Sartre on Knowledge and the Pre-reflectivecogito

8/12/2019 Sartre on Knowledge and the Pre-reflectivecogito

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anand World 22 : 329- 34 3 , 1989 .9 1989 Kluw er Academ ic Pub lishers. Printed in the Netherlands.

T h r o u g h t h e l o o k i n g g la s s: S a r t re o n k n o w l e d g e a n d t h e p r e r e f l ee t i v eogi to

K T H L E E N W I D E RH u m a n i t i e s D e p a r t m e n t U n i v e r s i ty o f M i c h i g a n -D e a r b o r n 4 9 0 1 E v e r g r e e n R o a dD e a r b o rn M I 4 8 1 2 8

J e a n - P a u l S a r t r e , i n Being and Nothingness p r e s e n t s a l o n g a n d c o m -p l i c a te d a n a ly s is o f h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s. In d o in g s o h e m a i n t a in s t w oC a r t e s i a n t h e s e s a b o u t c o n s c i o u s n e s s . O n e i s t h a t c o n s c i o u s n e s s is a l-w a y s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s e v e n a t t h e l e ve l o f w h a t S a r t r e c a ll s p r e - r e f l e c ti v ec o n s c i o u s n e s s ; f o r S a r t r e c o n s c i o u s n e s s is a l w a y s t r a n s l u c e n t . T h es e c o n d C a r t e s i a n t h e s is is t h a t c o n s c i o u s n e s s is i n f a ll i b le i n t e r m s o ft h e b e l ie f s i t h o l d s a b o u t i ts o w n p r e s e n t s ta t es . I n o r d e r t o d e f e n dt h e s e t w o t h e se s , S a r t r e c o l l a ps e s th e d i s t i n c ti o n b e t w e e n a n a c t o rs t a t e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h a t a c t o r s t a te . F o r S a r t r ec o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e t a b l e j u s t i s c o n s c io u s n e s s o f b e i n g c o n s c i o u s o ft h e t a b l e . 1 O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , S a r t r e n e e d s t o sp l it a p a r t c o n s c i o u s n e s se v e n a t t h e p r e - r e f l e c t iv e l e v e l b e c a u s e h i s d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e F o r -i t s e l f h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s ) a n d t h e i n - it s e lf t h e r e s t o f t h e w o r l d )u l t i m a t e l y r e s ts o n h i s d e n ia l t h a t t h e L a w o f I d e n t i t y a p p l ie s t o t h eF o r - i ts e l f. T h i s p a p e r w iI 1 a r g u e t h a t h e d o e s n o t s u c c e e d i n h i s a t t e m p tt o h o l d b o t h t h e C a r t e si a n t h e s e s a b o u t c o n s c i o u s n e s s d is c u s se d a b o v eand t h e v i e w t h a t c o n s c i o u s n e s s is n o t i d e n t i c a l t o i t se l f. T h e r e a s o n h i sa t t e m p t f aiI s is t h a t i n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e u n i t y o f p r e - r e f l e c ti v ec o n s c i o u s n e s s , h e r e j e c t s a n a n a l y s is o f i t i n t e r m s o f k n o w I e d g e . B u ti n o r d e r t o i n t r o d u c e d u a l i t y i n t o t h i s u n i t y , h e i I l e g it i m a t e l y r e i n t r o -d u c e s k n o w l e d g e a t t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e l e v e l . H e a c k n o w l e d g e s t h i sp r o b l e m b u t d i sm i s se s i t w i t h o u t o f f e r i n g a s a t i s fa c t o r y r e s o l u t i o n f o rh i s i n c o n s i s t e n c y .

I n s e c t io n o n e o f t h e p a p e r I la y o u t t h e a r g u m e n t s S a r t re o f f e r s int h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o Being and Nothingness t o d e f e n d h is v i e w t h a t t h es e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e eogito is n o n - c o g n i t i v e . I ns e c t i o n t w o I a rg u e t h a t a k e y s e t o f a r g u m e n t s S a r t re u s e s t o d e f e n d


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330h is c l a im t h a t t h e L a w o f I d e n t i t y f ai ls t o a p p l y t o t h e F o r - it s e l f r e -i n t r o d u c e s c o g n i t i v e e l e m e n t s i n t o t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e cogito a n d i st h e r e f o r e i n c o n s is t e n t w i t h w h a t h e h a s a r g u e d in t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n .I n s e c t i o n t h r e e I e x a m i n e h o w t h is s a m e p r o b l e m a ri se s i n S a r tr e 'sd i s c us s i on o f p u r e r e f l e c t i o n . F i n a l ly i n s e c t i o n f o u r I s u m m a r i z e w h a tI t a k e t o b e o n e o f t h e c e n t r a l p r o b l e m s i n S a r t r e ' s a n a l y s is o f s e lf -c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

S a r t r e 's d e f e n s e o f b o t h C a r t e s i a n t h e s e s a b o u t c o n s c i o u s n e s s r e s ts o nh is c o ll a ps in g o f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f a n o b j e c ta n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f b e i n g c o n s c i o u s o f a n o b je c t . S a r t r e d e m a n d st h a t t h e r e b e a u n i t y t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s e v e n a t t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e l ev e l.T h i s u n i t y is n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e t r a n s l u c e n c y o f c o n s c io u s n e s s , t h a t i s,f o r c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o b e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s e v e n a t t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e l ev e l.H e s p el ls o u t h is a r g u m e n t f o r t h e s e l f- i n ti m a t i n g c h a r a c t e r o f c o n -s c i o u s n e s s i n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t o eing and Nothingness in w h i c h h ed i s c u ss e s p r e - r e f l e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a t le n g t h . F o r S a r t r e c o n s c i o u s -n e ss h a s n o c o n t e n t s ; i t is e m p t y . T h e r e a r e n o s e n s e - d a t a n o r r e p re s e n -t a t i o n s in c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( B N 1 1 ). S o i n t r o s p e c t i o n o n t h e m o d e l o fp e r c e p t i o n w o u l d fa il . T h e r e a r e n o c o n t e n t s o f c o n s c io u s n e s s t o b ep e r c e i v e d . T h e r e a s o n c o n s c i o u s n e s s h a s i n t r o s p e c t i v e a c c e s s t o i ts o w na c t s a n d o b j e c t s i s b e c a u s e i t is i t s a c t s a n d o b j e c t s . O n e s h o u l d n o t ,w a r n s S a r t r e , c o n c e i v e o f s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s a t t h e p r e - r e f le c t i v e l e v eli n t h e m o d e o f s u b j e c t /o b j e c t , t h a t i s, f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v ie w o f k n o w l -e d g e ( k n o w e r / k n o w n ) . T h e r e i s n o s u b j e c t / o b j e c t s p l i t i n c o n s c i o u s n e s sa t t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e l ev e l. C o n s c i o u s n e s s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s is n o t ak n o w l e d g e o f k n o w l e d g e ( B N 1 2) . I f s e l f -c o n s c i o u s n e s s is t h o u g h t o fa t t h is l ev e l i n t e r m s o f k n o w l e d g e , o n e e n d s u p w i t h r e f l e c t i o n o rp o s i t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s o r knowledge o f c o n s c io u s -n e ss . O n t h i s a n a ly s i s o n e a c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s w o u l d b e t h o u g h t o fa s ta k i n g a n o t h e r a c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s as i ts o b j e c t . A c c o r d i n g toS a r t re , t h i s w o u l d l e a d t o e i t h e r a n i n f i n i te re g re s s o r t o a n u n c o n s c i o u sa c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( B N 1 2 ). T h e r e a s o n f o r t h is is b e c a u s e i f f o r a na c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s to b e p r e - r e f l e c ti v e l y s e l f -c o n s c i o u s , t h e r e m u s te x i s t a f u r t h e r a c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h t a k e s t h e f ir s t a c t as i tso b j e c t , t h e n , s i n c e t h e s e c o n d a c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s m u s t a ls o b e s el f-


