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LANDMINE and EXPLOSIVEREMNANTS of WARS A F E T Y H A N D B O O
K
United Nations
United Nations Mine Action ServiceNew York, NY 10017 USATel:
1.212.963.1875 • Fax: 1.212.963.2498E-mail:
[email protected]: www.mineaction.org United Nations
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A manual for people working
in environments
contaminated by landmines and otherexplosive remnants
of war
InformationCountry-Specific
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Landmine and Explosive Remnants of War
Safety Handbook
A manual for people working in environments contaminated by
landmines and other explosive remnants of war
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FUNDING FOR THIS PROJECT WAS PROVIDED BY THE UNITED
NATIONS FOUNDATION THROUGH THE UNITED NATIONS FUND
FOR INTERNATIONAL PARTNERSHIPS (UNFIP), AND BY THE
GOVERNMENTS OF CANADA, JAPAN, THE NETHERLANDS, NORWAY,
SWITZERLAND, AND THE UNITED KINGDOM OF GREAT BRITAIN
AND NORTHERN IRELAND.
THE UNITED NATIONS AND CONTRIBUTING ORGANIZATIONS
SHALL NOT BE HELD RESPONSIBLE FOR DEATHS OR INJURIES
TO PERSONNEL AND/OR DAMAGE TO PROPERT Y THAT MAY BE
CAUSED AS A RESULT OF THE USE OF THIS HANDBOOK.
Any comments or questions concerning
this handbook may be addressed to:
United Nations Mine Action Service
New York, NY 10017 USA
Tel: +1 212 963 1875
Fax: +1 212 963 2498
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.mineaction.org
© United Nations 2005 (2nd Edition)
All rights reserved
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A c k n o w l e d g e m e n t s 5
I n t r o d u c t i o n 7
S E C T I O N 1 9The Threat 9Landmines 9
Anti-Personnel Landmines 11
Anti-Vehicle Landmines 16
Unexploded Ordnance 17
Abandoned Ordnance 28
Improvised Explosive Devices and Booby-Traps 30
S E C T I O N 2 33Recognizing Dangerous Areas 33Warning Signs
33
Warning Clues 37
S E C T I O N 3 49Basic Safety Advice 49Risk-Taking Behaviour
50
Common Myths about Mines and Explosive Remnants of War 53
Safety Advice For Organizations 56
Safety Advice For Individuals 57
3
Ta b l e o f Co n t e n t s
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S E C T I O N 4 67Emergency Procedures In A Minefield
67Emergency Procedures On Foot 67
Emergency Procedures In A Vehicle 71
S E C T I O N 5 73Assisting A Victim 73
A N N E X E S 77A1 Use of Route Cards 77
A2 Measures to Provide Additional Protection to a Vehicle 85
A3 Other Threats 87
A3.1 Depleted Uranium 87
A3.2 Biological and Chemical Weapons Threats 89
A4 Glossary 92
E m e r g e n c y C o n t a c t s 96
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Ac k n ow l e d g e m e n t s
This handbook is the 2nd edition of the Landmine andUnexploded
Ordnance Safety Handbook produced by theUnited Nations in 2000,
which was originally based on theLand Mine Safety Handbook
developed and published by CARE in 1997. The handbook has been
substantiallyrevised including its title to reflect latest
terminology.The Landmine and Explosive Remnants of War
SafetyHandbook draws upon information found in
InternationalGuidelines for Landmine and Unexploded
OrdnanceAwareness Education developed by the United
NationsChildren’s Fund (UNICEF) in 1999 and International
MineAction Standards published by the United
Nations(www.mineactionstandards.org). The Landmine andExplosive
Remnants of War Safety Handbook is part of theLandmine Safety
Project of the United Nations Mine ActionService (UNMAS).
The handbook has been revised by UNMAS and UNICEFwith the valued
input and technical support of various peo-ple from United Nations
entities, international organiza-tions, and non-governmental
organizations. Special thanksgo to the Geneva International Centre
for HumanitarianDemining,Handicap International, International
Committeeof the Red Cross (ICRC), INTERSOS, Mines Advisory
Group,Trauma Care Foundation, United Nations Office for
ProjectServices (UNOPS), and the United Nations Department ofSafety
and Security (UNDSS).
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Landmine survivors are an obvious indicator for the presence of
mines. These Afghan men arenow working as bicycle couriers in
Kabul; Afghanistan
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Landmines,abandoned munitions and military equipment,unexploded
ordnance and other explosive remnants of war (ERW) pose a hazard to
people in more than 82countries around the world.
This handbook is not an instruction manual for workingwith
landmines or ERW, or for working with landmine-affected
communities. Rather, its aim is to raise awarenessand provide basic
safety information concerning the threatof landmines and other ERW
to organizations and individuals working in war-torn areas, and to
help them:
■ Establish appropriate safety procedures;
■ Avoid contact with mines and ERW;
■ Take appropriate action in emergency situations.
Proximity to mines and ERW is always dangerous andshould be
avoided. Only trained specialists should seek outor handle
landmines or ERW.
The information contained in this handbook is general innature
and some of it may not be applicable in all situations.Accordingly,
it should be complemented by country-specificinformation and an
analysis of the nature and extent of thelocal threat. In addition,
this handbook is not designed as astand-alone document, but should
be used in support of alandmine and ERW safety briefing by
qualified instructors.Whenever possible, readers should seek the
guidance andadvice of specialists working in their area of
operations.
I n t r o d u c t i o nD I D Y O U K N O W ? As of September
2005, 147states parties have signed the anti-personnel Mine-Ban
Treaty (known as the OttawaConvention). In doing so,they have
accepted to stopusing, stockpiling, producingand transferring
anti-personnel mines and also agree to their destruction.The
convention also has provisions for landmine victims to receive
assistance.
Since the Convention came intoforce in 1999, the use of
anti-personnel (AP) mines hasdecreased. However, a fewstates
(non-signatories to thetreaty) continue to use andstockpile AP
landmines, andmore than 82 countries havesome form of widespread
landmine contamination frompast and ongoing conflicts.AP mines
represent some ofthe most serious threats topeople working in
post-conflictareas, even decades after a conflict.
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The handbook is divided into five main sections and annexes.
■ Section 1 provides information on the nature of the threat
from mines and ERW;
■ Section 2 provides advice on recognizing the threat;
■ Section 3 provides general safety advice and information on
avoiding the threat;
■ Section 4 explains what to do if you find yourself in a mined
area;
■ Section 5 provides basic information on what to do in case of
an accident.
The annexes provide examples of travel procedures andinformation
on other threats such as chemical and biologi-cal weapons.
Throughout the handbook, coloured text boxes are used toprovide
additional information: orange for case studies;yellow for
interesting but non-essential information; blue fordefinitions of
key terms.
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1S E C T I O N
People who work in areas that have experi-enced armed conflict
may be confronted with thethreat posed by landmines, unexploded or
abandonedordnance, abandoned military vehicles and equipment,and
other explosive remnants of war (ERW). (Note that the term ERW
includes UXO and abandoned ordnance butexcludes landmines, see
definition in the glossary,Annex 4). Landmines may block access to
project sites orpose a direct threat to safety – even years after a
conflicthas officially ended.When working in such areas,
organiza-tions and individuals must be aware of the physical
threatsposed by a huge variety of armaments left during and
afterarmed conflict.
To protect yourself, you need to be aware of the threat andtake
appropriate preventive action. This section aims tohelp identify
mines and ERW, and explains how they workand their effects. It is
impossible to describe all types ofmines and ERW in this handbook,
so common sense mustbe applied; as a general rule, always regard
unusual objectswith suspicion.A description of some of the more
commonthreats follows.
LandminesA landmine is an explosive device designed to destroy
ordamage vehicles, or to wound, kill, or otherwise incapaci-tate
people. Mines can be victim activated, that is detonat-
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T h e T h r e at
D I D Y O U K N O W ?The word ‘mine’ is derivedfrom the Latin
word minawhich means ‘vein of ore’and was originally appliedto the
excavation of miner-als from the earth. The termwas then borrowed
by military engineers whosejob it was to dig mines inthe ground
during sieges of forts and castles, oftenunder walls to
collapsethem. Modern landminesare explosive traps, butthey also
trace their lineagefrom non-explosive prede-cessors such as spikes
andstakes used by ancientarmies as far back as 2,500years ago.
(Croll, M. Historyof Landmines. 1998)
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ed by the action of their target by being stepped on orstruck or
can be triggered by direct pressure, tripwires, tiltrods, command
detonation,or by some combination of thesemethods. They can also be
booby-trapped by using, forexample, anti-handling devices, to make
their removal moredifficult.They may also go off with the passage
of time.
Mines are used as defensive weapons: they provide protec-tion
for important military positions or hinder the move-ment of troops
by causing casualties to an enemy anddestroying equipment. They are
also used offensively: in particular during civil conflicts they
are used to destroy ordamage infrastructure and cause terror by
denying civilianpopulations access to their homes, agricultural
land, water,roads, schools, health care facilities and other
resources.
Landmines are almost always hidden and camouflaged tomatch their
surroundings, making them seldom seen anddifficult to locate.They
are usually buried or hidden in grassor buildings, fixed on stakes
or to trees. According to conventional and ‘disciplined’ warfare,
landmines are usual-
Angola: 13 passengers were in this vehicle when it hit
ananti-vehicle mine; 7 died and 6 were injured.
Command ActivatedA process where a secondperson detonates a
mineor improvised explosivedevice by remote control.
Victim Activated Triggered by a personwhen it is stepped
on,driven over, struck, or bysome similar action.
