geographical locations that they are used. Regardless, the main
principles are all related to one another. According to Bacon, even
if there are different grammatical rules in each language, they can
be understood when put into comparison with one another because
they have similarities. He says: In its substance, grammar is one
and the same in all languages, even if it accidentally varies
(Bacon, 2005). Therefore, there should be no struggle in learning
English grammar and using it in various forms. Problems will only
arise if people are not given opportunities to learn and practice
the language and if they are being taught incorrectly. These are
the only factors that can lead to the flaws in the process of
gaining grammatical competence. Ehrenworth (2003) argues that there
are only two possible reasons why students fail to gain grammatical
competence through the direct instruction methods inside
educational institutions and these are the resistance theory and
confusion. First, Ehrenworth argues that almost all direct grammar
instructions inside schools are very confusing to students. There
are rules that students are taught but these are put side by side
with a wide number of exceptions that make these rules confusing to
begin with. This hinders the ability of students to think
independently about grammatical rules and schemes. The resistance
theory on the other hand says that the existence of boredom and
resistance prevents students to learn grammar. Students may find
English education as threatening, intolerable, and rather very
boring and teachers have a very active role here. In order to
properly teach grammar and not bore the students and bring them to
a point when they are not willing to learn, teachers must have a
conscious grasp of grammatical concepts and a deep understanding of
the language that requires intensive training on their part too.
Ehrenworth says that there are only a few teachers who are actually
well-trained and prepared to teach English or teach other subjects
using English. Therefore, teachers use their own improvised ways of
teaching the language or with the language, which greatly affects
the grammatical competence of the students and their academic
performance as well.
OrthographyBrown (2002) says that spelling is logical,
learnable, and critical to reading as well as to writing. However,
the most important thing is for it to make sense. In working with
students, teachers and educators have the responsibility to
facilitate the acquisition of literacy and language classroom
teachers, speech and language specialists, special education
teachers, administrators may benefit from an awareness of this
reconceptualization of spelling and its implications for learning.
The skill of learning according to Browns work is in the
understanding of the educators and their teaching
capabilities.Berninger & Fayol (2008) says that learning to
read and write is a very important component of the education
process that children go through in the American elementary school
setting. Spelling is considered as a very critical factor in
literacy learning. Studies show that skills acquired from spelling
instruction actually improve the reading abilities of
students.Joshi et al. (2008) believes that learning to spell
changes the way children think about the sounds that can be found
in the language that they use. It is important for children to
recognize how the sounds and letters in words are related to each
other. However, this is not always an easy task. The same authors
said that regularities in letter-to-sound correspondences support
accurate English spellings for nearly 50% of English words. Thus
spellings are directly related to the ability to recognize and
understand sounds in the language.
Reading ComprehensionRices article (2005) claim that when one
has read a text and understood it, comprehension also happens
there. However, comprehension can only be understood if considered
as a process through which a reader interacts with a text to
construct meaning rather than a particular outcome or product. This
view of comprehension highlights the deliberate, strategic,
problem-solving processes that readers go through as he or she
engages with a text. Therefore, the meaning a reader understands
from a text is influenced by his or her own knowledge (including
knowledge of language and print), experience, and perceived purpose
for reading.The process of deriving meaning from a text is what
Durkin (1993) describes as the essence of reading. There is no
point in reading a text without the intention of understanding it.
Therefore, the ability to comprehend what a text is all about is
very important in terms on overall literacy.
SemanticsThe Reading Rockets publication (2012) describes how
calendars help young children learn the basics of the days of the
week and the months of the year. The calendars only contain numbers
and months but as long as the children learn what these numbers
stand for, the children get the semantics of the whole calendar.
Things as simple as family calendars and other things that can be
found in the immediate environment serve as opportunities for
learning. The same publication suggests that families select
interesting words for the month, develop timelines, and strengthen
the understanding of numbers. This numeracy or numeric literacy
highlights the ability of numbers to serve as signifiers that
represent actual meanings.Spring (2003) defines the goal of
semantics as properly characterize semantic competence. Semantic
competence can be defined as the ability to determine the meaning
of a particular string of words beyond what has been uttered. Since
a particular string of words may correspond to more than one
syntactic structure, semantic competence can also be defined as the
ability to determine the meaning of a particular syntactic
structure which entails the ability to determine the relationships
between the meanings of distinct syntactic structure. Moreover,
these relationships include entailment, equivalence, and
contradiction all of which need to be understood to be good at
semantics.Studying the meaning in language forms is very
problematic according to most linguists and makers of dictionaries
since people can have different understandings of what words mean.
