С.А. Дубинко, Л.В. Маркина, Е.И. Маркосьян

С.А. Дубинко, Л.В. Маркина, Е.И. Маркосьян

From Intercultural Competence to Success in Business

Межкультурная компетенция – успех в бизнесе

Учебное пособие для студентов экономических

специальностей

Минск БГУ

2013

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Рецензенты:

- кандидат филологических наук, доцент, заведующая кафедрой английского языка

естественных факультетов БГУ Т. Г. Лукша

- кандидат филологических наук, доцент, заведующая кафедрой №1 БНТУ С. А. Хо-

менко

Рекомендовано:

Ученым советом

факультета международных отношений 30 апреля 2013г., протокол № 9

Предлагаемое пособие по английскому языку направлено на развитие про-

фессионально значимых компетенций с учетом социокультурного фактора об-

щения специалистов в сфере международных экономических отношений. Рас-

сматриваются лингвистические и экстралингвистические аспекты делового

общения, обусловленные историческими, экономическими, культурными осо-

бенностями стран изучаемого языка, и их роль в ведении бизнеса.

Предназначено для студентов-международников экономических специально-

стей.

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ПРЕДИСЛОВИЕ

Предлагаемое пособие по английскому языку предназначено для

студентов отделений экономических специальностей, изучающих анг-

лийский язык как первый и второй иностранный язык (Уровни В2, С1)

по следующим направлениям подготовки: Мировая экономика, Ме-

неджмент (специализация Менеджмент в сфере международного туриз-

ма), Таможенное дело.

Пособие соответствует целевой установке и содержанию обучения

иностранному языку, которые нашли отражение в программе языковой

подготовки специалистов-международников в сфере международных

экономических отношений (I и II этапы специализированного курса –

VI-IX семестры). Пособие построено таким образом, чтобы способство-

вать развитию профессионально значимых для будущего специалиста-

международника компетенций: в первую очередь коммуникативной,

профессиональной компетенций и компетенции ценностно-смысловой

ориентации в мире. Рекомендуется для занятий по общему языку (аспект

межкультурная коммуникация), а также для занятий по деловому про-

фессионально-ориентированному общению в контексте кросскультурно-

го взаимодействия.

Межкультурное взаимодействие рассматривается и как цель в обуче-

нии эффективному речевому поведению, и как средство достижения

взаимопонимания и избежания конфликтов в деловом общении и веде-

нии бизнеса. В пособии даются как общие и теоретические сведения о

деловом общении (лидерство, формы деловых встреч в современном ми-

ре, организация и ведение переговоров, избежание конфликтов, понятие

компромисса), так и практические рекомендации относительно поведе-

ния делового человека в новой для него среде с учетом характеристик

деловых культур различных стран. Анализируется опыт крупных межна-

циональных компаний в успешном решении профессиональных и социо-

культурных вопросов делового общения.

Работа над каждым разделом проводится в рамках единой лингвост-

рановедческой и профессиональной темы. Каждый раздел предусматри-

вает введение в тему (Starting up), работу над лексическим материалом

(дается словарь-минимум по теме, упражнения на закрепление лексиче-

ского материала), работу над основным текстом профессиональной и со-

циокультурной направленности (Reading), упражнения на развития на-

выков устной речи (Oral speech practice), упражнения на обучение аргу-

ментированному высказыванию по изучаемым темам (Activiies), упраж-

нения на развитие навыков письменной речи (Writing), на формирование

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навыков перевода (Translate into Russian), что в конечном итоге служит

поставленной цели – формированию навыков коммуникативной, профес-

сиональной и социокультурной компетенций.

PART I

UNIT I

STATUS, LEADERSHIP AND ORGANIZATION

Starting up

A. Discuss these questions:

1. What are the effects of cultural diversity on people’s lives and destinies?

2. What changes are taking place in the world of business in the 21-st centu-

ry?

3. Why does the 21-st century promise to be crunch time for powerful gov-

ernments, trading blocks and manufacturing powerhouses?

4. Is the hegemony enjoyed by Western Europe, the United States and Japan

guaranteed?

5. What factors guarantee access to gigantic markets and astronomical prof-

its?

6. What problems of international exchange can lead to failure, recession,

survival?

B. Comment on the following issues:

1. the role and influence of worldwide organizations such as WTO, WHO,

WWF, OECD, the World Bank, G8, the EU, NAFTA, NATO in inter-

national business;

2. substantial funding of the UN, UNESCO, UNICEF;

3. the way some leading companies (IBM, Nokia, Unilever and others)

confront cross- cultural issues;

4. the role of some world's most respected leaders in business;

5. the constituents of the notion of leadership;

6. the global leadership style.

Vocabulary

Key terms face enormous challenges a global leadership style play second

fiddle confront cross-cultural issues to tread warily in the very long run

to adopt a more vigorous style have a pervasive influence tackle issues

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linear-active cultures multi-active managers reactive cultures excel in

creating a harmonious atmosphere culture-bound

A. Match the words from the two columns to make up word combina-

tions:

1. a more vigorous a) second fiddle

2. a global b) warily

3. to tread c) influence

4. in the very d) cross-cultural issues

5. a pervasive e) leadership style

6. to tackle f) enormous challenges

7. to confront g) style

8. to excel h) issues

9. to face i) long run

10. to play j) in creating a harmonious atmosphere

B. Say what words or phrases from the box the following definitions refer

to:

1. cultures which demonstrate a task orientation and are deal oriented

2. managers who are rather more extroverted, rely on their eloquence and are usu-

ally more oriented to networking

3. cultures whose leaders are people oriented but dominate with knowledge, pa-

tience and quiet control

4. dependent on cultural differences

5. a great impact

6. act the second part

C. These are some examples of how different nations deal with the issues of cul-

tural differences in international business. Continue the list.

1. Small Northern European countries - the Netherlands, Belgium, Switzerland

and the Nordics - have intercultural skills and are performing well internation-

ally (Nokia, Ericsson, Scania, Volvo, Carlsberg, Heineken, Shell, Unilever,

Tetra-pak, Nestlé). Their impact on world trade is limited by their size.

2. Multicultural Canada has great future potential.

3. The Big Five - the United States, Japan, Germany, Britain and France - have

a long way to go in learning about how to manage successfully across cul-

tures.

4. The Latin countries, including France, Italy and Spain, are hampered by

their inadequate level of English-language proficiency.

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Reading

A. Read the following articles

Notions of leadership

Success or Failure in the Twenty-First Century

Western and Japanese managers face enormous challenges. They have to

come to grips with the problems posed by the rapid expansion of globalized

trade and they have to abandon previous habits of arrogance and complacency.

They have many economic weapons with which to defend themselves, but

they are seriously outnumbered. It is imperative that Western and Japanese

managers learn how to lead, manage, motivate and inspire their growing num-

ber of foreign staff and customers. Contact among middle managers and inter-

national teams can lead to success or failure for many organizations. Is there

such a thing as a global leadership style? Does it work in practice? What are

its elements? How does one get there?

Asian competition in the twenty-first century will be fierce and unrelenting.

The Asians have endured centuries of playing second fiddle to the West. Now

they intend to reverse the situation. In many instances they have already done

so. In industries such as textiles, garments, shoes, toys and plastics the West

has no chance to compete, nor will it have in the future. In high-tech indus-

tries, especially consumer hardware, the West is already threatened by Malay-

sia, Thailand, Korea and Taiwan. China will ultimately replace these as the

implacable competitor. How can the West fight all this?

The United States can be expected to widen its technological lead over

competitors for another couple of decades, but not indefinitely. Finland may

follow a similar path. Germany, Britain, France and Sweden, all high tech,

will have to innovate constantly to stay ahead of Japan and China.

The West's most effective weapons have to be dynamic leadership, perspi-

cacity, psychological skills, willingness to innovate and clever use of their

democratic institutions. A lot is achieved in its clubs, societies, committees,

charities, associations, sport and leisure activity groups, alumni fraternities

and so on. The influence of such institutions, with their inherent social vibran-

cy, should not be underestimated.

There also remains the question of control of worldwide organizations

such as the WTO, WHO, WWF, OECD, the World Bank, G8, the EU,

NAFTA and NATO as well as substantial funding of the UN, UNESCO,

UNICEF and so forth. Western control will eventually weaken, China has en-

tered the WTO and countries with burgeoning populations play greater roles,

but there is still a bit of breathing space for Western and Japanese managers

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and executives to confront cross-cultural issues, begin to understand others'

cultural habitats and learn how to stand in the shoes of foreign colleagues. If

they do so, they at least stand a chance of influencing and leading the staff of

Western companies in the East, such as those of IBM, Microsoft, Nokia, Uni-

lever, Hewlett-Packard, Motorola and Volkswagen.

It is already late in the day for many organizations to begin this learning

curve. Huge multinationals have avoided or postponed cultural training for

decades. A few have excelled in their approach, such as Nokia, Ericsson,

HSBC, Motorola, ABB, Coca Cola and Unilever.

When it comes to competing for world markets in terms of understanding

the aspirations of others, one can make significant comparisons as to how dif-

ferent national cultures are dealing with the issue.

If we compare the performance of Asians in this respect, we see they are

no laggards. They have not only learned English, but they have developed

sensitivity toward the aspirations of Western consumers. In this they have

been greatly aided by the existence and activity of millions of overseas Chi-

nese and overseas Indians. Singapore and Hong Kong have had their own built

- in advantages. Thais and Koreans have familiarized themselves with Ameri-

can cultural habits. Malaysians know the British well. The Philippines is the

second largest English-speaking country in the world.

Japan's successful penetration of Western markets took place in spite of

poor intercultural skills. Rising labour costs and Chinese high-tech competi-

tion pose an imminent threat to the Japanese economy. Like the Americans,

the Japanese are on the right side of a technological gap, which gives them a

few years' breathing space. Like the Americans, they will have to learn how to

continue to project their success across borders by developing more intercul-

tural sensitivity. The mammoth markets of the future - China, India, Indonesia,

Pakistan, Nigeria and Brazil - have wildly different mindsets!

Leaders

Leaders can be born, elected, or trained and groomed; they can seize power

or have leadership thrust upon them. Leadership can be autocratic or demo-

cratic, collective or individual, merit-based or ascribed, desired or imposed.

It is not surprising that business leaders (managers) often wield their power

in conformity with the national setup. For instance, a confirmed democracy

like Sweden produces low-key democratic managers; Arab managers are good

Muslims; Chinese managers usually have government or party affiliations.

Leaders cannot readily be transferred from culture to culture. Japanese

prime ministers would be largely ineffective in the United States; American

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politicians would fare badly in most Arab countries; mullahs would not be tol-

erated in Norway. Cross-national transfers are becoming increasingly common

with the globalization of business, so it becomes even more imperative that the

composition of international teams, and particularly the choice of their leaders,

be carefully considered. Autocratic French managers have to tread warily in

consensus-minded Japan and Sweden. Courteous Asian leaders have to adopt

a more vigorous style in argumentative Holland and theatrical Spain if they

wish to hold the stage. German managers sent to Australia are somewhat

alarmed at the irreverence of their staff and their apparent lack of respect for

authority.

In the twenty-first century, with multinationals and conglomerates expand-

ing their global reach, corporate governance and international teams will learn

a lot about leading multicultural enterprises and workforces. The new impetus

provided by fresh managers from Asia, Russia, Poland, Hungary, East Euro-

pean states, Latin America and Africa will change notions of leadership as will

the increasing number of women in management positions.

At cross-century, two of the world's most respected leaders Nelson Man-

dela and Kofi Annan - were African. The ultimate numerical superiority of

non-white leaders, already significant in the political world, will permeate

business. Based on Singapore's commercial success and development within a

given time frame, Lee Kuan Yew stakes a reasonable claim to have been the

most successful "manager" of the last three decades of the twentieth century.

His tenets were largely those enshrined in Asian precepts. This does not mean

that Confucian rules are equally applicable everywhere.

Cultural Roots of Organization and Leadership

The development of concepts of leadership is a historical phenomenon,

closely connected with the organizational structure of society. Each society

breeds the type of leader it wants, and expects him or her to keep to the path

their age-old cultural habits have chosen.

The behavior of the members of any cultural group is dependent, almost

entirely, on the history of the people in that society. It is often said that we fail

to learn the lessons of history - and indeed we have seen mistakes repeated

over hundreds of years by successive generations - but in the very long run

(and we may be talking in millennia) a people will adhere collectively to the

set of norms, reactions and activities which their experience and development

have shown to be most beneficial for them. Their history may have consisted

of good and bad years (or centuries), migrations, invasions, conquests, reli-

gious disputes or crusades, tempests, floods, droughts, subzero temperatures,

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disease and pestilence. They may have experienced brutality, oppression or

near-genocide. Yet, if they survive, their culture, to some extent, has proven

successful.

Besides being a creation of historical influence and climatic environment,

the mentality of a culture the inner workings and genius of the mindset - are

also dictated by the nature and characteristics of the language of the group.

The restricted liberties of thought that any particular tongue allows will have a

pervasive influence on considerations of vision, charisma, emotion, poetic

feeling, discipline and hierarchy.

Historical experience, geographic and geolingistic position, physiology

and appearance, language, instinct for survival - all combine to produce a core

of beliefs and values that will sustain and satisfy the aspirations and needs of a

given society.

The term organization automatically implies leadership, people in authori-

ty who write the rules for the system. There are many historical examples of

leadership having been vested in the person of one man or woman - Alexander

the Great, Tamerlane, Louis XIV, Napoleon, Queen Elizabeth I, Joan of Arc

are clear examples. Others, equally renowned and powerful but less despotic

(Washington, Bismarck, Churchill), ruled and acted with the acquiescence of

their fellow statesmen. Parliamentary rule, introduced by the British in the ear-

ly part of the seventeenth century, initiated a new type of collective leadership

at government level, although this had existed at regional, local and tribal lev-

els for many centuries. Minoan collective rule - one of the earliest examples

we know about - inspired a similar type of leadership both in the Greek city-

states and later in Rome. In another hemisphere, Mayan and North American

Indians held similar traditions.

In the business world, a series of individuals have also demonstrated out-

standing abilities and success in leadership - Ford, Rockefeller, Agneli, Ber-

lusconi, Barnevik, Gyllenhammer, Iacocca, Geneen, Matsushita and Morita

are some of them. It is now common for leadership and authority also to be

vested in boards of directors or management committees.

UK USA

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autocratic primus inter pares hierarchy, consensus

ASIA LATIN/ARAB INDONESIA

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Figure 1. Leadership Styles

The way in which a cultural group goes about structuring its commercial

and industrial enterprises or other types of organizations usually reflects to a

considerable degree the manner in which it itself is organized. The two basic

questions to be answered are these: (a) How is authority organized? and (b)

What is authority based on? Western and Eastern answers to these questions

vary enormously, but in the West alone there are striking differences in atti-

tude.

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There is, for instance, precious little similarity in the organizational pat-

terns of French and Swedish companies, while Germans and Australians have

almost diametrically opposing views as to the basis of authority. Organizations

are usually created by leaders, whether the leadership is individual or collec-

tive. Leadership functions in two modes - networking and task orientation. In

networking mode, the concerns, in order of appearance, are the status of the

leader(s), the chain of command, the management style, the motivation of the

employees, and the language of management used to achieve this. In task-

orientation mode, the leadership must tackle issues, formulate strategies, cre-

ate some form of work ethic and decide on efficiency, task distribution and

use of time.

Managers in linear-active cultures will generally demonstrate a task orien-

tation. They look for technical competence, place facts before sentiment, logic

before emotion; they will be deal oriented, focusing their own attention and

that of their staff on immediate achievements and results. They are orderly,

stick to agendas and inspire staff with their careful planning.

Multi-active managers are much more extroverted, rely on their eloquence

and ability to persuade and use human force as an inspirational factor. They

often complete human transactions emotionally, assigning the time this may

take - developing the contact to the limit. Such managers are usually more ori-

ented to networking.

Leaders in reactive cultures are equally people oriented but dominate with

knowledge, patience and quiet control. They display modesty and courtesy,

despite their accepted seniority. They excel in creating a harmonious atmos-

phere for teamwork. Subtle body language obviates the need for an abundance

of words. They know their companies well (having spent years going around

the various departments); this gives them balance, the ability to react to a web

of pressures. They are also paternalistic.

Because of the diverse values and core beliefs of different societies, con-

cepts of leadership and organization are inevitably culture-bound. Authority

might be based on achievement, wealth, education, charisma or birthright (as-

cription). Corporations may be structured in a vertical, horizontal or matrix

fashion and may be molded according to religious, philosophical or govern-

mental considerations and requirements. No two cultures view the essence of

authority, hierarchy or optimum structure in an identical light.

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Different Concepts of Status, Leadership and Organization

Germany

Germans believe in a world governed by Ordnung, where everything and

everyone has a place in a grand design calculated to produce maximum effi-

ciency. It is difficult for the impulsive Spaniard, the improvising Portuguese or

the soulful Russian to conceive of German Ordnung in all its tidiness and

symmetry. It is essentially a German concept which goes further in its theoret-

ical perfection than even the pragmatic and orderly intent of Americans, Brit-

ish, Dutch and Scandinavians.

Just as they believe in simple, scientific truth, Germans believe that true

Ordnung is achievable, provided that sufficient rules, regulations and proce-

dures are firmly in place. In the business world, established, well-tried proce-

dures have emerged from the long experience of Germany's older companies

and conglomerates, guided by the maturity of tested senior executives. In

Germany, more than anywhere else, there is no substitute for experience. Sen-

ior employees pass on their knowledge to people immediately below them.

There is a clear chain of command in each department and information and in-

structions are passed down from the top. The status of managers is based part-

ly on achievement, but this is seen as interwoven with the length of service

and ascribed wisdom of the individual, as well as formal qualifications and

depth of education.

German management is, however, not exclusively autocratic. While the

vertical structure in each department is clear, considerable value is placed on

consensus. German striving for perfection of systems carries with it the impli-

cation that the manager who vigorously applies and monitors these processes

is showing faith in a framework which has proved successful for all. Although

few junior employees would question the rules, there is adequate protection in

German law for dissenting staff. Most Germans feel comfortable in a rather

tight framework which would irritate Americans and British. Germans wel-

come close instruction: they know where they stand and what they are ex-

pected to do. They enjoy being told twice, or three or four times.

German managers, issuing orders, can motivate by showing solidarity with

their staff in following procedures. They work long hours, obey the rules

themselves and, although they generally expect immediate obedience, they in-

sist on fair play.

In task orientation, Germany's use of time resembles the American: meet-

ings begin on the dot, appointments are strictly observed, late arrivals must be

phoned in prior to the appointed arrival time. A strong work ethic is taken for

granted, and although staff working hours are not overlong and holidays are

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frequent, the German obsession with completing action chains means that pro-

jects are usually completed within the assigned period. Each department is re-

sponsible for its own tasks and there is far less horizontal communication be-

tween equals across the divisions of a German company than there is in U.S.

and British firms. Secrecy is respected in Germany both in business and pri-

vate. Few German companies publish their figures for public consumption or

even for the benefit of their own employees.

Latins and some Anglo-Saxons frequently experience some difficulty in

working or dealing with Germans on account of the relatively rigid framework

of procedures within which many German companies operate.

Cooperating successfully with Germans means respecting their primary val-

ues. First, status must be established according to their standards. Punctuality

and orderliness are basic. Procedures should always be written down, for

Germans read them, and so should you. Any instructions you issue should be

firm and unambiguous. If you want something written in black ink, not blue,

then you should make this clear. Germans want content, detail and clarity -

they hate misunderstandings.

Strive for consensus at all times. Consensus is obtained by clarification and

justification, not by persuasion or truly open discussion. Consensus creates

solidarity, which makes everyone feel comfortable. Each participant in the

discussion makes a contribution, but does not query a superior too energetical-

ly and certainly does not question his or her judgment.

Hierarchical constraints necessitate your knowing the exact pecking order

in the ladder of command, including your own rung. German directness ena-

bles you to point out when something is being done in an incorrect manner or

when mistakes are being made, as long as the criticism is clearly constructive

or designed to help. If you are too subtle in your criticism, it may not register

at all.

Subordinates with difficulties should be supervised, helped, advised, in-

structed, monitored. If no help is asked for or required, tasks should not be in-

terrupted. Quiet single-mindedness is admired in Germany, so don't try to do

six things at once, and don't leave anything unfinished. If you are working

hard, show it; a casual approach will be misunderstood.

Finally, communication is vertical, not horizontal. Don't go across the

company to chat with people at your level in other departments. Most of your

business ideas should be communicated to either your immediate superior or

immediate subordinate. You do not have the ear of the chairman, however be-

nignly he may smile at you - unless you are vice chairman.

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France

French management style is more autocratic than the German, although

this is not always evident at first glance. In France the boss often seems to

have a roving style, using tu to subordinates and often patting them on the

back. Such behaviour is, however, quite deceptive.

The French chief executive's status is attributed according to family, age,

education and professional qualifications, with the emphasis on oratorical abil-

ity and mastery of the French language. Preferably the executive was "fin-

ished" at the École normale supérieure, an elitist establishment way ahead in

prestige of any French university. French managers have less specialization

than U.S. or British managers, but they generally have wider horizons and an

impressive grasp of the many issues facing their company. They can handle

production, organizational procedures, meetings, marketing, personnel matters

and accounting systems as the occasion requires.

While mistakes by German executives are not easily forgiven and Ameri-

can managers are summarily fired if they lose money, there is a high tolerance

in French companies for management blunders. As management is highly per-

sonalized, it falls on the manager to make many decisions on a daily basis, and

it is expected that a good proportion of them will be incorrect. The humanistic

leanings of French and other Latin-based cultures encourage the view that

human error must be anticipated and allowed for. Managers assume responsi-

bility for their decisions, but it is unlikely that they will be expected to resign

if these backfire. If they are of the right age and experience and possess im-

peccable professional qualifications, replacing them would not only be futile,

it would point a dagger at the heart of the system. For the French, attainment

of immediate objectives is secondary to the ascribed reputation of the organi-

zation and its sociopolitical goals. The highly organic nature of a French en-

terprise implies interdependence, mutual tolerance and teamwork among its

members as well as demonstrated faith in the (carefully) appointed leader.

French managers, who relish the art of commanding, are encouraged to excel

in their work by the high expectations on the part of their subordinates.

In addition to their commercial role in the company, French managers see

themselves as valued leaders in society, indeed, as contributing to the well-

being of the state itself. Among the largest economies of the world, only Japan

exercises more governmental control over business than the French. Modern

French companies such as Aérospatiale, Dassault, Elf Aquitaine, Michelin,

Renault and Peugeot are seen as symbols of French grandeur and are "looked

after" by the state. A similar situation exists in Japan and to some extent Swe-

den.

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The prestige and exalted position enjoyed by the French manager is not

without its drawbacks, both for the enterprise and for the national economy.

By concentrating authority around the chief executive, opinions of experi-

enced middle managers and technical staff (often close to customers and mar-

kets) do not always carry the weight that they would in Anglo-Saxon or Scan-

dinavian companies. It is true that French managers debate issues at length

with their staff, often examining all aspects in great detail. The decision, how-

ever, is usually made alone and not always on the basis of the evidence. If the

chief executive's views are known in advance, it is not easy to reverse them.

Furthermore, senior managers are less interested in the bottom line than in the

perpetuation of their power and influence in the company and in society.

Again, their contacts and relationships at the highest levels may transcend the

implications of any particular transaction.

Britain

The class system persists in the U.K., and status is still derived, in some

degree, from pedigree, title and family name. There is little doubt that the sys-

tem is on its way to becoming a meritocracy the emergence of a very large

middle class and the efforts of the Left and Centrist politicians will eventually

align British egalitarianism with that of Northern Europe.

British managers could be described as diplomatic, tactful, laid back, casu-

al, reasonable, helpful, willing to compromise and seeking to be fair. They al-

so consider themselves to be inventive and, on occasion, lateral thinkers. They

see themselves as conducting business with grace, style, humor, wit, elo-

quence and self-possession. They have the English fondness for debate and

regard meetings as occasions to seek agreement rather than to issue instruc-

tions.

Under the veneer of casual refinement and sophistication in British man-

agement style there exists a hard streak of pragmatism and mercenary intent.

When the occasion warrants it, British managers can be as resilient and ruth-

less as their tough American cousins, but less explicitly and with disarming

poise. Subordinates appreciate their willingness to debate with them and the

tendency to compromise, but they also anticipate a certain amount of devious-

ness and dissimulation. Codes of behavior within a British company equip

staff to absorb and cope with a rather obscure management style.

Other problems arise when British senior executives deal with European,

American and Eastern businesspeople. In spite of their penchant for friendli-

ness, hospitality and desire to be fair, British managers' adherence to tradition

endows them with an insular obstinacy resulting in a failure to comprehend

differing values in others.

17

Although British delegates at international meetings frequently distinguish

themselves by their poise, charm and eloquence, they often leave the scene

having learned little or nothing from their more successful trading partners. As

such conferences are usually held in English, they easily win the war of

words; this unfortunately increases their linguistic arrogance.

I once gave a series of cross-cultural seminars to executives of an English

car company that had been taken over by a German auto industry giant. The

Germans attending the seminars, although occasionally struggling with termi-

nology, listened eagerly to the remarks about British psychology and cultural

habits. The British participants, with one or two notable exceptions, paid only

casual attention to the description of German characteristics, took hardly any

notes, were unduly flippant about Germany's role in Europe and thought the

population and the gross domestic product (GDP) of the two countries were

roughly equal. Only one of the British spoke German and that at a very modest

level.

As far as task orientation is concerned, British managers perform better.

They are not sticklers for punctuality, but time wasting is not endemic in Brit-

ish companies, and staff take pride in completing tasks thoroughly, although in

their own time frame. British managers like to leave work at 5:00 or 6:00 P.M.,

as do their subordinates, but work is often taken home.

As for strategies, managers generally achieve a balance between short- and

long-term planning. Teamwork is encouraged and often achieved, although it

is understood that individual competition may be fierce. It is not unusual for

managers to have "direct lines" to staff members, especially those whom they

favour or consider intelligent and progressive. Chains of command are ob-

served less than in German and French companies. The organization sub-

scribes in general to the Protestant work ethic, but this must be observed

against a background of smooth, unhurried functions and traditional self-

confidence.

The contrast with the immediacy and driving force of American manage-

ment is quite striking when one considers the commonality of language and

heritage as well as the Anglo-Celtic roots of U.S. business.

United States

The Puritan work ethic and the right to dissent dominated the mentality of

the early American settlers. It was an Anglo-Saxon-Celtic, Northern European

culture, but the very nature and hugeness of the land, along with the advent of

independence, soon led to the "frontier spirit."

The vast lands of America were an entrepreneur's dream. Unlimited ex-

panses of wilderness were seen as unlimited wealth which could be exploited,

18

if one moved quickly enough. Only Siberia has offered a similar challenge in

modern times.

American managers symbolize the vitality and audacity of the land of free

enterprise. In most cases they retain the frontier spirit that has characterized

the U.S. mindset since the end of the eighteenth century: they are assertive,

aggressive, goal and action oriented, confident, vigorous, optimistic and ready

for change. They are achievers who are used to hard work, instant mobility

and decision making. They are capable of teamwork and corporate spirit, but

they value individual freedom above the welfare of the company, and their

first interest is furthering their own career.

In view of their rebellious beginnings, Americans are reluctant to accord

social status to anyone for reasons other than visible achievement. In a land

with no traditions of (indeed aversion to) aristocracy, money was seen as the

yardstick of progress, and very few Americans distance themselves from the

pursuit of wealth. Intellectuality and refinement as qualities of leadership are

prized less in the United States than in Europe. Leadership means getting

things done, improving one's standard of living by making money for oneself,

finding shortcuts to prosperity and making a profit for one's firm and its share-

holders.

With status accorded almost exclusively on grounds of achievement and

wealth, age and seniority assume less importance. American managers are of-

ten young, female or both. Chief executives are given responsibility and au-

thority and then expected to act; they seldom fail to do so. How long they re-

tain power depends on the results they achieve.

Motivation of American managers and their staff does not have the laby-

rinthine connotations that it does in European and Asian companies, for it is

usually monetary. Bonuses, performance payments, profit-sharing schemes

and stock options are common. New staff, however, are often motivated by the

very challenge of getting ahead. Problem solving, the thrill of competition and

the chance to demonstrate resolute action satisfy the aspirations of many

young Americans. Unlike Europeans and Asians, however, they need constant

feedback, encouragement and praise from the senior executive.

In terms of organization, the rampant individualism in American society is

rigidly controlled in business life through strict procedures. American execu-

tives are allowed to make individual decisions, especially when travelling

abroad, but usually within the framework of corporate restrictions. Young

Americans' need for continual appraisal means that they are constantly super-

vised. In German companies staff are regularly monitored, but German seniors

do not "hover." In the United States senior executives pop in and out of offic-

es, sharing information and inspiration with their subordinates: "Say, Jack, I've

19

just had a terrific idea." Memos, directives, suggestions in writing are ubiqui-

tous. Shareholder pressure makes quarterly reporting and rolling forecasts im-

perative. The focus is on the bottom line.

