
"$"c!ron pro<a<$i!- "n3i!- – a math"matical or !raphical r"pr"s"ntation of th" chanc" offindin! an "l"ctron in a !i#"n spac"@ s"" b"lo$ for "2ampl" of a/s orbital&
CHAPTER 4: CHEMICA( %ONDING
c"mica$ <on – form"d as th" r"sult of th" simultan"ousattraction of t$o or mor" nucl"i
T*PES O& %ONDS
1( Ionic %oning – $h"n on" atom has lo$ ioni;ation "n"r! and lo$ En% $hil" th" oth"r hashi!h ioni;ation "n"r! and hi!h En 'i("(% m"tal and nonm"tal*
– En 1( – th" "l"ctrostatic attraction b"t$""n positi#" and n"!ati#" ions
/( Coa$"n! %oning – $h"n both atoms ha#" hi!h ioni;ation "n"r! and hi!h En 'i("(% t$ononm"tals*
– En 1( – th" sharin! of #al"nc" "l"ctrons b"t$""n atomic nucl"i
3( M"!a$$ic %oning – $h"n both atoms ha#" lo$ ioni;ation "n"r! and lo$ En 'i("(% t$om"tals*
(EWIS THEOR* O& %ONDING • >toms and ions ar" stabl" if th" ha#" a nobl" !as-li" "l"ctron structur" 'i("(% a stabl" oct"t
of "l"ctrons*(• El"ctrons ar" most stabl" $h"n th" ar" pair"d(• >toms form ch"mical bonds to achi"#" a stabl" oct"t of "l"ctrons(• > stabl" oct"t ma b" achi"#"d b an "2chan!" of "l"ctrons b"t$""n m"tal and nonm"tal
atoms(• > stabl" oct"t ma b" achi"#"d b th" sharin! of "l"ctrons b"t$""n nonm"tal atoms%
r"sultin! in a co#al"nt bond(
(EWIS STRUCTURES ("i3 3!ruc!ur" – a smbolic d"piction of th" distribution of #al"nc" "l"ctrons in a mol"cul"
1( >rran!" atoms smm"tricall around th" c"ntral atom 'usuall list"d first in th" formula%not usuall o2!"n and n"#"r hdro!"n*(
/( Count th" numb"r of #al"nc" "l"ctrons of all atoms( .or polatomic ions% add "l"ctronscorr"spondin! to th" n"!ati#" char!"% and subtract "l"ctrons corr"spondin! to th" positi#"char!" on th" ion(
3( J"t"rmin" th" numb"r of #al"nc" "l"ctrons all th" atoms B$ant% and subtract th" numb"rof #al"nc" "l"ctrons it has 'r"sult from st"p /*( Ji#id" this numb"r b / to d"t"rmin" th"numb"r of bonds th" mol"cul" $ill ha#"(
4( Xlac" a bondin! pair of "l"ctrons b"t$""n th" c"ntral atom and "ach of th" surroundin!atoms(
( Compl"t" th" oct"ts of th" surroundin! atoms usin! lon" pairs of "l"ctrons( R"m"mb"rhdro!"n '/ "-*% b"rllium '4 "-*% and boron ' "-* ar" th" "2c"ptions( >n r"mainin!
"l"ctrons !o on th" c"ntral atom(( If th" c"ntral atom do"s not ha#" an oct"t% mo#" lon" pairs from th" surroundin! atoms to
form doubl" or tripl" bonds until th" c"ntral atom has a compl"t" oct"t( Confirm th"numb"r of bonds is corr"ct b comparin! it to th" r"sult in st"p 3(
• End-to-"nd o#"rlap of orbitals or sin!l" co#al"nt bonds is call"d a si!ma 'Y* bond(• Sid"-b-sid" o#"rlap of unhbridi;"d p orbitals is call"d a pi 'Z* bond '$"a"r than Y bond*(• Joubl" bonds ha#" on" pi bond% $hil" tripl" bonds ha#" t$o pi bonds(
VSEPR THEOR*
Val"nc"-Sh"ll El"ctron-Pair R "pulsion T"or- – pairs of "l"ctrons in th" #al"nc" sh"ll of anatom sta as far apart as possibl" to minimi;" r"pulsion of th"ir n"!ati#" char!"s
1( Jra$ th" ?"$is structur" for th" mol"cul"% includin! th" "- pairs around th" c"ntral atom(/( Count th" total numb"r of bondin! pairs and lon" pairs of "l"ctrons around th" c"ntral atom(3( Us" th" tabl" b"lo$ to pr"dict th" shap" of th" mol"cul"(
/ : ! : " : / 0X and / ?X% th"r"for" H,.'l* is #-shap"d&!