Case StudyIn 2002, the vehicle of a non-
governmental organization
hit an anti-vehicle mine on
the road between Mavinga
and Cunjamba in Angola,
killing seven and injuring six
of the passengers. Although
the road had been safely
used for some time prior to
this incident, it was the rainy
season and the wet weather
made it difficult for the driv-
er to stay on well-used
tracks. Driving off the tracks
placed the vehicle in the
path of a deadly mine.
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ly laid in patterns to create consistent barriers or
unseen‘walls’along roads and around strategic points; their
locationis sometimes recorded in maps.More often than not,they
arelaid indiscriminately by armed parties constantly on themove;
some landmines are even scattered by aircraft over a
wide area with no obvious ordiscernable pattern.
There are currently more than600 different types of land-mines,
as well as many impro-vised mines made by militaryforces engaged in
fighting.They are grouped into twobroad categories: anti-person-nel
(AP) mines and anti-vehi-cle (AV) mines, also commonlyreferred to
as anti-tank mines.
A N T I - P E R S O N N E LL A N D M I N E SAn anti-personnel
landmine is designed to be exploded bythe presence, proximity or
contact of a person and is intended to incapacitate,injure or kill
one or more people. AP mines are usuallydetonated when they
arestepped on or when a tripwireis touched, but they can alsobe set
off by the passage oftime or by controlled means.
This small AP-mine cantear off a foot! It is abouthalf the
length of a leather-man tool and is almostimpossible to see
(top).Same mine uncovered by deminers (bottom);Sri Lanka
Anti-Handling DeviceA device fitted to an anti-vehicle or
anti-personnel mine that causes the mine to explodewhen it is
handled or dis-turbed. Anti-handlingdevices are intended toprevent
the clearing ofmines.
Most landmines areimpossible to see.
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AP mines can be found on the ground,buried or fixed aboveground
and are generally small devices that come in manydifferent shapes.
Often, they are camouflaged to help themblend into the surroundings
and can be fabricated of wood,plastic or metal. Areas suspected of
containing AP minesshould be avoided.
Once triggered,AP mines cause death or serious injury by
anexplosive blast and/or flying fragments. They are
groupedaccording to the manner in which they inflict injury:
blastor fragmentation.
BLAST ANTI-PERSONNEL MINESBlast AP mines are often very cheap
and are among themost commonly found in the world.They are designed
to betriggered by the pressure caused by physical contact withthe
mine, mostly by stepping on them. Most mines of thistype are
designed to cause serious injury, usually the ampu-tation of one or
more limbs, rather than death.
Blast AP mines are generally cylindrical in shape, and rangein
size from seven to 16 centimetres in diameter and five to10 cm in
height. However, some blast AP mines are rectan-gular or ’shoe
box‘–shaped. They then range in size from 10cm x 18 cm to 15 cm x
30 cm. Most AP mines have a rela-tively small explosive charge,
often less than 100 grammesof explosive. The concentrated blast of
the charge is whatcauses death or injury.
While some blast AP mines are still made of metal or wood,most
are manufactured of plastic. This makes them waterresistant or
waterproof, and dangerous even when sub-mersed. Following heavy
rains, it is not uncommon for somemines to wash out of minefields
into previously mine-freeareas, or into waterways where they can be
swept kilome-
Self-made AP-minewith chemical explo-sive. Stepping on
thesyringe causes it toexplode; Colombia
Box shaped AP-mine;Southern Lebanon
These air-delivered‘butterfly mines’can explode whentouched;
Afghanistan
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tres downstream before washing ashore. Blast AP mines areusually
tan, olive, green, black, brown, grey, or a combinationof
colours.
In addition to buried AP blast mines, a common type of mineis
the ‘butterfly’ mine (or similar variants), which is scatteredover
the ground by aircraft or artillery fire. If recently deliv-ered,
these mines are usually found lying around in largenumbers. After
some months or years, single mines may befound. Butterfly mines
have a combination of odd shapesand often bright colours that can
make them unique andattractive to curious children and adults.
FRAGMENTATION ANTI-PERSONNEL MINESFragmentation AP mines are
typically designed to causedeath, often to a large number of
people, from fragmentspropelled by the mine’s explosive charge.
Most of thesemines have metal casings, or contain ball bearings or
metalfragments that are turned into lethal projectiles by the
deto-nation of the mine.
There are three basic types of fragmentation AP mines:
stakemines, directional fragmentation mines, and bounding
frag-mentation mines.
Stake Anti-Personnel Mines
The most commonly found fragmentation AP mines arestake mines,
which are designed to fit on wooden or metalstakes hammered into
the ground until the mine is restingabout 20 cm above the surface.
They are also fixed to trees.Most look like a small club: a wooden
stake, topped by asmall metal cylinder and detonator projecting out
of the top.They are often painted green, or they may be
unpaintedwood and metal.
TripwireA thin, non-reflectivemetal wire or string which can be
used as amechanism to trigger amine or a booby-trap.A tripwire is
usually butnot always stretched lowabove the ground so thatany
passer-by will ‘trip’over it, setting off theexplosive. When
tripwiresare used, they can run asfar as 30 m from the mines.
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Stake mines are fitted with one or more tripwires that set
themine off when pulled or cut. Tripwires are very hard to see,and
may be strung across paths or doorways, and attachedto a solid
object such as a tree, or to another mine.
Once set off, metal fragments are projected in a
360-degreeradius, causing lethal injury to anyone within an
unobstruct-ed four-meter perimeter and causing death and
seriousinjury to people at much greater distances. One commonmine –
the Russian POMZ-2M – detonates and shatters tocreate fragments
that are likely to be lethal within a 10metre radius. Beyond this,
the uneven size and distributionof the fragments makes the effect
unpredictable; large frag-ments may injure or kill at a range of
100 m or more.1
Over time,stake mines may fall over or the stake on which
theyrest may disintegrate. This does not make them less danger-ous,
as the explosive charge remains however their appear-ance can
change, which can make tripwires even less visible.
Directional Fragmentation Anti-Personnel Mines
Directional (or ’Claymore‘ type) fragmentation AP mines
aredesigned to project a dense pattern of fragments in a speci-fied
direction. Most look like a curved rectangular box aboutthe
thickness of a paperback book. This box sits on two setsof legs and
is generally coloured olive, black or brown.
Directional fragmentation AP mines are usually
command-detonated, but they can also be initiated by tripwire.
Oncedetonated, most mines of this type project their
fragmentswithin a 60-degree horizontal arc and to a height of
abouttwo meters. Most are designed to have an ’effective
range’(causing serious injury or death) of around 50 m.
1. Source for ranges: Colin King, author of Jane’s Mines and
Mine Clearanceand Jane’s Explosive Ordnance Disposal.
‘Claymore’ type mineshoots fragments inone direction–often at a
road or path.Note tripwire; Balkans.Several mines may be
interlinked; theymay also be mountedin trees!
Stake AP-mine. Youcan see the tripwire.
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Other versions of these mines are large and circular in
shape,and project shrapnel in a narrow cone, like a shotgun.
Theyare capable of killing people, as well as disabling or
destroy-ing passenger vehicles, pickup trucks, utility and
four-wheel-drive vehicles.
Bounding Fragmentation Anti-Personnel Mines
Bounding mines are normally buried and often linked to
trip-wires. Most bounding mines are cylindrical in shape, with
asingle tubular fuse or a number of prongs sticking out fromthe
top.They are typically around 15 cm in diameter and 28cm in height.
Bounding mines are usually tan, olive green,black, brown, and
green, or are left unpainted.
Bounding AP mines are generally triggered by tripwires ordirect
pressure. Once triggered, an initial explosion lifts themine out of
the ground to about waist height before themain charge detonates.
Upon detonation, the explosion
Bounding mines first ‘jump’ when activated and then explode.Very
lethal indeed.
Never touch,approach or step-over tripwires!
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shoots out metal fragments in a 360-degree
horizontalradius.Design variations mean that the number,size and
dis-tribution of fragments vary widely, but a typical boundingmine
is likely to be lethal within 25 m and capable of inflict-ing
serious injury at ranges up to 100 m.
A N T I - V E H I C L E L A N D M I N E SAnti-vehicle (AV)
mines, often referred to as anti-tankmines,are designed to disable
or destroy vehicles.Likeanti-personnel (AP) mines, anti-vehicle
mines can bedetonated by pressure (though normally muchgreater
weight is needed), by remote control, by mag-netic influence or
through the disturbance of a tilt rod(a sort of vertical tripwire –
see box for definition).
Because AV mines are made to destroyvehicles, they are generally
found onroads, roadsides, paths and tracks. Evenroads that have
been driven for some-time can contain AV mines.
AV mines are much larger than APmines, and have a far heavier
explosivecharge. They are generally round orsquare in shape, and
range in size from40 cm in diameter and 16 cm in
height to 23 cm in diameter and 10 cm in height.They canbe made
of wood, plastic or metal and come in a range of colours.
It normally takes considerable pressure to detonate a standard
AV mine, around 120 kg to 150 kg. This does notnecessarily mean
that people weighing less can safely stepon an AV mine. Fuse
systems may deteriorate or be deliber-ately adjusted, resulting in
a reduction in pressure requiredto detonate AV mines. Sometimes AV
mines are booby-
Anti-vehicle mine,uncovered by deminers;Southern Lebanon
If there are AV-minesassume there arealso AP-mines.
Tilt RodA thin pole attached to thefuse mechanism on theupper
surface of a mine.Pressure exerted on thetilt rod sets off the
mine.