American managers can be quickly hired and just as rapidly fired (often

without compensation). Being sacked often carries less stigma than elsewhere:

"It just didn't work out, we have to let you go." For the talented, other jobs and

companies beckon. There is precious little sentimentality in American busi-

ness. The deal comes before personal feeling. If the figures are right, you can

deal with the Devil. If there is no profit, a transaction with a friend is hardly

worthwhile. Business is based on punctuality, solid figures, proven techniques,

pragmatic reasoning and technical competence. Time is money, and Ameri-

cans show impatience during meetings if Europeans get bogged down in de-

tails or when Asians demur in showing their hand.

Europeans, by contrast, are often miffed by American informality and what

they consider to be an overly simplistic approach toward exclusively material

goals. Eastern cultures are wary of the litigious nature of American business

(two-thirds of the lawyers on earth are American), a formidable deterrent for

members of those societies who settle disputes out of court and believe in

long-term harmony with their business partners.

Sweden

The Swedish concept of leadership and management differs considerably

from other European models. Like Swedish society itself, enterprises are es-

sentially "democratic," although a large percentage of Swedish capital is in

private hands. Managers of thousands of middle-sized and even large firms

have attained managerial success through subtle self-effacement, but the big

multinationals have also thrown up some famous executives who might well

claim to be among the most far-seeing business leaders in the world: Carstedt,

Gyllenhammar, Wennergren, Barnevik, Carlzon, Wallenberg, and Svedberg.

Modern Swedish egalitarianism has age-old cultural roots. Although some

historical Swedish monarchs such as Gustav av Vasa and Charles the Great

were dominating, compelling figures, the Swedish royals, like those of Den-

mark and Norway, have espoused democratic principles for many centuries,

no doubt mindful of the old Viking lagom tradition, when warriors passed

round the drinking horn (or huge bowl) in a circle and each man had to decide

what amount to drink. Not too little to arouse scorn; not too much to deprive

others of the liquid.

20

Latins

In Latin Europe, as well as in South America, the management pattern

generally follows that of France, where authority is centered around the chief

executive. In middle-sized companies, the CEO is very often the owner of the

enterprise and even in very large firms a family name or connections may

dominate the structure. More than in France, sons, nephews, cousins and close

family friends will figure prominently in key positions. Ubiquitous nepotism

means that business partners are often confronted with younger people who

seem to have considerable influence on decision making. Delegations may of-

ten consist of the company owner, flanked by his brother, son, cousin or even

grandson. Women are generally, although not always, excluded from negotiat-

ing sessions.

Status is based on age, reputation and often wealth. The management style

is autocratic, particularly in Portugal, Spain and South America, where family

money is often on the line. There is a growing meritocracy in Brazil, Chile and

in the big Northern Italian industrial firms, but Latin employees in general in-

dicate willing and trusting subservience to their "establishments."

Task orientation is dictated from above; strategies and success depend

largely on social and ministerial connections and mutually beneficial coopera-

tion between dominant families. Knowing the right people oils the wheels of

commerce in Latin countries, just as it does in Arab and Asian cultures. It

helps anywhere, but assumes greater importance in those societies that priori-

tize nurturing human relationships over pragmatic, rapid implementation of

transactions based on mere notions of opportunity, technical feasibility and

profit.

Netherlands

Leadership in the Netherlands is based on merit, competence and

achievement. Managers are vigorous and decisive, but consensus is mandato-

ry, as there are many key players in the decision-making process. Long

"Dutch debates" lead to action, taken at the top, but with constant reference to

the "ranks." Ideas from low levels are allowed to filter freely upward in the

hierarchy.

Indonesia

In colonial times, leadership came from the Dutch. Under Sukarno and Su-

harto leadership was exercised principally by the military and was therefore

autocratic. The indifferent nature of many Indonesians to the business process

has, however, resulted in a lot of business management being entrusted to a

resident Chinese professional class, which has the commercial know-how and

21

international connections. Overseas Chinese shareholding in many Indonesian

companies encourages this situation.

Japan

Japanese top executives have great power in conformity with Confucian

hierarchy, but actually have little involvement in the everyday affairs of the

company. On appropriate occasions they initiate policies that are conveyed to

middle managers and rank and file. Ideas often originate on the factory floor

or with other lower-level sources. Signatures are collected among workers and

middle managers as suggestions, ideas and inventions make their way up the

company hierarchy. Many people are involved. Top executives take the final

step in ratifying items that have won sufficient approval.

Finland

Finnish leaders, like many British leaders, exercise control from a position

just outside and above the ring of middle managers, who are allowed to make

day-today decisions. Finnish top executives have the reputation of being deci-

sive at crunch time and do not hesitate to stand shoulder to shoulder with staff

and help out in crises.

Australia

Australian managers, like Swedes, must sit in the ring with the "mates."

From this position, once it is accepted that they will not pull rank, they actual-

ly exert much more influence than their Swedish counterparts, as the semi-

Americanized nature of Australian business requires quick thinking and rapid

decision making.

Spain

Spanish leaders, like French, are autocratic and charismatic. Unlike the

French, they work less from logic than from intuition, and pride themselves on

their personal influence on all their staff members. Possessed often of great

human force, they are able to persuade and inspire at all levels. Nepotism is

also common in many companies. Declamatory in style, Spanish managers of-

ten see their decisions as irreversible.

India

Nepotism is also rife in traditional Indian companies. Family members

hold key positions and work in close unison. Policy is also dictated by the

trade group, e.g. fruit merchants, jewelers, etc. These groups work in concert,

22

often develop close personal relations (through intermarriage, etc.) and come

to each other's support in difficult times.

Japan and The East

Cultural values dominate the structure, organization and behavior of East-

ern enterprises more than in the West, because deeply rooted religious and

philosophical beliefs impose near-irresistible codes of conduct.

In the Chinese sphere of influence - People's Republic of China, Hong

Kong, Taiwan, Singapore - as well as in Japan and Korea, Confucian princi-

ples hold sway. (Thailand is Buddhist; Indonesia and Malaysia, strongly Mus-

lim.) Although national differences account for variations in the concepts of

status, leadership and organization, there is a clearly discernible "Eastern

model" that is compatible with general Asian values. The Confucian model,

whether applied to corporations, departments of civil service or government,

strongly resembles family structure.

Confucianism, which took final shape in China in the twelfth century, des-

ignated family as the prototype of all social organization. We are members of

a group, not individuals. Stability of society is based on unequal relationships

between people, as in a family. The hierarchies are father-son, older brother-

younger brother, male - female, ruler-subject, senior friend-junior friend. In

the past, loyalty to the ruler, filial piety to one's father and right living would

lead to a harmonious social order based on strict ethical rules and headed up in

a unified state, governed by men of education and superior ethical wisdom.

Virtuous behavior, protection of the weak, moderation, calmness and thrift

were also prescribed. Confucianism entered Japan with the first great wave of

Chinese influence between the sixth and ninth centuries A.D. For some time it

was overshadowed by Buddhism, but the emergence of the centralized Toku-

gawa system in the seventeenth century made it more relevant than it had been

before. Both Japan and Korea had become thoroughly Confucian by the early

nineteenth century in spite of their feudal political systems. In the twentieth

century the Japanese wholeheartedly accepted modern science, universalistic

principles of ethics, as well as democratic ideals, but they are still permeated,

as are the Koreans, with Confucian ethical values. While focusing on progress

and growth, strong Confucian traits still lurk beneath the surface, such as the

belief in the moral basis of government, the emphasis on interpersonal rela-

tionships and loyalties, the faith in education and hard work. Few Japanese

and Koreans consider themselves Confucianists today, but in a sense almost

all of them are.

23

What Is Work?

The work ethic is taken for granted in Japan, Korea and China, but this is

not the case throughout Asia. Malaysians and Indonesians see work as only

one of many activities that contribute to the progress and welfare of the group.

Time spent (during working hours) at lunch, on the beach or playing sports

may be beneficial in deepening relationships between colleagues or clients.

Time may be needed to draw on the advice of a valued mentor or to see to

some pressing family matter that was distracting an employee from properly

performing their duties. Gossip in the office is a form of networking and inter-

action. Work and play are mixed both in and out of the office in Thailand,

where either activity must be fun or it is not worth pursuing. Thais tend to

work in fits and starts, depending partly on the proximity of authority and

partly on their mood. Koreans, all hustle and bustle when compared to the me-

thodic Japanese, like to be seen to be busy all day long and of all Asians most

resemble the Ameicans in their competitive vigor.

Asian management attaches tremendous importance to form, symbolism

and gesture. The showing of respect, in speech and actions, to those higher in

the hierarchy is mandatory. There must be no loss of face, either for oneself or

one's opponent, and as far as business partners are concerned, red carpet

treatment, including lavish entertaining and gift giving, is imperative. Ultimate

victory in business deals is the objective, but one must have the patience to

achieve this in the right time frame and in the correct manner. This attitude is

more deeply rooted among the Chinese and Japanese than in Korea, where

wheeling and dealing is frequently indulged in.

Looking Ahead

Is the Asian "family model" efficient? The economic success of Japan and

the rates of growth in China, Korea, Malaysia and Taiwan, among others,

would indicate that it is. Whatever the reality may be, it will not be easy for

Westerners to convert to Asiatic systems. Individualism, democratic ideals,

material goals, compulsive consumerism, penchant for speed, environmental

concerns and a growing obsession with the quality of life (a strange concept in

Asia) are powerful, irreversible factors to be reckoned with in North America

and Northern Europe. The globalization process and the increasing determina-

tion of the multinational and transnational giants to standardize procedures

will result in some convergence between East and West in terms of goals,

concepts and organizational structure, but divergence in values and worldview

will sustain organizational diversity well into the twenty-first century.

24

Oral speech practice

A. Complete the following statements:

1. The restricted liberties of thought that any particular tongue allows will…

2. In task-orientation mode, the leadership must… .

3. Because of the diverse values and core beliefs of different societies, con-

cepts of leadership and organization … .

4. It is often said that we fail to learn the lessons of history but… .

5. Western and Japanese managers… .

6. Autocratic French managers have to… .

B. Find key statements in each paragraph of the texts. Summarize the in-

formation.

C. Discuss the following issues in teams.

1. Asian competition in the twenty-first century will be fierce and unrelenting.

2. Like the Americans, the Japanese will have to learn how to continue to pro-

ject their success across borders by developing more intercultural sensitivity.

3. Concepts of leadership and organization are inevitably culture-bound.

4. No two cultures view the essence of authority, hierarchy or optimum struc-

ture in an identical light.

5. The behavior of the members of any cultural group is dependent, almost en-

tirely, on the history of the people in that society.

6. Leaders cannot readily be transferred from culture to culture.

Activities

1. Study Fifure 1. Draw up possible perspectives for representatives of differ-

ent nations in tackling cross-cultural issues in business.

2. Make up a dialogue between managers of different cultures who are dis-

cussing their attitude to the global leadership style.

Writing

A. Write a short essay on one of the following issues:

1. The world’s most respected and successful leader(s) in business.

2. The company (ies) which excelled in cultural training.

B. Translate the following sentences into Russian.

25

1. They have to come to grips with the problems posed by the rapid expan-

sion of globalized trade and they have to abandon previous habits of arrogance

and complacency.

2. Asian competition in the twenty-first century will be fierce and unrelent-

ing.

3. China has entered the WTO and countries with burgeoning populations

play greater roles, but there is still a bit of breathing space for Western and

Japanese managers and executives to confront cross-cultural issues.

4. Cross-national transfers are becoming increasingly common with the glob-

alization of business, so it becomes even more imperative that the composition

of international teams, and particularly the choice of their leaders, be carefully

considered.

5. Autocratic French managers have to tread warily in consensus-minded Ja-

pan and Sweden.

6. Corporations may be structured in a vertical, horizontal or matrix fashion

and may be molded according to religious, philosophical or governmental

considerations and requirements.

UNIT II

TEAM BUILDING AND HORIZONS

Starting up

A. Discuss these questions:

1. What kind of new challenges do international teams face in the twenty-first

century?

2. What factors lead to ferocious competition?

3. What countries and areas does this competition emanate from?

4. What do western and eastern countries have to do to adapt to this challenge?

5. Quick thinking, taking risks, using intuition are necessary for the type of a new

flexible team. Continue the list of important constituents of new strategies.

6. What is the role of traditional procedures?

B. Comment on the following issues:

1. Globalization causes business to increase in complexity.

2. Innovation and change are brought about by globalization.

3. Attitudes towards innovation and change are largely culture-bound.

26

4. Cultural diversity can either contribute to the successful international team

or lead to its failure.

5. Education is only one of the factors which facilitate international under-

standing.

6. Multinationals such as IBM, Unilever and others excel in choosing interna-

tional teams.

Vocabulary

Key terms a prerequisite for survival disposed toward change and in-

novation attached to tried, established and successful processes amenable

to change the drivers of change and innovative technology gain deeper

insight into the nature of reality climbed from the bottom rung of the corpo-

rate ladder to the very top set no store by diplomas discount the im-

portance of training do at their peril саrrу the day to avoid irritants

place smb above interregional rivalry cultural insights and blind spots - or

weaknesses versatility in problem solving avoid needless friction put

their personal skills at the service of the team to be the social adhesive

A. Match the words from the two columns to make up word combina-

tions:

the drivers toward change

a prerequisite toward change and innovation

climbed personal skills at the service of the team

gain deeper insight in problem solving

set insights and blind spots or weaknesses

do irritants

carry the day

avoid at their peril

cultural no store by diplomas

versatility into the nature of reality

put for its survival

disposed from the bottom rung of the corporate ladder to

the very top

B. Say what words or phrases from the box the following definitions refer to:

1. flexibility

2. to win

3. able to hold people in one team together

27

4. open and ready to change

5. value greatly

6. take a risk and do harm to themselves

7. neglect the importance of smth

8. avoid collisions and conflicts if possible

C. These are some ingredients of successful international team. Continue the

list.

1. Team members should be open to changes.

2. Cultural diversity should be taken into account.

3. Cultural diversity not only complicates but also facilitates interaction.

4. Creativity is an important prerequisite.

5. Planning is a key issue.

6. Customers’ priorities should be taken into account.

Reading

A. Read the following articles

Team Building

Innovation and Change

While the agility of an international team will be a prerequisite for its sur-

vival, not all team members will be equally disposed toward change and inno-

vation. Arabs, especially Saudi Arabians, are more interested in the status quo.

Conservatives everywhere, by definition, object to change. Germans in gen-

eral are very attached to tried, established and successful processes. Thais be-

lieve there is no real change we just came around in a circle. In Western Eu-

rope, Swiss, Norwegians, Portuguese and Sicilians are less amenable to

change than, for instance, Czechs, Swedes, Spaniards and Milanese.

Americans are the drivers of change and innovative technology, closely

followed by Finns, Canadians, Australians and, in theory, the British. In Brit-

ain you can change anything except the Church of England, the Monarchy,

Wimbledon, Ascot, cricket, rugby, warm beer and five o'clock tea.

Because of the wide-ranging internationalism and economic strength of the

Big Five - the United States, Britain, France, Japan and Germany - most inter-

national teams have at least a fair number of linear-active members. Linear-

actives in principle favour change and innovation. Multi-actives and Asian

reactives subscribe to change, too, but see it in a different light. Linear-actives

28

emphasize practicality and necessity, multi-actives find change exciting.

Reactives stress prudence.

The international team, functioning comfortably or not, is likely to be the

central operating mode for a global enterprise. Companies must also address

the question of how to balance centralized strategy at the head office with lo-

cal expertise regarding markets and customers. International teams will have

to buzz around fast; their fingers must be on many pulses.

In this context, the cultural diversity of the team (including a mix of linear-

active, multi-active and reactive members) emerges as the most likely success-

ful formula. The international team is small, agile, hopefully versatile and

multifaceted. Italian charisma, American drive, overseas Chinese experience

and wisdom, French logic, Nordic common sense, Japanese intuition and

German thoroughness will combine to address a complex situation. A well-

known experiment in Atlanta concluded that international teams were better

than national ones at solving complex problems, while national teams did well

on routine tasks. International business in the twenty-first century will rarely

just be routine. Globalization and huge organizations such as NAFTA and the

EU will cause business to increase in complexity.

Linear-Active Multi-Active Reactive

Change is constantly

necessary

Change is imaginative

and exciting

Change should be grad-

ual

We must innovate to

survive

Innovation should be

aesthetic

Imitation and improve-

ment are safer than in-

novation

Decisions should be fu-

ture-oriented

Decisions should be

bold and original

Decisions should be

based on best past prec-

edents

Change stimulates

growth and improve-

ment

Change stimulates peo-

ple

If it ain't broke, don't fix

it

Plan in detail, then

change

Change charismatically,

then plan details

Plan change slowly, in

harmony with others

Change is top-down Change after key lateral

clearances Change if all agree

Change should be prof-

it-oriented

Change involves the so-

cial reputation of the

company

Change should be em-

ployment-oriented

Innovation comes from

individuals

Innovation is discov-

ered in lengthy discus-

sion

There is little new under

the sun

29

Make innovation a goal Innovate elegantly Introduce innovations

only when necessary

Democratic brainstorm-

ing is an excellent way

to foster creativity

Brainstorming is great,

but it must be restrained

in the presence of supe-

riors

It is better to think in si-

lence than aloud

Customers should be

asked about their chang-

ing priorities

Customers should be

advised what their

changing priorities are

One should try to antic-

ipate what customers'

changing priorities are

and try to prepare for

them

Show support for oth-

ers' new ideas but voice

any reservations about

them immediately

Imply you agree to oth-

ers' suggestions for in-

novations but modify or

drop them later

Approve of others' new

ideas even if you fully

disagree

One learns best by que-

rying the wisdom of past

actions and debating the

future

One learns best by dis-

cussing actions/dec-

isions from every possi-

ble angle

One learns best by just

listening to more experi-

enced mentors

Concentrate on worst-

case scenarios

Concentrate on best-

case scenarios

Don't have scenarios -

discuss all options until

the best one becomes

evident

Innovation comes large-

ly from eccentrics and

deviants from the com-

pany or national norm

Innovation comes from

brilliance born of first-

class education and

training

Innovation is born of

the aggregate of collec-

tive thought and effort

Any change is better

than no change

Change usually benefits

top dogs

Change is often danger-

ous

Life within Horizons

Our genes, our parental and educational training, our societal rules, our

very language, enable us to see only so far - as far as our horizon. We can

broaden our horizon to some degree by living in other countries; learning for-

eign languages; and reading books on philosophy, psychology, other cultures

and a variety of other subjects. Unless we make such efforts, our horizon re-

mains a South African horizon, a Colombian horizon, an Egyptian horizon or

one of many other world-views. In other words, each cultural group enjoys a

certain segment of experience, which is no more than a fraction of the total

possible available experience. Benjamin Whorf believed that such segments

30

of experience were limited by the vocabulary and concepts inherent in one's

language. By learning more languages, especially those with excitingly dif-

ferent concepts, we can widen our vision and gain deeper insight into the na-

ture of reality. Many graduates in Romance studies feel enriched by being

able to see the world through Spanish eyes or using French rationality. Schol-

ars of Chinese or Japanese often develop two personalities when immersing

themselves in one of these two languages.

We can widen our horizons not only by learning foreign tongues but also

by cultivating empathy with the views of others; standing in their shoes in

their geographical, historical and philosophical location; seeing ourselves from

that perspective.

The Education Factor

We live in an era of improved education and training, but educational sys-

tems vary considerably from country to country, both as to content and objec-

tives. The French all-around senior manager, carefully groomed in wide-

ranging skills in the hautes écoles, views the vocationally trained manager

from a German Volks-wirtschaftshochschule as a highly competent technician.

Practical Japanese engineers wonder why their French and Arab counterparts

evince no inclination to change tires or fix malfunctioning TV sets. The Ger-

man Diplom-Kaufmann may wonder why his British opposite number seems

to have no official qualifications in commerce. Action-oriented American

managers, many of whom climbed from the bottom rung of the corporate lad-

der to the very top through sheer ability, energy and aggressive ambition, may

set no store by diplomas of any kind. These vastly different culturally based

concepts certainly play a role in how members of the international team view

each other's qualifications and the degree of respect that they have for each

other.

Even if all the members of a team have had a "good" university education,

there is no guarantee that this will facilitate international understanding. While

universities have revolutionized their teaching of science, mathematics, engi-

neering and medicine over the past two or three decades, there has been little

change in the social sciences; only those graduates in foreign languages, litera-

ture, philosophy or history are in some ways equipped to interact in a more

meaningful way with foreign nationals, and few of these graduates end up in

international business.

Language and Culture

How can we set about achieving a relatively harmonious and integrated inter-

national team? To begin with, we must face the fact that to understand what

31

makes foreign colleagues tick, there is no substitute for learning their lan-

guage, reading books produced by the culture and familiarizing ourselves with

the country's history, particularly if we plan to live and work within the coun-

try's borders. This means a sizeable investment, not so much in financial terms

as in time. Assuming you come from an English-speaking country, in order for

you to achieve modest fluency in a European language, 250 to 500 hours of

direct teaching will be required, preferably over a three-month period. This

should include an intensive course of two to three weeks of full-time (mini-

mum forty hours) immersion. Japanese, Chinese, Arabic and Russian (to name

four other major languages) will require almost double the time. By contrast,

you can do a reasonable study of the country's basic history, geography, poli-

tics and economy along with the main cultural traits within two or three

weeks, and simultaneously with the language training. Add to this knowledge

of the country's business behaviour, and you should be ready for whatever will

be thrown at you in the new country.

Companies that discount the importance of such training do so at their per-

il. A malfunctioning joint venture with a foreign partner can result in a cata-

strophic financial loss. One large, traditional British company (turnover of

several billion pounds per year) branched out into three European countries

without giving sufficient attention to language and culture learning. The initial

investment was around £10 million. Probably language and cultural training as

outlined above for 20 key executives would have cost in the region of

£200,000. In 2011, in one European branch alone, the British company in-

curred losses of £100 million. Yet the subsidiary in question was showing a

profit at the time of its acquisition!

What had happened? The British parent, vastly successful in the U.K., had

moved quickly to grow the size and scope of the branch operation, applying

strategies and policies that had proven successful for mаnу years in the U.K.

Most of the new products and the general monolithic approach found little fa-

vour in the loсаl culture. The problems were magnified bу the loсаl managers,

who offered polite, guarded criticism and advice. The British, although rea-

sonable, bulldozed onward in the firm belief that their соmраnу nаmе, impres-

sive home record and lengthy experience would саrrу the day.

Horizons, Соmmоn Ground and Divergence

Now that we've discussed national horizons and how they overlap with the

worldviews of other nationalities, we're ready to put the two together. There

are areas of agreement between any two nationalities. Latins are generally

considered difficult partners for the British, yet Britons сап find common

ground with the French, Spaniards and Italians, although that ground differs in

32

each case. As an example, let's say you are from the United Кingdom and а

member of an international team that includes French, Spanish and Italian

members. What is your common ground with each of the three nationalities?

Where are the areas of divergence?

U.K./France U.K./Spain U.K./Italy

sense of superiority

messianic

long term

conservative

interest in arts and

science

ex-imperialistic

linguistic arrogance

love of theater, plots

support underdog

vague, “muddle through”

humorous

distrustful of the French

dignified

individualists

poor linguists

out of European

mainstream

flexible

reasonable

exports to survive

diplomatic, tactful

love of art

sociable, good at small talk

use of first names

compromisers

One's first step toward adaptation must at the very least be to avoid irritants.

An Italian, however well-disposed toward a Brit, finds little subtlety of humor

in being reminded that the best-known Italian product is spaghetti. The Eng-

lish may weary of incessant French ramblings at meetings, but they risk hostil-

ity if they attempt to quash it as irrelevant. Spaniards, touchy about personal

style, do not take kindly to British references to their lack of concern for punc-

tuality or their overt body language. Japanese and most Asians should be

treated with as much respect and deference as Anglo-Saxons can muster:

Latins and Germans alike take liberties in judging Brits as slow-moving, old-

fashioned amateurs with no linguistic skills, while Americans are often cate-

gorized as dollar-mad salespeople lacking a sense of tasteful dress, tact, fi-

nesse and any values other than material.

Common sense and self-awareness are all useful resources for avoiding be-

haviour that might prove irritable to our partners. If we accept that certain

traits are not going to disappear (American drive, German seriousness, French

sense of superiority, Japanese opacity, Spanish tardiness, Italian deviousness,

Norwegian obstinacy, Swiss secrecy, Russian sentiment, Arab passion), we

may come to the realization that these very differing traits can make a positive

contribution to our team effort. For example, American enthusiasm harnessed

by thorough German planning and supervision can be very effective. Span-

iards are slow starters, but they can be good finishers, often displaying stamina

and verve in the hours leading up to midnight. Italians are generally good at

33

making deals, when others may be entrenched or even deadlocked. They are

valuable, too, in working with other Latins.

Managers in experienced multinationals like IBM, Unilever and ABB are

skilled at choosing the right person for each environment. Unilever recently

needed a manager to supervise their marketing operations in South America.

A Brazilian or an Argentinean might have been resented in some of the small-

er countries and certainly in each other's. They chose an Indian executive and

provided him with quality language and cross-cultural training. Not only did

his nationality place him above interregional rivalry, but his keen perception

and his Indian characteristics of people orientation, subtle negotiating skills

and warmth made him someone Latin Americans could easily relate to.

National Strengths, Insights and Blind Spots There is another important factor to be considered in choosing internation-

al teams, apart from the desirability of wider horizons gained through diverse

views. That is the question of competence. Though an individual's ability de-

pends in the last analysis on his or her personal talents, education and experi-

ence, members of international teams often display strengths that derive to

some extent from the rock-solid characteristics of their national culture. The

following table indicates some natural strengths of certain cultural groups.

International teams - strengths

French Logical, visionary, imaginative ideas, intelligent leadership, used

to develop a conceptual and all-embracing approach to a project

Italians Visionary, human relations, provide social glue for team, good at

settling disputes, especially between other Latins; flexibility, reasonableness,

never neglect peripheral business, work all hours

Germans Technical details, forward planning, general competence, keep to

schedules, spot difficulties, try to avoid future problems

Americans Action-oriented, get things going, simplify, focus on return on

investment, think big, take risks, willing to invest, entrepreneurial, to the

point, good at planning sales and marketing, monitor budget, energetic and en-

thusiastic

Brits Calm and phlegmatic, like to arbitrate, inventive, reasonable, avoid

offense, diplomatic, think long-term, good at administration, like chairperson's

role, fair

34

Spaniards Human force, warmth, vision, focus on ideals, good at persuad-

ing, often settle disputes through mediation, loyal team members when feeling

appreciated, work long hours

Belgians Compromisers, practical, make things work, avoid dogmatic ap-

proach, use gradualist approach to problems

Dutch Always busy, work quickly, sense business opportunities, spot

weaknesses, good organizers, hate wasting time, international in outlook,

democratic, persist in finding solutions, hate to lose business

Swedes Logical and practical; strong on processes, rules and laws; com-

promisers in deadlock, maintain politeness in rough situations, strong on tech-

nical planning, always consult others

Finns Calm, unflappable, inventive, reliable, good with facts and figures,

good at planning and implementation, listen well and modify stance, use sci-

entific truth, cut through hypocrisy and wasting time, summarize well

Besides unique and specific insight strengths, team members may also have

cultural insights and blind spots or weaknesses -that can lead to creative

breakthrough in the first instance or misunderstanding or ignorance of col-

leagues' motives in the second. Some examples of both follow.