/ "No!": – ions ar" tr"at"d in th" sam" $a% but sDuar" brac"ts ar" plac"d around th" dia!ram
$ith th" char!" plac"d in th" upp"r ri!ht hand corn"r > doubl" and tripl" bonds ar" tr"at"d as on" !roup of "l"ctrons $h"n usin! VSEXR
th"or% and most of thos" mol"cul"s ta" th" sam" shap" as th"ir ?"$is structur" PO(AR MO(ECU(ES
<on ipo$" – th" "l"ctron"!ati#it diff"r"nc" of t$o bond"d atoms r"pr"s"nt"d b an arro$ pointin! from th" lo$"r '[A* to th" hi!h"r '[-* "l"ctron"!ati#it
nonpo$ar mo$"cu$" – a mol"cul" that has "ith"r nonpolar bonds '6( En* or polar bonds$hos" bond dipol"s canc"l to ;"ro 'i("(% VSEXR dia!ram is smm"trical*
po$ar mo$"cu$" – a mol"cul" that has polar bonds $ith dipol"s that do not canc"l to ;"ro
"(!(% +H3 ? ? N 3
21 / / 21 th"r"for"% it is a polar mol"cul" / 21 INTERMO(ECU(AR &ORCES
in!"rmo$"cu$ar #orc" – th" forc" of attraction and r"pulsion b"t$""n mol"cul"s@ much $"a"rthan co#al"nt bonds
• >s dipol"-dipol" forc" or ?ondon disp"rsion forc"incr"as"s% th" boilin! point incr"as"s% allo$in! ou to pr"dict r"lati#" boilin! point% if on" of th" forc"s is th"sam" b"t$""n th" t$o substanc"s% or if both forc"s ar"mo#in! in th" sam" dir"ction(
-rog"n <oning – th" attraction of a hdro!"n atom to alon" pair of "l"ctrons in +% ,% or . atoms in adac"nt mol"cul"s 'possibl" b"caus" H has no #al"nc" "- to Bshi"ld nucl"us*
a* iamon – a 3-J n"t$or solid – "ach C atom is in th" c"ntr" of a t"trah"dron $hos" #"rtic"s ar" occupi"d b
oth"r C atoms – "ach C atom shar"s its #al"nc" "- $ith 4 oth"r C atoms
– bondin! "- ar" ti!htl bound and hi!hl locali;"da* grapi!" – a /-J n"t$or solid
– "ach C atom is surround"d b a 3 oth"rs in a plan" – th" doubl" bond consists of d"locali;"d "l"ctrons% th"r"for" a !ood conductor – s"parat" la"rs ar" h"ld to!"th"r b disp"rsion forc"s and ar" "asil s"parat"d
SI?IC> >+J GHE SI?IC>GES&
• silicon combin"s $ith o2!"n to form silicon dio2id"% Si,/ 'silica*• it furth"r r"acts $ith m"tal compounds to produc" m"tal silicat"s
a* Buar!9 – a 3-J n"t$or solid b* mica – a /-J n"t$or solidc* a3<"3!o3 – a 1-J n"t$or solid
CHAPTER .: THERMOCHEMISTR*
!"rmoc"mi3!r- – th" stud of th" "n"r! chan!"s that accompan phsical or ch"micalchan!"s of matt"r
!"rma$ "n"rg- – "n"r! a#ailabl" from a substanc" as a r"sult of th" motion of its mol"cul"s
c"mica$ 3-3!"m – a s"t of r"actants and products und"r stud% usuall r"pr"s"nt"d b a ch"mical"Duation
3urrouning3 – all matt"r around th" sst"m that is capabl" of absorbin! or r"l"asin! th"rmal"n"r!
"a! – amount of "n"r! transf"rr"d b"t$""n substanc"s
"7o!"rmic – r"l"asin! th"rmal "n"r! as h"at flo$s out of th" sst"m@ n"!ati#" molar "nthalp
"no!"rmic – absorbin! th"rmal "n"r! as h"at flo$s into th" sst"m@ positi#" molar "nthalp!"mp"ra!ur" – a#"ra!" in"tic "n"r! of th" particl"s in a sampl" of matt"r
op"n 3-3!"m – on" in $hich both matt"r and "n"r! can mo#" in or out '"(!(% burnin!marshmallo$*
i3o$a!" 3-3!"m – an id"al sst"m in $hich n"ith"r matt"r nor "n"r! can mo#" in or out '"(!(%id"al calorim"t"r*
c$o3" 3-3!"m – on" in $hich "n"r! can mo#" in or out% but not matt"r '"(!(% r"alisticcalorim"t"r*
ca$orim"!r- – th" proc"ss of m"asurin! "n"r! chan!"s in a ch"mical sst"m
"n!a$p- cang" +H, – th" diff"r"nc" in "nthalpi"s of r"actants and products durin! a chan!"