According to Leech (1981), there exist seven types of meaning
including Conceptual Meaning or the logical content; Connotative
Meaning or what the language refers to; Social Meaning or meanings
derived from social circumstances; Affective Meaning or the
feelings of the speaker; Reflected Meaning or associations with
another Sense of the same word; Collocative Meaning or associations
with words which co-occur with another word; and Thematic Meaning
or the theme that is obvious in the way the message is organized.
All of these are used just to derive meaning. At times, this can be
very confusing. The same kind of semantics can also happen in
social interaction according to Rendsvig (2011). Even though there
are multiple levels of understanding possible on social
conversations, it is necessary to understand the semantics so that
statements can be identified correctly. For example, the host of
the party asks one of his guests if he has brought extra wine. The
guest replies by saying: Yes, but the car is locked. My brother has
the keys. Though it was not
evident in the statement, the meaning of the statement is that
he cannot get the wine, it is in
the car, and his brother who has the key to the car is not here.
These information need to be
determined before the party host can say that he understood the
semantics of the social
conversation.
Local Literature
GrammarSan Diego (2008) stated that Communicative Competence is
a strong and common characteristic Filipinos as evidenced by the
demand for Filipino workers in other countries. Many nations
compete for international job opportunities but Filipinos have the
edge due to the ability to use English properly. In the colonial
times, San Diego argued that Filipinos have always been brilliant
in using the language and even sounding like the colonizers. This
ability impressed Americans and put the Philippines on the map.
Unfortunately, the ability of Filipinos in speaking the language
correctly is deteriorating over the past few years. Over time, the
country is reshaped by technology and the competence in English
language started to fall. Filipinos are no longer that good in
English, especially in terms of grammar. A few factors that
influence this decline are the media, the school curriculum, and
the lack teachers that are competent in English grammar all of
which needs to be addressed.OrthographyOne of the best instructions
for orthography in the country is a document called The Orthography
of the National Language (Commission on the Filipino Language,
2007) which is a product of the series of consultations with
various educators and linguists and details a number of important
factors including the Filipino alphabet, punctuation marks,
Filipino accents, borrowed words, and most importantly, spelling
guidelines that will help people understand how to spell words that
have foreign origin. Spanish and English are the two main foreign
languages that have influenced Filipino words and their orthography
since the time of colonization and this mix can make orthography
somewhat confusing in the local setting. It is very important for
people to understand how the orthography of these words is adapted
to Filipino phonology or when it chooses to adapt the original
foreign spelling.
Reading ComprehensionMany students consider reading
comprehension as a major problem mainly because of three causes:
language problem, foundational skills of reading is not yet
automatic, and not decoding the written word. The ability to read
language is affected by the lack of understanding of the language
and thus affects comprehension. Having an automatic ability use the
language also affects comprehension because the attention of the
reader is divided between the text and the language. If the reader
is unable to decode the written word, no reading comprehension is
possible because the readers cannot understand the text. Therefore,
reading comprehension can really be traced back to understanding
the language and being able to use it effortlessly
Makisig(2001).
SemanticsEthan (2008) says that it is always a process working
with vocabulary words and this does not happen in the initial
stages of education; it also continues even to the tertiary stages
and even during the professional careers of individuals. The
ability to use the language correctly in sentences oftentimes
depends if the person already had a previous experience with using
that word. Of course not everyone has a wide array of experiences
to cover the whole vocabulary so researching through books or
online materials can significantly increase vocabulary and ability
to form proper sentences and paragraphs.
Foreign Studies
GrammarRaimes (2008) stated that grammar is a very important
gauge of language mastery. Though Raimes focused on writing, he
also stated that people often have difficulty in using the language
and there is always a risk for errors. Using English language
involves more than just producing words and sentences. People must
know how to produce a connected series of words and sentences which
are grammatically and logically linked, so that the ideas that
people have in their mind will be communicated to the readers,
audience, or listeners. Correctness of form, appropriateness of
style, and the unity of topic are all very important in using the
language. Raimes also stated that there is a very close
relationship between the understanding of grammar and correctly
using it. The ability to think with the right grammar is a valuable
part of any language course or subject. Therefore, correct
language, punctuation mechanics, and logical content are all
necessary in English usage.Since English is now the universal
language, grammatical competence is necessary. According to Ramos
and Sanchez (N.d.), it is essential for a person to have a good
working knowledge of English grammar rules because it will not only
make him appear intelligent and educated but it will also give him
credibility and it is one of the most sought after evidence of
being educated nowadays. Knowledge and the ability to use English
language with grammatical competence is an advantage for people
looking for jobs since they will have a great advantage over other
applicants whose grammar skills are below average.
