Sc2220 lecture 9 2012

SC2220: Gender Studies

Lecture 9: Gender, Work and Division of Labor

Eric C. ThompsonSemester 2, 2011/2012

Where We Have Been…History of Gender

StudiesSex/Gender

DistinctionBecoming Male or

FemaleGender socialization;

paths to learning gender.

Gender SystemsMasculinity/

FemininityGender as systems of

beliefs and behaviors

Where We Are Going…Gender in Popular

CultureGender in AdvertisingPopular Culture

Gender in Social RelationsGender and PowerGender and Work

Gender, Here and NowGender in Singapore

YOU AREHERE

Recall from Last Lecture…Explaining Patriarchy (Gender and Power)

Baby Burden and Sexual ExchangePolitical EconomyCulture, Ideology, Beliefs

Political Economy in explaining Patriarchy:How is value produced, who controls that

value, who is dependent on whom?Today’s Lecture focuses on the contemporary

political economy of work and jobs.

Today’s Lecture…Division of Labor and Gender at WorkWhat is the “Double Shift”?

Women working a “double shift”Domestic marginalization of Men

Why is there a “Gender Gap in Wages”?Choice Theory (women choose to ‘opt out’)Gendered Organizations (Structural

Discrimination)Overt Discrimination

Video: The Double ShiftEven within occupations, it seems that specialties are

gendered (e.g., education, law, medicine). Why so?What is the “juggling act” referred to? Do men

juggle?How much is the second shift worth, monetarily?Should homemakers be compensated for their years

of work in the case of a divorce?Is it “fair” for the state to make women give up their

jobs to men during times of national economic crisis? Is it a sound decision, economically?

Is the state obligated to help working mothers?If society became more egalitarian, would we fully

accept men as stay-at-home dads and homemakers?

The “Second Shift” for WomenFrom work of sociologist Arlie Hochschild, “The

Second Shift” (1989)Women work a “second shift” housekeeping and child

care, after the first shift of paid work outside the home; Men don’t. In the 1970s-1990s women worked more than men (inside and outside the home).

Recent research (in the United States) shows a lessening of the gap in the hours men and women work; though women do more domestic work and men do more work outside the home. (See: Time Magazine “The Chore Wars” 2011)

Reason for the declining gap in the ‘double shift’: Men are working more as working-class and middle-class wages have declined.

Domestic Marginalization of Men• Women often complain about men’s lack of

participation in domestic work; but many studies illustrate the domestic marginalization of men.

• Women “protect” the home as their sphere of dominance.

• Men are not trained to do domestic work and assumed to be incompetent.

• See: Ashwin and Lytkina “Men in Crisis in Russia,” Gender and Society 18(2), 2004

Cultural Bias against Stay-at-Home Dads: The Case of “Poor T. Rex…”Discovery Channel:

“Make Me a Dino”Dinosaurs have been

found to be more like birds than lizards.

T. Rex probably had colorful plumage, males may have nested on eggs

Portrayal: “Poor T. Rex, reduced from King to Stay-at-Home Dad”

Based on genetics, the closest living relative to T. Rex is the Chicken

Stay-at-Home DadsConsider the issues raised in a “Stay-at-Home

Dads” group:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5VyuAs1h

3z8

Or the representation of Stay-at-Home Dads in popular culture:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FmWp-rI6vSw

The Gender Gap in WagesUniversal (global) and persistent

Everywhere, men earn more than women.Relative differences

Biggest Gap: UAE, Peru, Belize – Women earn 30% of men’s wages.

Smallest Gap: Iceland – Women earn 94% of men’s wages.

Singapore: Women earn ~65% of men’s wages (common for industrialized countries)

Explaining the Wage GapDifferent Choices made by Men and Women

Men choose higher paid, more demanding jobsWomen choose lower paid, more flexible jobs

that allow them to spend time with familySee: Kingsley Browne “Biology at Work”

As Result of “Gendered” OrganizationCorporations and other Institutions are

structured in ways that discriminate (unintentionally)

See: Joan Acker “Hierarchy, Jobs, Bodies”As a Result of Overt Discrimination

Browne vs. Acker*Kingsley Browne: Women earn less

because of the choices they make. Women “opt out” of high paying, but stressful and time-consuming jobs.

Joan Acker: Women earn less because of the systemic, structural biases of institutions (companies, schools, etc.).

These are not mutually exclusive; both are true. They overdetermine the gender gap in wages.*Required readings for this week.

Complexity of the Wage GapBrowne demonstrates: The most significant

gap is between women who have children and all others.