B 0 Duantit of h"at '^* F m c T
MO(AR ENTHA(P*
mo$ar "n!a$p- +H7, – th" "nthalp chan!" associat"d $ith a phsical% ch"mical% or nucl"archan!" in#ol#in! on" mol" of a substanc"@ "2ampl"s ar" b"lo$&
T*PE O& MO(AR ENTHA(P* E'AMP(E O& CHANGE
solution 'Hsol* +a0r 's*
+aA
'aD* A 0r -
'aD*combustion 'Hcomb* CH4'!* A / ,/'!* C,/'!* A H/,'l*
#apori;ation 'H#ap* CH3,H'l* CH3,H'!*
fr"";in! 'Hfr * H/,'l* H/,'s*
n"utrali;ation 'Hn"ut* / +a,H'aD* A H/S,4'aD* / +a/S,4'aD* A / H/,'l*
>SSU=XGI,+S USEJ I+ C>?,RI=EGR&1( +o h"at is transf"rr"d b"t$""n th" calorim"t"r and th" outsid" "n#ironm"nt(/( >n h"at absorb"d or r"l"as"d b th" calorim"t"r mat"rials is usuall n"!li!ibl"(3( > dilut" aDu"ous solution is assum"d to ha#" a d"nsit and sp"cific h"at capacit "Dual to
that of pur" $at"r '1(66 !Lm? and 4(15 ^L!]NC*(
(A%: COM%USTION O& A(COHO(S
• =ass of .u"l 0urn"d& 1(41 !
• =ass of Wat"r H"at"d& 9(66 !
• =ass of Wat"r Vapouri;"d& 6(15 !
• =ass of Xop Can& 1(6 !
• G"mp"ratur" Chan!" of Wat"r& //(/ NC
• H"at >bsorb"d b Wat"r&D F m c t F '9(66 !* '4(15 ^ L ! _ NC* '//(/ NC* F 9(66 2 163 ^
• H"at >bsorb"d b Can& D F m c t
F '1(6 !* '6(966 ^ L ! _ NC* '//(/ NC* F 3/1 ^
• H"at Us"d to Vapouri;" Wat"r& D F m _ ?V
F '6(15 !* '//5 ^ L !* F 4(6 2 16/ ^
• Gotal H"at E#ol#"d b .u"l& Dtotal F '9(66 2 163 ^* A '3/1 ^* A '4(6 2 16/ ^* F 9(/ 2 163 ^ F 9(/ ^
• +umb"r of =ol"s of .u"l& n F m
= F 1(41 ! 6(11 ! L mol F 6(6/3 mol
• =olar H"at of Combustion of .u"l& H F Dtotal
n F 9(/ ^ 6(6/3 mol F 414 ;mo$
• ` "rror& 166` – "2p"rim"ntal "nthalp 2 166`
actual "nthalp
F 166` – 414 ^ 2 166` 496 ^ F 1(`% th"r"for" unacc"ptabl" '16`*
R EPRESENTING ENTHA(P* CHANGES
=EGH,J 1& GHER=,CHE=IC>? E\U>GI,+S WIGH E +ERK GER=S
formation of on" mol" of a substanc" fromits "l"m"nts in standard stat"@ ;"ro for"l"m"nts in standard stat"
HESS2S (AW +ADDITIVIT* O& R EACTION ENTHA(PIES,
H"3323 $a – th" #alu" of th" H for an r"action that can b" $ritt"n in st"ps "Dualsth" sum of th" #alu"s of H for "ach of th" indi#idual st"ps 'i("(% Htar!"t F Hno$n*
"(!( J"t"rmin" th" "nthalp chan!" in#ol#"d in th" formation of t$o mol"s nitro!"nmono2id" from its "l"m"nts(
+/'!* A ,/'!* / +,'!*
'1* T +/'!* A ,/'!* +,/'!* HN1 F A34 ^
'/* +,'!* A T ,/'!* +,/'!* HN/ F - ^
/ 2 '1*& +/'!* A / ,/'!* / +,/'!* HN1 F /'A34* ^
-/ 2 '/*& / +,/'!* / +,'!* A ,/'!* HN/ F -/'-* ^
+/'!* A ,/'!* / +,'!* HN F A5 ^ A 11/ ^ F 81J ;USING STANDARD ENTHA(PIES O& &ORMATION TO DETERMINE H
H 0 K nH5# +prouc!3, > K nH5
# +r"ac!an!3,
"(!(% =U?GI-SGEX C>?CU?>GI,+
If 3(/6 ! of propan" burns% $hat t"mp"ratur" chan!" $ill b" obs"r#"d if all of th" h"at from combustiontransf"rs into 4(6 ! of $at"r
6(664 6(663 6(6/4a* Writ" th" rat" la$ for th" r"action(r F [N!?g@]
2 [/2?g@]1
b* Writ" th" o#"rall ord"r of th" r"action(3rd order
c* Calculat" k for th" r"action 'us" for "2p"rim"nts #alu"s*(r F 2 ;olG+Hs r F [N!?g@]
2 [/2?g@][N!] F 1 ;olG+ ?2@ F ?1@2 ?4@[/2] F 4 ;olG+ F 5 I 16 +2G?;ol2Hs@
CO((ISION THEOR*
C,+CEXGS ,. GHE C,??ISI,+ GHE,R&• > ch"mical sst"m consists of particl"s 'atoms% ions% or mol"cul"s* that ar" in constant