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trapped to be detonated when they are disturbed. In somecases AP
mines have been laid on top of AV mines which,when initiated, will
generally cause the AV mine to detonateas well. Be aware also that
AP mines are often used to prevent AV mines from being removed, and
the technique oflaying AP mines and AV mines together in clusters
is common.
As AV mines are often designed to disable large military
vehicles like tanks, their impact on smaller civilian vehicles
isusually catastrophic and results in the destruction of thevehicle
and death or serious injury to the occupants.
Unexploded Ordnance Unexploded ordnance (UXO) are explosive
munitions thathave been fired, thrown, dropped or launched but have
failedto detonate as intended.UXO include artillery and tank
shells,mortar bombs, fuses, grenades, large and smallbombs
including cluster-munitions, sub-muni-tions, rockets and
missiles.
Ordnance fails for many reasons: fuses andtime-delay igniters
may be defective, incorrect-ly calibrated, or soft soil may absorb
the impactrequired for detonation. Whatever the reasons,UXO remain
a serious danger to life and healthand the International Campaign
to BanLandmines estimates that at least 82 countriesaround the
world are affected to some degree by UXO.
In areas that have experienced bombing or protracted bat-tles,
large quantities of UXO may contaminate the land. In thecase of
cluster munitions for example, as many as 30 percent may have
failed to explode on impact, and remain aserious hazard for years
after conflict. In many countries, UXO
Never approach, touchor tamper with UXO!
Ordnance may have penetrated theground without going off and can
still be dangerous.
Unexploded ordnance;Chad
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are more common than landmines and may be more wide-ly
dispersed. Note too, that UXO and their threat can befound in areas
previously thought to be cleared,especially incountries that have
suffered protracted conflict.
UXO are often extremely unstable and can detonate at
theslightest touch. Accidental injuries often occur when peopleare
farming or undertaking construction work in a contami-nated area
and intentionally touch, move or tamper withthem. Some UXO also
contain motion-sensitive fuses ormagnetic sensors; other UXO may
have a timed self-destructfeature that may not have functioned
properly. Because thestate or condition of UXO cannot easily be
determined theymust all be considered extremely dangerous and
shouldnever be touched or disturbed by anyone except
explosiveordnance disposal professionals. UXO accidents are
oftenmore lethal than landmines due to their higher explosiveand
fragmentation content.
UXO are usually found in areas where fighting has takenplace or
at military firing ranges. UXO can be discoveredinside and outside
of buildings.They can be buried beneaththe ground or hidden beneath
rubble or collapsed walls.UXO can even be found lodged in trees or
hanging frombranches, hedges and fences.
UXO come in various ‘military colours’ – khaki, green,
brown,tan, grey – or can be unpainted. They are usually made
ofmetal, but can also be made of plastic. If they have been inthe
open for a long time, UXO may be rusted and dis-coloured, partially
hidden, obscured by dirt and mud anddifficult to recognize. Despite
looking like harmless scrap,they remain extremely dangerous.
If you have notdropped it, don’tpick it up!
Be careful ofobjects of interestbeside the road.
Case StudyCambodia is one of the
most mine-affected coun-
tries in the world, but UXO
now kill and injure more
Cambodians each year than
landmines. Children are
particularly vulnerable often
due to their natural curiosity
and tendency to touch.
Accidents involving adults
are also usually a result of
tampering or handling UXO.
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Hand grenade taped to a tree and fitted with a trip wire.
G R E N A D E SGrenades are explosive devices usually thrown by
hand orlaunched by small arms such as rifles. Grenades
detonateeither on impact or through a time-delay mechanism;
bothmechanisms may fail. ’Defensive’ fragmentation grenadesare the
most common, but there are also ’offensive’ blastgrenades,
incendiary grenades, chemical or gas grenades,and smoke grenades. A
typical fragmentation hand or riflegrenade is likely to be lethal
within 10 m, with a danger areaextending to 50 m or more.
Hand grenades have a pineapple shape or round bodies thesize of
an adult fist, normally about 10 cm long. Grenadescome in various
colours. Stick grenades are hand grenadesplaced on a short stick
which increases the throwing dis-tance. Metal is the most common
material used for makinggrenades but gas and chemical grenades may
be made from plastic.
A 40mm grenade.
Hand grenades, newand old-these can beunstable, regardless of
how long they have been lying on the ground.
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M O R T A R B O M B SMortar bombs are highly explosive
projectiles that arelaunched from tubes of metal about 90 cm to 170
cm inlength,known as mortars.Mortars are set on the ground andaimed
into the air in the direction of the target. Mortarbombs are
dropped into the tube and launched by theirown propulsive charge.
Mortar bombs often have a taperednose at the front and fins at the
rear. The metal bodies canrange from 60 millimetres to 240 mm
diameter in widthand from around 30 cm to over one metre in length.
Due totheir ease of use, relatively low cost and portability,
mortarsare an extremely widespread weapon of war.
Mortar bomb
A large rifle grenade that failed to detonate.
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The lethal and hazardous ranges of mortars vary widelydepending
upon the calibre of the weapon. A small mortarbomb can destroy a
car, while larger mortar bombs candestroy small to medium-sized
buildings.
Mortar bombs are usually made of metal and when found,may be
rusted and discoloured with age. On impact theymake craters and the
site of a detonation is usually obvious.On paved roads they are
seen by what look like ‘splash marks’in the concrete or bitumen
road surface.
Unexploded mortar bombs may still contain propellantcharge as
well as the main explosive charge and must neverbe approached.
Mortar bombs are indirect fire weapons inthat the people launching
the weapon often cannot seetheir target and the weapon is fired at
a high trajectory. As aresult firing patterns can be indiscriminate
and unexplodedmortars are found strewn across many battle
areas.
C L U S T E R M U N I T I O N SCluster bombs or cluster
munitions arecanisters containing many smaller explo-sive devices
(sub-munitions), which sep-arate from the larger canister.
Clusterbombs may be delivered by aircraft,rocket or by artillery
and, after beinglaunched, the canister bursts open inmid-air,
scattering sub-munitions over awide area. The sub-munitions come in
avariety of shapes and colours, some the shape and size of tennis
balls or drink cans; they are also often brightly coloured.
Cluster bomb unit. Some types can con-tain up to 800 individual
submunitions.
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Among UXO, cluster bombs represent a particularly danger-ous
threat due to their high volatility and dispersal overwide areas.
Sub-munitions can fail and may remain haz-ardous for many years.
Estimated rates of failure of betweenfive and 30 per cent have been
reported in Iraq, Kosovoand Afghanistan. This rate depends on
various factors, butgenerally the softer the ground, the higher the
failure rate.Unexploded sub-munitions are highly sensitive and
candetonate with very little contact. These weapons areextremely
dangerous and should never be approached.They can be found above or
below the ground, and in andaround buildings.
When an area has been targeted with sub-munitions, therewill
sometimes be signs and indicators of this, such as:
pack-aging,small parachutes,or very definite ’splash marks’on
theground or buildings. In addition, any trees in the vicinity
willshow characteristic signs, such as tree-tops stripped
ofbranches and foliage. In open areas there will usually benumerous
small holes and a considerable amount of debrisleft behind, such as
metal and plastic casing or small para-chutes as well as debris
from the targets. Cluster munitionsmay sometimes be found hung or
caught up in trees or onthe roofs of buildings.
Case StudyThe International
Committee of the Red
Cross (ICRC) found that up
to 30,000 cluster muni-
tions were left in Kosovo
following the war in 1999.
Cluster munitions were
also found to cause a dis-
proportionately high
number of casualties
among children than
other types of UXO or
even landmines.1
Using a conservative fail-
ure rate of five per cent,
Human Rights Watch esti-
mated that some 90,000
unexploded cluster muni-
tions were left
in Iraq over 2003.2
1. ICRC Cluster Munitions & Landmines in
Kosovo, 2001
2.Human Rights Watch, Off Target The
Conduct of War & Civilian Casualties
in Iraq, 2003
Various unexploded sub-munitions. Extremely unstable!
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23
R O C K E T S A N D M I S S I L E SA rocket is an explosive
device containing its own means ofpropulsion (the rocket motor) as
well as explosives (the war-head). Missiles are similar to rockets
although they are more
often guided in their trajectory. Rockets and missiles can
befired from vehicle or ground based launchers or from theshoulder.
They can also be launched from aircraft, ships andsubmarines.
Rockets are used to deliver high explosives atgreater distances and
with greater accuracy than just aboutany other type of weapon. The
lethal range of the explosionof a rocket varies enormously
depending on the size andnature of the warhead, but rockets
typically have consider-able destructive power, able to damage and
destroy vehicles,buildings and even entire neighbourhoods.
Rockets and missiles come in many shapes and sizes, fromthe
relatively small rocket propelled grenades (RPGs),around
122mm rockets (length 2.87 m, diameter 122 mm); Chad
Rocket PropelledGrenade. RPGs are avery common item ofUXO.
Unexploded rocketfired from helicopter;Afghanistan
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24
46 cm long, to very large missiles of more than 15 m inlength.
Rockets are made of metal and are normally distin-guishable by
their long thin cylindrical shape. A rocket isreferred to according
to its diameter or width. For example a122 mm rocket has a diameter
of 122 mm but is 2.87 mlong. A rocket may contain chemical and
biological materi-als in its warhead.
Unexploded rockets can be extremely dangerous as distur-bance
may initiate unspent rocket fuel and propel the rock-et in an
unguided fashion. If the warhead is still intact, theexplosive
potential is equal to when the rocket was initiallylaunched and
even greater if the rocket does not launch butexplodes with a full
load of fuel.