Nationality Insights Blind Spots

Finns ♦ common sense

♦ accuracy

♦ Small talk

♦ why Latins say one thing and do

another

Germans ♦ order

♦ processes

♦ details

♦ subtle humor

Americans ♦ drive

♦ bottom-line focus

♦ optimism

♦ insensitivity to non-American val-

ues

Japanese ♦ courtesy

♦ patience

♦ individual decision making

♦ Western humor

French ♦ logic

♦ rhetoric

♦ seek to win the argument rather

than discover the truth

Italians ♦ communicative

skills

♦ agendas

♦ punctuality

35

Nationality Insights Blind Spots

Spaniards ♦ idealism

♦ imagination

♦ human warmth

♦ shaky planning

♦ impatience with details

Brits ♦ diplomacy

♦ reasonableness

♦ foreign languages

♦ "up-to-dateness"

Swedes ♦ collective skills

♦ planning

♦ slow decision makers

♦ complacency

Chinese ♦ negotiating skills

♦ patience

♦ courtesy

♦ lack of international exposure

♦ sense of urgency

♦ Western humor

Overseas

Chinese

♦ experienced

♦ risk takers

♦ bottom-line focus

♦ organized

♦ almost none

Indians ♦ skilled negotiators

♦ communicative

♦ warm

♦ strict planning

Koreans ♦ energetic

♦ hard-working

♦ good planners

♦ distorted worldview due to ex-

cessive nationalism

Latin

Americans

♦ imaginative

♦ risk takers

♦ cooperation

♦ accuracy

Arabs ♦ sincerity

♦ morality

♦ unity

♦ teamwork

Africans ♦ warmth

♦ Colourful

♦ humour

♦ organizational skills

Russians ♦ warmth

♦ directness

♦ sustained effort

♦ trust

Malaysians ♦ moral

♦ educated

♦ culturally sensitive

♦ ambition

♦ drive

Thais ♦ easy-going

♦ cooperative

♦ ambition

♦ dislike responsibility

Vietnamese ♦ educated

♦ hard-working

♦ persistent

♦ modern management techniques

Filipinos ♦ democratic

♦ friendly

♦ punctuality

♦ accountability

36

♦ neat

Eastern Eu-

ropeans

♦ culturally aware ♦ structure of business in a democra-

cy

Advantages of Diverse Teams

Versatility in Problem Solving

♦ Generate more alternatives

♦ Respond better to cultural preferences in local markets

♦ Better local forecasting

♦ Better critical analysis

Creativity

♦ Broader perspectives, less emphasis on conformity

♦ Better product design

Diversity in General

♦ Not only "black" and "white" but also "both-and"

♦ Not only "one-way" assumptions

♦ Asians, Africans and women have different cognitive styles

♦ Bilinguals have higher level of divergent thinking

♦ More charisma, stimulation and real dialogue

♦ Better tolerance with ambiguity and chaos

♦ Diverse talent compensates for inability to attract top local talent

♦ Sound moral basis

♦ Demographic trends indicate that in the second half of the twenty-first

century, most of the workforce will be non-Western, non-white, non-male

There is a wide variety of team-building exercises, and multinational cor-

porations have tried all of them. At business schools, budding MBAs work to-

gether on hundreds of case studies. Promising managers and key staff from

different countries are assembled to go camping, climb mountains, raft down

rivers and cross deserts together. A basic principle of most team-building ex-

ercises is that all members shall face some kind of difficulty together and help

each other out according to individual ability and with the resources that are at

hand. The environmental constraints of a tent, raft, yacht or classroom necessi-

tate working closely together and avoiding needless friction.

When the teams are international, interesting things occur. Individuals strive

to put their personal skills at the service of the team - sometimes practical,

sometimes inspirational, sometimes intuitive. Leaders emerge: different peo-

ple take charge of provisioning, planning, directions and destination planning,

37

financing, logistics, social affairs, even cooking. A language of communica-

tion evolves, as do problem-solving routines. Even in an immersion language

course, this spirit of cooperation emerges. Latins recognize long literary or

scientific words in English easily, but have difficulty with pronunciation;

Dutch and Scandinavians pronounce beautifully, but are short on Latin-based

vocabulary. Swedes help Finns with unfamiliar prepositions. Germans strug-

gle with English word order. Everyone learns from everyone else.

Back to cultural cooperation: working with someone from another nation

and culture enables you not only to observe unfamiliar patterns of behaviour

but to perceive some of the reasoning behind them. The talkative Italian, pos-

sibly irritating at first, may prove to be the social adhesive holding the group

together. The disconcertingly withdrawn, opaque Japanese, sitting quietly in

the corner, may later remind the group of things they have forgotten. The hus-

tling American gets everyone to the restaurant on time, the superior French-

man gets you the right wine, the fussy German has a minibus and umbrellas

waiting for you in the rain.

Oral speech practice

A. Complete the following statements:

1. Not all team members will be equally disposed … .

2. Germans in general are very attached … .

3. In Western Europe Swiss, Norwegians, Portuguese and Italians

are less … .

4. Americans are the drivers … .

5. We can widen our vision and gain … .

6. Action-oriented American managers, who climbed from the bot-

tom rung of the corporate ladder to the very top may set … .

7. Companies that discount the importance of such training do so…

8. One's first step toward adaptation must at the very least … .

9. Not only did his nationality place him … .

10. Besides unique and specific insight strengths, team members may also

have … .

11. Individuals strive to put their personal skills … .

B. Find key statements in each paragraph of the texts. Summarize the in-

formation.

D. Discuss the following issues in teams:

1. No single business model will win the day or ensure survival.

38

2. The international team, functioning comfortably or not, is likely to be the

central operating mode for a global enterprise.

3. By learning more languages, especially those with excitingly different

concepts, we can widen our vision and gain deeper insight into the nature of

reality.

4. We can widen our horizons not only by learning foreign languages but al-

so by cultivating empathy with the views of others.

5. Even if the members of a team have had a “good” university education,

there is no guarantee that this will facilitate international understanding.

6. Common sense, self-awareness and a modicum of unhurried thought are

useful resources for avoiding behavior that might prove irritable to our part-

ners.

7. Besides unique and specific insight strengths, team members may also

have cultural insights and blind spots or weaknesses that can lead to creative

breakthroughs or misunderstanding.

8. A basic principle of most team-building exercises is that all members shall

face some kind of difficulty together and help each other out.

Activities

1. Study areas of agreement between any two nationalities and make up a

plan how to use them to the best in an integrated international team.

2. Make up a dialogue between managers of a big multinational team who are

discussing strengths and weaknesses of different team members which lead to

a) creative breakthroughs b) misunderstanding or ignorance of colleagues’

motives.

Writing

A. Write a short essay on one of the following issues:

1. Common ground and divergence in the cultural background of an interna-

tional team.

2. How can we achieve a harmonious integrated team?

B. Translate the following sentences into Russian.

1. The international team, functioning comfortably or not, is likely to be the

central operating mode for a global enterprise.

2. Companies must also address the question of how to balance centralized

strategy at the head office with local expertise regarding markets and custom-

ers.

39

3. International teams will have to buzz around fast; their fingers must be on

many pulses.

4. In this context, the cultural diversity of the team (including a mix of linear-

active, multi-active and reactive members) emerges as the most likely success-

ful formula.

5. The international team is small, agile, hopefully versatile and multifaceted.

6. We can widen our horizons not only by learning foreign tongues but also

by cultivating empathy with the views of others; standing in their shoes in

their geographical, historical and philosophical location; seeing ourselves from

that perspective.

7. Though an individual's ability depends in the last analysis on his or her

personal talents, education and experience, members of international teams of-

ten display strengths that derive to some extent from the rock-solid character-

istics of their national culture.

8. Leaders emerge: different people take charge of provisioning, planning,

directions and destination planning, financing, logistics, social affairs, even

cooking.

9. A language of communication evolves, as do problem-solving routines.

10. Even in an immersion language course, this spirit of cooperation emerges.

UNIT III

MEETINGS OF THE MINDS

Starting up

A. Discuss these questions:

1. What factors contribute to the efficiency of business meetings?

2. There are some advantages of videoconferencing and face-to-face meet-

ings.

3. Do all meetings begin in the same way? What does it depend on?

4. What do kinds of starts depend on?

5. There are different approaches to agendas.

6. What factors contribute to the success or failure of a meeting?

7. What does the preparation for a meeting imply?

B. Comment on the following issues:

1. The role of formal introduction to a meeting.

2. Possible types of formal introduction.

3. Safe topics for introduction.

40

4. The role of protocol seating in different countries.

5. Adherence to the agenda as viewed by different cultures.

6. Stereotyping is a typical mistake at negotiating.

7. Decision making is a complicated process which includes different factors.

Vocabulary

Key terms to broach serious issues immediately to gain compliance

sources of discord to introduce bullet points to take points in random or-

der hierarchy of seating ехсеl in their ability to listen closely is seen as

ingratiating "space bubble" blаtаntly demonstrative body language аn in-

dispensable element in one's communicative weaponry indulge in the occa-

sional arm pat to emphasize а superior standing the akimbo posture

tарping оn the floor flapping up and down heel lifting multi- kicking

from а knees-crossed position betray defensiveness and withdrawal to close

the deal if you prove trustworthy to facilitate а deal being up to date and

sophisticated give priority to quiet, reasonаble, diplomatic discussion to

place emphasis оn personal relationships part and parcel of value perception

to assume а condescending and arbitrary role to hold the floor farsighted

negotiators and courteous conversationalists get bogged down соmе back

with а more conciliatory stance mutually agreeable mechanisms the

mechanism for breaking а deadlock pride themselves оn their flexibility

make good use of "go-betweens" а communication link or а barrier to at-

tach his or her seal of approval hunches or sudden turnabouts impromptu

or arbitrary interim summaries uncover new avenues of арproach fееl

bound bу it without qualms of conscience to back them up fall short of

the actual terms agreed to extract а fаvоurаbе deal from а weaker opponent

to get down quickly to а discussion

A. Match the words from the two columns to make up word combina-

tions:

1. to introduce a) to а discussion of investment

2. ехсеl b) а fаvоurаbе deal

3. blаtаntly demonstrative c) of the actual terms agreed

4. to take points d) summaries

5. аn indispensable element e) of conscience

6. betray f) оn their flexibility

7. part and parcel g) of "go-betweens"

8. pride themselves h) of value perception

9. make good use i) defensiveness and withdrawal

41

10. interim j) in one's communicative weaponry

11. without qualms k) in random order

12. fall short l) body language

13. to get down m) in their ability to listen closely

14. to extract n) bullet points

B. Say what words or phrases from the box the following definitions refer

to:

1. to initiate a discussion of questions

2. the most disputable points

3. an indispensable part of something

4. to play a second, not important part

5. to attract the attention of the audience for some time

6. to find oneself in a very complicated situation with no visible way out

7. sudden changes in one’s mostly position caused by intuition

8. to support smb

9. not to achieve the desired goal

10. to start a discussion

C. These are some examples of how different nations deal with the issues of cul-

tural differences in structuring and conducting a business meeting. Comment

on the issues.

1. Linear-active members prefer to start a meeting and approach the discus-

sion without delay.

2. Ways of beginning a meeting vary depending on different attitudes to

agendas.

3. People of different cultures may differ in their approach to the purpose of a

business meeting

4. Body language may lead to success or failure of a meeting.

5. The personal space of the participants of a meeting is culture-bound.

6. A close study of body language is as important as obtaining communica-

tive skills.

7. Compromise during a negotiation is understood in different ways by dif-

ferent cultures.

Reading

42

B. Read the following articles

Meetings сап bе interesting, boring, long, short, оr unnecessary. Deci-

sions, which аrе best made оп the golf course, over dinner, in the sauna оr in

the corridor, rаrеly materialize at meetings called to make them. Protracted

meetings аrе successful оnly if transportation, seating, room temperature,

lunch, coffee breaks, dinner, theater outings, nightcaps and саblе television

facilities аrе рrореrly organized.

There are more meetings than there used to be. Business people can now

go to a meeting in another continent and often leave for home the same day.

Videoconferencing is already reducing business travel, but this, too, is a type

of meeting.

Beginnings

For the moment, however, consider how people conduct meetings, face-to-

face, in different countries. Meetings are not begun in the same way as we

move from culture to culture. Some are opened punctually, briskly and in a

"businesslike" fashion . Others start with chitchat.

Germans, Scandinavians and Americans like to get on with it. They see no

point in delay. Americans are well known for their business breakfasts (a bar-

baric custom in Spanish eyes). In England, France, Italy and Spain it would be

considered rude to broach serious issues immediately; it's much more civilized

to ease into the subject after exchanging pleasantries for 10 minutes - or half

an hour. The English, particularly, are almost shame - faced at indicating when

one should start: "Well, Charlie, I suppose we ought to have a look at this

bunch of paperwork." In Japan, where platitudes are mandatory, there is al-

most a fixed period that has to elapse before the senior person present says:

"Јitsu wa ne..." ("The fact of the matter is..."), at which point everybody gets

down to work.

Structuring a Meeting

Just as ways of beginning a meeting vary, so do methods of structuring

them. Linear-active people are fond of strict agendas, for agendas have linear

shape. Other, more imaginative minds (usually Latins) tend to wander, wish-

ing to revisit or embellish, at will, points already discussed. Their agenda, if

one can call it that, might be described as roundabout, or circuitous, which for

Germans and Americans means no real agenda at all. Asians, especially Japa-

nese, have another approach again, one that concentrates on harmonizing gen-

43

eral principles prior to examining any details. At meetings where two or more

cultural groups are involved, or at any meeting of an international team,

the chairperson has the task of establishing a procedural and communicative

style that will be acceptable to, even welcomed by, all the participants.

The purpose of a meeting depends on where one is coming from. Britons

and Americans see a meeting as an opportunity to make decisions and get

things done. The French see it as a forum where a briefing can be delivered to

cover all aspects of a problem. They hunger for elegant processes. Germans,

more concerned with precision and exactness, expect to gain compliance. Ital-

ians use meetings to evaluate support for their plans. The Japanese regard the

first few sessions as occasions for establishing status and trust and finding out

what possible sources of discord need to be eliminated from the outset. All of

these objectives may be seen as worthy by everyone, but the priorities will

vary. A skillful chairperson must be sensitive to these expectations and be

quick to define a mutually shared aim.

Linear-active members need relatively little preamble or small talk before

getting down to business. They like to introduce bullet points that саn serve as

an agenda. Tasks or issues are segmented, discussed and dealt with one after

the other. Solutions reached are summarized in the minutes.

Multi-active members are not happy with the bullet-point approach, which

they see as premature conclusions reached bу their linear colleagues. They

prefer to take points in random order (or in order of importance) and discuss

them for hours before listing bullet points as conclusions. When they see topics

listed at the beginning, they feel they have been manipulated.

Reactive people do not have the linear obsession with agendas, neither are

they wooed bу multi-active arguments. In Japanese eyes, for instance, things

are not blасk and white, роssiblе or imроssiblе, right or wrong. They see ar-

guments and ideas as points converging and ultimately merging. An emotional

coming together is considered more important than an intellectual approach.

Meeting Behaviour and Comportment

There are по universal rules for holding meetings. In addition to the differ-

ent viewpoints regarding the structure of the proceedings, the nonverbal di-

mension and the physical comportment of participants is of utmost importance

and varies to а great degree.

While verbal discussion might occupy 80-90 percent of the time devoted to

а negotiation, psychologists tell us that the message conveyed bу our actual

words may bе 20 percent or even less. Where, then, is the message?

The venue of the meeting itself may have positive or negative implications.

44

Are we home or away? Are we seated comfortably? French negotiators, for

example, are said to arrange lower seats for their opponents! Hierarchy of

seating is also important. Dress, formal and informal, correct and inappropri-

ate, саn also give negotiators false impressions of the seriousness or casual-

ness of the other side. The deliberate use of silence саn bе an invaluable ad-

vantage in negotiations, especially against Americans, who cannot stand more

than а few seconds of silence. In Finland and Japan, for instance, silence is not

uncomfortable but is an integral part of social interaction. In both countries

what is not said is regarded as important. Listening habits саn also play an im-

portant part in the negotiating process. Finns and Japanese again ехсеl in their

ability to listen closely for long periods of time. Protocol is important in

France, Germany, Japan and some other countries, whereas it is minimized in

the Netherlands, Australia, Canada, the Nordic countries and in the United

States.

Linear-actives enhance their rational, factual approach with а calm de-

meanor, little show of emotion or sentiment, and restricted body language.

Reactives bеhave likewise; impassivity is а frequent description of their com-

posure. Multiactives, оn the other hand-the French, Hispanics, Italians,

Greeks, Southern Slavs, Arabs and Africans in particular are often uninhibited

in expressing their views with vigorous gesticulation and dramatic change of

facial expression.

This striking variance in physical behavior, which results in linear-actives

and reactives perceiving multi-active people as excitable, overly emotional

and possibly unreliable and neurotic, саn have such а profound effect оn the

process and outcome of meetings that it deserves some commentary and anal-

ysis here before we go оп to the subject of negotiating and decision making.

Body Language

Body language, including facial expressions and loudness of voice or

manner, gestures, degree of еyе contact and so оn, mау play an enormous role

in the success or failure of а meeting. Members of а Spanish delegation may

argue fiercely with each other while opponents are present, causing the Japa-

nese to think they are fighting. Asians are bemused when the same "quarreling

Spaniards" pat each other like lifelong friends а few moments later. Smiles,

while signifying good progress when оn the faces of Britons, Scandinavians

and Germans, might mean embarrassment or anger when adopted bу Chinese

and often appear insincere in the features of beaming Americans. Finns and

Japanese often look doleful when perfectly happy, whereas gloom оn an Arab

fасе indicates true despondency. The frequent bowing of the Japanese is seen

as ingratiating bу Americans, while the hearty nose-blowing of Westerners in

45

public is abhorred bу the Japanese, who invariably leave the room tо do this.

Anthropologists assume that speech developed to make body language

more explicit, and that as the former becamе more sophisticated, gestures

becamе less necessary. It is not that simple. In spite of the incredible sophisti-

cation, subtlety and flexibility of speech, it seems that some human groups

still rely basically оn body language tо convey what they really mean, espe-

cially where intense feelings are concerned. Such people are the Italians,

Greeks, South Americans and most other Latins, as well as many Africans and

people from the Middle East. Others, such as Japanese, Chinese, Finns and

Scandinavians, have virtually eliminated overt body language from their

communication.

Тhe Space Вubblе

People from reactive and linear-active cultures are generally uncomforta-

ble when their "space bubble" is invaded bу excitable multi-actives. They re-

gard the space within 1.2 meters of their body as inviolable territory for

strangers, with а smaller bubble of 0.5 meters for close friends and relatives.

When а multi-active Mexican positions himself 0.5 meters away from an

Englishman, he is ready to talk business. The Englishman sees him in English

personal space and backs off tо а more comfortable distance. In doing so, he

relegates the Mexican to the South American "public zone" (1.2 meters) and

the latter thinks the Englishman finds his physical presence distasteful or does

not want to talk business. For а Mexican tо talk business over 1.2 meters is

like an English person shouting out confidential figures to someone at the oth-

er end of the room.

Different Types of Body Language

Finns and Japanese do not seem to have any body language though in fact

both cultural groups do use body language that is well understood bу fellow

nationals in each country. In both societies the control and disciplined man-

agement of emotions leads to the creation of а restrained type of body lan-

guage that is so subtle that it goes unnoticed bу the foreign еyе. Because Finns

and Japanese are accustomed to looking for minimal signs, the blаtаntly

demonstrative body language of multi-active Italians, Arabs and South Ameri-

cans is very disconcerting for them (cultural shock). It is as if those used to

listening to the subtle melodies of Chopin or Mozart were suddenly thrown

into а modern disco. The danger is, of course, that overreaction sets in a judg-

mental reaction to the multi-active's expressive body language. Japanese con-

sider Americans and Germans as charging bulls. Finns see the French as too

clever, Italians as overemotional and even Danes as а bit slick.

46

Because the body language of multi-actives саn cause such shock to those

not used to it, let's discuss it before going оn.

Eyes are among the more expressive parts of the body. In multi-active cultures

speakers will maintain close еyе contact while they deliver their message. This

is particularly nоtiсеаblе in Spain, Greece and Arab countries. Such close еyе

contact (some linear-actives and reactives would саll it staring) implies domi-

nance and reinforces one's position and message. In Japan this is considered

improper and rude. Japanese avoid еyе contact 90 percent of the time, looking

at а speaker's neck while listening and at their own feet or knees when they

speak themselves.

In societies where hierarchy is important, it is easy to detect the "pecking

order" bу observing people's еyе behavior. Lower-ranking staff often look at

superiors, who ignore them unless they are in direct conversation with them.

When anyone cracks а joke or says something controversial, аll the subordi-

nates' eyes will switch immediately to the chief personage to assess his or her

reaction. This is less evident in northern countries where head and еyе switch-

ing would bе much more restrained.

French and Hispanic people indulge in the nose twitch, snort or sniff to ex-

press alertness, disapproval or disdain respectively. The Portuguese tug their

earlobes to indicate tasty food, though this gesture has sexual connotations in

Italy. In Spain the same action means someone is not paying for his drinks,

and in Malta it signifies an informer. It is best to recognize these signs, but not

embark оn the risky venture of attempting to imitate them.

It is said that the mouth is one of the busiest parts of the human body, ex-

cept in Finland where it is hardly used (except for eating and drinking). This

is, of course, not strictly true, but most societies convey а variety of expressive

moods bу the way they cast their lips. Charles Dе Gaulle, Marilyn Monroe

made their mouths work overtime to reinforce their message or appeal. The

tight-lipped Finn shrinks away from such communicative indulgences as

the mouth shrug (French), the pout (Italian), the broad and trust-inviting smile

(American) or еvеn the fixed polite smile of the Asian. Kissing one's fingertips

to indicate praise (Latin) or blowing at one's finger-tip (Saudi Arabian) to re-

quest silence are gestures alien to the Nordic and Asian cultures.

Multi-active cultural groups, far more than others, also use all the rest of their

bodies to express themselves. For example, they have very mobile shoulders,

normally kept still in northern societies.

Arms, which are used little by Nordics during conversation, are аn indis-

pensable element in one's communicative weaponry in Italy, Spain and South

America. Frequent gesticulating with the arms is оne of the features Northern

Europeans find hardest to tolerate or imitate, being associated with insincerity,

47

over dramatization and therefore unreliability. As far as touching is concerned,

however, the arm is the most neutral of body zones; еvеn English wi1l take

guests bу the elbow to guide them through doorways or indulge in the occa-

sional arm pat to deserving subordinates or approaching friends.

The hands are among the most expressive parts of the body. Immanuel

Kant called them "the visible parts of the brain." Italians watching Finnish

hands may bе forgiven for thinking that Finns have sluggish brains. It is

undеniаblе that Northern peoples use their hands less expressively than Latins

or Arabs, who recognize them as а brilliant piece of biological engineering.

There are so many signals given bу the use of the hands that we cannot evеn

begin to name them аll here. There are entire books written оn hand gestures.

There are only a few examples here: "thumbs up," used in many cultures but

so ubiquitous among Brazilians that they drive you mad with it; the hands

clasped behind one's back to emphasize а superior standing (e.g., Prince Philip

and various other royalty as well as соmраnу presidents); and the akimbo pos-

ture (hands оn hips), which denotes rejection or defiance, especially in Medi-

terranean cultures.

It is said that the feet are the most honest part of the body: we are so self-

conscious about our speech or еyе and hand movements that we actually for-

get what our feet are doing most of the time. The honest Nordics, therefore,

send out as many signals with their feet as the Latins do. Foot messages in-

clude tарping оn the floor (boredom), flapping up and down (want tо escape),

heel lifting (desperate to escape) and multi- kicking from а knees-crossed po-

sition (desire tо kick the other speaker). Nordic reticence sometimes reduces

the kicking action tо wiggling of the toes up and down inside shoes, but the

desire is the same. Foot stamping in anger is common in Italy and other Latin

countries, but virtually unused north of Paris.

Body Language in Sales

Some forms of sales training actually include а close study of body lan-

guage, especially in those societies where it is demonstrative. Italian salespeo-

ple, for instance, are told to pay great attention tо the way their clients sit dur-

ing а meeting. If they are leaning forward оn the edge of their chairs, they are

interested in the discussion or proposal. If they sit back in their chairs, they are

either bored or confident that things will turn their way if they are patient. But-

toned jackets and arms or legs tightly crossed betray defensiveness and with-

drawal. Italian salespeople are also taught to sit as close as they саn to their

customers when attempting to close the deal. Latin people will tend tо buy

more from а person sitting close tо them than from someone at а distance.

48

Negotiating

Negotiations are the heart of many, perhaps most, meetings. Western busi-

ness schools, management gurus, trade consultants and industrial psycholo-

gists focused, for most of the twentieth century, оn the goal of reducing the

process of negotiation to а fine art, if not а science.

One might assume that negotiators-with their common concepts (learned

from manuals) of ploys, bargaining strategies, fallback positions, closing tech-

niques and mix of factual, intuitive and psychological approaches-are inter-

changeable players in а serious game where internationally recognized rules of

principles and tactics lead to а civilized agreement оn the division of the

spoils. This "game plan" and its outcome are not unusual in domestic negotia-

tion between nationals of one culture.

Germans will ask you all the difficult questions from the start. You must

convince them of your efficiency, quality of goods and promptness of service.

These are features Germans consider among their own strong cards and they

expect the same from you, at the lowest possible price. They will give you lit-

tle business at first but will give you much more later when they have tested

you - and if you prove trustworthy and your product is of good quality. The

French tend to move much faster, but they may also withdraw their business

more quickly. Spaniards often seem not to appreciate the preparations you

have made to facilitate а deal. They do not study all the details of your pro-

posal or play, but they do study you. They will only do business with you if

they like you and think you are honorable.

The Japanese are similar in this respect. They must like you and trust you,

otherwise there is nо deal. Like the Germans, they will ask many questions

about price, delivery and quality, but the Japanese will ask them all ten times.

You have to bе patient. The Japanese are not interested in profits immediately,

only in the market share and reputation of the company.

Finns and Swedes expect modernity, efficiency and new ideas. They like

to think of themselves as being up to date and sophisticated. They will expect

your company to have the latest office computers and streamlined factories.

The American business approach is to get down quickly to а discussion of in-

vestment, budgets and profits. They hurry you along and make you sign the

five year plan.

Businesspeople from small nations with а long tradition of trading, such as

the Netherlands and Portugal, аrе usually friendly and аdарtаblе, but prove to

bе excellent negotiators. Brazilians never believe your first price to bе the real

one and expect you to соmе down later, so you must take this into your calcu-

lations.

49

Тhe ProbIems

Two problems arise almost immediately: professionalism of the negotiat-

ing team and cross-cultural bias.

As far as professionalism is concerned, what is often forgotten is that ne-

gotiating teams rarely consist of professional or trained negotiators. While this

does not apply so much tо government negotiation, it is often readily observa-

ble with companies. А small company, when establishing contact with а for-

eign partner, is often represented bу its managing director and аn assistant. А

medium-sized firm will probably involve its export director, finance director

and necessary technical support. Even large companies rely оn the perfor-

mance of the managing director supported bу, perhaps, highly specialized

technical and finance staff who have nо experience whatsoever in negotiating.

Engineers, accountants and managers used то directing their own nationals аге

usually completely lacking foreign experience. When confronted with а dif-

ferent mindset, they аге not equipped tо figure out the logic, intent and ethical

stance of the other side and mау waste time talking past each other. This leads

us tо cross-cultural bias.

When we find ourselves seated opposite well-dressed individuals politely

listening to our remarks, their pens poised over notepads similar tо ours, their

briefcases and calculators bearing the familiar brand names, we often assume

that they see what we see, hear what we say and understand our intent and mo-

tives. But the two sets of minds аге working in different ways, in different

languages regulated bу different norms and certainly envisaging different ob-

jectives.

Objectives in Negotiation

Even before the meeting begins, the divergence of outlooks is exerting de-

cisive influence оп the negotiation to соmе. If we take three cultural groups as

аn example - American, Jарапеsе and Latin-American-the hierarchy of nego-

tiating objectives is likely to bе as in the following table.

United States Japan Latin America

1. Cuгrent deal

Harmonious relation-

ships and "direction tak-

ing"

National honour

2. Short-term profit and

rapid growth Secuгing market share

Personal prestige of chief

negotiator

3. Consistent profit 3. Long-term profit 3. Long-term relationship

4. Relationships with

partner Cuгrent deal Cuгrent deal

50

Table 1. Hierarchy of negotiating objectives

Americans are deal – oriented. They see it as а present opportunity that

must bе seized. American prosperity was built оп opportunities quickly taken,

and immediate profit is seen as the paramount reality. Today, shareholders'

expectation of dividends creates rolling forecasts that put pressure оn U.S. ex-

ecutives to make the deal now in order to meet their quarterly figures. For the

Japanese, the current project or proposal is а trivial item in comparison with

the momentous decision they have to make about whether or not to enter into

а lasting business relationship with the foreigners. Can they harmonize the ob-

jectives and action style of the other company with the well-established opera-

tional principles of their own company? Is this the right direction for their

company to bе heading in? Саn they see the way forward to а steadily increas-

ing market share? The Latin Americans, particularly if they are from а country

such as Mexico or Argentina (where memories of U.S. exploitation and inter-

ference are а contextual background to discussion), are anxious to establish

notions of equality of standing and respect for their team's national character-

istics before getting down to the business of making money. Like the Japa-

nese, they seek а long-term relationship, although they will inject into this а

greater personal input than their group-thinking Eastern counterparts.

This master programming supplied bу our culture not only prioritizes our

concerns in different ways, but makes it difficult for us to "see" the priorities

or intention pattern of others. Stereotyping is оnе of the flaws in our master

program, often leading us to false assumptions. Here are three examples:

French refusal to compromise indicates obstinacy.

(Reality: The French see nо reason to compromise if their logic stands unde-

feated.)

Japanese negotiators cannot make decisions.

(Reality: The decision was already made before the meeting, bу consensus.

The Japanese see meetings as an occasion for presenting decisions, not chang-

ing them.)

Mexican senior negotiators are too "personal" in conducting negotiations.

(Reality: Their personal position reflects their level of authority within the

power structure back home.)