random motion at #arious sp""ds( Gh" a#"ra!" in"tic "n"r! of th" particl"s is proportionalto th" t"mp"ratur" of th" sampl"(
• > ch"mical r"action must in#ol#" collisions of particles $ith "ach oth"r or th" $alls of th"contain"r(
• >n effecti#e collision is on" that has suffici"nt "n"r! and corr"ct ori"ntation of th" collidin! particl"s so that bonds can b" bro"n and n"$ bonds form"d(
• $neffecti#e collisions in#ol#" particl"s that r"bound from th" collision unchan!"d(
Gh" units for rat" constant% k % ar"r"lat"d to o#"rall ord"r of r"action&• first ord"r o#"rall% th" units ar" 1Ls
or s-1
• s"cond ord"r o#"rall% th" units ar"?L'mol]s* or ?L'mol-1]s-1*
• third ord"r o#"rall% th" units ar" ?/Lmol/]s or ?L mol-/]s-1
• th" !r"at"r th" conc"ntration% th" !r"at"r th" numb"r of particl"s p"r unit #olum"% $hich ar"mor" li"l to collid" as th" mo#" randoml $ithin a fi2"d spac"
4( SUR.>CE >RE>&• an incr"as" in r"actant surfac" ar"a incr"as"s th" rat" of r"action• r"actants can collid" onl at th" surfac" $h"r" th" substanc"s ar" in contact% and b
incr"asin! th" surfac" ar"a% ou ar" incr"asin! th" numb"r of particl"s in an ar"a% th"r"b
incr"asin! th" probabilit of an "ff"cti#" collision( C>G>?SG&• a ca!a$-3! is a substanc" that incr"as"s th" rat" of a ch"mical r"action $ithout its"lf b"in!
p"rman"ntl chan!"d• a catalst pro#id"s an alt"rnat" Bpath$a% $ith lo$"r acti#ation "n"r!% to th" sam" product
formation% m"anin! a much lar!"r fraction of collisions ar" "ff"cti#"• th" catalst can h"lp br"a th" bonds in th" r"actant particl"s% pro#id" a surfac" for th"
n"c"ssar collisions% and allo$ th" r"actants atoms to r"combin" in n"$ $as• catalsts ar" in#ol#"d in th" r"action m"chanism at som" point% but ar" r"!"n"rat"d b"for"
th" r"action is compl"t"
CHAPTER : CHEMICA( S*STEMS IN E@UI(I%RIUM
"Bui$i<rium – th" balanc"d stat" of a r"#"rsibl" r"action or proc"ss $h"r" th"r" is no n"tobs"r#abl" chan!"@ th" rat" of th" for$ard r"action "Duals that of th" r"#"rs"r"action '> 0*
> can b" approach"d from "ith"r sid" of th" r"action "Duation > th" conc"ntration of th" r"actants and products do not chan!" 'ar" constant*
3o$u<i$i!- "Bui$i<rium – an "Duilibrium b"t$""n a solut" and a sol#"nt in a saturat"d solution
pa3" "Bui$i<rium – an "Duilibrium b"t$""n diff"r"nt phsical stat"s of a pur" substanc" '"(!(%ic" o#"r a la"*
c"mica$ r"ac!ion "Bui$i<rium – an "Duilibrium b"t$""n r"actants and products of a ch"micalr"action
E@UI(I%RIUM (AW E@UATION
.or th" !"n"ral ch"mical r"action& a> A b0 cC A d J
) 0 C c D $h"r"& ] >% 0% C% J ar" ch"mical "ntiti"s in !as or aDu"ous phas"s 'liDuids andAa %< solids ar" omitt"d from th" "Duation*
] a% b% c% and d ar" th" co"ffici"nts in th" balanc"d ch"mical "Duation] < is th" "Bui$i<rium con3!an! 't"mp"ratur" and pr"ssur" sp"cific*
- if < is lar!"% r"actions conc"ntration of products !r"at"r than r"actants
- if < is small% r"actions conc"ntration of r"actants !r"at"r than products- < is in#"rs"l proportional to th" < #alu" of th" r"#"rs" r"action
(E CHQTE(IER 2S PRINCIP(E
(" C!"$i"r23 Princip$" – $h"n a ch"mical sst"m at "Duilibrium is disturb"d b a chan!" in a prop"rt% th" sst"m adusts in a $a that oppos"s th" chan!"