Rocket fuel is also extremely corrosive, volatile and will
burnexposed skin and can kill a person if fumes are inhaled.Rocket
fuel is also liable to explode if ignited. For these rea-sons
alone, rockets must not be approached.
Because of their slender shape, unexploded rockets (oftenbroken
into sections) can easily be mistaken for broken pipes;RPGs in
particular are a very widespread weapon of war,found in large
numbers in battle areas. In certain conflict situ-ations involving
heavily armed and technologically advancedpowers, unexploded
rockets and missiles can be massive insize, though such cases are
relatively few in number.
This is aSA-2 missile asreferred toin the casestudy; Iraq
Case StudyOver 100 old Soviet
surface-to-air missiles
were found abandoned in
Baghdad in 2003. Sitting
on trailers and measuring
nearly 11 m, the missile
trailers had been the sub-
ject of looting by locals
and children were found
playing at the different
sites.The extremely corro-
sive propellant burned
one child.Two missiles
were also reported to
ignite after being continu-
ously tampered with and
one nearly destroyed
three houses and killed a
number of people. Adding
to the destruction was the
fact that the missile was
fully fuelled, leading to an
explosion nearly five times
greater than with the
warhead alone.
Report on SA-2 MissilesIraq, Hess. R., ProgrammeManager
WFP/FSD Mine ActionResponse Teams, Baghdad,Iraq, 2003
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25
A R T I L L E R Y A N D T A N K S H E L L SAn artillery shell is
an explosive device, designed to be fireda great distance from the
target and to explode either in theair above the target or on
impact. Artillery shells are firedfrom ground-and sea-based guns.
Like mortars, artillery is anindirect fire weapon – users of the
weapons may not be ableto directly see their target. The
destructive capability of conventional artillery shells largely
depends on their size.
Tank shells are also explosive devices designed to destroytanks,
bunkers or troops in the open. Tank shells are normallyused as
direct fire weapons, but may be used as an indirectweapon that is
fired from a great distance from theintended target.
Artillery and tank shells, like very large bullets, are
aero-dynamically shaped with a tapered nose, cylindricalbody and
flat base. Most are made of metal. Tank shellsmay also have fins at
the rear of the shell and/or astraight, protruding fuse at the nose
of the shell (seeimage). Unexploded shells can be found above
or
Examples of artillery and tank shells.
-
26
below the ground, in rubble,and like other UXO may be rust-ed or
discoloured with age and difficult to identify. Mostshells contain
high explosives but some may contain whitephosphorous, or even
chemical and biological weapons.
B O M B SA bomb is an explosive device, usually dropped from
airplanes.They come in many different shapes and sizes.
Bombs are usually made of metal and have a smoothcurved,
normally aerodynamic shape. Air-delivered bombscan range in size
from 50 kg to 1,000 kg and can be as longas three-and-a-half meters
(around 12 ft).They are typicallygrey, green or brown in
colour.
Like other UXO, bombs wear with age and exposure to theelements.
They may be rusted, discoloured, partially hiddenby dirt or
debris.
Typical signs of bombing activity include large craters in
theground. Unexploded bombs can also penetrate deeply intothe
ground without exploding so unexploded bombs maybe found above or
below the ground.
Case StudyUnexploded bombs are
still being uncovered in
Berlin and other European
cities 60 years after the
end of World War II. Often
the bombs are up to 500
lb and have penetrated
the ground so deeply as
to remain undiscovered
for years. Many new finds
in Germany are a result of
construction along the old
Berlin Wall.
Unexploded air-delivered bomb; Chad
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27
F U S E SA fuse is a device that starts the detonationprocess,
oftenmade of highly explosive material contained in a small partof
a larger munition.
Fuses are fitted to bombs, rockets, mortars, landmines
andartillery shells, forming the tip or ‘nose’ of an artillery
shell ormortar, resembling a cone. In the case of landmines, it may
bea small circular ‘cap’ that sits on top or inside a
landmine.Fuses may have visible springs or pins.
A fuse may become detached from its main explosive deviceor
munition and may simply be left lying around. A fuse canbe very
small, but is nonetheless potentially dangerous andcan even be
lethal.
Fuses can be large or small and work on a number of differ-ent
principles – pressure, pressure-release, mechanical rotation or
deflection, light sensitivity, heat sensitivity, and soon. They do
not immediately appear dangerous but manyare recognizable as a
piece of military equipment. They arenormally metal and of a
metallic colour, but may also begreen, brown and other military
colours.
Fuses are UXO as well.
Bomb found ina farmer’s gar-den in QuangTri Province,Vietnam
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28
Abandoned Ordnance Post conflict settings can be the site of
arms caches andweapons depots or dumps full of abandoned
ordnance(AO).AO is ordnance that has not been used,but is no
longerin the control of any particular force.AO could include
mortars,grenades, bombs, rockets, bullets, artillery shells and so
on.
Caches of abandoned ordnance and poorly secured ormaintained
stockpiled munitions, sometimes located in ornear communities, in
military buildings, public buildings,school houses and so on, can
produce catastrophic explo-sions. Poorly stored or maintained
munitions may becomemore sensitive and suddenly explode. Intense
heat fromfires can also cause abandoned ordnance to detonate.
Abandoned Ordnance found in Iraq
A ‘storage room’; Chad
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29
Small caches of abandoned ordnance may continue to bediscovered
years after a conflict has ended. In Cambodia forexample, small
caches of ordnance that have been aban-doned, forgotten or lost
continue to be discovered.
Getting authorities to secure these sites is essential but maybe
difficult to achieve in the short term. Disposing or secur-ing
large quantities of abandoned ordnance is also complexand is
usually the responsibility of security forces. This maybe outside
the responsibility of a standard mine action programme.
Abandoned military vehicles,weapons (such as artillery gunsand
tanks), and buildings may also contain abandoned ordnance,
extremely volatile rocket fuels, shell residue suchas chemicals and
depleted uranium and possibly evenbooby-traps.
Abandoned ammunition next to a football field; Iraq
© J
oh
an S
oh
lber
g
-
Improvised Explosive Devicesand Booby-TrapsAn improvised
explosive device or IED is a manually placedexplosive device,
normally home-made and adapted insome way to kill, injure, damage
property or create terror.Often UXO or abandoned munitions are
modified to con-struct IEDs,which can then be detonated
accidentally by the victim, by remote means (radio controlled,
command wire,etc) or automatically after a period of time.
A booby-trap is an explosive or non-explosive
device,deliberately placed to cause casualties when an
apparentlyharmless object is disturbed or a normally safe act is
performed, like opening a door or turning on a
television.Booby-traps – most often victim-activated – are
usuallycommon objects found in unusual settings – in other
words,they are out of place. Booby-traps that use explosives are
considered IEDs.
IEDs and booby-traps are often developed by forces whohave
relatively limited access to new weapons or who wantto better
disguise their attacks. Sometimes they are placed
30
D I D Y O U K N O W ?The use of booby-traps isregulated by
internationalhumanitarian law. ProtocolII of the Convention
onCertain ConventionalWeapons outlines situationswhen such devices
cannotbe used and obliges users to record where they usebooby-traps
and to ensurethat such devices areremoved immediately
afterhostilities have ended.
Roadside bomb made from an artillery shell; Iraq
If you have notdropped it, don’tpick it up!
Be careful ofobjects of interestbeside the road.
-
with the intention of causing harm or injury to combatantsand
non-combatants alike, being hidden in vehicles and onroadsides, in
private homes and so forth.
Almost any object can be made into an
innocent-lookingbooby-trap.The most common are those that appear
attrac-tive or curious, such as a packet of cigarettes, a
television, ora toy. Mines can be booby-trapped to make their
removalmore difficult. Booby-traps can be found just about anywhere
and can look like any object.Even dead bodies canbe booby-trapped
with the intention of inflicting injury onthose who attempt to
remove the body. Booby-traps andIEDs are normally intended to be
undetectable. They aredesigned to catch the helpful, the unwary and
the curious.
31
Anti-handling device:A grenade was placedunder the stick of
thisfragmentation mine. Hadthe soldier or deminersimply defused the
mineand pulled the stick hewould have activated thegrenade.
A person entering this room through the dooron the left will
activate the mine connected witha tripwire; Balkans
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32
Learn to identify mine fields undergoing clearance and the
meaningof various stakes, tape and stones being used locally to
mark hazardous areas – and stay away from them! (Angola)
© L
ukas
Ein
sele
/One
Ste
p Be
yond
(ww
w.o
ne-s
tep-
beyo
nd.d
e)
-
Mined areas are often not visibly differentfrom mine free areas,
as they may not bemarked with any particular warning signs. As a
rule,mines are often impossible to see – they are usuallyburied, or
concealed in undergrowth.1 Areas contaminatedwith other explosive
remnants of war (ERW) may be moreobvious, as there may be visible
ammunition casings onthe ground, unexploded ordnance, and so on.
This sectionis intended to help readers recognize warning signs
andclues – constant vigilance will help you identify and steerclear
of potentially dangerous areas.
Warning SignsNormally people who lay mines do not leave clear
signs toindicate the presence of mines, but someone else mayleave a
temporary sign as a warning to others, or mineclearance agencies
may erect official signs.
You should be aware of the most common types of warn-ing signs
used in areas where you live and work,and alwayskeep an eye out for
these signs. But note, the lack of clearwarning signs does not mean
an area is safe. People some-times remove warning signs, signs may
be temporary, mayhave not been maintained or may never have been
erected.