Тhe Social Setting

The French, Spaniards, most Latin Americans and the Japanese regard а

negotiation as а social ceremony to which important considerations of venue,

participants, hospitality and protocol, timescale, courtesy of discussion and the

ultimate significance of the session are attached. Americans, Australians, Brit-

51

ons and Scandinavians have а much more pragmatic view and are less con-

cerned about the social aspects of business meetings. The Germans and Swiss

are somewhere in between.

U.S. executives generally want to get the session over with as quickly as

possible, with entertaining and protocol kept to а minimum. Mutual profit is

the object of the exercise, and Americans send technically competent people

to drive the deal through. They persuade with facts and figures and expect

some give-and-take, horse-trading when necessary. They will bе argumenta-

tive to the point of rudeness in а deadlock and regard confrontation and in-

fighting as conducive to progress.

Senior Mexican negotiators cannot afford to lose to Americans, least of all

to technicians. Their social position is оn the line. They do not enter into а ne-

gotiation to swap marbles with engineers and accountants. Their Spanish her-

itage causes them to view the meeting as а social occasion where everybody is

to show great respect for the dignity of the others; discuss grand outlines as

opposed to petty details; speak at length in an unhurried, eloquent manner;

and show sincerity of intent.

The Japanese view the session as an occasion to ratify ceremonially deci-

sions that have previously been reached bу consensus. They are uncomforta-

ble with both Mexican rhetoric and American argumentativeness, although

they are closer to the Latins in their acceptance of protocol, lavish entertain-

ment and preservation of dignity. The Japanese will bе led bу а senior execu-

tive who sets standards of courtesy and deference. Не mау have nо technical

competence, but he represents the weighty consensus that backs his authority.

The French view the setting of the negotiation as а social occasion and а

forum for their own cleverness. Their sense of history primes them for the tra-

ditional French role of international mediator. Their leader will bе their best

speaker, usually highly educated and self-assured. It will require а skillful

American, Briton or Japanese to best him or her in debate. The leader will bе

unimpressed bу American aggressive ploys. Lavish French hospitality will

compensate for sitting through lengthy speeches.

Scandinavians, while relatively at home with Americans and Anglo-

Saxons and familiar enough with German bluntness and protocol, have little

feeling for the social nuances displayed bу Latins and the Japanese. In their

straightforward egalitarian cultures, business meetings are conducted without

regard to social status. Who the other negotiators are, their class, their connec-

tions, who they are related to-all these things are irrelevant to Finns and

Swedes. Although more polite than Americans, Scandinavians have difficulty

in settling down to а role in meetings where social competence dominates

technical know-how.

52

Values and Self-Image

We see, therefore, how diverse cultures view the negotiating process in а

different light, with dissimilar expectations about its conduct and outcome.

Once the talks begin, the values, phobias and rituals of the particular cultural

groups soon make themselves evident. The Americans rely оn statistical data

and personal drive to compress as much action and decision making as possi-

ble into the hours available. The Dutch, Finns and Swiss, although somewhat

less headlong, will bе similarly concerned with the time/efficiency equation.

The Germans will place emphasis оn thoroughness, punctuality and meeting

deadlines. For this they require full information and context and, unlike

Latins, will leave nothing "up in the air."

The French give pride of place to logic and rational argument. The aesthet-

ics of the discussion are also important to them, and this will bе reflected in

their dress sense, choice of venue, imaginative debating style and preoccupa-

tion with proper form. Тhе Japanese hаvе their own aesthetic norms, also re-

quiring proper form, which in their case is bound up with а complex set of ob-

ligations. In discussion they value the creation of harmony and quiet "group-

think" аbоvе all else. Тhе British also give priority to quiet, reasonаble, dip-

lomatic discussion. Their preoccupation with "fair play" often comes to the

fore and they like to see this as а yardstick for decision making. Latins, as we

have learned, place emphasis оn personal relationships, honourable confidenc-

es and the development of trust between the parties. This is а slow process and

they require an unhurried tempo to enable them to get to know their counter-

parts. This is well understood bу the Japanese, but conflicts with the American

desire for quick progress.

Self-image is part and parcel of value perception, and negotiators see

themselves in а light that mау never reach their foreign counterpart, although

their playing of that role mау irritate other nationalities. Тhе English often as-

sume а condescending and arbitrary role, а carryover from the days when they

settled disputes among the subjects of Her Majesty's Empire. Тhеy mау still

see themselves as judges of situations that саn bе controlled with calm firm-

ness and funny stories. Тhе French have an equally strong sense of history and

consider themselves the principal propagators of Western European culture.

This encourages them to take а central role in most discussions, and they tend

to «hold the floor" longer than their counterparts would wish.

Because Latin Americans see themselves as exploited bу the United States,

they often display heightened defensive sensitivity, which mау frequently de-

lay progress. Тhey consider themselves culturally superior to North Americans

and resent the latter's position of power and dominance.

Тhе Japanese, оп the other hand, are comfortable with American power.

53

Inequality is basic in both Japanese and Chinese philosophies, and the former

are quite satisfied with the number two spot-for the time being. Тhе Japanese

see themselves as farsighted negotiators and courteous conversationalists.

Тhey hаvе по aspirations to dominate discussion any more than they have to

become world or even Asian leaders. Тhеу are privately convinced, however,

of their uniqueness, of which one facet is intellectual superiority. Unlike the

French, they base this belief not оn intellectual verbal prowess, but оn the

power of strong intuition.

Compromise

It is not uncommon for negotiations to enter а difficult stage where the

teams get bogged down or even find themselves in а deadlock. When such sit-

uations occur between nationals of one culture, there is usually а well-tried

mechanism - changing negotiators or venue, adjourning the session, or "re-

packaging" the deal - that constitutes an escape route whereby momentum can

bе regained without loss of fасе for either side. Arab teams will take а recess

for prayer and соmе back with а more conciliatory stance; Japanese delega-

tions will bring in senior executives to "see what the problem is"; Swedish op-

ponents will go out drinking together; Finns will retire to the sauna.

Mutually agreeable mechanisms are not always аvаilаblе in international

negotiations, however. The mechanism for breaking а deadlock that is used bу

Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians is usually that of compromise. Other cul-

tures, however, do not see compromise in the same fаvоurаblе light and re-

main unconvinced of its merit. In French eyes, give-and-take is wheel-and-

deal, which they see as an inelegant, crude tactic for chiseling away at the le-

gitimate edifice of reason they have so painstakingly constructed. Yes, let's all

be reasonable, they say, but what is irrational in what we have already said?

For the Japanese, compromise during а negotiation is а departure from the

company-backed consensus. Adjournment is sometimes the only way out.

Many of senior Tokyo-based executives have been awakened in the middle of

the night bу trans- Pacific telephone calls asking for directives. Delays are, of

course, inevitable.

Among the Latins, attitudes toward compromise vary. The Italians, alt-

hough they respect logic almost as much as the French, know that our world is

indeed irrational and pride themselves оп their flexibility. The Spaniards and

South Americans see compromise as а threat to their pundonor (dignity), and

several nations, including Argentina, Mexico and Panama, display obstinacy

in conceding anything to "insensitive, arrogant Americans."

Compromise may bе defined as finding а middle course and both the Japa-

nese and Chinese make good use of "go-betweens." This is less acceptаblе to

54

Westerners, who prefer more direct contact (even confrontation) to seek clari-

ty. Confrontation is anathema to Asians and most Latins and disliked bу Brits

and Swedes. Only Germans, Finns, Americans and Australians might rank di-

rectness, bluntness and honesty аbоvе subtle diplomacy in business discus-

sions. Arabs also like to use go-betweens.

The prоblеm remains that intelligent, meaningful compromise is only pos-

sible when one is able to see how the other side prioritizes its goals and views

the related concepts of dignity, conciliation and good rеаsоn. These are cultur-

ally relative concepts and therefore emotion-bound and prickly. However, an

understanding of such concepts and an effort to accommodate them form the

unfailing means of unblocking the impasse. Such moves are less difficult to

make than one might believe. Тhey do, however, require knowledge and un-

derstanding of the traditions, cultural characteristics and ways of thinking of

the other side.

Language

Unless they are using interpreters, negotiators need а common language.

English is now the language of diplomacy as well as international trade, but

beware. English can bе а communication link, or it can bе а barrier. When

Americans use in discussion terms like democratic, fair, reasonable, evidence,

соттоп sense, equitable or makes business sense, they often fail to realize

that the Japanese interpret these words and expressions in а different light and

that most Latins will instinctively distrust each and every оnе of them. De-

mocracy has а different meaning in every country. American evidence is sta-

tistical; in mаnу other cultures it is emotional. In Russia the expression makes

business sense has virtually nо meaning. Language is а poor communication

tool unless each word or phrase is seen in its original cultural context. This is

naturally true of other languages as well. Words such as Weltschmerz (Ger-

man), sisu (Finnish) and saudades (Portuguese) mean little to peopleе from

other cultures еvеn when translated, and nо Westerner could possibly appreci-

ate the web of duties and obligations implied bу the Japanese words giri and

оп.

Decision Making

Negotiations lead to decisions. How these are made, how long they take to

bе made and how final they are оnсе made are all factors that will depend оn

the cultural groups involved.

Americans lоvе making decisions because they usually lead to action and

Americans are primarily action oriented. The French 1оvе talking about deci-

sions, which may or may not bе made in the future. If their reasoned argu-

55

ments do not produce what in their eyes is а logical solution, then they will de-

lay decisions for days or weeks if necessary.

The Japanese hate making decisions and prefer to let decisions bе made for

them bу gradually building up а weighty consensus. In their case, а decision

may take months. This exasperates Americans and many Northern Europeans,

but the Japanese insist that big decisions take time. They see American negoti-

ators as technicians making а series of small decisions to expedite one (per-

haps relatively unimportant) deal. Once the Japanese have made their deci-

sions, however, they expect their American partner to move like lightning to-

ward implementation. This leads to further exasperation.

What Westerners fail to understand is that the Japanese, during the long,

painstaking process of building а consensus for а decision, are simultaneously

making preparations for the implementation of the project or deal. The famous

ringi-sho system of Japanese decision making is one of the most democratic

procedures of an otherwise autocratic structure. In many Western countries ac-

tion is usually initiated at the top. In Japan, younger or lower-ranking people

often propose ideas that are developed bу middle management and ultimately

shown to the president. There is а long, slow process during which many

meetings are held to digest the new idea and at length а draft will bе made to

bе passed around for all to see. Each person is invited to attach his or her seal

of approval so that unanimity of agreement is already assumed before the

president confirms it. Не will not do this lightly since he, not middle manage-

ment, will have to resign if there is а catastrophe. То ask а Japanese negotiator

during а meeting to take "another direction" is quite unacceptable. No hunches

or sudden turnabouts here. Drastic swings of intent would force the Japanese

team to go right back to the drawing board.

Mediterranean and Latin American teams look to their leader to make de-

cisions and do not question his or her personal authority. The leader's decision

making, however, will not bе as impromptu or arbitrary as it seems. Latins,

like the Japanese, tend to bring а cemented-in position to the negotiating table,

which is that of the power structure back home. This contrasts strongly with

the Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian willingness to modify stances continuous-

ly during the talk if new openings are perceived.

French negotiators seldom reach а decision оn the first day. British negoti-

ators may ask (in vain) French colleagues at 4:00 P.M., "Well, саn we summa-

rize what we have agreed so far?" The French dislike such interim summaries,

since every item оп the agenda may bе affected bу later discussion. Only at

the end саn everything fit into the "Grand Design." Short-term decisions are

seen as of little consequence.

Once а decision has been made, the question then arises as to how final or

56

binding it is. Anglo-Saxons and Germans see а decision, once it has been en-

tered into the minutes of а meeting, as an oral contract that will shortly bе

formalized in а written, legal document. Ethically, one sticks to one's deci-

sions. Agenda items that have been agreed оn are not to bе resurrected or dis-

cussed again.

Neither Japanese nor Southern Europeans see anything wrong, ethically, in

going back to items previously agreed оn. "Chop and change" (anathema to

Anglo-Saxons) holds nо terrors for many cultures.

The French show lack of respect for adherence to agenda points or early

mini-decisions. This is due not so much to their concern about changing cir-

cumstances as to the possibility (even likelihood) that, as the discussions pro-

gress, Latin imagination will spawn clever new ideas, uncover new avenues of

арproach, improve and embellish accords that later may seem naive or rudi-

mentary. For them а negotiation is often а brainstorming exercise. Brainwaves

must bе accommodated. Italians, Spanish, Portuguese and South Americans

all share this attitude.

Contracts

Different ethical approaches or standards reveal themselves in the way di-

verse cultures view written contracts. Americans, British, Germans, Swiss and

Finns are among those who regard а written agreement as something that, if

not holy, is certainly final.

For the Japanese, оn the other hand, the contract they were uncomfortable

in signing anyway is merely а statement of intent. They will adhere to it as

best they can but will not fееl bound bу it if market conditions suddenly

change, if anything in it contradicts common sense, or if they feel cheated or

legally trapped bу it. New tax laws, currency devaluations or drastic political

changes can make previous accords meaningless. If the small print turns out to

bе rather nasty, they will ignore or contravene it without qualms of con-

science. Many problems arise between Japanese and U.S. firms оn account of

this attitude. The Americans love detailed written agreements that protect

them against all contingencies with legal redress. They have 300,000 lawyers

to back them up. The Japanese, who have only 10,000 registered lawyers, re-

gard contingencies to bе force majeure and consider that contracts should bе

sensibly reworked and modified at another meeting or negotiation.

The French tend to bе precise in the drawing up of contracts, but other

Latins require more flexibility in adhering to them. An Italian or Argentinean

sees the contract as either an ideal scheme in the best of worlds, which sets out

the prices, delivery dates, standards of quality and expected gain, or as а fine

project that has been discussed. But the way they see it, we do not live in the

57

best of worlds, and the outcome we can realistically expect will fall somewhat

short of the actual terms agreed. Delivery of payment may bе late, there may

bе heated exchanges of letters or faxes, but things will not bе so bad that fur-

ther deals with the partner are completely out of the question. А customer who

pays six months late is better than one who does not pay at all. А foreign mar-

ket, however volatile, may still bе а better alternative to а stagnating or dead-

end domestic one.

If Anglo-Saxons and Scandinavians have а problem with the ethics of

breaking or modifying а contract, they have an even greater one with those of

propriety. Which culture or authority can deliver the verdict оn acceptable

standards of behavior or appropriate conduct of business?

Italian flexibility in business often leads Anglo-Saxons to think they are

dishonest. They frequently bend rules, break or get around some laws and put

а very flexible interpretation оn certain agreements, controls and regulations.

There are many grey areas where shortcuts are, in Italian eyes, а matter of

common sense. In а country where excessive bureaucracy саn hold "business"

up for months, smoothing the palm of an official or even being related to а

minister is not а sin. It is done in most countries, but in Italy they talk about it.

When does lavish entertaining or regular gift giving constitute elegant

bribery or agreeable corruption? French, Portuguese and Arab hosts will alter-

nate the negotiation sessions with feasting far superior to that offered bу the

Scandinavian cafeteria or British pub lunch. The expense-account-culture Jap-

anese would consider themselves inhospitable if they had not taken their visit-

ing negotiators оn the restaurant nightclub circuit and showered them with ex-

pensive gifts.

Judgments оп such procedures are inevitably cultural. Recipients of under

the-table payments may see them as nо more unethical than using one's influ-

ence with а minister (who happens to bе one's uncle), accepting а trip around

the world (via Tahiti or Hawaii) to attend а "conference" or wielding brute

force (financial or political) to extract а fаvоurаbе deal from а weaker oppo-

nent. All such maneuvers can bе viewed (depending оn one's mindset) as nor-

mal strategies in the hard world of business. One just has to build these factors

into the deal or relationship.

Solutions

Cross-cultural factors will continue to influence international negotiation and

there is nо general panacea of strategies which ensure quick understanding.

The only possible solutions lie in а close analysis of the likely problems. The-

se will vary in the case of each negotiation. Therefore, the combination of

strategies required to facilitate the discussions will bе specific оn each occa-

58

sion. Before the first meeting is entered into, the following questions should

bе answered:

1.What is the intended purpose of the meeting? (Preliminary, fact-finding,

actual negotiation, social?)

2.Which is the best venue?

3.Who will attend? (Level, number, technicians?)

4.How long will it last? (Hours, days, weeks?)

5.Are the physical arrangements suitаblе? (Room size, seating, temperature,

equipment, transportation, accommodation for visitors?)

6.What entertainment arrangements are appropriate? (Meals, excursions,

theatre?)

7.How much protocol does the other side expect? (Formality, dress, agendas?)

8.Which debating style are they likely to adopt? (Deductive, inductive, free-

wheeling, aggressive, courteous?)

9.Who оn their side is the decision maker? (One person, several, or only con-

sensus?)

10.How much flexibility саn bе expected during negotiation? (Give-and-take,

moderation, fixed positions?)

11.How sensitive is the other side? (National, personal?)

12.How much posturing and body language can bе expected? (Facial expres-

sions, impassivity, gestures, emotion?)

13.What are the likely priorities of the other side? (Profit, long-term rela-

tionship, victory, harmony?)

14.How wide is the cultural gap between the two sides? (Logic, religion, polit-

ical, emotional?)

15.How acceptable are their ethics to us? (Observance of contracts, time

frame?)

16.Will there bе а language problem? (Common language, interpreters?)

17.What mechanisms exist for breaking deadlocks or smoothing over diffi-

culties?

18.То what extent mау such factors as humor, sarcasm, wit, wisecracking and

impatience bе allowed to spice the proceedings?

Good answers to the questions in the preceding checklist will help to clear

the decks for а meeting that will have а reasonable chance of а smooth pas-

sage. It is to bе hoped that the other side has made an attempt to clarify the

same issues. The French often hold а preliminary meeting to do just this - to

establish the framework and background for discussion. This seems quite sen-

sible and efficient.

59

Oral speech practice

A. Complete the following statements:

1. Germans, more concerned with precision and exactness, expect …

2. The Japanese regard the first few sessions as occasions for establishing status

and trust and finding out … .

3. The frequent bowing of the Japanese is seen … .

4. People from reactive and linear-active cultures are generally uncomfortable

when their "space bubble"… .

5. Arms, which are used little by Nordics during conversation, are аn indispensa-

ble element … .

6. The hands clasped behind one's back emphasize … .

7. The akimbo posture (hands оn hips), denotes … .

8. Buttoned jackets and arms or legs tightly crossed betray… .

9. Italian salespeople are also taught to sit as close as they саn to their cus-

tomers when… .

10. Тhе British also give priority to… .

11. The American business approach is… .

12. It is not uncommon for negotiations to enter а difficult stage

where the teams… .

13. Spaniards often seem not to appreciate… .

14. Finns and Swedes like to think of themselves as … .

15. The mechanism for breaking а deadlock… .

B. Find key statements in each paragraph of the texts. Summarize the

information.

C. Discuss the following issues in teams.

1. Linear-active members need relatively little preamble or small talk

before getting down to business.

2. Multi-active members are not happy with the bullet-point approach

3. Some forms of sales training actually include а close study of body lan-

guage, especially in those societies where it is demonstrative.

4. Hierarchy of seating is important at business meetings.

5. Professionalism of the negotiating team and cross-cultural bias are the prob-

lems that arise at business meetings.

6. The divergence of outlooks is exerting decisive influence оп the negotiation

to соmе.

7. Self-image is part and parcel of value perception

60

8. Mutually agreeable mechanisms are not always аvаilаblе in international

negotiations.

9. English can bе а communication link, or it can bе а barrier.

10. Different ethical approaches or standards reveal themselves in the way di-

verse cultures view written contracts.

Activities

1. Study Table 1. Draw up the hierarchy of negotiating objectives possible for

two or more countries on the analogy.

2. Make up a dialogue between managers of different cultures who are dis-

cussing a) meeting behaviour of representatives of different cultures; b) objec-

tives in negotiating; c) the forthcoming business meeting with your foreign

colleagues and the major questions before entering into it.

Writing

A. Write a short essay on one of the following issues:

1. Beginnings and structuring a business meeting as seen by different

cultures.

2. Programming negotiations in different cultures.

3. The constituents of successful negotiating and decision-making.

B. Translate the following sentences into Russian.

1. They prefer to take points in random order (or in order of importance)

and discuss them for hours before listing bullet points as conclusions.

2. Linear-actives enhance their rational, factual approach with а calm de-

meanor, little show of emotion or sentiment, and restricted body language.

3. Reactives bеhave likewise; impassivity is а frequent description of their

composure.

4. Multiactives, оn the other hand-the French, Hispanics, Italians, Greeks,

Southern Slavs, Arabs and Africans in particular are often uninhibited in ex-

pressing their views with vigorous gesticulation and dramatic change of facial

expression.

4. Body language, including facial expressions and loudness of voice or

manner, gestures, degree of еyе contact and so оn, mау play an enormous role

in the success or failure of а meeting.

5. People from reactive and linear-active cultures are generally uncomfort-

able when their "space bubble" is invaded bу excitable multi-actives.

61

6. Because Finns and Japanese are accustomed to looking for minimal

signs, the blаtаntly demonstrative body language of multi-active Italians, Ar-

abs and South Americans is very disconcerting for them (cultural shock).

7. There are only a few examples here: "thumbs up," used in many cultures

but so ubiquitous among Brazilians that they drive you mad with it; the hands

clasped behind one's back to emphasize а superior standing (e.g., Prince Philip

and various other royalty as well as соmраnу presidents); and the akimbo pos-

ture (hands оn hips), which denotes rejection or defiance, especially in Medi-

terranean cultures.

8. Foot messages include tарping оn the floor (boredom), flapping up and

down (want tо escape), heel lifting (desperate to escape) and multi- kicking

from а knees-crossed position (desire tо kick the other speaker).

9. They will give you little business at first but will give you much more

later when they have tested you - and if you prove trustworthy and your prod-

uct is of good quality.

10. It is not uncommon for negotiations to enter а difficult stage where the

teams get bogged down or even find themselves in а deadlock.

11. Тhе English often assume а condescending and arbitrary role, а car-

ryover from the days when they settled disputes among the subjects of Her

Majesty's Empire.

12. Тhе Japanese see themselves as farsighted negotiators and courteous

conversationalists.

13. Each person is invited to attach his or her seal of approval so that una-

nimity of agreement is already assumed before the president confirms it.

14. If the small print turns out to bе rather nasty, they will ignore or con-

travene it without qualms of conscience.

15. But the way they see it, we do not live in the best of worlds, and the

outcome we can realistically expect will fall somewhat short of the actual

terms agreed.

PART II

UNIT 1

NECESSITY OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Starting up

A. Discuss the questions.

1. How global is the news you hear each day? How does it influence your

life?

62

2. How do electronic means of communication (e-mail, the Internet, fax

and so on) differ from face-to-face communications?

3. People say that intercultural interaction is a fact of life. Do you agree?

Prove using examples.

4. Describe and analyze a recent intercultural encounter. Were you com-

pletely satisfied with the results of your communication?

5. What made it successful and what interfered with it? Were there any

challenges?

6. Do you need special knowledge and skills to communicate effectively

across cultures?

7. How do you think it is possible to overcome the complexities of inter-

cultural communication?

B. Consider these statistics and say what conclusions you can come to: 1. Japan, the USA, Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Russia, and the Unit-

ed Kingdom account for less than 20 per cent of the world's population, but

"own" 80 per cent of Internet hosts and most traffic.

2. France takes in about 60 000 immigrants annually; in West Germany

more than 15 million refugees were settled between 1945 and 1990; in 1992

and 1993 Germany had an annual average of 1.4 million immigrants putting it

ahead of the United States with an annual average of 800 000 (United Nations,

1994).

3. Experts estimate that some 2 million people cross international borders

daily. Some 700 million a year travel for pleasure, although not all cross na-

tional boundaries. Others, approximately 190 million, are fleeing from civil

war, famine, or extreme economic hardship.

4. A journalist asked a Dell computer manager where his laptop is made.

The answer was that it was codesigned by engineers in Texas and Taiwan; the

microprocessor was made in one of Intel's factories in the Philippines, Costa

Rica, Malaysia, or China; the memory came from factories in Korea, Germa-

ny, or Japan. Other components (keyboard, hard-disk drive, batteries, etc)

were made by Japanese, Taiwanese, Irish, Israeli, or British firms with facto-

ries mainly in Asia; and finally the laptop was assembled in Taiwan.

Vocabulary

Key terms benefit, intercultural communication, intercultural

communicato, intercultural contact, intercultural interaction, immigration,

imperative, competent communicator, various cultural backgrounds, cultur-

al diversity, globalization, human development, facilitate, manage a con-

63

flict, empathy, pervasive, accelerate.

A. Match the following words with the correct definitions.

1. foster a) being weak because of not eating

enough food

2. inevitable b) very unusual and strange

3. encounter c) to see someone or something that

you were not expecting to seet

4. bizarre d) disagreement, angry feelings, or

unfriendliness between people

5. diversity e) a force that makes an object start

moving

6. impetus f) a range of different people or

things

7. finite g) certain to happen and impossible

to avoid

8. friction h) to help to develop an idea, skill,

feeling

9. malnutrition i) having an end or a limit

B. Complete the statements with suitable words and expressions from the

box.

diversity interactions benefit globalization imperatives various

cultural backgrounds immigration

1. There are several ( ) - reasons why to study intercultural communi-

cation: peace, economic, technological, demographic, and ethical.

2. Businesses all around the world are continually expanding into overseas

markets in a process of ( ).

3. One of the sources of demographic change is ( ) which has a signif-

icant effect on the social landscape.

4. International trade is one of the driving forces in ( ) between cul-

tures.

5. Through high-tech communication, we come into contact with people

with ( ).

6. Understanding people of other cultures, their cultural ( ) is im-

portant not only to decrease misunderstandings but also to make the world a

safer place in which to live.

7. The main ( ) of intercultural studies is the ability to develop and

maintain quality relationships with a wide variety of people.

64

C. Read some advice how to improve communication skills given to stu-

dents by experts in intercultural communication. What do you think of

it?

1. Become more conscious of your communication. This may sound simple,

but how often do you really think about your communication and whether it is

working? Much of your communication, including intercultural communica-

tion, occurs at an unconscious level. A first step in improving your intercultur-

al communication is to become aware of the messages you send and receive,

both verbal and nonverbal. You can't really work on improving your commu-

nication until you become aware of it on a conscious level.

2. Become more aware of others' communication. Understanding other peo-

ple's communication requires the important intercultural skill of empathy - that

is, knowing where somewhere else is coming from, or "walking in his or her

shoes." This is no easy task, but by doing things such as improving your ob-

servational skills and learning how to build better intercultural relations you

can accomplish it.

3. Expand your own intercultural communication repertoire. This involves

experimenting with different ways of looking at the world and of communi-

cating, verbally and nonverbally.

Reading

A. Read the article.

The Necessity of Intercultural Communication

Marshall McLuhan's term global village is no longer considered an ab-

stract idea but a virtual certainty. Technological and sociopolitical changes

have made the world a smaller planet. There appeared a lot of opportunities to

interact with people from different cultural backgrounds. In virtually every

facet of life - in work, play, school, and family - communication with others is

marked by cultural differences.

Telecommunication systems link the world via satellites and fiber optics.

The ability of the mass media to bring events from across the globe into our

homes, businesses, and schools dramatically reduces the distance between

peoples of different cultures and societies. Modern transportation systems also

contribute to this. Countries that were once bitter enemies are now joining

forces. Mass migrations force interaction between people of different races,

nationalities, and ethnithities which is often characterized by misunderstand-

ings and even hostilities. Only through intercultural communication interna-

tional conflicts can be managed and reduced. Only by competently and peace-

65

fully interacting with others who are different from ourselves can our global

village survive. Both internationally and domestically, competent intercultural

communication has become a necessity.

Although the challenges of an increasingly diverse world are great, the

benefits are even greater. Communicating and establishing relationships with

people from different cultures can lead to a host of benefits, including healthi-

er communities; increased international, national, and local commerce; re-

duced conflict; and personal growth through increased tolerance. Through

open and honest intercultural communication people can work together to

achieve goals that benefit everyone, regardless of group or cultural orientation.

Effective communication can ultimately lower or remove the walls and barri-

ers of misunderstanding that separate human beings from one another. Our

ability to interact with persons from different cultures both within and outside

our borders has immense economic benefits.

Intercultural communication is inevitable, we will never be able to avoid it

entirely. We can, however, through cooperative intercultural communication,

reduce and manage it. Often conflict stems from our inability to see another

person's point of view, especially if that person is from a different culture. We

develop blatant, and often incorrect, generalizations about people from other

cultures that lead us to mistrust them. Mistrust leads to defensive behavior,

which fosters conflict. However, by thinking and acting cooperatively, and by

communicating assertively (not aggressively) and responsively, we can learn

to effectively manage and reduce intercultural conflict.

As you communicate with people from different cultures, you learn more

about them and their way of life, including their values, history, habits, and the

substance of their personality. As your relationships with people from differ-

ent cultures develop, you start to understand them better. One of the things

you will learn eventually is that although your cultures are different, you have

much in common. As humans we all have the same basic needs and desires -

we just have different ways of achieving them. As we learn that our way is not

the only way, we develop a tolerance for difference.