"Bui$i<rium 3i#! – mo#"m"nt of a sst"m at "Duilibrium r"sultin! in a chan!" in th"conc"ntrations of r"actants and products
conc"ntration incr"as" shifts to consum" add"d r"actantd"cr"as" shifts to r"plac" r"mo#"d r"actant
t"mp"ratur" incr"as" shifts to consum" add"d th"rmal "n"r!'a$a from h"at t"rm*
d"cr"as" shifts to r"plac" r"mo#"d th"rmal "n"r!'to$ards h"at t"rm*
#olum" incr"as" 'd"cr"as" in pr"ssur"*
shifts to$ards sid" $ith lar!"r total numb"r of !as"ous "ntiti"s
d"cr"as" 'incr"as" in pr"ssur"*
shifts to$ards sid" $ith small"r totalnumb"r of !as"ous "ntiti"s
common ion "ff"ct dissol#in! a compound intosolution that adds a
common ion
shifts a$a from common ion to consum"th" add"d r"actant
VARIA%(ES THAT DO NOT A&&ECT CHEMICA( E@UI(I%RIA
catalsts - no "ff"ctaddin! in"rt !as"s - no "ff"ct
SO(VING E@UI(I%RIUM PRO%(EMS 1( Writ" a balanc"d "Duation for th" r"action and list th" no$n #alu"s(/( If th" dir"ction th" sst"m must !o to attain "Duilibrium is not ob#ious 'i("(% on" "ntit is not
pr"s"nt initiall*% calculat" % $ith th" initial conc"ntrations and compar" it to th" #alu" of < to d"t"rmin" $hich dir"ction th" sst"m $ill proc""d to attain "Duilibrium(
3( Construct an ICE ' $ nitial conc"ntration% & han!" in conc"ntration% ' Duilibriumconc"ntration* tabl" and input th" initial conc"ntrations(
4( ?"t x r"pr"s"nt th" chan!"s in conc"ntration% multiplin! it b th" co"ffici"nt in th" balanc"d "Duation( Gh" r"actants should all chan!" in th" sam" $a and all th" productsshould proc""d in th" opposit" $a(
( R"$rit" th" ' ro$ usin! th" x #alu"s(
( Substitut" "Duilibrium conc"ntrations into th" "Duilibrium constant "Duation(( >ppl appropriat" simplifin! assumptions% if possibl" '"(!(% 423 '6(4 – /2*/ can b"
simplifi"d to 423 '6(4*/ b"caus" x #alu" is so small in comparison*(5( Sol#" for x(9( ^ustif an assumptions ou ha#" mad" 'i("(% th" x #alu" ou !"t should b" plu!!"d into th"
ori!inal "Duation and th" diff"r"nc" b"t$""n th" t$o must b" l"ss than `*(16( Calculat" th" "Duilibrium conc"ntrations b substitutin! x into "Duilibrium conc"ntration
"2pr"ssions from th" ' ro$(
"(!(% 4(66 mol of hdro!"n and /(66 mol of iodin" ar" plac"d in a /(66-? r"action #"ss"l at 446NC andr"act to form hdro!"n iodid"( >t this t"mp"ratur"% th" < is 49(( J"t"rmin" th" conc"ntrations ofall "ntiti"s(
H/'!* A I/'!* / HI'!* F 49(
PH/'!*Q F 4(66 mol PI/'!*Q F /(66 mol PHI'!*Q F 6(66 molL? /(66 ? /(66 ? F /(66 molL? F 1(66 molL?