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331c o n s c i o u s , t h e r e m u s t b e a t h i r d a c t w h i c h t a k e s t h i s s e c o n d a c t a s i t so b j e c t . T h e s a m e w i ll b e t r u e f o r t h i s t h i r d a c t a n d s o o n ad in f in i tum.O n t h e o t h e r h a n d , i f o n e a t t e m p t s t o s t o p t h e i n f in i t e r e gr e ss a t s o m ep o i n t b y d e n y i n g s e l f -c o n s c i o u s n e s s t o s o m e o n e o f t h e a c t s o f c o n -s c i o u s n e ss i n t h i s s e ri es , t h e n , S a r t r e t h i n k s , o n e e n d s u p w i t h a n u n -c o n s c i o u s a c t o f c o n s c io u s n e s s. E i t h e r o u t c o m e is a b s u r d. S a r t r e c o n -c l u d e s t h a t C o n s c i o u s n e s s is n o t d u a l. I f y o u w i s h t o a v oi d a n i n f i n i ter e g r e s s , t h e r e m u s t b e a n i m m e d i a t e , non-cogni t ive r e l a t io n o f t h e s e lft o i t s e l f ( B N 1 2, e m p h a s i s m i n e ) . T h i s is w h a t S a r t r e c a ll s n o n - t h e t i co r n o n - p o s i t i o n a l s e l f- c o n s c io u s n e s s . E v e r y p o s i ti o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s so f a n o b j e c t is a t t h e s a m e t i m e a n o n - p o s i t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f it -s e l f ( B N 1 3) . S a r t re ' s b y n o w f a m o u s e x a m p l e o f t h is p o i n t is t h ec i g a r e t t e c o u n t i n g c a s e. I a m p o s i t i o n a l l y c o n s c i o u s o f t h e c i g a r e t t e sa n d t h e ir n u m b e r , b u t I a m o n l y n o n - p o s i ti o n a l l y c o n sc i o u s o f m yc o u n t i n g t h e c i g a r e tt e s . T h a t is , I a m e x p l i c i t l y a w a r e o f t h e c i g a r e t t e s ,b u t o n l y i m p l i c i tl y o r l a t e n t l y a w a r e o f t h e a c t i v i ty o f c o u n t i n g . W h a tt h i s s e e m s t o c o m e t o f o r S a r t r e i s t h a t i f a s k e d w h a t I w e r e d o i n g ,I c o u l d r e p l y I ' m c o u n t i n g c i g a r e t te s . I n o t h e r w o r d s , i f I w e r e t or e f l e c t o n w h a t I w a s d o i n g , I w o u l d b e e x p l ic i t ly a w a r e o f m y p r e s e n ts t a t e o r a c t i v i t y o r o b j e c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . R e f l e c t i o n , h o w e v e r , h a sn o p r i m a c y o v e r p r e - re f l e c ti v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s f o r S a r t r e s in c e pr e -r e fl e c -t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s c a n e x i s t w i t h o u t r e f l e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s . I n s t e a dp r e - re f l e c ti v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s m a k e s r e f l e c t i o n p o s s ib l e. S o t h e C a r t e s ia ncogito S a r t r e a r g u e s , is n o t p r i m a r y s i n c e t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e cogito ist h e c o n d i t i o n f o r i t . A l t h o u g h S a r t r e r e j e c t s t h e C a r t e s i a n cogito ( o rr e f le c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s ) a s th e s t a rt i n g p o i n t o r f o u n d a t i o n f o r k n o w l -e d g e , h e a c c e p t s t h e C a r t e s i a n t h e s i s t h a t a ll c o n s c i o u s n e s s is t r a n s-l u c e n t , t h a t is , s e l f- c o n s c i o u s . B u t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s a t t h e p r e - r e f le c -t i v e l e v e l d o e s n o t i n v o l v e a s u b j e c t ( t h e k n o w e r ) a n d a n o b j e c t ( a na c t o r m o d e o f c o n s c i o u s ne s s ) . R a t h e r c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f a n o b j e c t j u s tis c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f b e in g c o n s c i o u s o f a n o b j e c t. C o u n t i n g j u s t is n o n -p o s i t i o n a l c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f c o u n t i n g ( B N 1 3).

S a r t r e a p p l i e s t h i s a n a l y s i s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s n o t o n l y t o c o n s c i o u s -n e s s o f o b j e c t s ( t a b l e s , f o r e x a m p l e ) b u t a ls o t o a f f e c t i v e s t a t e s s u c h a si n t e n t i o n s , p l e a s u r e s a n d g r ie f s. T h e s e , f o r S a r t r e , a re n o t things inc o n s c i o u s n e s s b u t m o d e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . A s s u c h , t h e y a r e s el f-c o n s c i o u s . A n i n t e n t i o n , a p l e a s u re , a g r i e f c a n e x is t o n l y a s i m m e d i a t es e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( B N 1 4 ). B u t t h is s e l f- c o n s c i o u s n e s s is n o t a n e wc o n s c io u s n e s s . S a r t r e gi ve s a n e x t e n d e d a n a l y s is o f p l e a s u re a s a m o d e


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332o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . A p l e a s u r e j u s t is c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f a p l e a s u r e . N o ti n t h e s e n se t h a t t h e r e a r e t w o m o d e s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s : ( 1 ) a p l e a s u rea n d ( 2 ) a c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f p l e a s u r e a s a s e p a r a t e c o n s c i o u s n e s s . R a t h e rp l e a s u r e a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f p l e a s u r e a r e lo g i c a l ly in d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e .S a r t re d o e s n o t w a n t c o n s c i o u s t o b e a q u a l i t y o f p l e a s u r e a s r e dis a q u a l i t y o f t h e b l o t t e r , b e c a u s e t h e n t h e r e c o u l d b e o n e w i t h o u tt h e o t h e r . J u s t a s t h e r e c o u l d b e a b l o t t e r w h i c h la c k s t h e q u a l i t y o fr e d n e s s , s o t o o i f c o n s c i o u s w e r e a q u a l i t y o f p l e a su r e , t h e n t h e r ec o u l d b e p l e a s u re w i t h o u t t h a t q u a l i t y , t h a t is , u n c o n s c i o u s p l e as u r e.T h e n p l e a s u r e a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f p l e a s u r e w o u l d b e l o g ic a ll y - e v e ni f n e v e r in f a c t - d i s t i n c t f r o m e a c h o t h e r . B u t f o r S a r tr e c o n s c io u s n e s sis n o t h i n g b u t i t s o b j e c t s a n d s t a te s . L i k e w i s e , j u s t a s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s -n e s s is n o t a q u a l i t y o f p l e a s u r e , s o p l e a s u r e i s n o t a q u a l i t y o f s e lf -c o n s c i o us n e s s . T h e r e is n o t f ir s t pl e a s u re w h i c h t h e n b e c o m e s co n -s c io u s n o r c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h b e c o m e s p l e a s u re .