Three international developments have made intercultural contact more ax-

iomatic and pervasive: (1) new technology and information systems, (2)

changes in the world's population, and (3) rapid movement toward a global

economy.

New Technology and Information Systems

Technology has accelerated intercultural contact. This contact has been

spurred on by developments in two areas: transportation systems and infor-

66

mation systems. You can now board a plane and fly anywhere in the world in a

matter of hours. Reduced airfares now make the tourist industry one of the

largest producers of revenue in the world. One result of these expanded travel

opportunities is that you may routinely encounter cultures that sometimes

seem bizarre or even mysterious. Sources of diversity now go far beyond eat-

ing utensils, traditional attire, and modes of travel. You can be exposed to cul-

tural idiosyncrasies in the perception of time and space, the treatment of wom-

en and the elderly, the ways and means of conducting business, and even the

discovery and meaning of truth.

New and advanced information systems continue to encourage and facili-

tate cultural interaction. Communication satellites, sophisticated television

transmission equipment, and fiber-optic or wireless connection systems permit

people throughout the world to share information and ideas instantaneously.

The growth in wireless telephone systems, for example, is expanding rapidly

with well over fifty thousand new subscribers each day. And, of course, the

impact of Internet on communication exchanges is phenomenal. You can now,

with the simple click of mouse, "talk anyone almost anywhere in the world. It

has also permitted what Microsoft's Bill Gates has referred to as "the ability to

conduct business at the speed of thought. "

Evolving Populations

The second impetus to international communication is a rapid increase in

and redistribution of the world's population.

Not only is the world's population growing rapidly, it is also on the move

many as 100 million people are living outside the country of their birth.

It should not surprise you that with increases in the world's population,

numerous problems have arisen that make successful international contact

more important than ever before. Let us touch on some of the problems.

Finite Natural Resources. The world must come to realize that the resources

necessary to life and survival are finite. For instance, over the next half centu-

ry, it is predicted that water, our most precious natural resource, will replace

oil as the prime trigger for international conflict.

A decrease in food sources, both from the ground and the sea, is another

example of how limited resources can produce intercultural friction. Shortages

of productive land to grow crops and disputes over fishing rights have gener-

ated serious armed clashes. And, of course, there is the human cost of these

shortages. For example, the United Nations estimates that each year over forty

thousand children die of malnutrition.

67

Negotiating the limits on natural resources and avoiding strife and disorder

are among the goals of intercultural communication. When we consider that

well over a billion people worldwide lack sufficient food to meet energy and

protein requirements for a productive and healthy life, it is easy to see how

food insecurities could pit nation against nation. Finite natural resources pro-

vide yet another reason for people to come together for international under-

standing.

The Environment. Environmental problems do not observe geographic or cul-

tural boundaries and thus affect all cultures. Hence, the importance of a

healthy environment to the well-being of all people provides yet another im-

portant reason to develop facility as an intercultural communicator. From Chi-

na to Central America, weather-related flooding events have resulted from de-

forestation that left many hillsides bare, causing rainfall to run quickly into

rivers rather than being absorbed, thus leading to devastating landslides and

floods.

Although nations are beginning to realize that they must work together to

solve environmental problems, progress is slow and serious problems numer-

ous. The environmental crisis produces a long and somber list of problems that

touch all cultures. Destruction of the forests, famine, the pollution of air and

water, the growing list of endangered plants and animals, toxic dumping, and

the greenhouse effect are just a few of the many conundrums we all face as we

try to balance population and the health of the planet.

International Conflict. Conflict among nations and peoples provides yet an-

other reason to encourage effective intercultural communication. Since inef-

fective communication can lead to increased tensions and violence, it should

be obvious to you that effective intercultural communication is the superior

means of reducing international conflict.

Recent events have given credence to the axiom that hostility anywhere

has the potential to become hostility everywhere. Distance no longer matters.

The need for effective intercultural communication is apparent.

The increasing levels of terrorism and the spread of nuclear weapons sore-

ly indicate the need for effective intercultural communication. People must

discover that the resolution of conflict by communication is superior to the use

of force. Unfortunately such issues as ethnic pride, religious fervor, famine,

and economic concerns often act as barricades to effective communication.

And, when communication fails, other political means invariably follow.

68

The Global Economy

The economic success in the global arena increasingly depends on individ-

ual and collective abilities to communicate competently with people from oth-

er cultures. Economic relationships require global interdependence and inter-

cultural competence. The economic growth and stability are linked to world

business partners. In global economy people from diverse cultures come to-

gether to engage in commerce and, of course, communicate. The world econ-

omy is borderless and markets are becoming essentially one. Corporations are

looking at the free flow of goods and services, capital and human resources as

well as information as the pathway to growth. The trend toward globally con-

nected markets is likely to become even stronger in the future.

(Source: L. Samovar, R. Porter, Communication Between cultures. 5th

Edition.

2004, pp.5-9)

Oral speech practice

A. Finish the following phrases:

1. Interaction between people from different cultural backgrounds …….

2. Modern means of communication contribute to ……..

3. World’s population ……

4. Limited resources…….

5. To solve environmental problems……

6. The free flow of goods and services is……

7. Ineffective communication…….

B. Divide the text into paragraphs. Find in each paragraph a sentence

which best introduces or summarizes information.

C. Discuss the following issues in pairs.

Describe the peace imperative for studying intercultural communication.

Give examples to support your point of view.

Identify and describe the economic imperative for studying intercultural

communication. Illustrate your words with examples.

There are many reasons to study intercultural communication, including

the ones discussed in the text. What other imperatives can you identify?

What benefits can come out of interactions with those from different cul-

tures?

What is important for successful intercultural communication?

69

What are the factors which contributed to the expansion of intercultural

communication?

Activities

1. Look at the products in your home. How many different countries do they

come from? How might your purchases increase intercultural contact?

2. Read the news about intercultural events. Try to find articles about the

same incident from other newspapers that may come from communities quite

different from your own (for example, the English version Japan Times, Jeru-

salem Post). What are the differences in the presentation of the news?

Writing

A. Give a short summary of the text.

B. Translate into Russian the following sentences.

1. Innovative communication systems have also encouraged and facilitated

cultural interactions.

2. Communication satellites, sophisticated television transmission equip-

ment, and digital switching networks now allow people throughout the world

to share information and ideas instantaneously.

3. Changes in immigration patterns have also contributed to the develop-

ment of extended intercultural contact.

4. Intercultural encounters are now ubiquitous; they occur within neighbor-

hoods, across national borders, in face-to-face interactions, through mediated

channels, in business, in personal relationships, in tourist travel, and in poli-

tics.

5. Marshall McLuhan coined the term global village to describe the conse-

quences of the mass media's ability to bring events from the far reaches of the

globe into people's homes, thus shrinking the world.

6. Diplomatic and economic links are reinforced by the ease with which

people can now travel to other places.

7. Census figures indicate that cultural diversification is a nationwide phe-

nomenon.

8. In a world of international interdependence, the ability to understand and

communicate effectively with people from other cultures takes on extreme ur-

gency.

9. While the tendency to make judgments according to our own cultural

standards is natural, it hinders our understanding of other cultures and the pat-

70

terns of communication of their people.

10. Interaction with people from different cultures tends to involve the

highest degree of "strangeness" and the lowest degree of familiarity.

UNIT 2.

CULTURE

Starting up

A. Read the information about cultural behavior peculiarities. Compare

them with those from your culture. Why is it necessary to know them?

Interesting Cultural Behaviors

Thailand: Thai people greet each other with a wai greeting – hold hands to-

gether at the chest like a prayer and give a light bow.

Egypt : Using the left hand alone to exchange an item with an Egyptian is

considered rude.

France: The French expect promptness. They are not accustomed to standing

in line.

Germany: Germans often bang their fists on the table to show their apprecia-

tion at the end of a meeting.

Japan: When you are offered a gift, you must first refuse it once, modestly

and serenely. Then you should accept it using both hands.

Israel: When Israelis invite someone to their home, it is an important gesture.

It is appropriate to bring a book as a gift.

Spain: After a meal, you must place your utensils together on the plate. Oth-

erwise, your Spanish host would think that you were not satisfied.

French Polynesia: It is not necessary to tip. People usually give small gifts

instead.

Source: Selling Destinations: Geography for the Travel Professional. 2003.

Interesting Cultural Patterns

Ireland: Irish are very proud of their histories.

Jordan: People are proud of their Arab heritage and are tremendously hospi-

table to their guests.

Fiji: Time is informal and it may be acceptable to arrive quite late.

Singapore: Punctuality for meetings is expected.

Egypt: Building trust is the most important aspect of any relationship. You

should try to engage in extended conversation and coffee before starting a

meeting.

71

Turkey: When you are doing business with Turks, it is important to deal with

the person who has the most authority.

Tahiti: It is polite to taste a little bit of every food offered with your fingers

in an Tahitian’s home.

Source: Selling Destinations: Geography for the Travel Professional. 2003.

Interesting Cultural Patterns

Brazil: The Brazilian considers the OK sign in the United States (made with a

thumb and forefinger) as obscene.

China: Chinese always use both hands when passing a gift or food.

Kenya: Pointing with an index finger is very insulting.

Samoa: It is rude for a person standing to sway while having a conversation.

Fiji: Crossed arms is a sign of respect when talking.

Italy: The American gesture for one (raising the index finger) means two in

Italy.

Source: Selling Destinations: Geography for the Travel Professional. 2003.

B. Describe what your culture regards as the appropriate or correct way

of doing these everyday activities:

Eating (how, when, with whom)

Bathing (how, where, how often, with whom)

Types of food (what is edible and not edible)

Driving a car (who, which side of the road)

Greeting someone (how, whom, when, why)

Read about other cultures and describe how people do these activities in their

cultures.

C. Do you believe that most people are prepared for the increase in in-

tercultural contact? What can you say about yourself?

Vocabulary

Key terms

Strangers, beliefs, values, norms, shared interpretations, genetic imprint,

tangible, to interpret behavior, socialize, cross-cultural, invisible, similari-

ties, pervasive, shared symbol systems, predictable behavior, con-

duct , violate a norm.

72

Useful words and expressions

Taken-for-granted; realm below the conscious level; to be aware of; peers;

go unnoticed; transmit from person to person; from generation to generation;

to accent cultural values; to shape one’s views; to be exposed to; repository of

information; to evolve over time; growth of new technologies; environmental

upheavals; discovery of new tools; to reshape culture; borrowing by one cul-

ture from another;

A. Match the following words with the correct definitions.

1. beliefs a) seeming to be everywhere

2. value b) the feeling that something is defi-

nitely true or definitely exists

3. imprint c) behaving in a way that shows you

remember a rule or fact

4. socialize d)the way you use your senses to no-

tice things

5. pervasive e) behaving or happening in a way

that you expect

6.predictable f)to spend time with other people in a

friendly way 6.perception

7. mindful g)the importance or usefulness of

something

8. ubiquitous h)if something is imprinted on your

mind

B. Fill in the missing words from the list above:

Perceptions, behavior, values and beliefs, cultural patterns, invisible, culture

shock, glasses,

1. When we come into contact with strangers from a different culture, we

often experience ….

2. Value orientations influence our …..

3. People who exist in the same culture generally share similar ….

4. Culture is …. as we are not overly conscious of our culture’s influence

on us.

5. When we move into new cultures, we learn new….

6. Culture is sometimes described as a sort of ….. through which we view

the world.

7. Our ….. are similar to those of other individuals who belong to the

same cultural group.

73

Reading

A. Read the article.

Text 1.

Definitions of culture are numerous. In 1952, Alfred L.Kroeber and Clyde

Kluckhohn published a book with over 200 pages devoted to different defini-

tions of the term. Since then, many scholars have offered additional definitions

and approaches.

Our concern is with the link between culture and communication. Conse-

quently, our definition of culture is one that allows us to investigate how cul-

ture contributes to human symbolic processes.

Culture is a learned set of shared interpretations about beliefs, values,

norms, and social practices, which affect the behavior of a relatively large

group of people.

Culture is learned. Humans are not born with the genetic imprint of a par-

ticular culture. Instead, people learn about their culture through interactions

with other people. Two babies born at exactly the same time in two parts of

the globe may be taught to respond to physical and social stimuli in very dif-

ferent ways. For example, some babies are taught to smile at strangers, where-

as others are taught to smile only in very specific circumstances.

Culture is a set of shared interpretations. Cultures exist in the minds of

people, not in external or tangible objects or behaviors. The meanings of sym-

bols exist in the minds of the individual communicators; when those symbolic

ideas are shared with others, they form the basis for culture.

Culture Involves beliefs, values, norms, and social practices. The

shared symbol systems that form the basis of culture represent ideas about be-

liefs, values, norms, and social practices. Beliefs refer to the basic understand-

ing of a group of people about what the world is like or what true or false.

Values refer to what a group of people defines as good or bad or what it re-

gards as important. Norms refer to rules for appropriate behavior, which pro-

vide the expectations people have of one another and of themselves. Social

practices are the predictable behavior patterns that members of a culture typi-

cally follow.

Culture affects behavior. These shared interpretations about beliefs, val-

ues, and norms affect the behaviors of large groups of people. In other words,

the social practices that characterize a culture give people guidelines about

what things mean, what is important, and what should or should not be done.

Thus, culture establishes predictability in human interactions. Cultural differ-

ences are evident in the varying ways in which people conduct their everyday

74

activities.

(Source: M.W.Lustig, J.Koester, Intercultural Competence. Interpersonal

Communication Across Cultures.1999, pp.24-30)

Text 2. Culture is our theory of the “game being played” in our society. We use

the theory of the game being played in interacting with the other people we

encounter. It tells us how to communicate with others and how to interpret

their behavior. We generally are not highly aware of the rules of the game be-

ing played, but we behave as though there is general agreement on the rules.

We learn to be members of our culture from our parents, from teachers in

schools, from our religious institutions, from our peers, and from the mass

media. Originally, we learn about our culture from our parents. Our parents

begin to teach us the norms and communication rules that guide behavior in

our culture. Norms are guidelines with a basis in morality for how we should

behave or how we should not behave. Rules, in contrast, are guidelines for the

ways we are expected to communicate. Our parents do not explicitly tell us

the norms and rules of our culture. They do not, for example, tell us that when

we meet someone for the first time, we should stick out our right hands and

shake three times. Rather, they teach us the norms and rules by modeling how

to behave and correcting us when we violate a norm or a rule.

Once we are old enough to interact with other children, they reinforce the

norms and rules we learned from our parents. We also learn additional norms

and rules of our culture from them. We learn from our peers, for example, how

to be cooperative and how to compete with others. When we attend religious

services or school, we learn other norms and rules of our culture. The other

way we learn about our culture is through the mass media, especially televi-

sion. Television teaches us many of the day-to-day norms of our culture and

provides us with a view of reality. Television has become the medium through

which most of us learn what others’ expectations are for our behavior. It ap-

pears that the more television we watch, the more our views of reality overlap

with others’.

Members of a culture do not all share exactly the same view of their cul-

ture. No one member of a culture knows all aspects of the culture, and all

members of a culture have a unique view of their culture. The theories that

members of a culture share, however, overlap sufficiently so that the members

can coordinate their behavior in everyday life.

Our culture influences our behavior directly through the norms and rules

we use to guide our behavior when we interact with others. Our culture also

indirectly affects our communication through the individual characteristics we

75

learn when we are socialized into our culture. As we are socialized into our

culture, we learn how we are expected to view ourselves.(e.g. in the United

States people learn to think of themselves as unique individuals). The way we

view ourselves, in turn, influences the way we communicate.

Our culture provides us with a system of knowledge that generally allows

us to know how to communicate with other people and how to interpret their

behavior. The term culture usually is reserved to refer to the system of

knowledge used by relatively large numbers of people. The boundaries be-

tween cultures usually coincide with political, or national , boundaries be-

tween countries. We can speak, for example, of the culture of the United

States, the Mexican culture, the Japanese culture, and so forth.

We must point out that we believe that our culture influences our commu-

nication and that our communication influences our culture. This influence is

mostly out of our awareness. To communicate effectively with people from

other cultures and/or ethnic groups, we must be aware of culture’s influence

on our communication.

If intercultural communication refers to communication between people

from different cultures, then intracultural communication refers to communi-

cation between people from the same culture. Thus, if we examine communi-

cation between two Japanese or two Germans, we are looking at intracultural

communication. On the other hand, if we observe communication between a

Japanese and a German, we are looking at intercultural communication. An-

other term that needs to be clarified is cross-cultural. While this term is often

used a synonym for intercultural, the term cross-cultural traditionally implies

a comparison of some phenomenon across cultures. If, for example, we exam-

ine the use of self-disclosure in Japan and Germany, we are making a cross-

cultural comparison. If we look at how Japanese use self-disclosure when

communicating with Germans and how Germans use self-disclosure when

communicating with Japanese, we are looking at intercultural communication.

Text 3.

Culture is a system that enables individuals and groups to deal with each

other and the outside world. Culture is a living, changing system that embrac-

es our personal and social life. Everything we do or say is a manifestation of

culture. There is no aspect of human life, from the way we say good morning

to the rockets we build to go into space that is not culturally conditioned.

No culture is intrinsically “better” than any other. The only success criteri-

on of a culture is how effective it is ensuring its survival and prosperity.

No culture is static. The values at the heart of a culture change more slow-

ly than, for example, technologies which are also a part of culture.

76

The Way people behave is nor accidental or arbitrary. The external charac-

teristics of culture, from its superficial etiquette to its architecture, are rooted

in its hidden values and beliefs. If the externals need to change then so must

the values, and vice versa.

Cultures of all kinds are invisible until they encounter others, when the dif-

ferences become apparent. The least dangerous differences are the obvious

ones – we notice them and can make adjustments. The dangerous ones are

those that lie beneath the surface. In a corporate environment beliefs about the

role of the boss, the function of meetings, the relevance of planning, the im-

portance of teamwork, or the very purpose of an organization are often taken

for granted among colleagues. Yet they can be different even among close

neighbors. Outward similarities between European business goals can conceal

differences in how they should be realized.

The way others do things is not different out of stupidity or carelessness or

incompetence or malice, although it may appear so. Most people do what

seems right at the time. The judgment of what is right is rooted in habit, tradi-

tion, beliefs, values, attitudes, and accepted norms; in other words, the culture

to which that person belongs.

(Source: W. Gudykunst, Y.Y.Kim, Communicating With Strangers.1997,

pp.17-19)

Oral speech practice

B. Finish the following phrases:

Culture is learned patterns of behavior and attitudes shared by……

Culture is not a genetic trait because all cultural elements are learnt

through….

We learn to be members of our culture from….

Our culture provides us with….

Culture is everything and everywhere because…

A powerful set of instructions comes from proverbs, ……

Divide text 3 into paragraphs. Find in each paragraph a sentence which

best introduces or summarizes information.

C. Paraphrase the following statements:

Humans are not born with the genetic imprint of a particular culture.

Cultures exist in the minds of people.

Culture establishes predictability in human interactions.

Culture is our theory of the “game being played” in our society.

77

Culture is a living, changing system that embraces our personal and social

life.

Everything we do or say is a manifestation of culture.

Culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional, complex, and pervasive.

D. There are several definitions of the notion culture. Which one do you

consider the most understandable? Ground your opinion.

Marsella’s definition: “Culture is shared learned behavior which is trans-

mitted from one generation to another for purposes of promoting individual

and social survival, adaptation, and growth and development. Culture has both

external (e.g., artifacts, roles, institutions) and internal representations (e.g.,

values, attitudes, beliefs, cognitive/affective/sensory styles, consciousness pat-

terns, and epistemologies).

(A.J.Marsella, “The Measurement of Emotional Reactions to Work: Methodo-

logical and Research Issues”);

Huntington’s definition: “The heart of culture involves language, religion,

values, traditions, and customs.”

Singer : Culture is defined as a pattern of learned group-related perception

– including both verbal and nonverbal language attitudes values, belief sys-

tem, disbelief systems, and behavior.

E. Answer the questions:

1. Why do people seldom talk about their own culture or the influence of it

on our behavior?

2. Why do people say that culture is invisible and pervasive?

3. How do you understand that culture is accumulative, historical, and per-

ceivable?

4. What are the sources people learn their culture?

5. How do we learn through mass media?

6. How do you understand the maxim “Proverbs reunite the listener with his

or her ancestors”?

7. How do you understand E.Hall’s phrase “Culture is communication and

communication is culture”? How would you answer the question “Which is

the voice and which is the echo”?

8. Illustrate the following saying with your own examples, “There is not one

aspect of human life that is not touched and altered by culture” (E.Hall, “The

Silent Language”).

9. How can you explain the idea that although culture provides strength and

stability, it is never static?

78

10. Hall said, “You touch a culture in one place and everything else is affect-

ed.” How do you understand it?

F. Analyze the following proverbs from the point of view of the cultural

values they express:

Strike while the iron is hot.

He who hesitates is lost.

Actions speak louder than words.

God helps those who help themselves.

Pull yourself up by your bootstraps.

The squeaky wheel gets the grease.

Those who know do not speak and those who speak do not know.

One does not make the wind but is blown by it.

Sweep only the front of your own door.

A man’s tongue is his sword.

When spider webs unite they can tie up a lion.

Activities

1. Look at the products in your home. How many different countries do they

come from? How might your purchases increase intercultural contact?

2. Read the news about intercultural events. Try to find articles about the

same incident from other newspapers that may come from communities quite

different from your own (for example, the English version Japan Times, Jeru-

salem Post). What are the differences in the presentation of the news?

3. Look for advertisements in newspapers and popular magazines. Analyze

the ads to see if you can identify the social values to which they appeal.

Writing

C. Write an essay on the following topic “Culture is important because it is

everything and everywhere.”

D. Translate into Russian the following sentences.

1. Culture is defined as an accumulated pattern of values, beliefs, and behav-

iors shared by an identifiable group of people with a common history and a

verbal and nonverbal symbol system.

2. Culture influences communication and is enacted and reinforced through

communication.

79

3. Communication is a symbolic process whereby reality is produced, main-

tained, repaired, and transformed.

4. There are four building blocks to understand intercultural communication:

culture, communication, context, and power.

5. Culture is ubiquitous and has a profound effect on humans.

6. Communication is the simultaneous encoding, decoding, and interpretation

of verbal and nonverbal messages between people.

7. Culture serves the basic need of laying out a predictable world in which

each of you is firmly grounded and thus enables you to make sense of your

surroundings.

8. Culture shields people from the unknown offering them a blueprint for all

of life’s activities.

9. Culture is ubiquitous, multidimensional, complex, and all-pervasive.

10. The emergence of language was the giant step that made possible the re-

markable and intricate system we call culture.

Self-test.

What are Your Cultural Beliefs and Values?

Here the extremes of ten cultural differences are identified. For each charac-

teristic indicate your own values:

a. If you feel your values are very similar to the extremes then select 1 or 7.

b. If you feel your values are quite similar to the extremes then select 2 or 6.

c. If you feel your values are fairly similar to the extremes then select 3 or 5.

d. If you feel you are in the middle, then select 4.

Men and women are equal

and are entitled to equality

in all areas

Gender Equality

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Men and women are very

different and should stick to

the specific roles assigned

to them by their culture

Success is measured by

your contribution to the

group

Group and Indi-

vidual Orientation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

“Success” is measured by

how far you out-perform

others

You should enjoy yourself Pleasure orienta- You should work as much

80

as much as possible tion/ Hedonism

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

as possible

Religion is the final arbiter

of what is right and wrong;

your first obligation is to

abide by the rules and cus-

toms of your religion

Religion

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Religion is like any other

social institution; it is not

inherently moral or right

just because it is a religion

Your first obligation is to

your family, each person is

responsible for the welfare

of his or her family.

Family

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Your first obligation is to

yourself; each person is re-

sponsible for himself or

herself

Work hard now for a bet-

ter future

Time Orientation

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Live in the present; the fu-

ture may never come.

Romantic relationships,

once made, are forever

Relationship

Permanency

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Romantic relationships

should be maintained as

long as they are more re-

warding than punishing and

dissolved when they are

more punishing than re-

warding

People should express

their emotions openly and

feely

Emotional Ex-

pression

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

People should not reveal

their emotions, especially

those that may reflect nega-

tively on them or others or

make others feel uncom-

fortable

Money is extremely im-

portant and should be a

major consideration in just

about any decision you

make

Money

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Money is relatively unim-

portant

The world is a just place;

bad things happen to bad

people and good things

happen to good people;

what goes around comes

around

Belief in a just

world

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

The world is random; bad

and good things happen to

people without any refer-

ence to whether they are

good or bad people.

Thinking Critically About Cultural Beliefs, Values, and Communication

This test was designed to help you explore the possible influence of your cul-

tural beliefs and values on communication. Research shows that your cultural

81

values will influence your interpersonal communications as well as your de-

cision making, assessment of coworkers, teamwork, trust in others, the im-

portance you place on cultural diversity in the workplace, and your attitudes

toward the role of women in the workplace. If you visualize communication

as involving choices, then those beliefs will influence the choices you make ,

how you communicate, and how you listen and respond to the communica-

tions of others. For example, your beliefs and values about gender equality

will influence the way in which you communicate with and about the oppo-

site sex. Your group and individual orientation will influence how you per-

form in work teams and how you deal with your peers at school and at work.

Your degree of hedonism will influence the kinds of interactions you engage

in, the books you read, the television programs you watch. Your religious be-

liefs will influence the ethical system you follow in communicating. Review

the entire list of ten characteristics and try to identify one specific way in

which each characteristic influences your communication.

(Source: J.A.DeVito, The Interpersonal Communication Book, 1997, pp.67-

68)

UNIT 3

COMMUNICATION

Starting up

A. Discuss these questions: 1. Do you agree that communication is ubiquitous? Give examples to prove

your point of view.

2. Does communication have the exact beginning or ending point? Compare

it with verbal messages?

3. How do you understand such characteristic of communication as its irre-

versible character?

4. Give the symbols representing “cat” in languages you know. What other

symbols besides words do we use in communication? How do you understand

the notion “symbol”?

5. Analyze how the context of the classroom defines the kind of communica-

tion that is occurring now?

Vocabulary

Key terms accuracy, assign meaning to, assume, assumption, attend to,

82

attribute, channel, code, coding, communicate meaning, context, decode, de-

coding, derive, dynamic, encode, encoding, encounter, environment, expecta-

tion, feedback, inseparable, negotiate a meaning, message, occur, range

from, receiver, refer, share, separate, simultaneous, source, transmit, vary

A. Match the following words with the correct definitions.

assumption, channel, meaning, context, decode, encounter, expectation,

feedback, simultaneous, source.

Happening or done at exactly the same time;

A way of sending or obtaining information about a particular subject;

The situation, events, or information that relate to something, and help you

understand it better;

Something that you think is true although you have no proof;

Advice, criticism, etc. about how good or useful something is;

Meeting between two people or groups;

The thing or idea that a word, phrase, or sign represents;

A person, book, or document that you get information from;

To discover the meaning of a secret or complicated message;

The belief or hope that something will happen.

B. Translate into Russian.

1. In any intercultural encounter process, people use verbal and nonverbal

messages to get their ideas across.

2. The transactional nature of intercultural communication refers to the sim-

ultaneous encoding and decoding of the exchanged messages.

3. Unfortunately, more often than not, intercultural encounters are filled with

misunderstandings and second guesses because of language problems, com-

munication style differences, and value orientation differences.

4. Intercultural communication is an irreversible process because the receiv-

er may form different impressions even in regard to the same repeated mes-

sage.

5. The general goal of effective intercultural communication is to create

shared meanings between dissimilar individuals in an interactive situation.

6. Ineffective encoding and decoding by one of the two “transceivers” can

potentially lead to intercultural misunderstanding.

7. In order to understand intercultural communication from a contextual

viewpoint, we have to consider how different value dimensions influence the

symbolic exchange process between communicators in an interactive situation.

83

Reading

A. Read the article.

Text 1.

The English word communication is derived from the Latin communicare,

meaning to share with or to make common, as in giving to another a part or

share of your thoughts, hopes, and knowledge.

Because communication is an element of culture communication and cul-

ture are inseparable. As Alfred G.Smith (1966) wrote in his preface to Com-

munication and Culture, culture is a code we learn and share, and learning and

sharing require communication. Communication requires coding and symbols

that must be learned and shared. Every cultural pattern and every single act of

social behavior involve communication. To be understood, the two must be

studied together. Culture cannot be known without a study of communication,

and communication can only be understood with an understanding of the cul-

ture it supports.

The components of communication are source, encoding, message, chan-

nel, noise, receiver, decoding, receiver response, feedback, and context.

Source. The source is the person with an idea he or she desires to com-

municate. Examples are CBS, your instructor, and your mother.

Encoding. Unfortunately (or perhaps fortunately), humans are not able to

share thoughts directly. Your communication is in the form of a symbol repre-

senting the idea you desire to communicate. Encoding is the process of putting

an idea into a symbol. The symbols vary. You can encode thoughts into

words, and you can also encode thoughts into nonspoken symbols.