33
2S E C T I O NR e c o g n i z i n g Dangerous A r e a s
D I D Y O U K N O W ?Armed forces are requiredto record all
minefields,mined areas, mines andbooby-traps under ProtocolII of
the Convention onCertain ConventionalWeapons (CCW). The MineBan
Convention andProtocol V of the CCW alsooutline measures for
recording and markingmined areas prior to clearance taking
place.
1 Sections 2-3 are adapted from United Nations Training Modules
for MineAwareness Community Facilitators and Programme Managers,
UNICEF 1999.
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34
O F F I C I A L W A R N I N G S I G N SSometimes you will come
across official signs, erected by agovernment, a non-governmental
organization (NGO), aUnited Nations agency or by some other
organization, towarn you that mines or other explosive hazards are
in thearea. These warning signs may differ from one country
toanother, but are normally bright red, square or triangular
inshape, and made of metal, concrete, wood or plastic. Themost
common ways of marking a mined- or ERW-affectedarea with official
signs are:
■ Skull and crossbones sign in red and white, rarely yellow
andblack – often with the words ‘DANGER MINES’ in English and/orthe
local language
■ The word ‘MINE’ or ‘EXPLOSIVES’ in English and/or the local
language
Never go into areasmarked by minewarning signs,wires or
tapes!
Always respect minewarning signs!
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35
■ Rope or tape – usually coloured either yellow, red or blue
■ A red triangle, sometimes with a black dot or the word ‘mine’
in the centre
■ A concrete or wooden post, painted red on one side and white
onthe other – the red side indicates the side that is dangerous
A conventional army or mine action programme sometimesuses
barbed wire or high fences to section off a minefield,especially
around permanently strategic points like airports.
In addition to signs designed to warn people, mine
actionagencies will also use signs to indicate areas they have
sur-veyed as dangerous and which they plan to clear or are in
theprocess of clearing. In Afghanistan, such areas are markedwith
rocks painted red to indicate uncleared areas and paint-ed white to
show areas which are clear. Also buildings, roads
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36
and trees may be painted red or white with map coordi-nates and
minefield numbers, indicating that the area maybe dangerous and has
been surveyed.
All warning signs are subject to deterioration over time,meaning
you must be observant. Signs may have fallendown,rusted away or
become covered in vegetation or (sea-sonally) by snow.Poor
construction materials along with lowquality paint often result in
signs becoming dislodged, bro-ken or badly faded. Signs are also
often stolen or not prop-erly maintained or replaced.
U N O F F I C I A L W A R N I N G S I G N SIn the absence of
official signs, local people often developtheir own techniques and
signs for marking dangerousareas. Such techniques vary from one
country to the nextand even vary in different parts of the same
country. Withlocal signs there are no hard and fast rules and they
areoften only obvious to local people. Such signs nonethelesshave
some common characteristics to represent dangerahead, and may
include:
■ A piece of cloth or plastic bag tied to a fence or tree;
■ A can on a post;
■ Small piles or circles of rocks;
Do not attemptmarking if you havenot received propertraining
throughpractical exercises!
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37
■ Rocks laid across a path;
■ A clump of grass that has been tied in the middle;
■ Sticks which have been tied to form a cross, then placed
across a path or placed in the ground next to a path;
■ Signs which have been cut into the bark of a tree;
■ A shorn-off branch.
Because of their improvised nature, local signs often do notgive
a clue as to the precise location or particular nature ofthe
threat. Imagine coming along a road or a path where youencounter a
barrier. How will you know whether you are infront of the threat or
already inside the hazardous area? Lookfor other indicators and
consult with local people. Oftenthese signs can also be used to
represent other types of dan-ger, like a damaged bridge, a pothole
in the road and so on.Whatever the meaning, these local signs
represent dangerand caution should always be exercised.
Warning CluesMines and ERW may be found in numerous types of
areaswhere fighting has taken place or that are of strategic
impor-tance to combatants. Because most hazardous areas are
notmarked with official warning signs you will often have tolook
for other clues to tell you that an area may be haz-
Always be alert forthings that look ‘outof place’!
Don’t take risks! If you are in anydoubt, turn back!
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38
ardous. The following are some telltale signs to identify
adangerous area:
■ Visible mines and ERW;
■ Signs of fighting or military activity;
■ Signs in the environment, dead animals and unusual
objects;
■ Local behaviour.
V I S I B L E M I N E S A N D E X P L O S I V ER E M N A N T S O
F W A R
THE EDGE OF A BURIED MINE, PROTRUDING METALAND WOODEN STAKESIn
addition to being extremely difficult (if not impossible) tosee,
mines are almost always purposely camouflaged and, tocompound the
problem, their location is often obscured bylong grass or thick
brush. However, certain landmines thatare laid above ground may be
visible after careful scrutiny ofthe area. Erosion or natural
forces also sometimes uncoveror partially uncover landmines. Snow,
which hides even sur-face-laid mines, has obvious implications, as
does the subse-quent snow-melt. If you are in an area you suspect
could be
Update your mine/ERW information ona regular basis.
Stake AP-mines are sometimes visible, see left corner;
Balkans
AV-mine with a tilt rodmounted to a tree.
-
39
contaminated and you can see anyportion of an object that
appears tobe made of plastic or metal andcannot be identified as
safe, youshould assume the area ismine/unexploded ordnance
(UXO)-contaminated. Wooden and metalstakes about 30 cm in
lengthwould also indicate the potentialpresence of certain types of
aboveground mines.
Landmines are seldom planted in isolation, so evidence ofone
mine would indicate the potential presence of others inthe
area.
ABANDONED AND UNEXPLODED ORDNANCEAreas contaminated with
abandoned and unexploded ord-nance may be more obvious than those
affected by mines,but the presence of such devices will often
indicate the pres-ence of mines as well. You may see ammunition
casings onthe ground, unexploded mortars, shells and grenades,
boxescontaining unused ammunition and weapons. These aresigns that
fighting has taken place and are an indication thatmines and ERW
may be in the area.
PIECES OF WIRE OR TAPE STREWN ABOUTCertain types of mines
require the use of tripwires or electri-cal wires. If you see
pieces of wire lying about in an areaknown to have experienced
fighting, it indicates that minesmay have been used. Tripwires are
usually strung acrosspaths, trails, roadways, fields and other
areas in which foottraffic could be expected. Remember that
tripwires areextremely difficult to see and just because they are
not visi-ble, does not mean they are not around.
UXO is often visible.The item below ispainted red to
alertpassers-by.
Never approach, touchor tamper with explo-sive remnants of
war!
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40
TILT RODS AND FUSESSometimes you may see tilt rods or fuses
above ground.Thisusually indicates the presence of anti-vehicle
mines, butmay also indicate anti-personnel mines in the area.
Fuses can become detached from an explosive device ormunition or
may simply be left lying on the ground withoutbeing fitted. A fuse
can be very small, but is nonethelesspotentially dangerous and can
even be deadly. They indicate fighting, the presence of mines and
ERW.
DISCARDED PACKAGING, WRAPPING AND MILITARY DEBRISOccasionally,
forces lay mines in a hurry and leave the pack-aging, tripwire
spools and safety pins from the mines. If yousee wooden, plastic or
metal containers that have militarymarkings lying around, always be
suspicious of mines in thearea. Also, any small metal rings with a
metal pin attachedshould be viewed as a sign of possible mine
activity in thearea. Empty cluster bomb containers found in a
conflict areaalso indicate danger.
Discarded ammunitionbox; DR Congo
Deserted trench. Note stake fragmentation mine with tripwire;
Balkans
This is an arming pinfrom an anti-person-nel blast mine. Thispin
is a small metalring with a blunt pinhanging off it.
@G
olde
n W
est H
uman
itaria
n Fo
unda
tion
This is a tripwire spool.
@G
olde
n W
est H
uman
itaria
n Fo
unda
tion
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41
S I G N S O F F I G H T I N G O R M I L I T A R Y A C T I V I T
Y
TRENCHES, DYKES, BUNKERS OR BATTLE POSITIONSAny areas occupied
by combatants, especially trenches,bunkers or battle
positions,would likely have been mined asa protection from
attack.There would also be a strong possi-bility for the presence
of UXO and abandoned munitions.
DAMAGED, ABANDONED OR DESTROYED CIVILIANAND MILITARY VEHICLESA
damaged, abandoned or destroyed civilian or militaryvehicle could
indicate UXO, an anti-vehicle or even anti-personnel mine. Where
there is one mine, there are usuallyseveral others. You might also
encounter pieces of metal ordebris that look like they are the
results of an explosion.Abandoned vehicles may also be
booby-trapped, containabandoned ordnance, toxic fuels, chemical
residueor depleted uranium. These are clear indications ofdanger
and should be avoided.
DISCARDED AND ABANDONED WEAPONSSimilarly discarded weapons
indicate recent fightingin the area. Do not approach such weapons
as theymay be booby-trapped.
MILITARY CHECKPOINTS AND BORDER AREASThe longer combatants
occupy any area, the more likely theyhave protected themselves by
laying mines in the immediatesurrounding areas. In many countries,
minefields are placedalong international and sometimes internal
administrativeborders (such as provinces and district borders) to
preventinfiltration. These areas are often the last to be cleared
of
Stay away from abandoned militaryequipment!
This checkpoint is enforcedby AV-mines on the road–you can spot
them.
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42
landmines, especially if tension exists between neigh-bouring
countries or internal conflicts are not com-pletely resolved.