T h e r e is n o m o r e f ir s t a c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h re c e i v es subsequent lyt h e a f f e c t p l e a s u r e l ik e w a t e r w h i c h o n e s ta in s , t h a n t h e r e is f ir s ta p l e a s u r e ( u n c o n s c i o u s o r p s y c h o l o g i c a l ) w h i c h r e c e iv e s s u b s e q u e n t -l y t h e q u a l i t y o f c o n s c i o u s l ik e a p e n c i l o f l ig h t r a y s . ( B N 1 5)A p l e a s u r e a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h a t p l e a s u r e a r e in d i v is i b le f o r S a r t r e .

A t t h e e n d o f t h i s d i sc u s s io n o f t h e p r e -r e f le c t i v e cogito i n t h e I n t r o -d u c t i o n o f Being and Nothingness S a r t r e n o t e s t h a t h i s p o i n t w a s t or e f u t e t h e C a r te s ia n v i ew t h a t f av o rs t h e p r i m a c y o f knowledge a n d h ew i s he s t o a r g u e in s t e a d f o r t h e p r i m a c y o f t h e being o f t h e k n o w e r .C o n s c i o u s n e s s is n o t , a t t h e p r e - r e f i e c t i v e l ev e l, r e l a t e d t o i t s e x p e -r i e n c e s a s k n o w e r t o k n o w n . C o n s c i o u s n e s s is n o t r e l a t e d t o i ts ex p e -r i e n c e s a t a l l ; i t is i ts e x p e r i e n c e s . I t i s n o t h i n g i n i t s e l f ( B N 1 7 ) . H er e j e c t s t h e C a r t e s i a n v i e w o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s a s u b s t a n c e a l t h o u g h h em a i n t a i n s t h e C a r t e s i a n t h es i s a b o u t t h e s e l f- i n ti m a t i n g c h a r a c t e r o fc o n s c i o u s n e s s . T h e r e a s o n h e c a n d o t h i s i s b e c a u s e h e c o l l a p s e s t h ed i s t in c t i o n b e t w e e n a n a c t o r m o d e o f c o n s c io u s n e s s a n d c o n s c i o u sn e s so f t h a t a c t o r m o d e .


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333I I

A .S a r t r e r e t u r n s t o a d i s c u s s i o n o f t h e p r e - r e f l e c t iv e cogito i n c h a p t e rt w o o f P a rt o n e o f Being and Nothingness . I n t h i s s e c t i o n S a r t r e i s c o n -c e r n e d w i t h b a d f a it h . A f t e r e x a m i n i n g t h e p h e n o m e n o n o f b a d f a i tha t s o m e le n g t h , h e be g in s t o e x p l o r e t h e c o n d i t i o n s t h a t a l lo w f o r t h ep o s s i b i l it y o f b a d f a i t h . H e a r g u e s t h a t

T h e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e p o s s ib i l it y o f b a d f a i t h is t h a t h u m a n r e a l i t y , i ni ts m o s t i m m e d i a t e b e i n g , i n t h e i n t r a - s t r u c t u r e o f t h e p r e - r e fl e c t iv ecogi to m u s t b e w h a t i t i s n o t a n d n o t b e w h a t i t is . ( B N 1 1 2)M y c o n c e r n h e r e is n o t w i t h e x p l i c a t in g S a r t r e 's a n a l y si s o f b a d f a i t h .M y f o c u s i s r a t h e r o n h i s a n a l y s i s o f b e l i e f in t h i s s e c t i o n a n d h is a r g u-m e n t t h a t t h e L a w o f I d e n t i t y d o e s n o t a p p l y t o b e li ef . B e l ie f o r fa i t his c e n t r a l t o a n a n al y s is o f b o t h b a d a n d g o o d f a i t h . A n d S a r t r e fi n d st h a t b e l i e f a s a m o d e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s is b o t h i t s e lf a n d n o t i ts e lf . T h e r ei s a n i n n e r d i s i n t e g r a t i o n o f o n e ' s b e i n g i n v o l v e d i n b o t h b a d a n d g o o df a i th . T h e r e a s o n f o r t h is is t h a t b e l i e f e v e n a s a m o d e o f p r e -r e f le c t i v ec o n s c i o u s n e s s i s n o t w h a t i t is . S o m e h o w a s p li t o c c u r s w i t h i n t h e b e i n go f c o n s c i o u s n e s s i t s e l f ; in t h i s c a s e i t s b e i n g a s b e l i e f . T h i s is b e c a u s eb e l i e f a s a m o d e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s is s e l f- c o n s c i o u s . T h a t is , b e l i e f i sc o n s c i o u s n e s s o f b e l ie f . H e r e S a r t re a p p l ie s t h e C a r t e s ia n d o c t r i n e o fs e l f - i n t i m a t i o n t o b e l i e f. B u t a p r o b l e m a r is e s g i v e n t h e w a y h e u n -r av e ls t h i s a p p l i c a ti o n . H e u s es f o r a n e x a m p l e o f b e l i e f m y b e l ie v in gt h a t P i e r r e fe e l s f r i e n d s h i p f o r m e . I f I believe t h a t m y f r i e n d P i e r r el ik e s m e , t h is m e a n s t h a t h i s f r i e n d s h i p a p p e a rs t o m e a s t h e m e a n i n go f a l l h is a c t s . B e l i e f is a p a r t i c u l a r c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f the meaning o fP i e r r e' s a c t s ( B N 1 1 4) . I n th i s c as e b e l i e f p o i n t s o u t w a r d t o w a r d P i e rr ea n d h i s a c t s. H o w e v e r , i f I k n o w t h a t I be l ie v e , t h e b e l i e f a p p e a r s t om e a s p u r e s u b j ec t iv e d e t e r m i n a t i o n w i t h o u t e x t e r n a l c o rr e l a ti v e ( B N1 1 4 , e m p h a s i s m i n e ) . B u t s i n c e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s i s se lf -c o n s c i o u s , t h e n b e l i e f a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f b e l i e f m u s t b e o n e a n d t h es a m e . Y e t S a r t r e w a n t s t o i n t r o d u c e a s p li t h e r e ; b u t t o d o s o h e r e -i n t r o d u c e s k n o w l e d g e i n t o t h e s e l f -c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f p r e - r e fl e e ti v ec o n s c i o u s n e s s .


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334T o be l i e ve i s t o k n o w t h a t o n e b el ie v e s , a n d t o k n o w t h a t o n e b e -l ie v es is n o l o n g e r t o b e l ie v e . T h u s t o b e l i e v e is n o t t o b e l i e v e a n yl o n g e r b e c a u s e th a t is o n l y t o b e li ev e - t h is is t h e u n i t y o f o n e a n dt h e s a m e n o n - t h e t i c c o n s c io u s n e s s . (B N 1 1 4 , e m p h a s i s m i n e )