Message. The term message identifies the encoded thought. Encoding is

the process, the verb; the message is the resulting object.

Channel. The term channel is used technically to refer to the means by

which the encoded message is transmitted. Today, you might feel more com-

fortable using the word media. The channel or medium, then, may be print,

electronic, or the light and sound waves of face-to-face communication.

Noise. The term noise technically refers to anything that distorts the mes-

sage the source encodes. Noise can be of many forms:

External noise can be the sights, sounds, and other stimuli that draw your

attention away from the message. Having a radio on while reading is external

noise.

Internal noise refers to your thoughts and feelings that can interfere with

the message. For example, being tired or being hungry can distract you from

paying complete attention to the message.

84

“Semantic noise” refers to how alternative meanings of the source’s mes-

sage symbols can be distracting. For example, a speaker’s use of uncalled-for

profanity can cause us to wonder why the speaker used profanity and draw at-

tention away from the message itself.

Receiver. The receiver is the person who attends to the message. Receivers

may be intentional; that is, they may be the people the source desired to com-

municate with, or they may be any person who comes upon and attends to the

message.

Decoding. Decoding is the opposite process of encoding and just as much

an active process. The receiver is actively involved in the communication pro-

cess by assigning meaning to the symbols received.

Receiver response. Receiver response refers to anything the receiver does

after having attended to and decoded the message. That response can range

from doing nothing to taking some action or actions that may or may not be

the action desired by the source.

Feedback. Feedback refers to that portion of the receiver response of

which the source has knowledge and to which the source attends and assigns

meaning. When a radio interview show host receives enthusiastic telephone

calls and invites a guest back, feedback has occurred. Feedback makes com-

munication a two-way or interactive process.

Context. The final component of communication is context. Generally,

context can be defined as the environment in which the communication takes

place and which helps define the communication. If you know the physical

context, you can predict with a high degree of accuracy much of the commu-

nication. For example, you have certain knowledge and expectations of the

communication that occurs within synagogues, mosques, and churches. At

times, you intentionally plan a certain physical environment for your commu-

nication: You may want to locate your romantic communications in a quiet,

dimly lit restaurant or on a secluded beach. The choice of the environment, the

context, helps assign the desired meaning to the communicated words. In a so-

cial relationship as well, the relationship between the source and receiver may

help define much of the meaning of the communication. Again, if you know

the context you can predict with a high degree of accuracy much of the com-

munication. For example, knowing that a person is being stopped by a police

officer for speeding is enough to predict much of the communication. Certain

things are likely to be said and done; other things are very unlikely.

Culture is also context. Every culture has its own worldview; its own way

of thinking of activity, time, and human nature; its own way of perceiving self;

and its own system of social organization. Knowing each of these helps you

assign meaning to the symbols. The component of context helps you recognize

85

that the extent to which the source and receiver have similar meanings for the

communicated symbols and similar understandings of the culture in which the

communication takes place are crucial to the success of the communication.

(Source: F.E.Jandt, An Introduction to Intercultural Communication, 2004,

pp.30-33.)

Text 2. Although there is no universally agreed-upon definition of communica-

tion, there are certain properties of communication that most communication

scholars agree to describe its nature.

Dimension 1: Process

Almost all communication scholars concur that communication is a pro-

cess. A process is anything that is ongoing, ever-changing, and continuous. A

process does not have a specific beginning or ending point. A process is not

static or at rest; it is always moving. Communication is always developing; it

is never still or motionless. There is no exact beginning or ending point of a

communication exchange. Although individual verbal messages have definite

beginning and ending points, the overall process of communication does not.

A process is something that continues to develop and change; it does not stop,

nor it reverse itself. Because communication is irreversible, it affects future

communication. (Think about your own relationships with your friends and

how what you have said to each other in the past influences what you say to-

day.)

Dimension 2: Dynamic

The terms process and dynamic are closely related. As a dynamic process,

communication is flexible, adaptive, and fluid; it is impossible to replicate it

completely in a picture, drawing, or a model.

Dimension 3: Interactive/Transactive

Communication occurs between people. While some might argue that peo-

ple can communicate with themselves, most scholars believe that interaction

between people is a fundamental dimension of communication. Communica-

tion requires the active participation of two people sending and receiving

messages. Active participation means that people are consciously directing

their messages to someone else. This means that communication is a two-way

process: interactive. Each person in an interactional setting simultaneously

sends (encodes) and receives (decodes) messages.

Dimension 4: Symbolic

That communication is symbolic is another fundamental assumption guid-

ing most communication scholars. A symbol is an arbitrarily selected and

learned stimulus that represents something else. Symbols can be verbal or

86

nonverbal. Symbols are the vehicle by which the thoughts and ideas of one

person can be communicated to another person. Messages are constructed with

verbal and nonverbal symbols. Through symbols meanings are transferred be-

tween people.

Dimension 5: Intentional

Intentional communication exists whenever two or more people conscious-

ly engage in interaction with some purpose. Unintentional communication

may also exist but intentional communication, either verbal or nonverbal, is

more informative than unintentional communication.

Dimension 6: Contextual

Communication is dependent on the context in which it occurs. A context

is the cultural, physical, relational, and perceptual environment in which

communication occurs. In many ways the context defines the meaning of any

messages. For example, the context of the classroom defines the kind of com-

munication that will occur. There are five different kinds of context that in-

fluence the process of communication: (1)the cultural environment, (2) the

microcultural environment, (3) the physical environment, (4) the

sociorelational environment, and (5) the perceptual environment. The cultural

context includes all of the factors and influences that make up one’s culture.

The physical context is the actual geographical space or territory in which the

communication takes place. The sociorelational context refers to social roles

and group memberships. Sex, age, religious affiliation, educational level, and

economic status affect how one communicates with and relates to others. Fi-

nally, the perceptual context includes all of the motivations, intentions, and

personality traits people bring to the communication event.

Dimension 7: Ubiquitous

It means that communication is everywhere, done by everyone, all of the

time. Humans are constantly bombarded with verbal and nonverbal messages.

Wherever one goes, there is some communication happening. Some scholars

argue that one cannot communicate.

Dimension 8: Cultural

Culture shapes communication, and communication is culture bound. Peo-

ple from different cultures communicate differently. The verbal and nonverbal

symbols we use to communicate with our friends and families are strongly in-

fluenced by our culture. Perhaps the most obvious verbal communication dif-

ference between two cultures is language. Culture also has a dramatic effect

on nonverbal communication. Nonverbal symbols, gestures, and perceptions

of personal space and time vary significantly from culture to culture.

(Source: J.W. Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 2000, pp. 7-14)

87

Oral speech practice

A. Answer the following questions:

1. Why do you think communication and culture are inseparable?

2. What are the components of the communication process?

3. Why is the feedback a necessary component of it?

4. What are the channels of communication?

5. What role does the context play in communication process? How does it

influence the process of communication?

B. Give your comments on the following statements to explain why it is so.

Communication as a symbolic process whereby meaning is shared and

negotiated.

Communication is dynamic, may be intentional and unintentional, and is

receiver oriented.

Communication is a process involving several components.

When we communicate, we assume that the other person takes the mean-

ing that we intend. But for individuals from different cultural backgrounds and

experiences, this assumption may be wrong and may lead to misunderstanding

and a lack of shared meaning.

Communication is dynamic. This means communication is not a single

event but is ongoing, so that communicators are at once both senders and re-

ceivers simultaneously.

Communication is not always intentional.

Communication is receiver –oriented.

C. Say whether it is true or not. If necessary, correct the statement.

The process of communication has a specific beginning and ending point.

There are situations when we don’t communicate.

It is possible to reverse the process of communication.

Communication is an interactive process.

Messages are constructed with verbal and nonverbal symbols through

which meanings are transferred between people.

Unintentional communication is more informative than intentional one.

D. Explain how you understand the following concepts. Give examples.

A) the cultural environment, B) the microcultural environment, C) the physi-

cal environment, D) the sociorelational environment, and E) the perceptual

environment.

E. In pair or in small groups discuss the following issues:

88

- Communication is a complex phenomenon.

- People communicate all the time, one cannot communicate.

- Communication is culture bound.

- Culture influences communication and communication influences and re-

inforces culture.

- People communicate differently depending on the context.

Activities

1. To become more conscious of your own communication think about the

message you are sending, verbally and nonverbally. Think about the tone of

your voice, your posture, your gestures, eye contact. What are those messages

which you send unintentionally?

2. Describe how roles people play influence the way you communicate.

Writing

E. Write an essay on the following topic “Communication is an element of

culture.”

F. Translate into Russian the following sentences.

a) One of the defining characteristics of a culture is the agreement among the

people who share a culture on the general meaning of symbols.

b) Interpreting messages is the process of perceiving, or making sense of, in-

coming messages and stimuli from the environment.

c) Meanings also emerge out of the interaction that occurs.

d) Mindfulness means being aware of our own and others’ behavior in the

situation.

e) Messages do not have to be consciously or purposefully created with the

specific intention of communicating a certain set of meanings for others to be

able to make sense of the symbols forming the message.

UNIT 4.

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

Starting up

A. Self-test. Get ready to discuss the results of your test.

The following self-report scale was designed by Neuliep and McCroskey

to measure your intercultural communication apprehension. This instrument is

89

composed of fourteen statements concerning your feelings about communica-

tion with people from other cultures.

Please indicate in the space provided the degree to which each statement

applies to you by marking whether you (1) “strongly agree,” (2) “agree,” (3)

“are undecided,” (4) “disagree,” or (5) “strongly disagree” with each state-

ment.

There are no right or wrong answers and many of the following statements

are designed to be similar to other statements. Do not be concerned about this.

Work quickly and record your first impressions. Respond to these statements

as honestly as possible or else your score will not be valid.

________ 1. Generally, I am comfortable interacting with a group of people

from different cultures.

________ 2. I am tense and nervous while interacting in group discussions

with people from different cultures.

________ 3. I like to get involved in group discussions with others who are

from different cultures.

________ 4. Engaging in a group discussion with people from different cul-

tures makes me tense and nervous.

________ 5. I am calm and relaxed when interacting with a group of people

who are from different cultures.

________ 6. While participating in a conversation with a person from a dif-

ferent culture, I feel very nervous.

________ 7. I have no fear of speaking up in a conversation with a person

from a different culture.

________8. Ordinarily, I am very tense and nervous in conversations with a

person from a different culture.

________9. Ordinarily I am very calm and relaxed in conversations with a

person from a different culture.

________ 10. While conversing with a person from a different culture, I feel

very relaxed.

________11. I’m afraid to speak up in conversations with a person from a dif-

ferent culture.

________ 12. I face the prospect of interacting with people from different cul-

tures with confidence.

________ 13. My thoughts become confused and jumbled when interacting

with people from different cultures.

________ 14. Communicating with people from different cultures makes me

feel uncomfortable.

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To score the instrument, reverse your original response for items #2, 4, 6,

8, 11, 13 and 14 (1=5, 2=4, 3=3, 4=2, 5=1). For example, if your original

score for item #2 was 1, change it to a 5. If your original score for item #4 was

a 2, change it to a 4, and so forth.

After reversing the score for each of these seven items, add the scores for

all fourteen statements. Total scores cannot be higher than 70 or lower than

14. Higher scores (50-70) indicate high intercultural communication appre-

hension. Low scores (14-28) indicate low intercultural communication appre-

hension. To the degree to which you answered all items honestly, your score is

a fairly reliable and valid assessment of your motivation to approach or to

avoid intercultural communication.

REFLECTIONS AND DISCUSSION

If your total score indicates “high intercultural communication apprehen-

sion,” what specific features of your background, personal experience and/or

personality do you think best explains this? Realistically, what steps do you

think you yourself could take to help reduce this level of communication ap-

prehension?

If your total score indicates “low intercultural communication apprehen-

sion,” what specific features of your background, personal experience and/or

personality do you think best explains this? Realistically, what recommenda-

tions could you make to help someone with “high intercultural communication

apprehension” reduce their own communication apprehension?

(Source: J.W. Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 2000, pp. 24-25)

B. Speak about your experience of intercultural communication. Did you

experience any difficulties? What were they?

C. Explain how you understand the following statements:

Cultural variability in people’s backgrounds influences their communica-

tion behavior.

Intercultural communication is communication between people whose cul-

tural perceptions and symbol systems are distinct enough to alter the commu-

nication event.

How do you understand the notion “shared meanings”?

How do you understand the notion “cultural membership differences”?

Reading

91

Text 1. Intercultural communication: five core assumptions.

Intercultural communication is viewed as a symbolic exchange process be-

tween persons of different cultures. The general goal of effective intercultural

communication is to create shared meanings between dissimilar individuals in

an interactive situation. The following assumptions are presented to increase

your understanding of the intercultural communication process.

Assumption1. Intercultural communication involves varying degrees of cultur-

al group membership differences.

When individuals from two cultural groups communicate, there exist both

differences and similarities between the two individuals. Intercultural commu-

nication takes place when our cultural group membership factors affect our

communication process on either a conscious or unconscious level.

The cultural membership differences can include deep-level differences

such as cultural traditions, beliefs, and values. Concurrently, they can also in-

clude the mismatch of applying different norms, rules, and interaction scripts

in particular situations. In practicing mindful intercultural communication, we

need to develop an understanding of the valuable differences that exist be-

tween identity groups; yet at the same time, we need to continuously recognize

the commonalities that exist on a panhuman identity level.

Assumption 2. Intercultural communication involves the simultaneous encod-

ing and decoding of verbal and nonverbal messages in the exchange process.

This is the key assumption to understanding the concept of “process” in in-

tercultural communication. From a transactional model viewpoint, both inter-

cultural communicators in the communication process are viewed as playing

the sender and the receiver roles. Both are responsible for synchronizing their

conversational process and outcome. The effective encoding and decoding

process leads to shared meanings. Ineffective encoding and decoding by one

of the two “transceivers” can potentially lead to intercultural misunderstand-

ing.

However, beyond the accurate encoding and decoding of messages on the

content level. Communicators need to cultivate additional awareness and sen-

sitivity along multiple level (such as identity meaning and relationship mean-

ing) of intercultural understanding. With clarity of understanding, we can

mindfully choose words and behaviors that make dissimilar others feel includ-

ed and affirmed.

Assumption 3.Many intercultural encounters involve well-meaning clashes.

Members of different cultural communities have learned different scripts

in, for example, conversational opening, maintenance, and termination. They

92

tend to use their own cultural scripts, often on an unconscious level, to evalu-

ate the appropriateness of others’ conversational opening or exit. Many inter-

cultural miscommunication episodes start off from well-meaning clashes

(Brislin , 1993).

“Well-meaning clashes” basically refer to misunderstanding encounters in

which people are “behaving properly and in a socially skilled manner accord-

ing to the norms in their own culture” (Brislin, 1993). Unfortunately, the be-

haviors that are considered proper or effective in one culture can be consid-

ered improper or ineffective in another culture (e.g. using direct eye contact is

considered a sign of respect in the US culture, whereas direct eye contact sig-

nify disrespect in the Thai culture). The term “well-meaning” is used because

no one intercultural encounter intentionally behaves obnoxiously or unpleas-

antly. Individuals are trying to be well mannered or pleasant in accordance

with the politeness norms of their own culture. Individuals behave ethnocen-

trically – often without conscious realization of their automatic-pilot actions.

Assumption 4. Intercultural communication always takes place in a context.

Intercultural communication does not happen to in a vacuum. Intercultural

interaction is always context bound. Patterns of thinking and behaving are al-

ways interpreted within an interactive situation or context.

In order to understand intercultural communication from a contextual view-

point, we have to consider how different cultural value dimensions influence

the symbolic exchange process between communicators in an interactive situa-

tion. Additionally, the roles of the players, the interaction goals, the scripts,

the timing, and the physical/psychological features of the setting can influence

the mood of the interaction. Lastly, cultural knowledge, past cultural visiting

experience, and relevant application of effective communication skills form

the gestalt components of the context. In order to gain an in-depth understand-

ing of the intercultural communication process, we have to mindfully observe

the linkage among communication patterns, context, and culture.

Assumption 5. Intercultural communication always takes place in embedded

systems.

A system is an interdependent set of ingredients that constitute a whole and

simultaneously influence each other. Our enculturation process (i.e. our cul-

tural socialization process from birth) within our own culture is influenced by

both macro-level and micro-level ingredients in our environment. On a micro

level, we are programmed or acculturated into our culture via our family and

educational systems, religious and political systems, and government and so-

cioeconomic systems, as well as the paramount influence of media in our eve-

ryday life. On a micro level, we are surrounded by people who subscribe to

93

similar ideologies, values, norms, and expectations. We are the recipients and

also the preservers of our culture via the daily messages we trade. However,

culture is not a static web. It is dynamic, evolutionary process. Human beings

are also not static individuals – they are changeable.

(Source: S. Ting-Toomey, Communicating across cultures, 1999, pp.22-24)

Oral speech practice

A. Translate into Russian.

1. In practicing mindful intercultural communication, we need to develop an

understanding of the valuable differences that exist between identity groups.

2. We need to continuously recognize the commonalities that exist on a pan-

human identity level.

3. The effective encoding and decoding process leads to shared meanings.

4. Many intercultural miscommunication episodes start off from well-

meaning clashes.

5. Intercultural interaction is always context bound.

6. Intercultural communication always takes place in embedded systems.

7. We are the recipients and also the preservers of our culture via the daily

messages we trade.

8. With clarity of understanding, we can mindfully choose words and behav-

iors that make dissimilar others feel included and affirmed.

B. Answer the following questions:

1. Why is intercultural communication viewed as a symbolic exchange pro-

cess?

2. How does cultural group membership influence communication?

3. What is effective encoding and decoding in the process of intercultural

communication?

4. What is a communication script?

5. What is the context of the intercultural interaction?

6. What are macro-level and micro-level ingredients in our environment?

C. Discuss the following issues in pairs.

Give examples how cultural group membership factors affect our commu-

nication process on a conscious and an unconscious level.

Describe some interaction scripts existing in your culture. Then compare

them with interaction scripts from other cultures.

Give examples of behaviors which are considered proper or effective in

one culture but can be considered improper or ineffective in another culture.

94

Prove that culture is a dynamic, evolutionary process.

Writing

G. Give a short summary of the text.

UNIT 5.

CULTURAL INFLUENCES ON THE PROCESS

OF COMMUNICATING WITH STRANGERS.

STARTING UP

A. Self-test 1. Measuring individualism or collectivism.

Below are 32 statements designed to assess your attitudes and beliefs about

yourself. There are no right or wrong answers, and some of the statements are

similar to others. In the bank to the left of each item, indicate the degree to

which you agree or disagree with each statement. If you are unsure or think

that an item does not apply to you, enter a 5 in the blank. Use the following

key:

Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Strongly Agree

1. ____ I often do “my own thing.”

2. ____ One should live one’s life independently of others.

3. ____ I like my privacy.

4. ____ I prefer to be direct and forthright in discussions with other people.

5. ____ I am a unique individual.

6. ____ What happens to me is my own doing.

7. ____ when I succeed, it is usually because of my abilities.

8. ____ I enjoy being unique and different from others in many ways.

9. ____ It annoys me when other people perform better than I do.

10. ____ Competition is the law of nature.

11. ____ When another person does better than I do, I get tense and aroused.

12. ____ Without competition it is not possible to have a good society.

13. ____ Winning is everything.

14. ____ It is important that I do my job better than others.

15. ____ I enjoy working in situations involving competition with others.

16. ____Some people emphasize winning, I’m one of them.

17. ____ The well-being of my coworkers is important to me.

18. ____ If a coworker gets a prize, I feel proud.

19. ____ If a relative were in financial difficulty, I would help within my

means.

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20. ____ It is important to maintain harmony within my group.

21. ____ I like sharing little things with my neighbors.

22. ____ I feel good when I cooperate with others.

23. ____ My happiness depends very much on the happiness of those around

me.

24. ____ To me, pleasure is spending time with others.

25. ____ I would sacrifice an activity I enjoy very much if my family did not

approve of it.

26. ____ I would do what pleased my family, even if I detested that activity.

27. ____ Before taking a major trip, I consult with most members of my fami-

ly and many friends.

28. ____ I usually sacrifice my self- interest for the benefit of my group.

29. ____ Children should be taught to place duty before pleasure.

30. ____ I hate to disagree with others in my group.

31. ____ We should keep our aging parents with us at home.

32. ____ Children should feel honored if their parents receive a distinguished

award.

Scoring:

1. Add your responses for items 1 through 16. This is your Individualism

Score.

2. Add your responses for items 17 through 32. This is your Collectivism

Score.

(Source: T.M. Singelis, H.C. Triandis, D.P.S. Bhawuk, and M.J. Gelfand,

“Horizontal and Vertical Dimensions of Individualism and Collectivism: A

Theoretical and Measurement Refinement, “Cross Cultural Research 29

(1995), pp.240-275)

B. Divide the following cultures into two categories: individualistic and

collectivistic cultures. What characteristics do you take into account? Ex-

plain your point of view.

Australia, Belarus, Canada, China, Ecuador, Germany, Guatemala, Indone-

sia, the Netherlands, France, Japan, Panama, Pakistan, Russia, United King-

dom, United States of America.

Vocabulary

Key words and expressions

Dimension, cultural variability, ingroup, outgroup, loyalty, set goals,

prevail over, loosely integrated, tightly integrated, interdependent activi-

ties, suppress, benefit , self-reliant, assertive, tend to, affiliation, afflu-

96

ence, have precedence, mutual obligations and expectations, rank, shared

responsibility and collective accountability, harmony, obedience, compli-

ance, social reciprocity, nurture, accomplishment

Reading

Text 1. Individualism versus Collectivism.

In order to understand similarities and differences in communication

across cultures, we must have a way of talking about how cultures differ and

how they are similar. These similarities and differences can be explained and

predicted theoretically through the use of dimensions of cultural variability

(e.g. individualism-collectivism).

Cultures differ in many dimensions. These dimensions of cultural variabil-

ity provide ways to understand how cultures differ across cultures. If we meet

people from another culture, for example, and we do not know their cultural

background, we can easily make reasonable interpretations of their behavior if

we understand the dimensions of cultural variability.

The individualism-collectivism dimension refers to how people define

themselves and their relationships with others. In an individualist culture, the

interest of the individual prevails over the interests of the group. Ties between

individuals are loose. People look after themselves and their immediate fami-

lies. In a collectivist culture, the interest of the group prevails over the interest

of the individual. People are integrated into strong, cohesive ingroups that

continue throughout a lifetime to protect in exchange for unquestioning loyal-

ty (Hofstede, 1997). One difference is reflected in who is taken into account

when you set goals. In individualist cultures, goals are set with minimal con-

sideration given to groups other than perhaps your immediate family. In col-

lectivist cultures, other groups are taken into account in a major way when

goals are set. Individualist cultures are loosely integrated; collectivist cultures

are tightly integrated.

In individualist cultures such as the US, for example, when meeting a new

person you want to know what that person does. You tend to define people by

what they have done, their accomplishments, what kind of car they drive, or

where they live. Individualistic cultures are more remote and distant.

Cultures characterized by collectivism emphasize relationships among

people to a greater degree. Collectivist cultures stress interdependent activi-

ties and suppressing individual aims for the group’s welfare.

(Source: F. Jandt. An Introduction to Intercultural Communication. 2000.

p.184)

97

Harry Triandis, a psychologist at the University of Illinois, is well known

for his work on individualism and collectivism. Triandis writes that in indi-

vidualistic cultures, emphasis is placed on an individual’s goals over group

goal. In individualistic cultures, social behavior is guided by personal goals,

perhaps at the expense of other types of goals. Individualistic cultures stress

values that benefit individual person. The self is promoted because each per-

son is viewed as uniquely endowed and possessing distinctive talent and po-

tential. Individuals are encouraged to pursue and develop their abilities and

aptitudes. In many individualistic cultures, people are taught to be creative,

self-reliant, competitive, and assertive.

Triandis argues that an important ingredient of individualistic cultures is

that the individual is emotionally disconnected from in groups, such as the

family. Because the individual has been taught to be independent, social con-

trol depends more on personal guilt than on shame or other social norms of

conformity. Ironically, members of individualist cultures tend to belong to

many groups, but their affiliation with them is short-lived. Many of the groups

to which an individualist belongs are designed to enhance self-worth – for ex-

ample, self-help, therapy, or occupational groups.

Affluence also correlates with individualism. Financial independence

means that one may be less dependent on others to satisfy needs. As cultures

become more affluent, they tend to become more individualistic.

In contrast, according to Triandis, in collectivistic cultures, group goals

have precedence over individual goals. Collectivistic cultures stress values

that serve the in-group by subordinating personal goals for the sake of preserv-

ing the in-group. Collectivistic societies are characterized by extended primary

groups – such as the family, neighborhood, or occupational group – in which

members have diffuse mutual obligations and expectations based on their sta-

tus or rank. In collectivistic cultures, people are not seen as isolated individu-

als. People see themselves as interdependent with others, with shared respon-

sibility and collective accountability. A person is seen not as an individual, but

as a member of a group.

Triandis points out that although collectivistic cultures stress the im-

portance of the group over the individual, their members tend to belong to

fewer groups than persons in individualistic cultures. Unlike the individualist,

the collectivist is emotionally connected to the in-group. A collectivist’s val-

ues and beliefs are consistent with and reflect those of the in-group. Moreover,

a collectivist’s association with his or her in-groups may last a lifetime. In

many collectivistic cultures, the primary value is harmony with others.

Triandis observes that because group harmony is so highly valued, obedience

to, and compliance with, in-group pressures is routine. One’s behavior is role

98

based, and deviations from the prescribed role are discouraged and often nega-

tively sanctioned. A person’s behavior is guided more by shame than by per-

sonal guilt. A collectivist who stands out from the group disrupts the harmony

and may be punished. Most collectivistic cultures value social reciprocity, ob-

ligation, dependence, and obedience. But by far, the primary value stressed by

many collectivistic cultures is harmony.

Traiandis believes that collectivism is based on the tenet that collaboration

and cooperation ultimately lead to survival. Both collaboration and coopera-

tion require obedience and harmony, which is typically managed and coordi-

nated by someone in charge, such as an authority. Authority, or one’s rank in

the group, is a salient feature of many collectivistic cultures. Collectivists tend

to see each other in terms of hierarchically ranks roles, not as individuals. Col-

lectivism can be found in parts of Europe, such as southern Italy and rural

Greece. Much of Africa, Asia, and Latin America is considered collectivistic.

Individualism and collectivism are terms that describe whole cultures. But

cultures are not pure. Members of collectivist cultures may practice individu-

alistic tendencies, and members of individualistic cultures may value collec-

tivist ideals. For example, Denmark has both collectivistic and individualistic

tendencies. In Denmark, individual freedom is nurtured through a devotion to

establish traditions and customs. Regarding income and social rank, Danes are

staunchly egalitarian. At the same time, however, Danes consider themselves

free to be nonconformist and to stand out from the group.

We should not label entire cultures as individualistic or collectivistic, be-

cause persons within those cultures may vary considerably. We can, however,

measure an individual’s degree of individualism/ collectivism.

(Source: J.W. Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 2000, pp. 30-33)

Text 2 . Predictors and Consequences of Individualism-Collectivism.

The best predictor of individualism-collectivism is economic development;

wealthy cultures tend to be individualistic, whereas poor cultures tend to be

collectivistic. There is strong evidence to suggest that cultures become more

individualistic as they become more economically advanced.

Another predictor is climate. Cultures in colder climates tend to be indi-

vidualistic, whereas cultures in warmer climates tend to be more collectivistic.

Colder climates are likely to foster and support individual initiative and inno-

vative solutions to problems, whereas warmer climates make individual

achievements far less necessary.

99

Collectivistic cultures tend to be group-oriented. A related characteristic is

that they typically impose a very large psychological distance between those

who are members of their group (the ingroup) and those who are not (the

outgroup).Ingroup members are required to have unquestioning loyalty,

whereas outgroup members are regarded as almost inconsequential. Converse-

ly, members of individualistic cultures do not perceive a large chasm between

ingroup and outgroup members; ingroup members are not as close, but

ouitgroup members are not as distant. Some scholars believe that the individ-

ualism-collectivism dimension is by far the most important attribute that dis-

tinguishes one culture from another.

Individualistic cultures train their members to speak out as a means of re-

solving difficulties. In classrooms, students from individualistic cultures are

likely to ask questions; students from collectivistic cultures are not. Similarly,

people from individualistic cultures are more likely than those from collec-

tivistic cultures to use confrontational strategies when dealing with interper-

sonal problems; those with a collectivistic orientation are likely to use avoid-

ance, third-party intermediaries, or other face-saving techniques. Indeed, a

common maxim among European Americans, who are highly individualistic,

is that “the squeaky wheel gets the grease” ; the corresponding maxim among

the Japanese, who are somewhat collectivistic, is “the nail that sticks up gets

pounded”.