AROUND MILITARY BUILDINGS, WAREHOUSESAND INSTALLATIONSMines are
most often used as a defensive weapon;therefore, any military
installation or building – or anyarea occupied by combatants – may
have been minedor booby-trapped as a protective measure
againstattack, or mined after occupation so as to prevent use
of the facility by the opposing side. Such facilities may
alsocontain large stockpiles of abandoned munitions.
BRIDGES, DAMS AND SURROUNDING AREASMines are also used to stop
or alter the movement of oppos-ing forces. Mining bridges, dams and
surrounding areas canblock the travel route of opposing soldiers
and deny themvaluable resources. It is important not to walk around
orunder the entrance of bridges in heavily mined areas.
Why is this obstacle in the road? To force you to drive off
thehard track and onto the soft ground, which is easy to mine.Can
you see the mine about two meters to your left?
Deminers marking safepaths in close proximitywith the civilian
popu-lation; Afghanistan
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43
ROADS AND PATHSStrategic roads and tracks are often mined to
stop move-ment of troops or commercial traffic. Roads that are
dam-aged or blocked often force vehicles off the roadway andonto
the shoulders. The edges and shoulders of roads aresometimes mined.
Similarly small pathways that traverseconflict areas may be
mined.
AIRPORTS AND RAILWAY TRACKSAs is the case with bridges, airports
and railway lines are veryimportant means of transportation and key
strategic areasfor the military. As such, they are often mined.
AROUND POWER LINES AND ELECTRICALPYLONSElectrical power lines
are of great strategicimportance during wartime. Cutting off
anenemy’s power supply can seriously affect theability to move and
communicate. Therefore,these are often protected using mines.
SHADED AREAS, FRUIT TREES, WATERSOURCES, WELLS AND RIVER BANKS,
CAVE ENTRANCESSoldiers in battle will often seek areas that offer
shade orshelter from the elements as well as to reduce their
visibility.They will also try to secure access to water and food
sourcesand often defend such areas with mines.
This hard road, in a former battle area, washollowed out to
allowmines to be placed inthe holes.
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44
S I G N S I N T H E E N V I R O N M E N T , D E A D A N I M A L
S A N D U N U S U A L O B J E C T S
DEPRESSIONS IN THE SOILAND MOUNDS OF EARTHIf a minefield has
been in existence for some time, theremight be a visible pattern of
slight depressions over themine where the once loosened soil has
settled after a rain-fall. In some cases, small mounds of earth may
be presentthat could indicate recent digging activity, though such
evi-dence will disappear quickly.
DESERTED VILLAGES AND TOWNS AND OVERGROWN AREASVillages and
towns which have been abandoned or fields nolonger used indicate
the strong likelihood of mines in the area.
ABANDONED AND DESTROYED BUILDINGS AND HOUSESOften soldiers will
mine houses for defense or leave behindmines or booby-traps in
abandoned houses to trick othersoldiers who are seeking shelter. If
a house has clearly beendamaged or destroyed through fighting,and
is uninhabited,there is every possibility that UXO or abandoned
ordnancemay also remain.
LOGS OR BRANCHES PLACED ACROSS A ROADOR PATH (AN AMBUSH
BARRICADE)Sometimes combatants will lay a barricade across a road
tostop vehicles or even force them off the road into the
sur-rounding area, which may have been mined.
DEAD GRASS AND MOIST SOILIf a mine has been laid recently, there
might be patches ofdead grass where the roots have been cut when
the mines
A UN-truck hit an AV-mine.You can see the crater butthe damage
to the truck isnot visible.
Destroyed or desertedhouses may be mined orbooby-trapped;
Kosovo
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45
were buried. If a mine was laid very recently, the moist
soilused to cover the landmine when it was buried may show updarker
than the surrounding area.
EXPLOSION CRATERSCraters from explosions or regular signs
ofrepair on tarmac roads may be visible indica-tors, usually for
anti-vehicle mines or signs of abattle. Be careful in surrounding
areas as othermines may not have been cleared or may havebeen
overlooked. In particular, never stray offpavement onto the soft
shoulder or adjacentground.
Shelling with mortars, grenades or the use ofcluster bombs also
leaves particular signs of damage — onbuildings, on road tarmac, or
’decapitated‘ trees. Sometimesthe impression looks like a splash
mark carved into the tar-mac.
Not all explosion craters come with a warning sign... Where
onemine exploded you must assume that others are in the
vicinity.
‘Splash marks’ (causedby shrapnel impact)typical for a
clustermunition strike;Kosovo
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46
PATCHES OF GROWTHIn drier areas, some places where mines are
buried becomegreener or have grass and plants growing over
them.This isbecause metal cased mines form condensation on
themduring the night which then gives the plants more waterthan the
surrounding soil.
UNUSED OR OVERGROWN PATHS, ROADS OR FIELDSIf an area is clearly
unused and overgrown or no one hastravelled over an area in some
time, the reason could bebecause of mines or UXO. If an area is not
cultivated, in con-trast to other plots around it that are being
farmed, assumethe area is mined. When in doubt, use only tracks or
roadsthat appear well-travelled.
ANIMAL CARCASSES OR SKELETONSThe skeleton or body of an animal
or person which has beenleft to lie could indicate a minefield.Be
aware that an injuredanimal or person can move over a long distance
after the
accident occurred. Look for additionalclues.
ANY OBJECT THAT APPEARS‘OUT OF PLACE’In an area of ongoing
conflict, if you seesomething unusual, of interest or of valueby
the side of the road, always rememberthat it may be booby-trapped.
Booby-traps are intended to lure and trick some-one into detonating
the object. If youdon’t know to whom an object belongs
This horse ran througha minefield whiledeminers were clearing
the field.They withdrew safely,the horse was not so fortunate.
If you have notdropped it, don’tpick it up!
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47
and you’re travelling through a suspicious area, the
smartapproach is to not approach it at all.
Piles of abandoned ordnance have also been known to beimprovised
into a single explosive device, which can be det-onated by remote
control. Out of curiosity people some-times move closer to
investigate these objects; this can beextremely dangerous.
Aftermath of a mine-accident on a roadside in Bosnia and
Herzegovina.
© L
uka
s Ei
nse
le /
On
e St
ep B
eyo
nd
(ww
w.o
ne-
step
-bey
on
d.d
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48
L O C A L B E H A V I O U R
FORBIDDEN AREAS AND VILLAGE DEMINERSNever go anywhere where the
local population refuses togo,whether along a road or path,to
villages or to fields.Suchareas will usually appear abandoned,
unused or uninhabit-ed. Local populations often (though not always)
know whatareas are dangerous because they have witnessed
fighting,suffered casualties, observed mines being laid
and/orbecause they may have even laid mines themselves.Returning
refugees or displaced people may not have thenecessary information
in comparison with local populations(who resided in the risk area
during the conflict), meaning itis better to seek advice from
people who have been in thearea longer.
In certain cases,you may even come across villagers who
areundertaking mine clearance without the assistance of
mineclearance organizations. It is important to get informationfrom
these people about possibly affected areas, but it isalso important
to keep away from their demining work.
SCRAP METAL YARDS AND FISHINGIn countries of extreme poverty and
where large quantitiesof UXO exist, people will often collect and
recycle the metalcasings of UXO or extract the explosive. As a
result somescrap metal yards may contain UXO.
You may even hear stories about people fishing with land-mines
and UXO. Such stories are a strong indication ofmined land in the
area.
A UXO scrap collectoron the beach; Vietnam
Scrap metal collectionyards can contain ERW-a dangerous
playground; Vietnam
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Once you have seen a landmine, mine warning clues, or
indications of battle in your trav-els through the countryside or a
particular area, you havealready placed yourself at risk.Preventive
actions are essen-tial to maintain safety for you and your
staff.
There are some basic strategies to avoid exposure to
thesethreats. This section focuses on preventive measures to
bepracticed by organizations and individuals working inhigh-risk
areas.
To recap, here are some basic pointers from previous sections,
which summarize the nature of the threat:
■ All mines, abandoned and unexploded ordnance, booby-trapsand
fuses are very powerful explosives, capable of killing orinflicting
severe wounds to people and destroying vehicles;
■ They can pose a threat years after a conflict has ended;
■ They can explode at even the slightest touch;
■ Over time, they can change colour and shift position because
ofexposure to and the effects of weather;
■ Most affected areas are not marked with official warning
signsor even improvised signs;
■ Mines and explosive remnants of war (ERW) are difficult to
spot.They can be buried under the ground or hidden in tall
grass,trees, along river banks, in buildings and vehicles, and
evenunder water;
49
3S E C T I O NBasic Safety Advice
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50
■ They are found where fighting has taken place, or at
strategicmilitary positions;
■ The fact that someone has moved a mine or ERW, or travelled
inan affected area, does not mean it is safe.
Risk-taking BehaviourTo understand safe behaviour in a dangerous
area and howto prevent exposure to risk, it is important to have an
idea ofsome of the main reasons why accidents happen to
peopleworking in war-affected environments. It is not always a
sim-ple matter of chance or accident, and among people work-ing in
dangerous areas there are a number of common causes of
accidents.
INTENTIONAL RISK-TAKERSThis is a group of people who have
knowingly entered adangerous area or have attempted to touch an
objectknown to be dangerous.There are a number of reasons whyan
individual would take such a risk.
Some working in areas affected by armed conflict collectwar
souvenirs to show their family and friends. Includedamong the
objects collected are mine warning signs, com-
One for the album? The peacekeeper takinga photo is taking
anunacceptable risk. Alwaysassume where there isone mine there may
bemore in the vicinity.
Top: A tripwire back-lit by the sun.Bottom: The same trip-wire
from a differentangle. Note the hangingpiece of brush.