H e w a n t s t o c l a i m t h a t b e l i e f i s and i s no t w h a t i t is . B e l i e f i s be l i e fb u t b e c a u s e i t is s e l f - c o n s c i o u s it is n o t b e l i e f. O n c e I k n o w t h a t I be -l ie v e s o m e h o w I s e e i t a s p u r e l y s u b j e c t i v e a n d s o m y b e l i e f is u n d e r -m i n e d ; i t is n o l o n g e r d i r e c t e d o u t w a r d t o w a r d it s o b j e c t. B u t S a r tr eh a s h e r e i n t r o d u c e d c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f k n o w l e d g e . I n t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n ,h o w e v e r , w e h a v e s e e n t h a t h e c l e a rl y r e je c t s a n a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e lf -c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f p r e - re f le c ti v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s in t e r m s o f k n o w l e d g e .H e a c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t h e ha s f o r c e d t h e d e s c r ip t i o n o f t h e p h e n o m e -n o n [ o f b el ie f ] b y d e s i g n a ti n g i t w i t h t h e w o r d t o k n o w ; n o n - t h e t i cc o n s c i o u s n e s s is n o t t o k n o w ( B N 1 14 ) . Y e t he d i s m i s s e s t h i s i nc ons i s -t e n c y o n h i s p a r t b y r e p e a t i n g h i s c l a im t h a t p r e - r e f le c t iv e c o n s c i o u s -n e s s i n i t s t r a n s l u c e n c y i s a t t h e o r i g i n o f a l l k n o w l e d g e . F r o m t h a tf a c t a l o n e h e c o n c l u d e s t h a t t h u s t h e n o n - t h e t i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o f )b e l ie v i n g is d e s t r u c t i v e o f b e l i e f ( B N 1 1 4 ). 2 H i s a r g u m e n t h e r e s e e m st o a m o u n t t o t h e f o l lo w i n g : S i n ce p r e- r ef le c ti v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s is t h eo r ig i n o f k n o w l e d g e , k n o w l e d g e is i n v o l v e d i n t h e s e l f- c o n s c io u s n e s so f p r e - r e f le c t iv e c o n s c i o u s n e s s ; s o p r e - r e f le c t iv e c o n s c i o u s n e s s is s o m e -h o w f r a c tu r e d w i t h i n i ts el f . B u t t h is a r g u m e n t w o n ' t w o r k , f o r th e v e ryr e a so n s S a r tr e h a s g iv e n i n h i s I n t r o d u c t i o n . I t d o e s n o t f o l l o w t h a tb e c a u s e t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e c og i t o i s p r i m a r y a n d u n d e r l i e s k n o w l e d g eth a t i t i s a k n o w i n g c o n s c i o u s n e s s i n t e r m s o f i ts e lf . P r e - r e f le c t iv ec o n s c i o u s n e s s d o e s n o t k n o w i t s e l f , a l t hough i t i s s e l f - c ons c i ous .W h a t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s c o m e s t o a t t h i s l e v e l, a t l e a s t a c c o r d i n g t o t h ee x t e n d e d a n a l y s is S a r t r e h a s g i v e n u s e a r li er , is t h a t i f c o n s c i o u s n e s sr e f l e c t s u p o n i t s e lf i t w i ll t h e n b e c o m e e x p l i c i t l y a w a r e t h a t i t is c o n -s c i o u s n e s s o f a t a b l e o r o f c i g a r e t te s , f o r e x a m p l e . P r i o r t o r e f l e c t i o n ,h o w e v e r , c o n s i d e r a t i o n s o f k n o w l e d g e d o n o t a r i s e . F o r t h e S a r t r e o ft h e I n t r o d u c t i o n , p r e - r e fl e ct iv e c o n s c i o u s n e s s is n o n - c o g n i t iv e . A n dy e t i t is t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f k n o w l e d g e in t o t h e t r a n s lu c e n c y o f t h e p r e-r e f l e c t i ve c og i t o w h i c h u n d e r l i e s , a t l e a s t i n t h i s s e c t i o n , h i s a r g u m e n tt h a t ' to b e l i ev e is n o t t o b e l ie v e ( B N 1 1 4 ).


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335B

I m m e d i a t e l y a f t e r h i s d is c u s s io n o f b a d f a i t h a n d b e l i e f , S a r tr e r e t u r n st o a n a n a ly s is o f n o n - t h e t i c s e l f- c o n s c io u s n e s s . I n t h e f i r st s e c ti o n o fc h a p t e r o n e i n p a r t t w o o f Being and Nothingness w h i c h d e a l s w i t ht h e i m m e d i a t e s t r u c t u r e s o f t h e F o r - i ts e l f, h e a rg u e s a g a in th a t t h e L a wo f I d e n t i t y d o e s n o t a p p l y t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s e v e n a t t h e l e ve l o f t h e p r e -r e f l e c t i v e cogito H e s u p p o r t s t h is b y a f u r t h e r a n a l y si s o f b e l i e f a n da r g u e s t h a t s i n c e c o n s c i o u s n e s s e v e n a t t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e le v e l is s e lf -c o n s c i o u s , t h e n b e l i e f b e c a u s e i t is c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o f ) b e l i e f is n o ti d e n t i c a l t o i t se l f. H e o f f e r s a n a r g u m e n t t o s u p p o r t t h i s c la i m t h a t iss im i l ar t o t h e o n e h e o f f e r e d i n t h e s e c t i o n o n b a d f a i t h . S i n ce t h e p r e -r e f l e c t i v e eogito i s a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n f o r r e f l e c t i o n t h e n i t m u s ts h a re i t s s t r u c t u r e . S i n c e r e f l e c t i o n a l te r s t h a t w h i c h i s r e f l e c t e d u p o n ,t h e s e l f -c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e p r e - re f l e ct i v e cogito m u s t a l s o a l t e r i t sb e i n g a n d d u a l i t y i s i n t r o d u c e d i n t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s e v e n a t t h e p re -r e f l e c t i v e l e v e l ( B N 1 2 1 ). S i n c e r e f l e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s e x i s t s f o ri t s el f a s a w i t n e s s , p r e- r e fl e c t iv e c o n s c i o u s n e s s m u s t s o m e h o w e x i s t asa w i t n e s s t o i t s el f a s w e l l a n d t h u s b y t h e s o le fa c t t h a t m y b e l i e f isa p p r e h e n d e d a s b e l i e f , i t i s no longer only bel ief ; t h a t i s , i t i s a l r e a d yn o l o n g e r b e li e f , i t is t r o u b l e d b e l i e f ( B N 1 2 1 ) . F o r S a r t r e , c o n s c i o u s -n e s s ( o f ) b e l i e f i r r e p a r a b l y a l t e rs b e l i e f . B u t t h a t c a n o n l y b e so i fb e l i e f couM e x i st w i t h o u t c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o f ) b e li e f, t h a t i s, w i t h o u ts e l f -a w a r e n e s s a s o n e o f i t s p r o p e r t i e s . B u t t h a t i s i m p o s s i b l e o n S a r t r e ' sv i e w . C o n s c i o u s n e s s e v e n a t t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e l e v el m u s t b e s e l f - c o n -s c i o u s . B e l i e f i s n o t b e l i e f ; i t i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o f ) b e l i e f . A l t h o u g h h ea c k n o w l e d g e s t h a t s i n c e it i s p a r t o f t h e v e r y b e i n g o f b e l i e f t h a t i t b es e l f - c o n s c i o u s , t h a t i t c a n e x i s t only a s t r o u b l e d , h e s til l c o n c l u d e st h a t i t e x i s t s f r o m t h e s t a r t a s e s c a p i n g i t s e l f ( B N 1 22 ) . B u t i f f r o mt h e s t a r t w h a t i t is is s e l f - c o n s c i o u s , t h e n h o w d o e s i t e s c a p e w h a t itis b y t h e r e s u l t s o f i t s s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s ? H i s c o l la p s i n g o f t h e d i s t in c -t i o n b e t w e e n b e l i e f a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o f ) b e l i e f a t t h e p r e - re f l e c ti v el ev e l u n d e r m i n e s h is a t t e m p t t o p r y t h e m a p a r t a g a in a t t h is s a m eleve l .