(Source: V.Lustig, J.Koester. Intercultural Competence.1999, pp.120-123)

Among collectivists, social behavior is guided by the group. Along with

group membership come prescribed duties and obligations. Among individual-

ists, social behavior is guided by one’s personal attitudes, motivations, and

other internal processes. Whereas individualists are taught to compete, the col-

lectivists learn to cooperate. Individualistic cultures value and reward success-

ful competitions. The US, for example, is replete with contests and ceremonies

that recognize individual accomplishments. People are publicly rewarded for

being the most beautiful, thinnest, strongest, fastest, tallest, smartest, young-

est, oldest, funniest. Or the ‘best’at something. Collectivistic cultures, on the

other hand stress harmony and cooperation. Collectivists strive for the approv-

al of the in-group, which is attained not by standing out but by conforming to

the group’s norm. From the collectivist’s perspective, an individual that

stands out from the group disrupts harmony.

Markus and Kitayama write that in individualistic cultures, how people see

themselves privately is how they present themselves publicly. One’s in-

trapersonal concept (for example, “I am scholarly”, I am trustworthy”, “I am

principled”) is seen in the individualist’s public behavior. The collectivist,

however, may have an inconsistent public and private self. Collectivist are

100

likely to behave publicly according to the in-group norm regardless of their

personal attitudes. Collectivists see themselves as interdependent with others.

Traiandis maintains that a culture’s individualistic or collectivistic orienta-

tion will likely affect child-rearing practices. Individualistic parents encour-

age their children to be unique, express themselves, and be independent. The

children of individualistic parents understand that they are to leave home once

they reach a certain age or education level. In fact, it is thought of as odd or

unusual if children past the age of twenty-one or so still live at home with their

parents. Though rank order exists in the individualist’s family, decisions are

often made democratically. Collectivistic parents teach their children the im-

portance of family linkage and ancestry. Typically the father dominates the

collectivist’s home, and the family rank is often determined by sex and age.

Collectivists are more conscious of in-group/ out-group distinctions than

are individuals. Individualists tend to initiate and maintain specific friendships

based on desirable qualities of the other person. Collectivists form friendships

that are determined by their hierarchical role in the society. Collectivists per-

ceive and rate their in-group friendships as more intimate than do individual-

ists. On the other hand, individualists tend to apply the same value standards

to all, whereas collectivists tend to apply different value standards to members

of their in-groups and out-groups. For example, collectivists are likely to use

the equality norm (that is, equal distribution of resources) with in-group mem-

bers and the equity norm (that is, unequal distribution of resources) with out-

group members.

(Source: J.Neuliep. Intercultural Communication. A Contextual Approach.

2000, p 35-36)

Oral speech practice

A. Paraphrase or explain:

In individualist cultures, goals are set with minimal consideration given to

groups other than perhaps your immediate family.

Collectivist cultures are tightly integrated.

Individualistic cultures are more remote and distant.

Because the individual has been taught to be independent, social control

depends more on personal guilt than on shame or other social norms of con-

formity.

101

Members of individualist cultures tend to belong to many groups, but their

affiliation with them is short-lived. Give examples of the groups they belong

to.

Shared responsibility and collective accountability. What does it mean?

One’s behavior is role based, and deviations from the prescribed role are

discouraged and often negatively sanctioned.

Collectivists tend to see each other in terms of hierarchically ranks roles,

not as individuals.

Individualistic cultures train their members to speak out as a means of re-

solving difficulties.

B. Answer the questions:

What does “ingroup” mean? Who belongs to your ingroup?

What is “outgroup”? How does belonging to the ingroup or to the

outgroup influence people’s behavior?

What are the main characteristics of the individualistic culture?

What are the main characteristics of the collectivistic culture?

What are the main personal qualities highly valued in individualist and in

collectivistic cultures?

How do you understand the notion “face-saving techniques”?

How do you understand the notion “third-party intermediaries”?

How do you understand the proverbs “the squeaky wheel gets the grease”

(USA) and “the nail that sticks up gets pounded” (Japan)?

C. Discussion:

How do you think will feel a person from an individualistic culture in a

collectivist surroundings?

Why aren’t there purely individualistic or collectivistic cultures?

How can you explain the fact that cultures become more individualistic as

they become more economically advanced?

Give examples of the typical behavior of the representatives of collective

and individualistic cultures.

What cultures do contests “the best” originate from?

How did your parents bring you up? What are the qualities your parents

wanted to see in you?

D. Self-Test 2.

Assessing High-Context and Low-Context Communication.

Below are 32 statements regarding how you feel about communicating in

102

different ways. In the blank to the left of each item, indicate the degree to

which you agree or disagree with each statement. If you are unsure or think

that an item does not apply to you, enter a 5 in the blank. Use the following

key:

Strongly Disagree 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Strongly Agree

1. ____ I catch on to what others mean, even when they do not say it directly.

2. ____ I show respect to superiors, even if I dislike them.

3. ____ I use my feelings to determine whether to trust another person.

4. ____ I find silence awkward in conversation.

5. ____ I communicate in an indirect manner.

6. ____ I use many colorful words when I talk.

7. ____ In argument, I insist on very precise definitions.

8. ____ I avoid clear-cut expressions of feelings when I communicate with

others.

9. ____ I am good at figuring out what others think of me.

10. ____ My verbal and nonverbal speech tends to be very dramatic.

11. ____I listen attentively, even when others are talking in an uninteresting

manner..

12. ____I maintain harmony in my communication with others.

13. ____Feelings are a valuable source of information.

14. ____When pressed for an opinion, I respond with an ambiguous state-

ment/position.

15. ____I try to adjust myself to the feelings of the person with whom I am

communicating.

16. ____I actively use a lot of facial expression when I talk.

17. ____My feelings tell me how to act in a given situation.

18. ____ I am able to distinguish between a sincere invitation and one intended

as a gesture of politeness.

19. ____I believe that exaggerated stories make conversation fun.

20. ____ I orient to people through my emotions.

21. ____ I find myself initiating conversations with strangers while waiting in

line.

22. ____As a rule, I openly express my feelings and emotions .

23. ____I feel uncomfortable and awkward in social situations in which every-

body else is talking except me.

24. ____I readily reveal personal things about myself.

25. ____ I like to be accurate when I communicate.

26. ____ I can read another person “like a book”.

27. ____I use silence to avoid upsetting others when I communicate .

28. ____I openly show my disagreement with others .

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29. ____I am a very precise communicator.

30. ____ I can sit with another person, not saying anything, and still be com-

fortable.

31. ____ I think that untalkative people are boring.

32. ____I am an extremely open communicator.

Scoring: Reverse the score for items 4, 6, 7, 10, 16, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25,

28, 29, 31, 32. If your original score was 1, reverse it to 7; if your original

score was a 2, reverse it to 6; etc. After revising the score for those 14 items,

simply sum the 32 items. Lower scores indicate low-context communication.

Higher scores indicate high-context communication.

(Source: Adapted from W.B. Gudykunst, Y.Matsumoto, S. Ting-Toomey, et

al., “ The Influence of Cultural Individualism-Collectivism, Self Construals,

and Individual Values on Communication Styles Across Cultures,” Human

Communication Research, 22 (1996), pp.510-543)

Vocabulary

Key words and expressions Context, contextual elements of the communication, interactant, code system,

contextual elements of the communication, high-context transaction, low-

context transaction, convey meaning, explicit, implicit

Reading

Text 3. Characteristics of high-context and low-context cultures.

Hall argues that environmental, sociorelational, and perceptual contexts

have an immense impact on communication. High-context cultures generally

have restricted code systems. Users of a restricted code system rely more on

the setting for information than on the actual language code. Within a high-

context transaction, the interactant will look to the physical, sociorelational,

and perceptual environment for information. Of particular importance is the

social relationship between the interactants, especially their status. Because

the interactants in a high-context culture know and understand each other and

their appropriate roles, words are not necessary to convey meaning. One acts

according to one’s role. Words and sentences may be collapsed and shortened.

Users of restricted codes interpret messages according to their accumulation of

shared experiences and expectations. Therefore, high-context communication

is fast, proficient, and gratifying. The rules for communication are implicit,

and communicators are expected to know and understand unspoken communi-

104

cation. High-context communication involves using and interpreting messages

that are not explicit, minimizing the content of the messages, and being sensi-

tive to the social roles of others.

According to Hall, in a low-context transaction, the verbal code is the pri-

mary source of information. Users rely on the verbal code system for creating

and interpreting messages. Information to be shared with others is coded in the

verbal message. Moreover, the rules and expectation are explicitly explained.

They depend upon words to convey meaning and may become uncomfortable

with silence. In low-context transaction, the communicants feel a need to

speak. Hall wrote “most of the information is either in the physical context or

internalized in the person, while very little is in the coded, explicit, transmitted

part of the message” (Hall, 1976, p.79).

Consequences. Members of high-context and low-context cultures com-

municate differently, especially in regard to the use of silence. During a high-

context exchange, the interactants generally are content with silence since they

do not rely on verbal communication as their main source of information. Si-

lence, in fact, communicates mutual understanding. In communicative ex-

changes between persons of different status, the person with lower status may

recognize the higher status of the other through silence. In her book on the

contemporary Japanese woman, Sumiko Iwao writes that most Japanese feel

that expressing especially personal or intimate detail is best done nonverbally

and/or intuitively – that is, without words. Of course, Japan is considered a

high-context culture. In contrast, silence in most low-context transaction is

uncomfortable. Persons who do not talk are often perceived negatively. When

someone is quiet in a low-context transaction, others may suspect that some-

thing is amiss. Silence somehow communicates a problem. Low-context

communicators are expected to be direct and to say what they think.

Persons in low-context cultures typically separate the issue of communica-

tion from the person with whom they are interacting. A manager might say,

“Don’t take it personally”, as he or she reprimands an employee. High-context

cultures, on the other hand, tend to see communication as intrinsic to the per-

son. If an issue is attacked, so is the person.

Characteristics of Low- and High-Context cultures

High-Context cultures Low--Context cultures

Covert and implicit

Messages internalized

Much verbal coding

Reactions reserved

Distinct ingroups and outgroups

Strong interpersonal bonds

Overt and explicit

Messages plainly coded

Details verbalized

Reactions on the surface

Flexible ingroups and outgroups

Fragile interpersonal bonds

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Commitment high

Time open and flexible

Commitment low

Time highly organized

(Source: M. W. Lustig, J. Koester, Intercultural competence. Interpersonal

commumication across cultures. 2006, p.114)

Oral speech practice

A. Paraphrase or explain:

Environmental, sociorelational, perceptual contexts

Code system

Contextual elements of the communication

Implicit and explicit messages

Internalized messages

High-context cultures, on the other hand, tend to see communication as in-

trinsic to the person. If an issue is attacked, so is the person.

Persons in low-context cultures typically separate the issue of communica-

tion from the person with whom they are interacting.

Unspoken communication.

B. Answer the following questions:

What do people who belong to the high-context culture rely on in commu-

nication?

How do the roles performed by people from high-context cultures influ-

ence their communication?

What is the main source of information in communication between the rep-

resentatives of low-context cultures?

What is the difference between the attitude of people who belong to differ-

ent cultures to silence? How can it be explained?

C. Discussion. 1. Why is it difficult to communicate with people from a different culture?

2. Why did Edward Hall call culture as a screen?

3. What culture do you belong to? How do you know?

4. What kind of communication takes place between two people in a long-

term relationship?

5. Interaction of people with computers. What kind of communication is it?

6. Why is it important to know the social positions of people in intercultural

communication?

D. Read and get ready to discuss.

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The Power Distance Index

I. How frequently, in your experience, does the following problem occur?

Employees being afraid to express disagreement with their managers.

1. Very frequently. 2. Frequently. 3. Sometimes. 4. Seldom. 5. Very seldom.

The descriptions below apply to four different types of managers. First, please

read through these descriptions; then answer questions #2 and #3.

Manager 1.

Usually makes his/her decisions promptly and communicates them to his/her

subordinates clearly and firmly. Expects them to carry out decisions loyally

and without raising difficulties.

Manager 2.

Usually makes his/her decisions promptly, but, before going ahead, tries to

explain them fully to his/her subordinates. Gives them the reasons for the de-

cision and answers whatever questions they may have.

Manager 3.

Usually consults with his/her subordinates before he/she reaches his/her deci-

sions. Listens to their advice, considers it, and then announces his/her deci-

sion. He/she then expects all workers loyally to implement it whether or not it

is in accordance with the advice they gave.

Manager 4.

Usually calls a meeting of his/her subordinates when there is an important de-

cision to be made. Puts the problem before the group and tries to obtain a con-

sensus. If he/she obtains consensus, he/she accepts this as the decision. If con-

sensus is impossible, he/she usually makes the decision him/herself.

II. For the above types of manager, please mark the one that you would prefer

to work under.

1. Manager 1.

2. Manager 2.

3. Manager 3.

4. Manager 4.

III. And, to which one of the above four types of managers would you say

your own manager most closely corresponds?

1. Manager 1.

2. Manager 2.

3. Manager 3.

4. Manager 4.

5. He/She does not correspond closely to any of them.

(Source: G.H. Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in

107

Work-Related Values ,1980., p. 420)

Vocabulary

Key words and expressions

Equality, inequality, power, powerful, dependence, interdependence,

treated as equal, low-power-distance culture, high-power-distance culture,

hierarchy, obedient, obedience , obey, disobey, autocratic, authoritarian,

participative, superior, subordinate

Reading

Text 4. Power Distance

According to Geert Hofstede, although many cultures declare and even

legislate equality for their members, all cultures must deal with the issue of

human inequality. Although some cultures, like the US, affirm equality for

their members, some form of inequality exists in virtually every culture. Ine-

quality can occur in areas such as prestige, wealth, power, human rights, and

technology. Issues of inequality fall within the rubric of what Hofstede calls

“power distance”. In his landmark survey research, Hofstede defined power

distance as “the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and

organizations within a country expect and accept that power is distributed un-

equally”. Power distance can be seen in families, bureaucracies, and even

friendships. For example, inequality of power within organizations is inevita-

ble and is desirable in many instances for organizations to function effectively.

Military organizations are defined by power distance.

Hofstede categorizes cultures as possessing either large or small power dis-

tance. Cultures with a smaller power distance emphasize that inequalities

among people should be minimized and that there should be interdependence

between less and more powerful people. In cultures with small power distance,

family members are generally treated as equal, and familial decisions are

reached democratically. According to Hofstede, in low-power-distance

schools, teachers expect a certain amount of initiative and interaction with

students. The overall educational process is student oriented. In class, students

are expected to ask questions and perhaps even challenge their teachers. In or-

ganizations, decentralization is popular, and subordinates engage in participa-

tive decision making. The organizational power hierarchy is mostly for con-

venience, and the persons who occupy powerful roles may change regularly.

In fact, workers are expected to try to “climb the ladder of success” to more

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power and prestige. In this sense, persons in low-power-distance cultures may

recognize “earned” power – that is, power that people deserve by virtue of

their drive, hard work, and motivation. Moreover, low-power-distance cultures

tend to resent people whose power is decreed by birth or wealth.

Hofstede maintains that in cultures with a larger power distance, inequali-

ties among people are both expected and desired. Less powerful people should

be dependent on more powerful people. In large-power-distance cultures (In-

dia, Mexico), children are expected to be obedient. In many large-power-

distance cultures, there is a strict hierarchy among family members; typically

the father rules authoritatively, followed by the eldest son, then moving down

the ladder by age and sex. In educational settings, teachers are treated as par-

ents, with respect and honor, especially older teachers. Students who disobey

may be punished severely. In the workplace, power is usually centralized, and

workers and bosses are treated unequally. In many large-power-distance cul-

tures, Hofstede observed that workers are generally uneducated and superiors

are entitled to special privileges and status – in some cultures, by law.

Consequences of Power Distance

The consequences of the degree of power distance that a culture prefers

are evident in family customs, the relationships between students and teachers,

organizational practices, and on other areas of social life. Even the language

systems in high-DPI cultures emphasize distinctions based on social hierarchy.

Children raised in high PDI cultures are expected to obey their parents

without challenging or questioning them, while children raised in low-PDI

cultures put less value on obedience and are taught to seek reasons or justifica-

tions for their parents’ actions. Even the language of high-DPI cultures is more

sensitive to hierarchical distinctions; Chinese and Korean languages, for in-

stance, have separate terms for older brother, oldest brother, younger sister,

youngest sister, and so on.

Students in high-PDI cultures are expected to comply with the wishes and

requests of their teachers, and conformity is regarded very favorably. As a

consequence, the curriculum in high-PDI cultures is likely to involve a great

deal of rote learning, and students are discouraged from asking questions be-

cause questions might pose a threat to the teacher’s authority. In low-PDI cul-

tures, students regard their independence as very important, and they are less

likely to conform to the expectations of teachers or other authorities. The edu-

cational system itself reinforces the low-PDI values by teaching students to

ask questions, to solve problems creatively and uniquely, and to challenge the

evidence leading to conclusions.

In the business world, managers in high-PDI cultures are likely to prefer an

autocratic or centralized decision-making style, whereas subordinates in these

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cultures expect and want to be closely supervised. Alternatively, managers in

low-PDI cultures prefer a consultative or participative decision-making style,

and their subordinates expect a great deal of autonomy and independence as

they do their work.

(Source: M.W.Lustig, J.Koester. Intercultural competence. Interpersonal

communication across cultures.2006,p.125)

Cultures with high power distance have power and influence concentrated

in the hands of a few rather than distributed throughout the population. These

countries tend to be more authoritarian and may communicate in a way to lim-

it interaction and reinforce the differences between people.

In high power distance workplace, superiors and subordinates consider each

other existentially unequal. Power is centralized, and there is a wide salary gap

between the top and bottom of the organizations.

In cultures high in power distance, for example, corporate presidents’ of-

fices are more likely to be luxurious, with controlled access. Company bosses

are “kings” and employees “loyal subjects” who don’t speak out. In the low

power distance workplace, subordinates expect to be consulted, and ideal

bosses are democratic. In more democratic organizations, leaders are physical-

ly more accessible.

(Source: F.Jandt. An Introduction to Intercultural Communication.2004,pp

196-197)

Power distance is useful in understanding strangers’ behavior in role rela-

tionships, particularly those involving different degrees of power or authority.

People from high power distance cultures, for example, do not question their

superiors’ orders. They expect to be told what to do. People in low power dis-

tance cultures, in contrast, do not necessarily accept superiors’ orders at face

value; they want to know why they should follow them. When people from the

two different systems interact, misunderstanding is likely unless one or both,

understand the other person’s system.

Low and high power distance tendencies exist in all cultures, but one tends

to predominate.

(Source: W.B.Gudykunst, Y.Y.Kim. Communicating with Strangers.1997,

p.73)

Oral speech practice

A. Paraphrase or explain:

Some cultures legislate equality for their members.

The overall educational process is student oriented.

Centralization and decentralization in organizations.

110

Organizational power hierarchy.

G. Hofstede “…. the extent to which the less powerful members of institu-

tions and organizations within a country expect and accept that power is dis-

tributed unequally.”

B. Answer the following questions:

In what spheres of life can you observe inequality of people?

How does the culture type influence the educational process?

How does belonging to this or that type affect the company’s hierarchy and

communication within it?

What does decentralization tendency manifest?

How are children raised in different cultures?

How are decisions made in low-distance cultures and in high-distance cul-

tures?

What category does your culture belong to? Give examples to illustrate

your point of view.

C. Discussion.

1. Do you agree that all people in a culture do not have equal levels of status

or social power.

2. What difficulties might people from different cultures face?

3. Where and when do you think power distance is learnt?

4. How does belonging to this or that cultures affect the workplace?

D. Self- Test 3.

The Uncertainty Avoidance Index

I. How often do you feel nervous or tense at work?

1. I always feel this way

2. Usually

3. Sometimes

4. Seldom

5. I never feel this way

II. Company rules should not be broken – even when the employee thinks it is

in the company’s best interest.

1. Strongly agree.

2. Agree.

3. Undecided.

4. Disagree.

5. Strongly disagree.

III. How long do you think you’ll continue working for IBM?

1. Two years at the most.

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2. From two to five years,

3. More than five years (but I probably will leave before I retire)

4. Until I retire.

(Source: G.H. Hofstede, Culture’s Consequences: International Differences in

Work-Related Values , 1980, p. 405)

Vocabulary

Key words and expressions

Uncertainty, ambiguity, reduce ambiguities, consensus, deviant behavior, tol-

erance, intolerance, constrain behavior, dissent

Reading

Text 5. Uncertainty Avoidance

Uncertainty avoidance deals with the degree to which members of a cul-

ture try to avoid uncertainty. In comparison with members of cultures low in

uncertainty avoidance, members of cultures high in uncertainty avoidance

have a lower tolerance “ for uncertainty and ambiguity, which express itself in

higher levels of anxiety and energy release, greater need for formal rules and

absolute truth, and less tolerance for people or groups with deviant ideas or

behavior” (Hofstede, 1979). In high uncertainty avoidance cultures, aggressive

behavior of self and others is acceptable; however, individuals prefer to con-

tain aggression by avoiding conflict and competition. There is a strong desire

for consensus in cultures high in uncertainty avoidance; therefore, deviant be-

havior is not acceptable. Members of high uncertainty avoidance cultures also

tend to display emotions more than members of low uncertainty avoidance

cultures. Members of low uncertainty avoidance cultures have lower stress

levels and weaker superego, and accept dissent and taking risks more than

members of high uncertainty avoidance cultures. People in such cultures look

for a structure in their organizations, institutions, and relationships which

makes events clearly interpretable and predictable. Paradoxically, they are of-

ten prepared to engage in risky behavior to reduce ambiguities, like starting a

fight with a potential opponent rather than sitting back and waiting. Hofstede

summarizes the view of people in high uncertainty avoidance cultures as

“what is different, is dangerous”, and the credo of people in low uncertainty

avoidance cultures as “what is different, is curious”. Hofstede reports that in

comparison with members of low uncertainty avoidance cultures, members of

high uncertainty avoidance cultures resist change more, have higher levels of

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anxiety, have higher levels of intolerance for ambiguity, worry about the fu-

ture more, see loyalty to their employer as more of a virtue, have a lower mo-

tivation for achievement, and take fewer risks. In organizations, workers in

high uncertainty avoidance cultures prefer a specialist career, prefer clear in-

structions, avoid conflict, and disapprove of competition between employees

more than do workers in low uncertainty avoidance cultures.

Uncertainty avoidance is useful in understanding differences in how

strangers are treated. People in high uncertainty avoidance cultures try to

avoid ambiguity and, therefore, develop rules and rituals for virtually every

possible situation in which they might find themselves, including interacting

with strangers. Interaction with strangers in cultures high in uncertainty avoid-

ance may be highly ritualistic and /or very polite. If people from high uncer-

tainty avoidance cultures interact with strangers in a situation where there are

not clear rules, they may ignore the strangers – treat them as though they do

not exist. Different degrees of uncertainty avoidance exist in every culture, but

one general tendency is predominant. Cultures that tend to be high in uncer-

tainty avoidance include Egypt, Argentina, Belgium, France Greece, Japan,

Korea, Spain. Cultures that tend to be low in uncertainty avoidance include

Canada, England, India, Sweden, and the US.

(W.B.Gudykunst, Y.Y.Kim. Communicating with Strangers. 1997, p.71-72)

One of the concerns of all cultures is how they will adapt to changes and

cope with uncertainties. The future will always be unknown in some respect.

This unpredictability and the resultant anxiety that inevitably occurs are basic

in human experience.

Cultures differ in the extent to which they prefer and can tolerate ambigui-

ty, and therefore in the means they select for coping with change. Thus, all

cultures differ in their perceived need to be changeable and adaptable.

Hofstede refers to these variations as the uncertainty avoidance dimension, the

extent to which the culture feels threatened by ambiguous, uncertain situations

and tries to avoid them by establishing more structure. Cultures with low un-

certainty avoidance have a high tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity; they

believe in minimizing the number of rules and rituals that govern social con-

duct and human behavior, in accepting and encouraging dissent among cultur-

al members, in tolerating people who behave in ways that are considered so-

cially deviant, and in taking risks and trying new things. Cultures with high

uncertainty avoidance desire or even demand consensus about societal goals,

and they do not tolerate dissent or allow deviation in the behaviors of cultural

members. They try to ensure certainty and security through an extensive set of

rules, regulations, and rituals.

Consequences of uncertainty avoidance.

113

Cultures must cope with the need to create a world that is more certain and

predictable, and they do so by inventing rules and rituals to constrain human

behaviors. Because members of high uncertainty avoidance cultures tend to

be worried about the future, they have high levels of anxiety and are highly

resistant to change. They regard the uncertainties of life as a continuous threat

that must be overcome. Consequently, they develop many rules to control so-

cial behaviors, and they often adopt elaborate rituals and religious practices

that have a precise form or sequence.

Members of low uncertainty avoidance cultures tend to live day to day,

and they are more willing to accept change and risks. Conflict and competition

are natural, dissent is acceptable, deviance is not threatening, and individual

achievement is regarded as beneficial. Consequently, such cultures need few

rules to control social behaviors, and they are unlikely to adopt religious ritu-

als that require precise patterns of enactment.

(Source: M. W. Lustig, J. Koester, Intercultural competence. Interpersonal

commumication across cultures. 2006, p.120)

Oral speech practice

A. Paraphrase or explain:

tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity

deviant ideas or behavior

ritualistic interaction with strangers

patterns of enactment

B. Answer the following questions:

What are the signs of high and low uncertainty avoidance cultures?

What are the credos of people from different cultures?

Why do you think members of high uncertainty avoidance cultures tend to

display emotions more than members of low uncertainty avoidance cultures?

Why do people from high uncertainty cultures have a need for formal

rules?

What is the difference in the attitude to conflict and competition of people

from different cultures?

How do people from different cultures ensure certainty and security?

C. Discussion.

1. How do people in your culture cope with uncertainties?

2. Why do you think there is a strong desire for consensus in cultures high in

uncertainty avoidance?

114

3. Why do people from high uncertainty avoidance cultures in a situation

where there are not clear rules ignore the strangers?

4. Do you expect your teacher to be expert who has all the answers? How

would students from different cultures answer this question?

UNIT 6.

VERBAL MESSAGES

Starting up

A. Discuss the following issues:

1. The importance of language to the study of intercultural communication is

clearly captured by filmmaker Federico Fellini’s simple sentence: “A different

language is a different view of life.”

2. Eskimo languages have many words for different kinds of snow:

Qana falling snow; snowflakes

Akilukak fluffy fallen snow

Aput snow on the ground

Kaguklaich snow drifted in rows

Piqsirpoq drifting snow

Qimuqsuq snowdrift

How can you explain it?

Vocabulary

Key terms verbalization, vocabularies, meaning, meaningful, meaningless,

native speaker, nonnative speaker, vague, vagueness, bluntness, frank, get di-

rectly to the point, embarrassment, dignity, dishonesty, disregard, calamity,

courtesy

Reading

Text 1. Culture and the use of language.

Human language seems to be the only communication system that uses

meaningless elements to create meaningful structures.

Nothing more clearly distinguishes one culture from another than its lan-

guage. A comedic example of this cultural diversity may be seen from the var-

ious ways in which a sign announces a broken vending machine. In the United

Kingdom, the sign might read “Please Understand This Machine Does Not

115

Take 10p Coins.” In the United States, the translation would probably be “NO

10p Coins.” The Japanese version would express sorrow at the inability to ac-

cept 10p coins and offer apologies to the consumer. Although the rules and the

uses of a foreign language often appear arbitrary and nonsensical to nonnative

speakers, to the native speakers, the rules make perfect sense and seem more

logical than those of other languages. For you to understand the wide range of

diversity between cultures in how they actually use language we will examine

characteristics of language that include rules for (1) directness, (2) the

maintenance of social customs and relationships, (3) expression of emotion.

Directness.

Directness is the style that marks interaction in the United States. The lan-

guage used by most Americans can be characterized as direct bluntness and

frank, explicit expressions. Americans try to avoid vagueness and ambiguity

and get directly to the point. If that means saying “no,” they will say “no”

without hesitation. Such direct use of language is often viewed in other cul-

tures as a disregard for others and can lead to embarrassment and injured feel-

ings.

Many cultures of the world employ less direct language than do Americans

in an attempt to preserve the dignity, feelings, and “face” of others. They fre-

quently deem American directness and bluntness as impolite and possibly un-

civilized.

Mexicans are very concerned about respecting the individual and preserv-

ing dignity. Their values of indirectness and face-saving are evident in their

use of language. Direct arguments are considered rude. The Mexican usually

attempts to make every interaction harmonious and in so doing may appear to

agree with the other person’s opinion. In actuality, the Mexican will retain his

or her own opinion unless he or she knows the person well or has enough time

to explain his or her opinion without causing the other person to lose face.

This indirect politeness is often viewed by North Americans as dishonesty and

aloof detachment when in actuality it is a sign of individual respect and an op-

portunity for the other person to save face.