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51
Case StudyIn April 2003, a 31-year-old
journalist, travelling with a
cameraman in northern Iraq,
stepped on a landmine,
while being led to an aban-
doned Iraqi trench by a
Kurdish soldier.
The cameraman died
immediately, while the
journalist suffered such
severe injuries, his lower
leg had to be amputated.
Why explore this tank?
ponents of mines and unexploded ordnance (UXO), whichthey
believe to be harmless. These people also like to havephotographs
taken on abandoned or destroyed tanks, forexample. This behaviour,
while alarming, is actually quitecommon among people working in
affected environments,particularly staff with little experience in
conflict areas. Theyare attracted to the novelty of abandoned and
destroyedmilitary equipment.
Others are either careless or adventure seekers. They do nothave
a full appreciation for the scope of the threat and arecavalier
regarding the possibility that an accident could hap-pen to
them.This group often includes:
■ People who may have been exposed to the threat for long
periods;
■ People who no longer have a clear perspective of the threat;
and
■ People who are overconfident in managing risk.
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52
Beware of strange objects along the roadside. Note the
protruding wire from the hidden roadside bomb; Iraq
Is it safe to drive on? Have the mines been cleared?Make sure
you and your car stay on the tarmac in such a mine-affected
environment.
These individuals will often expose themselves to risk with
asense of bravado and without clearly considering the dangers.
Another category, though less common among experi-enced workers,
are people who claim to know all aboutmines and ERW. Such people
are often military enthusiastswho sometimes like to prove or
demonstrate to others theextent of their knowledge about mines.
Often, such enthusi-asts like to visit and explore ex-military
installations and col-lect souvenirs. Note that people with common
sense areoften better at preventing accidents than those who
claimto know it all.
UNINTENTIONAL RISK-TAKERSPeople who encounter mines and ERW
often do so by acci-dent or by necessity. Many do not willingly
enter dangerousareas or touch objects that are dangerous.Their work
mightrequire them to enter dangerous areas; it might require
Case StudyIn 2003, a journalist return-
ing home after a visit to Iraq
decided to keep two sub-
munitions as a souvenir of
his time there. He found the
sub-munitions near a
bombed vehicle in Baghdad
and kept both with him for
at least 20 days before he
departed the country.While
en route home, security staff
in the international airport in
Jordan detected one of the
devices with an X-ray
machine. During a manual
search of his luggage the
sub-munition exploded. One
airport staff member was
killed instantly as a result of
the accident, while three
others were wounded.The
second device was in pos-
session of his colleague and
was safely defused in a con-
trolled explosion.The jour-
nalist had believed that the
devices were not armed and
were safe.
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53
them to undertake construction work for example whichexposes
them to the possibility of striking a mine with dig-ging equipment.
Unintentional risk takers are the easiest toreach with safety
messages and safety planning as they tendto have a greater sense of
responsibility, are cautious, and areconcerned about the well-being
of themselves and their col-leagues.
While people can be curious about certain areas and
objectswithout fully understanding the danger, curiosity can
unin-tentionally put many people at risk. Sometimes, people
havebeen badly informed and rely on inaccurate informationabout the
nature of the threat. Many myths exist regardingmines and ERW that
can lead people to practice unsafebehaviour. Some of the more
common myths follow.
Common Myths about Mines and Explosive Remnants of War
MYTH: There is a type of mine that will arm when youstep on it
and then blow up only when you take your footoff.This can allow you
time to find a heavy object to placeon the mine as you remove your
foot.
TRUTH IS: This happens only in movies…
MYTH: If you know a mined area has been walked onalready, you
can safely walk over it because if a mine didnot go off the first
time it will not explode later.
TRUTH IS: Over time, soil can become compacted (especial-ly
through the process of freezing/thawing or flooding);therefore, the
sensitivity of a mine can change, and undersuch conditions it may
require many footfalls to activatea mine.
Although someone triedto burn these munitionsthey did not
explode.This renders them evenmore volatile.
Artillery shell (front), mor-tar bomb and other itemsof UXO,
rigged as an IED.Usually command deto-nated; Iraq
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54
MYTH: One way to avoid injury in a dangerous area is torun or
drive as fast as possible. If you run or drive veryquickly, you can
avoid the blast of an exploding mine.
TRUTH IS: You cannot outrun a mine.
MYTH: Luckily landmines do not last very long, and after a few
years in the ground, they tend to rot and willnot work.
TRUTH IS: Most mines remain dangerous for decades. Manyare made
of plastic and are completely waterproof.
MYTH: Cutting a tripwire will disarm the mine
TRUTH IS: Most tripwire activated mines are detonated bythe
slightest increase or release of tension in the wire, sothere is no
certain way to disarm it unless it is done by a pro-fessional mine
clearance expert.
MYTH: Unexploded ordnance pose less of a threatbecause you can
see them and simply move them out ofyour way.
TRUTH IS: You should never touch any ordnance. Even if itwas
moved once, it may explode from a subsequent distur-bance. Some
ordnance is so volatile that it might explode atthe slightest
touch.
MYTH: Burning an area will clear mines and UXO.
TRUTH IS: Just because villagers say they have done it doesnot
make an area safe. It actually may make any remainingordnance more
volatile.Hand grenade, charred
but still intact. Note thering on the top.
Each stick stands for amine. Clearance ofpattern
minefields;Southern Lebanon
Stake AP minefieldwith tripwire,patterned minefield;Balkans
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55
MYTH: Abandoned ordnance is quite safe asthey have not been
primed for use.
TRUTH IS: Abandoned ordnance is oftenleft in environmental
conditions whichmake them extremely unstable. Exposure toheat can
make a device extremely volatileand liable to explode, or careless
handlingcan detonate even packaged ammunition.
MYTH: Livestock in a field makes thefield safe from mines.
TRUTH IS: Although sometimes practisedby villagers to clear
mines, this method isnot safe. It may explode some of the minesbut
not necessarily all.
MYTH: If you know a road has been used safely for atleast six
months, you can assume there is no longer amine risk.
TRUTH IS: Mines may become unearthed from constant useof the
travelled surface. The travelled area of a road maybecome unusable
in the rainy season, forcing drivers to usethe shoulders of the
road where mines may be buried.
MYTH: Mines are always laid in a predictable pattern tocreate a
regular barrier.
TRUTH IS: While conventional armies often do lay
regular,patterned minefields,many mined areas have no
discernablepatterns and it can be impossible to predict where a
danger-ous area starts or stops, particularly in countries that
haveexperienced civil conflict and where no clear
battlelines/fronts existed.
A cluster munition (in themiddle to the right) didnot go off
although thearea burnt completely,see white ashes.
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56
Safety Advice for OrganizationsIt is important for organizations
operating in heavily mineand ERW-affected areas to take the threat
of these weaponsseriously when planning and implementing projects
thatmay expose staff to risks; this includes the staff of
localimplementing partners. This entails the establishment ofand
accessibility to effective safety procedures, appropriatetraining,
appropriate equipment and up-to-date informa-tion. Avoiding just
one accident through safety training andplanning will make the
investment well worth it.
Safety measures should be seen as an extension of
existingsecurity procedures for operating in a conflict area, even
ifthe conflict may have ended some time ago. These meas-ures should
be practical and based on an assessment of theextent and nature of
the local threat, and could include:
■ Collecting detailed information on the mine/ERW threat in
yourarea of operations, and updating this information
regularly.Consider keeping a visual brief available (a map or
spreadsheetidentifying dangerous areas).
■ Establishing mine/ERW safety procedures in accordance with
theinformation contained in this handbook and adapted to yourarea
of operations. Establish, in particular, a vehicle and
travelreporting system (see Annex 1 on the use of route cards).
■ Maintaining updated and verified contact details of mine
actioncentres and agencies, United Nations security officers, local
policeand medical facilities.
■ Providing mine/ERW-related information to your staff in a
con-venient format, including information on safe routes and
danger-ous areas in your areas of operation, as well as emergency
con-tact information.
■ Ensuring that all your staff who may be at risk (including
drivers,interpreters and guides) receive mine/ERW-awareness
trainingand are familiar with mine/ERW safety procedures.
Make sure youknow who to contact for help in case of amine/ERW
emergency.
Training of trainers work-shop, Colombia, 2005
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57
■ Understanding that levels of alertness to the mine/ERW
threatwill decrease over time; and safety refresher training may
berequired.
■ Ensuring that your staff receives first-aid training, with
specialfocus on trauma care, and that vehicles are equipped with
first-aid and trauma care kits.
■ Equipping your vehicles and staff with effective
communicationequipment and maps, and providing training in their
use.
In areas of high risk and high exposure, consider
modifyingvehicles to provide additional protection from an
explosion.See Annex 2 on general measures to provide additional
protection to a vehicle.
Safety Advice for IndividualsBeing informed, exercising common
sense, and maintaininga proper attitude about mines and ERWcan go a
long way to help address the safety issues and keep people safe.
Somepointers for personal protection and forthe protection of your
colleagues follow.
G E N E R A L S A F E T Y M E S S A G E S ■ Do not touch or
approach mines or ERW;
■ Prior to travel, obtain information on dangerous areas;
■ Never venture into known dangerous areas,explore military
installations or equipment;
■ Never approach or touch mines, unexploded or abandoned
ordnance, or suspicious objects for any reason;
■ Never collect mines or UXO or other military hardware;
■ Do not touch anything that appears strange or out of place
lyingon the ground or hanging from a tree;
Unsafe transport of alarge rocket. Advice?Better turn left
hereimmediately...Iraq
Don’t touch! Record, report.