2"" is reected* because concentrations cannot ha#e a negati#e #alue (ie* 2++ , 2"" - +"")
SO(U%I(IT* PRODUCT CONSTANT
3o$u<i$i!- – th" conc"ntration of a saturat"d solution of a solut" in a particular sol#"nt at a particular t"mp"ratur"@ sp"cific ma2imum conc"ntration
3o$u<i$i!- prouc! con3!an! +) 3p, – th" #alu" obtain"d from th" "Duilibrium la$ appli"d tosaturat"d solution 'r"m"mb"r solids ar" not includ"d in th""Duation*@ omit units as $ith all #alu"s
> can onl b" d"t"rmin"d for ionic compounds that ar"classifi"d as insolubl" or sli!htl solubl"
1( Writ" a balanc"d "Duation and list th" no$n #alu"s(/( Us" th" solid product to $rit" an "Duilibrium "Duation for it dissol#in! into ions(3( .ind th" < sp #alu" for th" solid product and $rit" it n"2t to th" "Duilibrium "Duation(4( J"t"rmin" th" numb"r of mol"s of both ions% b usin! th" mol" ratios and initial
conc"ntrations of r"actants(( J"t"rmin" th" conc"ntration upon mi2in!% b di#idin! th" numb"r of mol"s b th" n"$
#olum"(( Xlu! th"s" n"$ conc"ntrations into th" < sp "Duation to d"t"rmin" th" \ '"2p"rim"ntal #alu"*(( Compar" th" \ #alu" to th" < sp to pr"dict $h"th"r a pr"cipitat" $ill form 's"" b"lo$*(
USI+K \ G, XREJICG S,?U0I?IG Ion product% \ <sp pr"cipitat" $ill form 'sup"rsaturat"d solution*Ion product% \ F < sp pr"cipitat" $ill not form 'saturat"d solution*Ion product% \ M < sp pr"cipitat" $ill not form 'unsaturat"d solution*
"(!(% /6(6 m? of 6(/6 molL? ammonium sulfat" solution is add"d to 136 m? of 6(6 molL? barium nitrat"solution( What ar" th" conc"ntrations of th" ions and $ill a pr"cipitat" form
'+H4*/S,4'aD* A 0a'+,3*/'aD*
0aS,4's* A / +H4 +,3'aD*
0aS,4's* 0a/A'aD* A S,4
/-'aD* < sp F 1(65 2 16-16
n0a/+,3 F c # n +H4+,3 F c # F '6(6 molL?* '6(136 ?* F '6(/6 molL?* '6(6/6 ?* F 6(6 mol F 6(6646 mol F n0a F nS,4
P0a/A'aD*Q F n PS,4
/-'aD*Q F n
# #
PH/'!*Q F /(66 molL? - 2 F /(66 molL? - '6(93 molL?*
F 1?J mo$(
PI/'!*Q F 1(66 molL? - 2 F 1(66 molL? - '6(93 molL?*
"n!rop-6 S – a m"asur" of th" randomn"ss or disord"r of a sst"m or th" surroundin!s – "Duals 6 $h"n th" t"mp"ratur" is at absolut" ;"ro '6 <*
.>CG,RS GH>G I +CRE>SE E +GR,X 'S*• th" #olum" of a !as"ous sst"m incr"as"s 'i("(% pr"ssur" d"cr"as"s*• th" t"mp"ratur" of a sst"m incr"as"s• th" phsical stat" of a sst"m chan!"s from solid to liDuid to !as% or liDuid to !as 'i("(% S !as
S liDuid S solid*• f"$"r mol"s of r"actant mol"cul"s form a !r"at"r numb"r of mol"s of product mol"cul"s• compl"2 mol"cul"s ar" bro"n do$n into simpl"r subunits '"(!(% combustion of or!anic fu"ls
aci ioni9a!ion con3!an! + K a ) – "Duilibrium constant for th" ioni;ation of an acid
"(!(% Calculat" th" a and pH of hdrofluoric acid if a 6(166 molL? solution at "Duilibrium at S>GX has a p"rc"nt ioni;ation of (5`(
H.'aD* HA'aD* A .-
'aD*
a F PH A'aD*Q P. -'aD*Q PH.'aD*Q
PHA'aD*Q F 'pL166* PH>'aD*Q
F '(5 L 166* '6(166 molL?* F 6(665 molL?