S a r t r e m o v e s t o b l o c k w h a t h e s e e s a s a n o t h e r a t t e m p t t o r e i n t r o -d u c e i d e n t i t y i n t o p r e - r e f l e c ti v e c o n s c i o u sn e s s . A g a i n s t t h o s e w h ow o u l d h o l d t h a t c o n s c i o u s n e s s (o f ) b e l ie f is i d e n t i c a l t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s( o f ) b e l i e f h e r e a ss e r ts h is a r g u m e n t f r o m t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t h a t c o n -s c io u s n e ss ( o f ) b e l i e f c a n n o t b e d i s t i n c t f r o m b e l i e f o r o n e b e c o m e s


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336i n v o l v e d i n a n i n f i n i t e r e g r e s s o f a c t s o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( B N 1 2 1 ) . I fc o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o f ) b e l i e f is a n a c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s s e p a r a te f r o m b e l ie f ,t h e n t h e r e m u s t b e a t h ir d a c t o f c o n s c io u s n e ss w h i c h w o u l d b e c o n-s c i o u s n e s s ( o f ) ( ( c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o f ) b e l i e f ) ) . T h a t i s , i f t o s a y t h a t p r e -r e f l e c ti v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a s b e l i e f is s e l f - c o n s c i o u s m e a n s t h a t t h e r e i sa n a c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s w h i c h t a k e s b e l i e f a s i ts o b j e c t , t h e n f o r t h a ts e c o n d a c t t o b e s e l f - c o n s c io u s , t h e r e m u s t b e a th i r d a c t w h i c h t a k e st h e s e c o n d a c t a s i ts o b j e c t a n d s o o n t o i n f i n it y . S a r t r e t h i n k s t h a t i fy o u t a k e c o n s c i o u s n e s s (o f ) b e l i e f t o b e i d e n t i c a l t o i t s e l f t h a t y o u m u s ta ls o m a i n t a i n t h a t i t is s e p a r a te f r o m b e l i e f a n d s o b e c o m e i n v o lv e d i nth i s r eg r e ss .

S a r t r e c o n c l u d e s a f t e r t h e s e a r g u m e n t s t h a t b e l i e f is n o t b e l i e f a n dc o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o f ) b e l i e f is n o t c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o f ) b e li e f. R a t h e r b e l i e fis c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o f ) b e l ie f . T h a t is , b e l i e f a s a m o d e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s sis s e l f - c o n s c i o u s . I m u s t a d m i t I s ti ll f a il t o s e e h o w i t fo l l o w s f r o m t h ef a c t t h a t s e l f -a w a r e n e s s is a p r o p e r t y o f p r e - r e f l e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s( B N 1 2 1 ) t h a t a n a c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s a t t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e l e ve l , s u c h a sb e l i e f , is n o t i t s e lf . I t d o e s n o t f o l l o w f r o m t h e c l a i m t h a t b e l i e f is b e l i e ft h a t i t is n o t s e l f -c o n s c i o u s . J u s t a s i t w o u l d n o t f o l l o w f r o m t h e c l ai mt h a t w a t e r i s w a t e r t h a t i t is n o t f l u i d . L i k e w i s e a n i n f i n i t e r e g r es sw o u l d n o t f o l l o w f r o m t h e c l a i m t h a t c o n s c i o u s n e s s ( o f ) b e l ie f is c on -s c io u s n e ss ( o f ) b e l i e f u n l e s s o n e r e m o v e s t h e p a r e n t h e s e s a n d m o v e s t ot h e l ev e l o f r e f l e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s . B u t i f o n e d o e s n o t t a k e s e lf -c o n s c i o u s n e s s a t t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e l e v el to i n v o l v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s t a k i n gi t s e l f a s a n o b j e c t , t h e n t h e r e g r es s d o e s n o t b e g i n . S e l f - a w a r e b e l i e fj u s t is s e l f -a w a r e b e l i e f . W h a t w o r r i e s S a r t r e , o f c o u r s e , is t h a t h i s di s-t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e F o r - i t s e l f a n d t h e I n - it s e lf r e st s o n t h e f a c t t h a tt h e F o r - i t s e l f i s n o t w h a t i t is w h i l e t h e I n - i t s e lf i s w h a t i t is . T h e F o r -i t s e l f i s n o t i d e n t i c a l t o i ts e lf . I t is S a r t r e s a n a l y s i s o f b e i n g in t h e f i rs tp a r t o f e ing and Nothingness w h i c h b r i n g s h i m t o t h is c la i m . W h a tf o l l o w s is a v e r y b r i e f s u m m a r y o f t h a t a n a l ys i s . S a r t r e f ir s t r a is e s t h eq u e s t i o n o f b e i n g a n d t h e n s ee s t h a t t o b e a b l e t o q u e s t i o n is a h u m a na t t i t u d e a n d t h a t q u e s t i o n s c a n h a v e n e g a ti v e as w e l l a s p o s it iv e a n -s w e rs . S o o n e c o u l d n o t a s k a q u e s t i o n e s p e c i a ll y w i t h r e g a r d t o b e i n gu n l es s n e g a t i o n e x i s t e d . N e g a t i o n i s p o s s ib l e o n l y b e c a u s e o f n o n -b e i n g .B u t y o u c a n n o t d e r iv e n o n - b e i n g f r o m b e i n g in i t s e l f a n d y e t i t c a n n o tc o m e f r o m i t s e lf s in c e it i s n o n - b e i n g . S o t h e o n l y o r ig i n o f n o n -b e i n g ,n o t h i n g n e s s , m u s t b e a b e i n g w h i c h i s i ts o w n n o t h i n g n e s s , t h a t is , t h eF o r - it s e lf . A t l e as t p a r t o f w h a t S a r t r e m e a n s w h e n h e c la i m s t h a t t h e


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337For-itself is a being that is its own nothingness is that the For-itself isself-conscious. That is why he needs to show that self-consciousnessintroduces non-being into consciousness. One way he does this is toargue that the Law of Ident ity fails to apply to the For-itself. However,the arguments he puts forth in this section to support this claim areweak. In the next section of this paper, I want to look carefully at hisanalysis o f self-consciousness at the pre-reflective level which he offersimmediately after this discussion of belief.

C.A central concept in Sartre s analysis of the self-consciousness of thepre-reflective cogito is presence 3 Sartre argues that consciousness ispresent to itself even at the pre-reflective level. There are two ways tointerpret this thesis, however. I will call these two ways the weak andstrong versions of the thesis. Given the weak version of the thesis thatpre-reflective consciousness is present to itself, the thesis coincides withhis discussion of the self-consciousness of the pre-reflective cogitopresented in the Introduction to Being and Nothingness However,given the strong version of the thesis, Sartre is guilty of once moreintroducing considerations of knowledge at the pre-reflective level.But Sartre needs to put forth the strong version of the thesis in orderto defend his claim that duality enters into the unity of the pre-reflec-tive cogito and so the Law of Identity fails to apply to the For-itselfeven at the most primary level of consciousness. In doing so he relieson a notion of presence that he utilizes later in Being and Nothingnessin his discussion of knowledge.