The gap between Single Childless Women and All Men is much less substantial.

Married Men earn more than Unmarried Men.

Singapore 2008 report claimed only 2% gender wage gap among new graduates…BUT, these are almost certainly Single Childless

Women! (A very biased sample for claiming that there is little or no “gender gap in wages”!)

Gender & Opportunity StructuresIndividual-level effects of availability factors:

Women select jobs in which…They believe they can get hiredThey think they will be welcomeThey believe they can succeedThis limits many “non-traditional” and sex-

segregated occupations that may pay more, have higher status

At the same time, women have the structural option of finding a partner who will provide surplus resources to them (sexual exchange theory) to a far greater degree than men.

Are Women today more independent than in the past?Sexual-exchange theory and political-economic

theory (Huber) predict that patriarchy is correlated with dependence.

The more dependent women are on men, the more vulnerable and disempowered they are.

Women over the last fifty years have become less dependent on men on providers; but more directly dependent on employers and states.

Unlike husbands and families, employers and states do not want children (they want workers and citizens).

Hmmm… and we wonder why birthrates are falling?

Acker: Gendered OrganizationsOrganizational practices and

organizational processes create gender segregation.

They also invent and reproduce gender norms.

Acker is arguing that gender pervades institutional and organizational structures (Browne considers organizations to be basically ‘gender neutral’).

Gendered Institutions“Gendered institutions” (e.g. corporations,

schools, etc.)

“Gendered” Institutions are not (only) the result of gender difference; Institutions produce gender difference.

Gender difference in one institution is affected by gender in other institutions in a society.For example, gender differences in a corporate office

will be affected by the production of gender in family life; and the gender in family life will be affected by the production of gender in corporate offices.

No institution is “gender neutral” (even if it formally declares itself to be). Gender is a pervasive social and cultural system. Its effects can be reduced (or amplified) but no society is “free from gender.”

Is NUS a Gendered Institution?

The figures above are from the United States.Would Singapore be any different?

Is NUS a Gendered Institution?Men on the NUS Board of Trustees:

Mr WONG Ngit LiongMr Hans-Dieter BottMr. Lucas ChowMr Edward D'SILVAMr. Goh Yew LinMr. Han Book KwangMr. Hiew Yoon KhongMr Hsieh Fu HuaProf Dr Olaf KublerMr. Michael LienProf Edison LiuMr Paul MaMr Chandra Mohan K NAIRLG NG Yat ChungProfessor TAN Chorh ChuanProfessor SAW Swee HockMr. Phillip TanMr. Sunny VergheseMr. Lucien Wong

Women on the NUS Board of Trustees:

Mdm Kay Kuok Oon KwongMs Olivia LUMMdm Halimah bte YacobMs Yeoh Chee Yan

“Gendered Institutions” do not always have formal rules based on gender.

They produce “gendered” outcomes based on multiple factors both internal and external to the institution, such as…. Social attitudes, preferences, opportunities, etc.

Are Career Ladders Gender-Neutral?• Most professions (corporations, universities, law

firms) expect individuals to spend their 20s obtaining professional degrees; their 30s “building” their career; and becoming “established” in their 40s.

• Is it fair to expect this equally of men and women?

• Is it “fair” to ignore the relatively larger commitments women have to make to childbearing during these years (if they want to have children of their own)?

Glass Ceilings and EscalatorsGlass ceiling

Mostly-invisible barrier that keeps women from advancing to top levels at work

Glass escalatorMostly-invisible accelerator that pushes men

into higher-level positions at work, more desirable work assignments, and more pay (even in traditional female occupations: nursing, teaching)

Overt Gender Bias• On top of Browne’s choice theory and Acker’s

gendered organizations, there is often strong evidence of overt gender bias.

• Research results:– When given mock job applications for gender

neutral and traditional male jobs, more applicants with male names or male characteristics were offered the jobs, even when the applications (resumes) were identical in content.

– When applying for child care jobs, the bias favored women (men were not offered the jobs).

SummaryThe Gender Gap in Wages, Three

Explanations:Choice TheoryGendered Organization TheoryOvert Discrimination

All three play a role.To what extent are they found in Singapore?See: Reading by Carol Tay

Questions…Do women in Singapore work a double shift?

Why or why not? Which women, under which circumstances? Do you see a “double shift” among your family or friends?

Are men you know (family, friends) encouraged or discouraged from doing domestic work? Why?

Can you think of examples of the three causes of the gender gap in wages in Singapore: (1) choices women make; (2) structural/organizational gender bias; (3) overt gender bias? Which are most important or common in Singapore?