H&+aB, H8+aB, 8 &=
+aB,
Initial conc"ntration 'molL?* 6(166 6(666 6(666Chan!" in conc"ntration 'molL?* – 2 A 2 A 2EDuilibrium conc"ntration 'molL?* 6(166 – 6(665 6(665 6(665
F 6(69//
a F PH A'aD*Q P. -
'aD*Q pH F –lo! PHA'aD*Q
PH.'aD*Q F –lo! '6(665* F 6(665/ F ?1
6(69// F L?L 7 1J=4
CHAPTER Z: E(ECTROCHEMISTR* +E(ECTRIC CE((S,
O'IDATION NUM%ER
o7ia!ion num<"r – an int"!"r that is assi!n"d to "ach atom in a compound $h"n consid"rin!r"do2 r"actions
> a positi#" or n"!ati#" numb"r corr"spondin! to th" appar"nt char!" that anatom in a mol"cul" or ion $ould ha#" if th" "l"ctron pairs in co#al"nt bonds b"lon!"d "ntir"l to th" mor" "l"ctron"!ati#" atom
R U?ES .,R >SSIK+I+K ,:IJ>GI,+ +U=0ERS
1( Gh" o2idation numb"r of an atom in an uncombin"d "l"m"nt is al$as 6 '"(!(% H/ is 6*(/( Gh" o2idation numb"r of a simpl" ion is th" char!" of ion '"(!(% Ca/A is A/*(3( Gh" o2idation numb"r of hdro!"n is A1% "2c"pt in m"tal hdrid"s $h"n it is -1 '"(!(% th" H
in +aH is -1*(4( Gh" o2idation numb"r of o2!"n is -/% "2c"pt in p"ro2id"s $h"n it is -1 '"(!(% th" , in H/,/
is -1*(( Gh" o2idation numb"r of Kroup 1 "l"m"nt ions is A1( Gh" o2idation numb"r of Kroup /
"l"m"nt ions is A/(( Gh" sum of o2idation numb"rs in a compound must "Dual 6(( Gh" sum of o2idation numb"rs in a polatomic ion must "Dual th" char!" on th" ion '"(!(%
,H- is -1*(
O'IDATION=R EDUCTION
O7ia!ion can b" d"fin"d as a r"action in $hich&1* an "l"m"nt is ch"micall unit"d $ith o2!"n '"(!(% C A ,/ C,/@ carbon is o2idi;"d*/* a m"tal is chan!"d from an uncombin"d to a combin"d stat" '"(!(% gn A Cl/ gnCl/*
3* an "l"m"nt los"s "l"ctrons% and th"r"for" has an incr"as" in o2idation numb"r'"(!(% Ca Ca/A A /"-*
(oss of El"ctrons is O2idation B(EO
R"uc!ion can b" d"fin"d as a r"action in $hich&1* an "l"m"nt los"s o2!"n '"(!(% ."/,3 / .", A T ,/*/* a m"tal is chan!"d from a combin"d to a uncombin"d stat" '"(!(% .", ." A T ,/*
3* an "l"m"nt !ains "l"ctrons% and th"r"for" has a d"cr"as" in o2idation numb"r'"(!(% Cl/ A /"- / Cl-*Gain of El"ctrons is R "duction BGER
r"o7 r"ac!ion – a ch"mical r"action in $hich "l"ctrons ar" transf"rr"d b"t$""n particl"s@ t$o or mor" atoms und"r!o a chan!" in o2idation numb"r@ also no$n as oxidation-red uction r"actions
%A(ANCING R EDO' E@UATIONS USING O'IDATION NUM%ERS
• this m"thod is most appropriat" $h"n d"alin! $ith co#al"nt compounds
1( >ssi!n o2idation numb"rs to all th" atoms in th" "Duation(/( Id"ntif $hich atoms und"r!o a chan!" in o2idation numb"r(3( J"t"rmin" th" ratio in $hich th"s" atoms must r"act so that th" total incr"as" in o2idation
numb"r "Duals th" d"cr"as" 'i("(% th" total numb"r of "l"ctrons lost and !ain"d is "Dual*(
4( 0alanc" th" r"do2 participants in th" "Duation usin! this ratio(( 0alanc" th" oth"r atoms b th" insp"ction m"thod(( >dd HA
'aD* or ,H-'aD* to balanc" th" char!"% d"p"ndin! on if it is an acidic or a basic solution
'th" total char!" on "ach sid" must b" th" sam"*(( >dd H/,'l* to balanc" th" , atoms(
"(!(% >!'s* A Cr /,/-
'aD* >!A'aD* A Cr 3A
'aD*
o2idation& lost 1 "- '2 *
L >!'s* A Cr /,/-
'aD* A 14 HA'aD* L >!A
'aD* A Cr 3A'aD* A H/,'l*
r"duction& !ain"d /'3 "-* F "- '2 1*