Sartre argues tha t since consciousness (of) self at the pre-reflectivelevel is the foundation for self-consciousness and self-knowledge atthe reflective level, consciousness must be present to itself from thebeginning. The weak version of the claim that consciousness is presentto itself even on the pre-reflective level would amount to a restatementof the claim Sartre put forward in the Introduction. That is the claimthat consciousness of an object just is consciousness of being consciousof an object. That is why when asked what one is thinking or doing,one can answer. On this view one is implicitly present to one s acts ofconsciousness and can become explicitly present through reflection.However, on this version the uni ty of pre-reflective consciousness


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338would remain undisturbed. Presence to oneself would follow from thefact that being conscious of an object is the same as being conscious ofbeing conscious of an object. But Sartre wants to argue once againthat there is a duality, a fracturing, within the pre-reflective c o g i t o .To do so he introduces a notion of presence that is spelled out mostclearly in the section on Transcendence which deals with the natureof knowledge. Knowledge, Sartre argues in this section, is the presenceof consciousness to things (BN 240) and presence involves negation.

Non-being is an essential structure of presence. Presence encloses aradical negation as presence to tha t which one is not. What is presentto me is what is not me. (BN 241)

Thus to know an object requires that one not be the object. Knowledgeinvolves negation, a separation of the knower from the known. It isthis notion of presence which leads him, I think, to claim that forconsciousness to be present to itself it must not be itself. The law ofthe f o r - i t s e l f as the ontological foundation of consciousness, is to beitself in the form of presence to itse lf (BN 124). Presence involvesduality and separation and so the presence of being to itself implies adetachmen t on the part of being in relation to itself ... If being is pres-ent to itself, it is because it is not wholly itse lf (BN 124). Sartre, ofcourse, realizes that he must maintain the un ity of pre-reflective con-sciousness or he will reintroduce the Cartesian subject/object dualityinto that level of consciousness, a duality he rejected in the Introduc-tion. Unless Sartre maintains that belief is consciousness (of) belief,for example, the possibility arises that there could be something inconsciousness of which consciousness is unaware; that is, an unconsci-ous act of consciousness. To avoid this possibility, Sartre holds to hisearlier claim that there is no distinction between an act of conscious-ness and consciousness of that act. 4 To maintain this uni ty and theduality presence to oneself entails, Sartre argues that what separatesconsciousness from itself at the pre-reflective level is nothing. But hecan't have it both ways. If we take his claim seriously that nothingseparates an act of consciousness from consciousness of that act,then the distance and separation involved with the notion of presencedeveloped in the section on knowledge does not apply. The unity re-mains undivided. Just as he failed to argue successfully for the lack ofidentity between belief and consciousness (of) belief given his analysisof the unity of pre-reflective consciousness in the Int roduct ion, so here


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339h is a t t e m p t t o d r i v e a w e d g e b e t w e e n c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d it s e lf a t t h ep r e - r e f l e c t i v e l e ve l f a il s, s T h e o n l y w a y t o d r i v e s u c h a w e d g e is t om o v e t o t h e l ev e l o f r e f l e c ti v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s .

I I IT h e p r o b l e m s t h a t a r is e f o r S a r tr e in h is a t t e m p t t o i n t r o d u c e d u a l i t yi n t o t h e u n i t y o f p r e - r e f le c t iv e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a ri se a ga in , a l t h o u g hw i t h a s l ig h t ly d i f f e r e n t t w i s t , i n h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f p u r e r e f l e c t i o n . A tt h e l ev e l o f p u r e r e f l e c t i o n S a r tr e w i s h e s to m a i n t a i n t h e C a r te s i ant h e s i s t h a t i n t r o s p e c t i v e a w a r e n e s s is in f a ll ib l e . 6 T o d o s o , h e m u s tc o l la p s e th e d i s t in c t i o n b e t w e e n r e f l e c ti v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d t h ec o n s c i o u s n e s s it r e f l e c t s u p o n . Y e t t o t h e e x t e n t t h a t r e f le c t i o n isknowledge ( B N 2 1 3 ) , h e m u s t p r y t h e t w o a p a r t a g a in . T h i s is t h ep r o b l e m h e c o n f r o n t s a t th e b e g i n n i n g o f th e f i n a l s e c t i o n o n t h et e m p o r a l i t y o f t h e F o r - i ts e l f in P a r t tw o , c h a p t e r t w o o f Being andNothingness. W e c a n n o t t h i n k o f r e f le c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s as s e p a r a t ef r o m t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s i t r e f l e c t s u p o n , S a r t r e a r g u e s , o r e ls e r e f l e c -t iv e c o n s c i o u s n e s s w i ll p o s se s s at m o s t a n i m a g e o r r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o ft h e a c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s r e f l e c t e d u p o n ( B N 2 1 3 ) . T h i s w o u l d b es im i la r t o a c c e p t i n g a p e r c e p t u a l m o d e l o f i n t r o s p e c t i o n . J u s t a s i np e r c e p t i o n ( c o n s t r u e d o n a C a r t e s ia n m o d e l ) o n e ha s a r e p r e s e n t a t i o no f t h e o b j e c t p e r c e i v e d , s o i n i n t r o s p e c t i o n c o n c e i v e d o f o n a p e r c e p -t u a l m o d e l , r e f l e c ti v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s w o u l d p o s s e s s o n I y a r e p r e s e n t a t i o no f t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s r e f l e c t e d u p o n , a se n s a t io n o f a s e n s a t i o n so t os p e a k. B u t t h e n t h e k i n d o f s c e p t ic i s m a n d l a c k o f c e r t a i n t y w h i c hh a u n t s t h e C a r t e si a n v ie w o f p e r c e p t i o n w o u l d a ls o h a u n t t h is v i e w o fi n t r o s p e c t i o n a s a k i n d o f q u a si -p e r ce i vi n g. R e f l e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e a n di n p a r t i c u l a r t h e cogito w o u l d l os e t h e ir c e r t a i n t y a n d w o u l d o b t a i nin e x c h a n g e o n l y a c e r ta i n p r o b a b i l i t y , s c a r c e ly d e f i n a b l e ( B N 2 1 3 ).I n o r d e r t o m a i n t a i n t h e i n f a l l i b i l i t y t h e s i s t h e n S a r t r e c l a i m s t h a t

r e f l e c t i o n - i f i t is t o b e a p o d i c t i c e v i d e n c e - d e m a n d s t h a t t h er e f l ec t i v e , be t h a t w h i c h is r e f l e c t e d - o n ( B N 2 1 3 ) . S a rt re c l ai m s t h a tt h e r e is a b o n d o f b e i n g b e t w e e n r e f l e c t iv e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d t h e c o n -s c i o u sn e s s r e f l e c t e d u p o n . T h e o n e is t h e o t h e r . B u t f o r t h e r e t o b ek n o w l e d g e a t t h e l ev e l o f p u r e r e f l e c ti o n , r e f le c t iv e c o n s c i o u s n e s s m u s tb e s e p a r a t e f r o m t h e c o n s c i o u s n e s s r e f l e c t e d u p o n . S o t h e r e fl e c ti v em u s t b e a n d n o t b e t h e r e f l e c t e d - o n . H o w e v e r , a s S ar tr e b e gi n s t o