OrthographyDurkin (1966) discovered that children who learned
how to spell before they learned how to read, their writing lead to
their ability to read. This study proves that spelling is indeed an
important foundation of the other skills that individuals have in
using English grammar. A person cannot speak words correctly and
use them properly without being able to spell them
correctly.Chomsky (1971) says in his Development of Early Writing
Behaviors that children use their knowledge of letter names and
sounds to write words. Sounds are the basic building blocks of
children about words and spellings affect the capability to utter
the words properly. Childrens spellings were attempts to use the
phonemic or sound structure of English language which is not just
simple memorization. Simple memorization will not work because
there are many irregularities in English spelling because of the
number of words assimilated from other languages, and the conflict
between the uses of English in the Middle English to the Modern
English periods. As language evolves, spellings evolve too and this
can be confusing.Share (2004) had third graders practice reading
words spelled in one or another way in text and discovered that
students remembered target letters for over a month even when they
had read the words only once. This study just goes to show how easy
it is to make individuals remember the spellings of words through
familiarization.Rules of spelling are important in using the
English language. Schlagel (2002) identifies three basic approaches
for learning how to spell correctly. The incidental approach is the
first, which suggests that students be taught spelling in school as
the need arises. The labeled developmental word study is second and
it asserts teaching spelling should be done in a systematic manner
that directly affects individual development. As students go
through developmental stages, their need to learn spelling is
identified and then addressed. The use of basal spellers is the
third approach which suggests that there should be an increasing
level of English orthography difficulty as students go through the
developmental spelling stages. Learning and teaching orthography to
students are becoming increasingly difficult however because of the
explosion of technology. The increasing dependence on technology
has an impact on spelling and it has only been addressed in recent
quantitative research studies. One of the concerns that researchers
try to address is the effect of the use of mobile phones to send
text messages, among others including the use of social networking.
According to Thurlow (2006), much media attention has been given to
how the use of text messaging may have a negative effect on the
writing skills of students and many scholars believe that this form
of communication affects orthography because it sacrifices standard
spelling with the use of abbreviated forms of language. As people
use shortened versions of words, there is a tendency for forgetting
or not desiring to learn how to correctly spell words. The
mediocrity that this habit produces results to people not caring
about correct spelling as long as their words can be understood by
the person who receives the message. Early research studies,
however, do not support these assertions about the negative effect
of mobile phone texting and other technologies. There are no strong
evidences to prove that there
are indeed detrimental effects of abbreviated language and not
conventional spelling methods
according to Kemp & Bushnell (2011). These researchers also
believe that since text language are
usually phonetically acceptable versions of the words they
replace, only in abbreviated form, they
actually serve as cues to individuals on how to apply general
phonological awareness skills and
strengthens orthography in the process. This theory says that
even shortened spellings affect
orthography positively.
Reading ComprehensionDuke and Pearson (2004) say that reading
comprehension research has a long and rich history in both process
and instruction. In 1975, a lot of instructions were created and it
just grew very quickly from then on because of the lack of
controversy about teaching comprehension which created a steep
learning curve. There were many descriptions made of good readers
but not of good instructors.Pressley & Wharton McDonald (2006)
indicates in their research that good readers of all ages are able
to engage in conscious, active comprehension strategies before,
during, and after reading. Goals are defined before reading,
relevant prior knowledge is activated during reading, and
reflection after the reading is over. These are the characteristics
that educators must relay to students to make them able to
comprehend text.The RAND Study Group (2002) explains that the
capabilities and dispositions the reader brings to the task of
reading, his or her engagement in and responses to given texts, and
the quality of the outcomes produced by the act of reading for some
purpose are, themselves, shaped by cultural and subcultural
influences, socioeconomic status, home and family background, peer
influences, classroom culture, and instructional history. The RAND
Study Group defines capabilities as fluency in word recognition,
oral language ability, and domain knowledge. Dispositions include
readers motivation, goals, and purposes. This study shows that
reading is the foundation of intelligence and people who are
skilled in reading tend to perform better academically,
professionally and personally. Wigfield and Guthrie (2005) defines
reading comprehension as a very complex task that requires
different cognitive processes and reading abilities over the life
span of a person. It is a constant learning process in both oral
and silent reading comprehension abilities. Therefore, definitions
of reading comprehension should include motivation. As much as
possible, readers should be engaged in the process of reading so
they can use their knowledge and skill in comprehension. When
motivated, readers tend to exert much effort in understanding the
meaning of the text.