Do not collect war souvenirs!
Never remove minewarning signs for any reason!
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58
■ Be aware of local warning signs and always respect them;
■ Always be alert for other clues of possible danger;
■ Provide important safety information to others;
■ Keep others informed about your travel plans.
B E P R E P A R E D
LANDMINE SAFETY AND FIRST-AID TRAININGEnsure that you have
received mine/ERW awareness andfirst-aid training, and are familiar
with your organization’ssafety procedures. If you haven’t been
offered such training,ask for it.
CONTACT INFORMATIONKeep contact details of mine action centres
and agencies,United Nations security officers, emergency services
andmedical facilities on hand. Verify and update emergencycontacts
on a regular basis.
FIRST-AID KITEnsure that a travel pack with a first-aid kit is
in your vehicleat all times.Check expiry dates and serviceability
of all items,and know how to use them.
COMMUNICATIONDo not travel without a radio or telephone, and
know howto use it. Be informed of all the alternative frequencies
ortelephone numbers that you may require (e.g. mine actionagencies,
United Nations security officers).
DANGEROUS AREA MAPSIf available,carry a map marked with the best
available infor-mation about routes known to be free of mines.
Update this
Stay away fromabandoned mili-tary equipment!
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59
Bridges are strategic points. Beware of mines and UXO.
information by checking with local populations as you travel,
and heed their warnings.
A S S E S S T H E L O C A L T H R E A TObtain detailed
information on the mine/ERW situation priorto any movement into an
area that may contain mines orERW. You will also need to be aware
of official and unofficialwarning signs in your area. When
available, contact the following for information:
■ Local Mine Action Centres (MAC) and mine action agencies;
■ United Nations Security Officers;
■ United Nations Military Observers or Liaison Officers;
■ Non-governmental organizations and aid agencies working in the
area;
■ Local authorities.
Mine Action CentresIn many countries severelyaffected by mines
and UXO, governments, UnitedNations agencies and non-governmental
organi-zations have helped estab-lish Mine Action Centres.These
centres act as thefocal point for the coordi-nation of efforts to
clearordnance, mark dangerousareas, provide risk educa-tion and
undertake advocacy for survivors of accidents.
These centres are normallyrun by the civilian arm ofgovernment,
and supporthumanitarian and devel-opment operations. Theyare often
separate frommilitary efforts to clearordnance, or security forces
and police that deal with improvisedexplosive devices.
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60
Also ask the local population for additional information,being
sure to consult with men and women, even children,who will have
different knowledge about the local threatbecause of their
differing daily activities. Keep in mind, how-ever, that returning
populations may not be aware of thelocal threat. If you are
travelling in a high risk area,ask organ-izations and locals some
of the following questions to com-pile information about the
threat:
■ Have there been mine or UXO accidents in this area involving
people, animals or vehicles? What caused the accident (mine, UXO or
booby-trap)? Where and when did it take place?
■ Where do you suspect or know there are mines or UXO?
■ Has there been any fighting in this area? Where?
■ Have there been any soldiers living/working/passing through
this area?
■ Have there been explosions in the area? Where?
■ Are there roads/tracks/crossings/fields/wells/houses you do
notuse because of safety concerns?
■ Where are the safe roads?
■ Are there new or old military camps in the area you should
avoid?Where?
■ Do you mark dangerous areas, or are there official markers?
What do they look like?
The local population often does not differentiate betweenmines
or other ordnance.They may simply refer to bombs ingeneral or to
mines in general. Determining the type towhich they refer may make
a significant difference to yourtravel plans; mine-contaminated
areas often pose a greaterhazard to travelling than unexploded
ordnance. However, ifin doubt, assume the worst and avoid the area.
Even if onlyone source indicates an area is dangerous, avoid
it!
Did you know?Although locals are usually
one of the best resources to
assess the mine/ERW threat,
many accidents happen
because local people devel-
op a different sense of risk.
Walking and driving through
their regions everyday with-
out any incident may create
a false impression of the
actual situacion.
Aid workers or foreign jour-
nalists often rely on their
local counterparts such as
drivers, interpreters or
stringers, when it comes to
assess the safety of an area.
Aid workers and journalists
normally do not question
these assessments, because
“everything feels right”or
because they don’t want to
come across as overtly cau-
tious or “fussy.”
Remember: In mine-affected
areas, you are better to be
overly cautious or “fussy”a
hundred times than just
wrong once. Get your mine-
safety briefing and make
sure your local counterparts
have had theirs too!
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If you obtain new information regarding the local threat ofmines
or ERW,provide it to your head office,the local MAC,mineaction
agencies, and United Nations Security Officers so thatthey can
share it with other organizations and staff members.
And don’t forget to inform others of your travel plans,whether
your trip is private or professional.
E X E R C I S E C O M M O N S E N S E■ Do not enter areas known
or suspected to be contaminated,
and use only cleared and approved routes.
■ Don’t touch or approach mines, unexploded or abandoned
ordnance or approach military installations or equipment.
■ Do not approach UXO or abandoned ordnance, abandoned guns
oritems that appear out of place as they may have been
booby-trapped. In conflict situations, it is often better to
assume
Stay in the travelled zone.Be prepared to reverse.
61
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that all abandoned military vehicles and installations, UXO
andabandoned ordnance are booby-trapped. Specialists are requiredto
check thoroughly for the presence of booby-traps and impro-vised
explosive devices. Beware of anything with unusual wiresleading to
it or coming from it.
■ Know who to report to and what to report. Mine action
centresand mine action organizations will usually deal with
landmineand ERW threats that pose a humanitarian threat or
impedimentto development, while the military and police normally
deal withabandoned ordnance and improvised explosive devices that
posea security threat.
■ Take extreme caution near known or suspected minefields
orERW-contaminated areas, whether they are marked or not.During
surveys of mined areas smaller hazard areas may havebeen
overlooked. Mines or ordnance may also have moved due torains and
erosion. If you are around an area being cleared ofmines or ERW, do
not approach mine clearance teams unless youare invited by them to
do so and then follow their instructions atall times.
■ Radio or cellular phone transmissions emit radio waves
thatcould initiate radio controlled devices or certain types of
unex-ploded ordnance. Avoid making radio or cellular phone
transmis-sions around UXO, booby-traps or improvised explosive
devices.
■ If you are undertaking construction activities, digging
wells,building roads or canals in areas that have been the subject
oflarge scale bombing or protracted land battles be aware that
youmay uncover landmines and unexploded ordnance. If so stopdigging
immediately, clear the worksite of all people and inform
local authorities. Do not attempt to move unexploded ordnanceor
mines.
■ If you plan to establish an office or house in a conflict or
post-conflict environment check that the immediate area does
nothave weapons depots – abandoned or otherwise. Close proximityto
a weapons depot always poses a risk and if actively used, maybe
subject to attack.
Use common sense.When in doubt stay out!
Before driving in conflict areas check with localauthorities
aboutAV-mines.
Never drive on road verges! Stay inwell-worn tracks.
Stay on well-usedroads or paths andon the asphaltwhenever
possible.
Beware of obstaclesin the road or onthe path.
62
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63
TRAVELLING IN A VEHICLE■ Inform your office of the dates, times
and planned route of your
journey, by filling out a route card. (An example of a route
card isgiven in Annex 1, together with a description of its use.)
If youchange your route, inform your office. If you cannot
communi-cate, it is better not to deviate. Be aware, that if you
fail to arriveat your destination at the specified time or to
report in, yourorganization will come looking for you.
■ Whenever possible, travel with a companion, preferably one
whoknows the area and the route you need to use if you do
not.Travelling in two vehicles in most instances is even better.
Whentravelling in a convoy, allow a space of 50 m to 100 m
betweenvehicles whenever possible, also ensuring that you can
maintainvisual contact with other vehicles travelling with you.
■ When starting a journey in the morning, allow sufficient time
forlocal traffic to have subsided before undertaking your travel.
Stickto well-travelled routes, and stay in the travelled zone of
theroad. Plan your trip well and avoid using dangerous roads
afterheavy rains and throughout the rainy season: deep flooded
pot-holes may tempt you to leave the ‘safe’ zone. Mines may bemoved
or exposed by rain.
NEVER drive onto the shoulders or verges. The drivers of thecars
in the background are taking an unnecessary risk.
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64
■ Do not travel at night. Plan your journey to end two hours
beforesunset. This will allow you and your headquarters at least
twohours of sunlight to react to an emergency. In addition,
minewarning signs and clues cannot be seen at night.
■ Wherever possible, stay on paved roads, even if it means the
tripwill be longer. Paved roads are generally less likely to be
minedthan unpaved roads. However, potholes and the shoulders
(orverges) of paved roads offer opportunities to conceal mines
—avoid potholes and avoid driving off paved areas. Do not leavethe
main road or track to turn your car. If you have a flat tire oryour
car breaks down, don’t pull over to the side, but rather fix iton
an area that has obviously been used or is paved.
■ On dirt roads, stay on well travelled tracks. The tracks have
to bewide enough for your vehicle. The wheels of a truck, for
example,are much wider than those on a four-wheel-drive vehicle.
Theymay extend outside existing tracks.
■ Beware of obstacles in the road or on a path. An obstacle in
theroad could be a diversion designed to make you step or drive
offthe road and into a minefield. Never leave the road to allow
avehicle to pass, to overtake, pass an obstruction, or turn
around.If necessary, reverse back until a safe area is available.
Beware ofpulling off the road into lay-bys as they may be
mined.
■ Never drive around roadblocks of former military pos