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340explicate his claim that there is knowledge at the level of pure reflec-tion, he realizes he must modify the claim to maintain the unitybetween reflective consciousness and the consciousness reflectedupon. In ordinary cases of knowledge, the knower and the object ofknowledge are separate. One is not the other. To know is to m a k e o n e -s e l f o t h e r (BN 218). But tha t cannot be the case with reflective knowl-edge since the consciousness reflected upon just is the reflective con-sciousness. So Sartre says that the consciousness reflected upon is onlya quasi-object for reflection since the reflected upon cannot be viewedfrom the outside, from a point a view, given the unity of being thatexists between reflective consciousness and consciousness reflectedupon. Since the two pull apart from each other but not sufficientlyto actually b e two, reflective knowledge cannot be ordinary knowl-edge. Rather, according to Sartre, it is a lightning intui tion ... every-thing is given at once in a sort of absolute prox imity (BN 218). Laterin this same discussion Sartre weakens even further his claim that purereflection is knowledge and claims that it is a recognit ion rather thanknowledge (BN 219). It differs from ordinary knowledge in that thereis no real object of knowledge in reflection but only a quasi-objectsince it is what it 'knows' and there are no surprises with reflective'knowledge' again since there is no transcendent object of knowledge.Still later in the discussion he says pure reflection is never anythingbut a quasi-knowledge (BN 226). The direction of the tension in thissection between Sartre's need to assert the unity within consciousnessand his need to argue for its duali ty is the reverse of its direct ion inhis discussion of the pre-reflective c o g i t o . There, in order to defend hisclaim that there is duality even in the uni ty of pre-reflective conscious-ness, he illegitimately introduces cognitive elements into the discussionof consciousness at that level. Her e, in order to reassert the uni ty ofconsciousness at the level of pure reflection, he weakens and at timesabandons his claim tha t pure ref lect ion is knowledge.

IVThe problem here and in the earlier discussion is tha t in order to defendthe Cartesian doctrines of self-intimation and infallibility, Sartre col-lapses the distinction between states or acts of consciousness and con-sciousness of those states or acts. He argues for the unity of conscious-ness at the pre-reflective level and at the level of pure reflection. Yet


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341in o r d e r t o d e f e n d h is c la im t h a t t h e L a w o f I d e n t i t y f ails t o a p p l y t ot h e F o r - it se l f h e i n t r o d u c e s d u a l i t y i n t o c o n s c i o u s n e s s e v e n a t t h e p re -r e f l e c ti v e l e ve l a n d i n d o i n g s o i n t r o d u c e s c o g n i t i v e e l e m e n t s as w e l l.H e w a n t s t o r e j e c t t h e C a r te s ia n p r i m a c y o f k n o w l e d g e a n d y e t m a i n -t a i n t h e C a r t e s ia n d o c t r i n e s o f s e l f - i n t i m a t i o n a n d i n f a l l ib i li ty . B u t h i sa t t e m p t a t l ea s t in t h e s e t o f a r g u m e n t s I h a v e b e e n e x a m i n i n g f ail s.A n y a t t e m p t o n h is p a r t t o p u l l a p a r t a c ts o r s ta t es o f c o n s c io u s n e s sf r o m c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h o s e a c ts o r s ta t es w e a k e n s h i s d e f e n s e o f t h et w o C a r t es i an d o c t r in e s . B u t i f h e m a i n t a i n s t h e a b s o l u t e u n i t y o f th et w o t h e n t h e d i s t i n c t io n b e t w e e n t h e I n -i ts e lf a n d t h e F o r - it s el f b e g in st o c o ll ap s e. T h e p r o b l e m S a r tr e is d ea li n g w i t h h e r e is t h e p r o b l e m o fs e lf - co n s c io u s n e s s . O n t h e o n e h a n d h o w c a n c o n s ci o u s n e s s h a v e t h ek i n d o f i n t i m a c y i t d o e s w i th i ts el f t h e k i n d o f in t i m a c y c a p t u r e d b yt h e C a r t e s i a n d o c t r i n e s o f s e l f - i n t i m a t i o n a n d i n f a l li b i li ty u n l e s s i t isitse lf? . O n t h e o t h e r h a n d h o w c a n s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s b e consciousnesso f s e l f u n le s s t h e r e is a d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d self?. S a r t r et r ie s t o s o lv e t h i s e n d u r i n g p u z z l e a b o u t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s b y p r y i n ga p a r t t h e a c t o r s ta t e o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s f r o m c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f th a t a c to r s ta te j u s t l o n g e n o u g h t o i ns e rt n o t h i n g n e s s b e t w e e n t h e t w o b e f o r et h e y s n a p t o g e t h e r a ga in . I t h i n k t h i s m o v e t h o u g h i t m a y c a p t u r e t h ep u z z l e m e n t s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s g i ve s r is e to f ai ls t o s o lv e t h e p u z z l e .

I h a v e b e e n l o o k i n g o n l y a t o n e k e y s e t o f a r g u m e n t s S a rt re a d -v a n c e s t o d e f e n d h i s c l a im t h a t t h e F o r - i t s e lf is n o t i d e n t i c a l t o i t s e l fa n d I c la im t h a t t h o s e a r g u m e n t s a r e i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h hi s c o ll a p si n go f t h e d i s t i n c t i o n b e t w e e n a c ts o r s ta t es o f c o n s c io u s n e s s a n d c o n -s c i o u s n e s s o f t h o s e a c t s o r s t a te s . S a r tr e o f c o u r s e a d v a n c e s m a n yo t h e r a r g u m e n t s i n eing and Nothingness t o d e f e n d h is cl ai m t h a t t h eF o r - i t s e l f f a il s t o c o i n c i de w i t h i ts e l f . H i s de f e ns e o f th i s c l a i m is a t t heh e a r t o f h is a n a l ys is o f h u m a n c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d t h e w a y i n w h i c h i t isd i s t in c t f r o m t h e w o r l d . O n e w a y i n w h i c h h e ex p l i c at e s t h is c l ai ma b o u t t h e i n a p p l i c a b il i ty o f t h e L a w o f I d e n t i t y t o t h e F o r - i t s el f is t oa r g u e t h a t a ll c o n s c i o u s n e s s is s e l f -c o n s c i o u s n e s s . M y c o n t e n t i o n ist h a t t h e s e t o f a r g u m e n t s h e g i v es t o d e f e n d t h i s e x p l i c a t i o n f ails . ~L i m i t a t i o n s o f s p a c e p r e v e n t m e f r o m e x a m i n i n g w h e t h e r S a r t r e s u c -c e e d s in t h e a r g u m e n t s h e g iv e s t o s u p p o r t o t h e r w a y s o f ex p l i c a ti n gth i s c l a im.


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o t e s

I. Jean-Paul Sartre, Being and Nothingness, trans. Hazel E. Barnes (New York:Washing ton Square Press, 1966), p. 11. All futu re re ferences to this work willbe followed in the text by BN and the page number .

2. Sartre explains in the Int rod uct ion that he uses parentheses around de in con-science de soi because in speak ing of self-consciousness at the pre-reflectivelevel he does not want the expression de sol to indic ate knowledge. At the pre-reflective level consciousness does not take itself (i.e., its acts or modes) as anobject. Ye t in this discussion of belief he talks of knowing that one believes atthe pre-reflective level and yet he still uses the parentheses. This ambiguityin Sartre's analysis reappears in his discussion of knowledge at the level ofpure reflection.3. By way of i ntrod ucin g this discussion of the Forq tself's presence to itself,Sartre discusses the use of the reflexive pronoun (in French and Latin) usedin locutions such as il s'ennuie (BN 123). Sartre's brief discussion here isakin to more recent discussions of what has come to be kno wn as the he-himself problem. Hector-Neri Castafieda first raised this pr ob le m in a nalyticphilo sophy in a series of articles in the late sixties and the discussion has bee ncontinued more recently by John Perry and others as well as by philosophersinter ested in cognitive science and AI research. Issues of self-reference areat the heart of these discussions.