%A(ANCING R EDO' E@UATIONS USING HA(&=R EACTIONS
• this m"thod is most appropriat" for ionic r"actions in solution and for r"latin! to "l"ctrical proc"ss"s
1( S"parat" th" s"l"ton "Duation into th" start of t$o half-r"action "Duations 'on" for th"o2idation r"action and on" for th" r"duction r"action*(
/( 0alanc" all sp"ci"s% oth"r than , and H(3( 0alanc" th" o2!"n% b addin! H/,'l* for acidic solutions or ,H-
'aD* for basic solutions(4( 0alanc" th" hdro!"n% b addin! HA
'aD* for acidic solutions or H/,'l* for basic solutions(( 0alanc" th" char!" on "ach sid" b addin! "l"ctrons and canc"lin! anthin! that is in "Dual
amounts on both sid"s(( =ultipl "ach half-r"action "Duation b simpl" $hol" numb"rs to balanc" th" "l"ctrons lost
and !ain"d(
( >dd th" t$o half-r"action "Duations% canc"lin! th" "l"ctrons and anthin! "ls" that app"arsin "Dual amounts on both sid"s(
5( Ch"c to "nsur" all "ntiti"s and th" o#"rall char!" on both sid"s balanc"(
"(!(% =n,4 – A +/H4 =n,/ A +/
4 P=n,4 – A / H/, A 3 "- =n,/ A 4 ,H – Q
3 P+/H4 A 4 ,H – +/ A 4 H/, A 4 "-Q
4 =n,4 – A 5 H/, A 1/ "- 4 =n,/ A 1 ,H – Q
3 +/H4 A 1/ ,H – 3 +/ A 1/ H/, A 1/ "-Q
4 =n,4 – A 3 +/H4 4 =n,/ A 3 +/ A 4 H/, A 4 ,H –
TECHNO(OG* O& CE((S AND %ATTERIES
"$"c!ric c"$$ – a d"#ic" that continuousl con#"rts ch"mical "n"r! into "l"ctrical "n"r!@contains t$o "l"ctrod"s 'solid conductor* and on" "l"ctrolt" 'aDu"ous conductor*@"ach "l"ctrod" has a cathod" 'A* and anod" '–*@ "l"ctrons flo$ from th" anod" toth" cathod"
<a!!"r- – a !roup of t$o or mor" "l"ctric c"lls conn"ct"d in s"ri"s
o$!ag" – th" pot"ntial "n"r! diff"r"nc" p"r unit char!"@ m"asur"d in #olts 'V*% 1 ^LC
"$"c!ric curr"n! – th" rat" of flo$ of char!" past a point@ m"asur"d in amp"r"s '>*% 1 CLsT*PE
NAME O&
CE((HA(&=R EACTIONS
CHARACTERISTICS
AND USES
primar- c"$$ – "l"ctric c"ll
that cannot b" r"char!"d
dr c"ll'1( V*
/ =n,/ A / +H4A A / "- =n/,3 A / +H3 A H/,gn gn/A A / "-
that produc"s"l"ctricit ba continuallsuppli"d fu"l
• "l"ctric cars
hdro!"n-o2!"n c"ll
'1(/ V*
,/ A / H/, A 4 "- 4 ,H-
/ H/ A 4 ,H- 4 H/, A 4 "-
• li!ht$"i!ht% hi!h"ffici"nc% can b"adapt"d to us"hdro!"n-rich fu"ls
• #"hicl"s and spac"shuttl"
GA(VANIC CE((S ga$anic c"$$ – consists of t$o half-c"lls
s"parat"d b a porous boundar $ith solid"l"ctrod"s conn"ct"d ban "2t"rnal circuit@standard c"lls occur atS>GX and $ithconc"ntrations of 1(6molL?
ca!o" – positi#" "l"ctrod"@ r"duction'!ainin! "l"ctrons b"caus""l"ctron"!ati#it is hi!h"r* of th" stron!"st o2idi;in! a!"ntoccurs h"r"@ th" half-c"ll thatis hi!h"r on th" BR"lati#"Str"n!ths of ,2idi;in! andR"ducin! >!"nts tabl"@ Bred
cat on the roof red uction atth" cat hod"% hi!h"r half-c"ll
ano" – n"!ati#" "l"ctrod"@ o2idation 'losin! "l"ctrons b"caus" "l"ctron"!ati#it is lo$"r* of th"
stron!"st r"ducin! a!"nt occurs h"r"@ th" half-c"ll that is lo$"r on th" tabl"in"r! "$"c!ro" – a solid conductor that $ill not r"act $ith an substanc" pr"s"nt in a c"ll
'usuall carbon or platinum*
• El"ctrons tra#"l in th" "2t"rnal circuit from th" anod" to th" cathod"• Int"rnall% anions from th" salt brid!" mo#" to$ard th" anod" and cations from th" salt