SemanticChall & Jacobs (2003) says that vocabulary is the
glue that holds stories, ideas and content together making
comprehension accessible for children. The word knowledge of
students is a determinant of academic success since it helps
students understand concepts and ideas faster. The steady and
continuous growth of vocabulary is important as a student goes
through one level of education to another. Duffy (2009) discovered
that as students progress in school, subject matter becomes more
complex together with meanings of words. Direct experiences no
longer become the main source of meaning and students are forced to
learn meanings through reading alone and studying the words.
Categories and subcategories are also introduced and become more
complicated. Students will need to learn semantic mapping to
categorize word meanings through identifying key attributes that
distinguish one word from another.Davis (2002) confirms the
assumption that there is a strong correlation between vocabulary
knowledge and reading comprehension exists. As a person reads a
text and aims to understand it, the words there are naturally
stored in the receptive vocabulary of the reader. This study shows
that reading comprehension is impeded if individuals do not know
90%95% of the total words in the text. This makes it impossible to
understand what the text even means. According to Snchal (2006), a
persons vocabulary contributes to comprehension because it provides
the building blocks for higher-order thinking skills. The words
that a person knows helps in correlation and understanding other
words so the more words a person knows, the easier it becomes to
infer meanings. Armbruster (2003) says that a persons understanding
of words goes through the following three stages: the word being
unknown, the person being acquainted with the word, and the word
being established in the persons mind. This is the process of
learning and mastering words and their meanings. When these three
stages are completed, a person will be able to use the words
properly.
Local Studies
GrammarBaniagas (2008) research focused on determining the
competence of the subjects in English grammar in terms the
following factors: subject-verb agreement, verb tenses, adjectives,
adverbs and prepositions. The study used a pre-tested English
grammar exam which was used to determine the subjects grammatical
competence of the first year college students from selected
colleges of Baguio Central University. The result of the study
showed that most of the respondents had very poor grammatical
competence, especially in terms of subject-verb agreement and many
failed to show that they have grammatical competence. The study
discovered that the schools in which the students graduated from
had an effect in their grammatical competence and proved that in
order to produce grammatically competent college students, schools
mush first product grammatically competent high school students.
Other factors also affected grammatical competence including the
educational attainment of their English teachers and the length
teaching experience. Students who studied under teachers that have
a higher degree of learning and longer length of teaching
experience are better and are more grammatically competent than
those who have been taught be the opposite. The study therefore
recommended that subjects need to improve their grammatical
competence and teachers should also be subjected to proper learning
and training.
OrthographyMost educators need help from linguistics experts in
developing a working orthography from the academe because they are
not well-equipped to teach orthography to their students. In his
concept paper, Dr. Ricardo Nolasco writes: A vital prerequisite for
developing educational materials in a local language is a working
orthography consisting of written symbols that represent the
important sound features of that language and the rules for using
these symbols. A working orthography is not the standardized
written form of the language. It is the embodiment of all spelling
conventions actually used and decided on by language users for
official and academic purposes at a particular point in time. Such
orthography has to be tested, revised and retested in the crucible
of practice before standardization and final decisions can be made
by the language community.
Reading ComprehensionLaruans (2008) study identified the reading
comprehension level of the first and second year students on the
following reading skills: noting details, identifying main ideas,
following directions, sequencing events, and making inferences;
determined the effects of gender, school graduated from and parents
educational attainment in the reading comprehension level of the
subjects; and found out that there are differences in the reading
comprehension level between the first and second year students. The
results showed that both first and second year students are
competent in noting details but are weak in the following areas:
identifying main ideas, following directions, sequencing events,
and making inferences. Second year students are found to be very
competent. Gender, the school, and the educational attainment of
parents were not a factor in differentiating reading comprehension
levels of the first and second year students.Pado (2003) explains
that the essence of reading is looking at the printed words and
finding meaning in it. The reader gives life to the printed page
through meaning and therefore, comprehension is necessary from the
beginning. From the start of reading instructions, it must be clear
to the readers that they should find meaning and therefore their
minds will be focused on decoding the text and extracting meaning
from it.
Semantics
Allay (2008) performed a study determining the level of English
proficiency of the senior students of a local educational
institution in terms of synonyms and grammar, the extent of effect
of the teacher, student, and school factors on their English
proficiency, and the difference on their English proficiency
depending on the type of material used in the test, curriculum and
socio-economic status are considered. Among 125 respondents, the
researcher found out that synonyms and grammar proficiency are at
par with one another. However, English proficiency is affected more
by the teachers than the student and school factors. Therefore, the
ability to understand semantics highly depends on the skill of the
teacher to instruct students and make them understand the
meanings.
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