4. The probl em Sartre wrestles with here is reflected in a recent debate betwee nD.M. Armstrong and Sydne y Shoemak er on the nature of consciousness andintrospection. Armstrong argues in Consciousness and Causality (Oxford,Engla nd: Basil Blackwell, 1984) that we should conceive of the introspecti veawareness that each person has of her own mind on the model of perception.Just as a person can become aware of objects in the world and the states andlocations of those objects throug h percepti on, so she can become aware of theacts a nd states of her own mind throu gh a kind of inner perception. This viewof in trosp ectio n rests on a distin ction which Armstrong defends most clearlyin A Materialist Theory o f the Mind (Lon don : Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1968).It is a distinction he draws between a state of consciousness and awareness oftha t state. For Armst rong , pain an d awareness of pain, e.g., are, in his ownwords, disti nct existences. He maintai ns that the awareness (perception)of i nne r mental states by the person whose states they are ... is simply a furtherment al state, a state 'dire cted' towards the original inne r state (p. 94). Whatfollows from his 'dist inct existences' theo ry is a rejection of the two Cartesiantheses Sartre accepts. In Intr ospe ctio n and the Self, Midwest Studies inPhilosophy, vol. x, ed. Peter A. Finc h, Theodore E. Uehling, Jr., and HowardK. Wettstein (Minne apolis: Unive rsity of Minneso ta Press, 1986), Shoemakermou nts a sustained attac k against the perceptual model of introspecti on. Hisattack of Armstrong's view rests in part on his collapsing, as Sartre does, thedistinc tion betwee n an act or state of consciousness and awareness of thatact or state. Shoemaker argues in the same vein in Personal Identity (Oxford,


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3 4 3

U K : B a s il B la c k w e l l , 1 9 8 4 ) t h a t t h e c a p a c i t y f o r b e i n g c o n s c i o u s o f s t a te s o fc o n s c i o u s n e s s w i t h i n o n e s e l f , s u c h a s b e l i e f s a n d d e s i re s , i s i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h ec a p a c i t y f o r h a v i n g t h o s e s t a t e s . I t i s o f t h e e s s e n c e o f a t l e a s t c e r t a i n m e n t a ls t a te s t h a t t h e y p r o d u c e s e l f -k n o w l e d g e , a k n o w l e d g e w h i c h i s n o t m e d i a t e d b ya n y t h i n g l i k e s e n s e i m p r e s s i o n s . F o r S h o e m a k e r , a s w e l l as f o r S a r t r e , b e i n g i n am e n t a l s t a te ( a t l e a s t o f a c e r t a in k i n d f o r S h o e m a k e r ) a n d b e i n g a w a r e o f th a ts t a te a r e n o t l o g i c ia l ly i n d e p e n d e n t .

5 . I t i s t h e a m b i g u i t y o f S a r t r e ' s a n a l y s i s o f t h e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f p r e - r e f le c -t i r e c o n s c i o u s n e ss t h a t c o n f u s e s s o m e o f h is c r i t i c s. M a r jo r i e G r e n e , f o r e x a m -p l e , i n Sartre ( N e w Y o r k : N e w V i e w p o i n t s , 1 9 7 3 ) a t t a c k s S a r t r e 's d e f e n s e o ft h e C a r t e s ia n d o c t r i n e t h a t i t is a n e c e s s a r y c o n d i t i o n fo r c o n s c i o u s n e ss t h a t i tb e s e l f - c o n s c i o u s . S h e t a k e s n o n - t h e t i c c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f s e l f a s s o m e t h i n g d i f -f e r e n t f r o m c o n s c i o u s n e ss o f an o b j e c t . B u t f o r S a r t r e i n t h e I n t r o d u c t i o n t oeing and Nothingness c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f t h e t a b l e a n d c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f b e i n gc o n s c i o u s o f t h e t a b l e a r e o n e a n d t h e s a m e . H e h a s c o l la p s e d th e d i s t i n c t i o nb e t w e e n t h e t w o a n d s o b e i n g s e l f - c o n s c io u s at t h e p r e - r e f le c t iv e l ev e l d o e s n o ti n t e r f e re w i t h b e i n g c o n s c i o u s o f t h e w o r l d . I n f a c t t h e y a r e t h e s a m e ; t h e r e iso n l y o n e a c t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . S h e a r g u e s a g a i n s t S a r t r e th a t i t i s c o n s c i o u s n e s s '

l a c k o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f i t s e l f, i t s ' i g n o r a n c e ' o f i t s e l f i f y o u w i l l , t h a t makesi t c o n s c i o u s ( p . 1 2 0 ) . S h e h a s s e p a r a t e d c o n s c i o u s n e s s o f s e lf f r o m c o n s c i o u s -n e s s o f th e w o r l d a t t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e l e v e l. B u t S a r t r e w o u l d r e j e c t t h a t s e p a r a -t i o n . I t h i n k , h o w e v e r , t h a t i t i s S a r t r e ' s i l l e g i t i m a t e i n t r o d u c t i o n l a t e r i n eingand Nothingness o f e l e m e n t s o f k n o w l e d g e a t t h e p r e - r e f l e c t i v e l e v e l, h i s i n t r o -d u c t i o n o f d u a l i t y i n t o p r e - r e f l e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s t h a t i s, t h a t m i g h t h a v ep u s h e d G r e n e t o i n t e r p r e t h i m in t h e w a y s h e d o e s .

6 . S a r t r e w a n t s t o d e f e n d t h i s C a r t e s ia n th e s i s w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n g , a g a i n s t D e s -c a r t e s , t h a t c o n s c i o u s n e s s is t e m p o r a l a t e v e r y le v e l o f i t s e x i s t e n c e , i n c l u d i n gt h e l e v e l o f p r e - r e f l e c t i v e c o n s c i o u s n e s s a n d p u r e r e f l e c t i o n . F o r D e s c a r t e sw h a t s e l f -c o n s c i o u s n e s s a p p r e h e n d s i s a m o m e n t a r y , i n s t a n t a n e o u s s e lf , a m o -m e n t o f c o n s c i o u s n e s s . F o r S a r t r e s e l f- c o n s c io u s n e s s a p p r e h e n d s a n h i s to r i -c i z e d s e lf , e m b o d y i n g a p a s t a n d d i r e c t e d t o w a r d a f u t u r e .

7 . A p a r t f r o m t h e p r o b l e m s I h a v e b e e n e x a m i n i n g i n th i s p a p e r , t h e r e a r e f u r t h e rp r o b l e m s t h a t a r is e f o r a n y o n e w h o h o l d s t h a t a l l c o n s c i o u s n es s is s e l f -c o n -s c io u s n e s s . S p l i t b r a i n p a t i e n t s , p e o p l e w i t h m u l t ip l e p e r s o n a l it i e s , d r e a m e r s ,t h o s e u n d e r h y p n o s i s , s le e p w a l k e r s h a v e a ll b e e n p r e s e n t e d a s ca s es t h a t s t a n das prima facie c o u n t e r - e x a m p l e s t o t h e t h e s is t h a t a l l s t a te s o f c o n s c i o u sn e s si n v o lv e s e l f - c o n s c io u s n e s s . B e c a u se o f l i m i t a t i o n s o f s p a c e , I c a n n o t e x a m i n ew h e t h e r S a r t r e c o u l d h a n d l e t h e s e k i n d s o f c a se s a n d i f h e c o u l d h o w h e w o u l dd o s o .

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