East Asian people tend towards language and verbalization involving few-

er words supported by the aesthetics of vagueness. Cultures with this orienta-

tion tend to be concerned more with the overall emotional quality of the inter-

action than with the meaning of particular words and sentences. Chinese, Jap-

anese, Korean, and Thai cultures, for example, employ language cautiously

because they favor moderate or suppressed expression of negative and con-

frontational messages. Because of the collectivist nature of their cultures, East

Asian speech frequently does not reflect the use of personal pronouns in an ef-

fort to emphasize the importance of the group rather than the individual. In

116

these cultures the primary function of speech is the maintenance of social

harmony. A Japanese saying states, “The mouth is the cause of calamity.” The

use of indirect language therefore, facilitates face-saving, helping to maintain

social harmony. Members of these high-context cultures expect their commu-

nication partners to be able to read between the lines or decode messages from

a context-based perspective. Thus, courtesy may often take precedence over

truth.

Social customs and relationships

Language serves to maintain and enhance appropriate social status and re-

lationships between and among members of a culture. This is an instance

where language functions to preserve the deep structure values of a culture –

be they very formal or informal. The Spanish language, for instance, expresses

formality through separate verb conjugations for formal and informal speech.

In Spanish, there are formal and informal pronouns for the English word you.

In formal speech, the pronoun usted is used, whereas in familiar speech, the

pronoun tu is appropriate.

The use of language to communicate social status is perhaps the most sig-

nificant difference between Japanese and Western communication styles. In

Japan, the very structure of the language requires the speaker to focus primari-

ly on human relationships, whereas Western languages focus on objects or

referents and their logical relationships. Japanese culture and society are

bound by rigid rules that govern social relationships and social status in all as-

pects of life. The Japanese language therefore, differs substantially in various

social situations. Separate vocabularies are used for addressing superiors,

peers, and inferiors. When a Japanese is speaking to someone of lower social

position, he or she must speak in a particular way. If a person is speaking to

someone of higher status, then he or she must use other appropriate language

even though the message content is identical.

In the Japanese language, a number of words take different forms for dif-

ferent situations, sometimes depending on relationships between the speaker

and the listener or the person being discussed. For example, there are many

words for you : omae, kimi, ariata, kisama, anata-sama. In addition, words

that men and women use differ in Japanese.

Expression of emotions

The manner in which emotions are expressed is subject to cultural diversi-

ty. Koreans, for instance, are far more reserved than Americans; verbally, their

feelings are neither freely or openly expressed. Love is neither expressed as

warmly as sweetly as in the United States. A Korean wife will maintain her

reserve and not rush to embrace her husband at the airport even though he may

have been absent for years. In Great Britain, the language is interspersed with

117

euphemisms that enable the speaker to avoid expressing strong feelings. For

instance, when English persons wish to disagree with someone, they are liable

to preface their comments with phrases such as “ I may be wrong, but…” or “

there is just one thing in all that you have been saying that worries me a little.”

Another example of this subtle form of speech is the frequent use of an ex-

pression of gratitude to preface a request, as in “I’d be awfully grateful if …”

or “Thank you very much indeed.”This restraint is also evident in the differ-

ences between American and British word choice. Compare the following

signs seen in the United States and England.

US: “No dogs allowed”

UK: “We regret that in the interest of hygiene, dogs are not allowed on the

premises.”

US: “ Video controlled.”

UK: “Notice: In the interest of our regular customers, these premises are

now equipped with central security closed- circuit television.”

All this means that language is inseparable from culture. Culture influences

language systems and rules for using those symbols. Meaning is culturally de-

termined.

(Source: L.Samovar, R.Porter, Communication Between Cultures, 5th Edition,

2004, pp.146-150)

Text 2. Cross-cultural communication styles

Communication theorists William Gudykunst and Stella Ting-Toomey ar-

gue that at different language acquisition stages, children learn not only the

structure and vocabulary of their culture’s language but also the various styles

of language interaction unique to their culture. Such language styles reflect the

affective, moral and aesthetic patterns of culture. Gudykunst and Ting-

Toomey describe a culture’s verbal style as its tonal coloring of a message that

is communicated through shades of tonal qualities. Gudykunst and Ting-

Toomey describe four verbal communication styles that have been identified

by intercultural theorists: (1) direct/indirect,(2) elaborate/succinct, (3) per-

sonal/contextual, and (4) instrumental/ affective. Variations of these styles

may exist in any culture but typically one style dominates within a culture.

Direct and indirect styles

Cultures differ in the degree to which speakers disclose their intentions

through precise and candid verbal communication. Persons using a direct

communication style employ overt expressions of intention. Such messages

clearly articulate the speaker’s desires and needs. Ambiguity and vagueness

are characteristic of an indirect style. True understanding is implicit. Coming

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not from words but from actions in the environment. Indirect communication

prevents potentially embarrassing moments that might threaten the “face” of

either speaker.

Elaborate, exacting, and succinct styles.

The elaborate, exacting, and succinct styles deal with by the quantity and/

or volume of talk that is preferred across cultural groups. There are three lev-

els: (1) an elaborate style that emphasized flashy and embellished language;

(2) an exacting style in which persons say no more or less than is needed; and

(3) a succinct style characterized by the use of concise statements, under-

statements, and even silence.

Personal and contextual styles

The personal communication style amplifies the individual identity of the

speaker. A personal style relies on the use of first-person pronouns in sentence

construction. A contextual style accentuates and highlights one’s “role” iden-

tity and status. There is a heavy reliance on the context rather than words.

Instrumental and affective styles

An instrumental style is sender based and goal-outcome based. Instrumental

messages are often constructed to persuade and influence others and to main-

tain one’s face. An affective communication style is receiver and process ori-

ented. The affective speaker is concerned not so much with the outcome of the

communication but with the process. Affective speakers often operate on an

intuitive sense and are nonverbally expressive.

(Source: J.W. Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 2000, pp. 217-223)

Oral speech practice

A. Define the communication styles the speakers use.

Situation 1.

Jim( USA): Ya know, Michiko, I really enjoy the time we spend together. I

really like you. I’ve been so happy since we met.

Michiko (Japan): Hmmm …. Thank you.

Jim: I mean, I feel like I’ve learned so much about you and your culture.

Michiko: Yeah, it’s very interesting.

Jim: I’m so glad you came to the United States. Do you like it here? What is

your favorite thing about us?

Michiko: Well, it’s pretty big. It’s very nice here.

Situation 2

Jim (USA): (Talking with food in his mouth). This is absolutely the best steak.

I love it! Hoe’s your dinner, there, big guy?

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Akira (Japan)(Slight smile): Very good… thank you, Jim.

Jim: I can tell a good restaurant when I see – eh? Whoa – check out that wait-

ress! She’s your type, stud boy! Hey, do you have any girlfriends yet? I don’t

think I’ve seen you with a girl, have I?

Akira: Oh…. This is a very nice place… thank you for bringing me here.

(Uncomfortable, doesn’t comment on Jim’s remark about the waitress or his

dating)

Situation 3

Mr Benton (USA): Ah, Mr. Yeh-Ching. I’ve been waiting awhile. Had you

forgotten about our meeting?

Mr. Yeh-Ching(China): Good morning Jerry, it’s so nice to see you.

Mr Benton: Well … I’m glad you’re finally here. I have all the material you

need to see about the new computers we’re installing. Here’s our plan…

Mr. Yeh-Ching:Jerry, have you seen much of our city?

Mr Benton: Well… I really don’t have much time for sightseeing. Business,

business. So, here’s my idea for installation.

Mr. Yeh-Ching: Our city is so beautiful and full of history. Please allow me to

arrange a tour for you. We can go together.

Mr Benton: I’d love to, but ya know …. Business is business.

(Source: J.W. Neuliep, Intercultural Communication, 2000, pp. 218-224)

What can you say about the preferred style Belarusians and Russians

use?

Discussion

B. Explain what the following terms mean:

1. Direct language

2. To save face and to lose face

3. Euphemism

4. Bilingualism

5. Multilingualism

C. Discuss the following issues giving examples to illustrate your point of

view:

Language is important to human activity because it is how we reach out to

make contact with others.

Language is the primary means of preserving and transmitting culture.

It is impossible to separate our use of language from our culture.

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Symbols (words) and sounds for those symbols vary from culture to cul-

ture. The rules (phonology, grammar, syntax, and intonation) for using those

symbols and sounds also vary.

Language serves as a guide to how a culture perceives reality.

The meanings we have for words are determined by the culture in which

we have been raised.

Culture “use” language differently when applied to issues of directness and

social customs.

There are difficulties in linguistic equivalence such as vocabulary, idiomat-

ic, grammatical-syntactical and conceptual equivalence.

D. Answer the following questions:

1. How do you understand the following statement “Human language seems

to be the only communication system that uses meaningless elements to create

meaningful structures.”

2. How does language influence our perceptions and our understanding of the

universe?

3. Why is translation difficult? Is accurate translation from one language to

another possible?

4. Why is it difficult to learn a new language?

5. Why do you need to know the culture to speak a foreign language?

Activity

1. Interview foreign students to learn about the difficulties they face learning

the Russian language.

2. Read the advice and comment on it. What else would you advise people

who are going to do business with people from other cultures?

Reading

Text 3.

First of all, it is a courtesy to know at least some of the essential politeness

words. Most people, especially if they speak a minority language, are pleased

and flattered that foreigners make the effort, even if it is only a phrase or two.

It is a sign that you do not take it for granted that they speak your language

and you appreciate the fact that they do.

Secondly, an acquaintance with someone else’s home language helps you

to understand them when they are speaking yours. If French speakers say “ ac-

tually” or “delay” or “interesting” when they are speaking English, they may

be using the words in the French and are the different English sense. When a

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Russian or a Chinese speaker answers “yes” in their own language to a nega-

tive question they are reinforcing the negative. For example, “Are you not go-

ing to sign the contract today?” – “yes” means that they are not going to sign

it. “ Are you not going to sign the contract today?” – “ no” means that they are

going to sign it. When they are speaking English or another European lan-

guage it is possible that they are keeping to their own usage. Such nuances are

useful to know.

Thirdly, language is not only a vehicle for communication but gives an in-

sight into people’s ways of thinking, attitudes, and behavior. Much of our

culture is handed down and disseminated through language. Look up “anglais”

in a French slang dictionary and “French” in a similar English dictionary and

you will sense the historical relationship of the two countries and the origin of

the stereotypes that they have of each other. (In short, the English language

associates the French with pleasure and sophistication, the British with vio-

lence and boring food.) Knowing that the Finnish does not distinguish be-

tween genders, that it has the same word for he and she, explains why Finns

sometimes mix up pronouns when they speak English. Knowing that Chinese

has no tenses, that verbs make no distinction between past, present, and future,

may help understand Chinese concepts of time.

Even when cultures speak the same language – as do Australia and the

United States – there can be vocabulary differences. When cultures speak dif-

ferent languages, translation is critical – but always imperfect. Scholars identi-

fied five translation problems that can become barriers to intercultural com-

munication. Each of these is discussed below.

First is the lack of vocabulary equivalence. Eskimo languages have many

different words to refer to snow. Were you to translate on a word-for-word ba-

sis, you would translate all those words into the one English word snow. Much

of the meaning of the more specific and more descriptive words – for exam-

ple, qualities of slushness or hardness or newness – would be lost in a word-

for-word translation. Languages that are different often lack words that are di-

rectly translatable. It makes the task of translation even more difficult.

The second barrier to successful translation is the problem of idiomatic

equivalence. The English language is particularly replete with the idiom. Take

the simple example of “the old man kicked the bucket”. Native speakers know

that this idiom means the old man died. If the sentence is translated word for

word, the meaning conveyed would be literally that the old man kicked the

bucket – quite different from the intended meaning. Think of how the ideoms

“out to lunch” and “toss your cookies” could cause communication problems.

The third problem is grammatical-syntactical equivalence. This simply

means that languages do not necessarily have the same grammar. Often, you

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need to understand a language’s grammar to understand the meaning of words.

For example, words in English can be nouns or verbs or adjectives depending

on their position in a sentence. In English you can say “plan a table” and “ta-

ble a plan” or “book a place” or place a book”.

Fourth is the problem of experiential equivalence. If an object or experi-

ence does not exist in your culture, it is difficult to translate words referring to

that object or experience into that language when no words may exist for

them. Think of objects or experiences that exist in your culture and not in an-

other. “Department store” and “shopping mall” may be difficult to translate

into some languages as “ wind surfing” is into others.

Fifth, the problem of conceptual equivalence refers to abstract ideas that

may not exist in the same fashion in different languages. The English word

corruption translates as the Korean word pup’ae, but the words are not con-

ceptually equivalent. For both people in the Unites States and Korea, the word

connotes negative, bad, improper behavior, but in the United States, corrup-

tion is a crime and wrong on moral grounds, whereas in Korean, corruption is

not morally wrong. It is wrong in the sense that it interferes with the proper

functioning of government and is bad in its social consequences. Even though

the word is negative and has similar interpretations, there are sufficient con-

ceptual differences to create intercultural communication misunderstandings.

(Source: F.E.Jandt, An Introduction to Intercultural Communication,2004,

pp.154-158)

A. Answer the following questions:

1. Why is it important for intercultural communication scholars to study both

language and discourse?

2. What is the relationship between our language and the way we perceive the

world?

3. What aspects of context influence the choice of communication style?

4. What does a translator or an interpreter need to know to be effective?

5. Why is it important to know the social positions of individuals and groups

involved in intercultural communication?

Discussion.

Give some more examples from the languages you know to illustrate the

fact that the language gives additional insight into the people’s culture.

Translate the English phrase “A house is not a home” and say how cultural

knowledge helps to understand the meaning.

Translate the following phrases “Eat your heart out”, “Eat humble pie”,

“Out of lunch”, “Toss your cookies”.

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Accurate translation and interpretation from one language to another is im-

possible.

Describe an ideal society from the point of view of the language or lan-

guages. Does a society in which people speak different languages offer greater

advantages?

Activities

o Meet in small groups with other class members and discuss variations in

language use in different regions of the country( accent, vocabulary, and so

on). Identify perceptions that are associated with these variations.

Unit 7. Nonverbal messages in intercultural interactions

Starting up

A. Discuss these questions:

Do you agree that a smile, a head nod, and eye contact may all have differ-

ent meanings in different cultures. Illustrate your ideas with examples.

Is it possible to say that nonverbal code systems are the silent language of

communication?

It is right to say that nonverbal means can have powerful effects on percep-

tions and interpretations about others?

Vocabulary

Key words and expressions

Apply standards, make judgment, call forth, make attempt, offer clues,

hold oneself, communicate a message, make signs, point to, makes a ges-

ture, make an eye contact, accent, verbal message, complement the verbal

message, contradict the verbal message, regulate the interaction, substi-

tute for the verbal message, reinforce the verbal message

A. Explain how you understand the following notions: Pancultural

communication tool

cultural interpretation

cultural standard

multichannel nonverbal communication

culture’s view of the world

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social disharmony

B. Translate into Russian. 1. The judgment of beauty across cultures is a perception that is ripe for eth-

nocentrism.

2. There it is not uncommon to see people of high status wearing a suit and

tie in very hot weather.

3. Posture and sitting habits offer insight into a culture’s deep structure.

4. Arabs use a very direct body orientation when communicating.

5. The taken-for-granted sign we make for beckoning is also culturally based.

6. It is important to remember that we are all more than our culture.

Reading

A. Read the article.

Text 1. Body Behavior

Appearance. In intercultural communication, appearance is important be-

cause the standards you apply and the judgments you make are subject to cul-

tural interpretations. In the US, people tend to value the appearance of tall,

slender women, but in many other cultures, the definition of what is attractive

calls forth a series of different images. In Japan, diminutive females are

deemed the most attractive. Buxom and stout people are also valued in parts of

Russia. There is a Russian proverb that states, “One need not worry about be-

ing fat, just only about being hungry.” Among Chinese you can see yet anoth-

er cultural standard for female attractiveness: many women keep their hair-

styles simple and make little attempt to draw attention to themselves through

self-decoration such as colorful scarves, jewelry, or makeup.” The judgment

of beauty across cultures is a perception that is ripe for ethnocentrism.

Attire. Clothing is also a reflection of a culture’s value orientation. Wheth-

er it is military attire, clothes as status, uniforms, or costumes, clothing offers

clues into a culture’s view of the world. For example, modesty is valued

among Arabs. Arab women cover their hair with scarves. Woman should

avoid wearing tight or clinging clothes which exaggerate her figure.

The Spanish link appearance to one’s rank. There it is not uncommon to

see people of high status wearing a suit and tie in very hot weather.

Perhaps nowhere in the world is the merger between attire and a culture’s

value system more evident than in Japan. The proclivity for conservative dress

styles and colors emphasize the nation’s collectivism and, concomitantly, less-

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ens the potential for social disharmony arising from nonconformist attire.

Body movements. How people hold themselves, stand, sit, and walk com-

municates strong nonverbal messages about: (1) your attitude toward the other

person, (2) your emotional state, (3) your desire to control your environment

(motioning someone to come closer means you want to talk to him or her).

Scholars have suggested that people can make as many as 700,000 distinct

physical signs. Posture and sitting habits offer insight into a culture’s deep

structure. In Japan and other Asian cultures, the bow is much more than a

greeting. It signifies that culture’s concern with status and rank. In Japan low

posture is an indicator of respect. The bowing ritual is actually rather compli-

cated. The person who occupies the lower station begins the bow, and his or

her bow must be deeper than the other person’s. The superior, on the other

hand, determines when the bowing to end. When the participants are of equal

rank, they begin to bow in the same manner and end at the same time.

In many countries (Germany, Sweden) where lifestyles tend to be more

formal, slouching is considered a sign of rudeness and poor manners. In Bel-

gium, putting one’s hands in one’s pockets is a sign of disrespect. Cultures al-

so differ in the body orientations they assume during communication. For ex-

ample, Arabs use a very direct body orientation when communicating. The

Chinese, on the other hand, tend to feel uncomfortable with this style and

normally will carry out their business in a less direct stance.

Gestures. In the US pointing is a very common gesture. Americans point to

objects and at people with the index finger. Germans point with the little fin-

ger, and the Japanese point with the entire hand, palms up. In much of Asia,

pointing with the index finger at a person is considered rude. In Argentina one

twists an imaginary mustache to signify that everything is “okay.” In the US,

making a circle with one’s thumb and index finger while extending the others

is emblematic of the word “OK”, in Japan and Korea it signifies ‘money, and

among Arabs this gesture is usually accompanied by a baring of teeth, and to-

gether they signify extreme hostility. This same gesture to a Tunisian means

“I’ll kill you.”

The taken-for-granted sign we make for beckoning is also culturally based.

In the US, when a person wants to signal a friend to come, he or she usually

makes the gesture with one hand, palm up, fingers more or less together and

moving toward his or her body. Koreans express this same idea by cupping the

hand with the palm down and drawing the fingers toward the palm. When

seeing this gesture, many Americans think the other person is waving good-

bye. In Germany and much of Scandinavia, tossing the head back makes a

beckoning motion. For many Arabs, holding the right hand out, palm upward,

and opening and closing the hand perform nonverbally asking someone to

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“come here.” And In Spain, to beckon someone you stretch your arm out,

palm downward, and make a scratching motion toward your body with your

fingers.

Head movements denoting acceptance and understanding represent another

example of how some gestures are rooted in culture. In the US moving your

head up and down is seen as a sign of understanding and agreement. This

same movement can have different meanings in different cultures. Among

Asian, Native Americans, Middle Eastern groups, it often means, ‘I hear you

speaking.’ It does not signal that the listener understands the message nor does

it suggest that he or she agrees. Greeks express “yes” with a nod similar to the

one used in the US, but when communicating “no”, they jerk their heads back

and raise their faces. Lifting one or both hands up to the shoulders strongly

emphasizes the “no.”

Facial expressions. Six pancultural and universal facial expressions are

happiness, sadness, fear, anger, distrust, and surprise. Despite the biological-

based nature of facial expressions, there seem to be clear cultural expectations

as to how cultural norms often dictate when, how, and to whom facial expres-

sions are displayed. In many Mediterranean cultures, people exaggerate signs

of grief or sadness. It is not uncommon in this region of the world to see men

crying in public. Yet in the US, white males suppress the desire to show these

emotions. Japanese men even go so far as to hide expressions of anger, sor-

row, or disgust by laughing or smiling.

The smile is another emotional display that is linked to one’s culture. Eve-

ryone is born knowing how to smile. Yet the amount of smiling, the stimulus

that produces the smile, and even what the smile is communicating often shifts

from culture to culture. In America, a smile can be a sign of happiness or

friendly affirmation and is usually used with great regularity. In the German

culture a smile is used with far more discretion, generally only with those per-

sons one knows and really likes. In the Japanese culture, the smile can also

mask an emotion or be used to avoid answering a question. People of lower

status in Japan may also use the smile to denote acceptance of a command or

order or the person giving the order. In Korean culture, too much smiling is

often perceived as the sign of a shallow person. Some of facial expressions

can be troublesome. Smiling is problematic in Indonesia where bared teeth

suggest aggression.

Eye contact and gaze. The reason the eyes are such an important commu-

nication tool is that the number of messages we can send with our eyes is near-

ly limitless. We have all heard some of the following words used to describe a

person’s eyes: direct, sensual, sardonic, expressive, intelligent, penetrating,

sad, cheerful, worldly, hard, trusting, suspicious. Eyes serve six important

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communication functions: they (1) indicate degrees of attractiveness, interest,

and arousal; (2) influence attitude change and persuasion; (3) regulate interac-

tion; (4) communicate emotions; (5) define power and status relationships; (9)

assume a central role in impression management. Most people in Western so-

cieties expect the person with whom they are interacting to “look them in the

eye.” But direct eye-to-eye contact is not a custom throughout the world. In

many cultures direct eye contact is a taboo or an insult. In Japan prolonged eye

contact is considered rude, threatening, and disrespectful. People from Latin

America and Caribbean cultures also avoid eye contact as a sign of respect.

This same orientation toward eye contact is found in Africa. In these cultures

making eye contact when communicating with a person who is older or of

higher status is considered a sign of disrespect or even aggression. In India the

amount of eye contact that is appropriate depends on one’s social position

(people of different socioeconomic classes avoid eye contact with each other).

In Egypt the issue is not social status but rather gender. Women and men who

are strangers may avoid eye contact out of modesty and respect for religious

rules.

Touch. Consciously and unconsciously, like culture itself, you use touch

out of social politeness, for sex, consolation, support, and control. In the US

people learn to shake hands with nearly everyone (making sure it is a firm

shake), hug certain people. You need only watch the news on TV or stand at

an international airport to know that there are major differences in how cul-

tures use touch, even in the simple act of greeting or saying good-bye. Mus-

lims, because of religious and social traditions, eat and do other things with

the right hand, but to greet with the left can be a social insult. Many Asian

people believe the head houses the soul. Therefore, when another person

touches their head, it places them in jeopardy. It is prudent for outsiders to

avoid touching the heads and upper torsos of Asians. People in much of East-

ern Europe, Spain, Italy, Portugal, and the Arab world will kiss when they

meet their friends. Hugs, pats on backs, and other physical contact are an im-

portant part of communication in Mexico. In much of Southeast Asia people

not only avoid touching when meeting, but also have very little physical con-

tact during the course of the conversation. In China men and women seldom

show physical affection in public. Touching fellow workers and associates is

not common in Japan. Patting someone on the back or putting a friendly arm

around them is not done.

Space and Distance. Your personal space, that piece of the universe you

occupy and call yours. You usually decide who may enter and who may not.

When your space is invaded, you react in a variety of ways. You may back up

and retreat, stand your ground or sometimes even react violently. Your re-

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sponse is a manifestation not only of your unique personality but also your

cultural background. A person’s use of space is directly linked to the value

system of their culture. Cultures that stress individualism generally demand

more space than do collective cultures. In collective cultures where people are

more interdependent, the members play, live, work in close proximity to one

another (Mexico, Arab cultures). In Germany private space is sacred. You

find the opposite view toward space in the Brazilian culture where conversa-

tion takes place with less room between participants.

Concept of time. Concepts and uses of time are also important when people

of different cultures come together. Most Western cultures think of time in

lineal-spatial terms. You are time bound. Your schedules and your lists domi-

nate your lives. The Germans and the Swiss are even more aware of time than

Americans. Trains, planes, and meals must always be on time. This is not true

for many cultures. Activity, not a clock, determines action. Most Native

American languages, for example, have no words for seconds, minutes, or

hours. Hence, for American Indians, and for many other cultures, being tardy

is quite different than it is for members of the dominant culture. In Mexico a

slower pace is valued. Whether when conducting a business meeting or visit-

ing with friends. And in Africa, where a slow pace is also valued “people who

rush are suspected of trying to cheat.”

Oral speech practice

A. Finish the following statements:

We use the actions of other people to…..

Nonverbal communication is culture ....

Nonverbal messages can be both intentional and …..

The basic functions of nonverbal communication are as follows…

Cultures differ in their perception and use of ….

B. Say if you agree with the following statements or not:

Most forms of nonverbal communication can be interpreted only within the

framework of the culture in which they occur. Illustrate your point of view

with examples.

Our nonverbal behaviors are spontaneous, ambiguous and often beyond

our conscious awareness and control.

We can’t make important judgments and decisions about others based on

their nonverbal behavior.

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Nonverbal messages are communicated by means of general appearance

and attire, body movements, facial expressions, eye contact, touch, smell.

Give examples to illustrate your point of view.

Silence is silence in every culture.

Cultures differ in the use of personal space.

C. Answer the following questions.

1.What aspects of nonverbal communication must we consider during inter-

cultural communication?

2. What are the messages that we communicate through our nonverbal behav-

iors?

3. What are cultural universals?

4. What are the cultural touching norms?

5. What role does culture play in how you perceive and use time?

D. Discussion.

Do you think there are more nonverbal behaviors across cultures that are

alike or more that are different?

What are some examples of cultural universals? Can you think of exam-

ples that either confirm or contradict the idea of cultural universals?

What is the relationship of nonverbal communication system to the verbal

message system?

Does moving your head up and down mean a sign of understanding and

agreement everywhere? What else might it signal?

What emotions can smiling display in different cultures?

Touch is one of the most fundamental parts of the human experience. But

cultural differences in the norms of touching can cause problems in intercul-

tural interactions. Provide examples of your touching norms that you believe

differ for people from cultures other than your own.

Activities

Ask students from a culture different from your own to demonstrate exam-

ples of their culture’s nonverbal means of communication. Compare with

your own nonverbal means. Make a list of similarities and differences.

In small groups, produce an inventory of common Belarusian (Russian)

gestures.

Select a topic you would like to know more about, for example Italian ges-

tures. Search the WWW for information.

130

Watch the news on TV to analyze how people from different cultures greet

each other.

Make a list of nonverbal rules that our culture determines.

PART III

UNIT 1

BUSINESS LEADERSHIP AND NATIONAL CULTURE.

MANAGERS AND LEADERS.

Starting up

A. Discuss these questions

1. How do you understand the word “management”?

2. Do you agree that management is nothing more than motivating other

people?

3. What is the primary objective of problem management to your mind?

B. Consider the following information and say what conclusion you can

come to:

1. “Leadership” and “management” are rarely taken as synonyms today.

2. For a company to be overled and undermanaged is as dangerous as

underled and overmanaged.

3. The three different approaches to understanding leadership are:

- the leader is a hero-person;

- leadership as a set of personal attributes;

- contingency theories of leadership.

The leader as a hero-person

The impact of heroes in business can be summarized in six dimensions:

- making success attainable and human;

- provides role models;

- symbolizes the company to the outside world;

- preserving what makes the company special;

- setting a standard of performance;

- motivating employees.

Leadership as a Set of Personal Attributes

Much research has focused on identifying the traits that leaders possess,

the competencies they have or their style (considerate, structuring, autocratic,

democratic, laissez-faire and the like). In order to illustrate this, here are two

131

classics:

a. Blake and Mouton’s Managerial Grid.

b. Likert’s Four Systems of Management.

The grid has two dimensions: concern for result and concern for people.

'Concern for result' includes the attitude of а manager/leader toward а wide va-

riety of things, such as the quality of policy decisions, procedures and pro-

cesses, creativeness of research, quality of staff services, work efficiency and

volume of output. 'Concern for people' is likewise interpreted in а broad way.

It includes such elements as degree of maintenance of the self-esteem of

workers, placement of responsibility оn the basis of trust rather than obedi-

еnсе, provision of good working conditions and maintenance of satisfying in-

terpersonal relations.

CONTINGENCY THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

A well-known contingency approach to management style has been sug-

gested by Tannenbaum and Schmidt. They propose a continuum of manage-

ment behaviours:

1. manager makes decision and announces it;

2. manager sells decision;

3. manager presents ideas and invites questions;

4. manager presents tentative decision subject to change;

5. manager presents problem, gets suggestions, makes decision;

6. manager defines limits; asks group to make decision;

7. manager permits subordinates to function within limits de-

fined by superior.

Which of these management/leadership approaches is taken will be influ-

enced by:

a. Forces in the manager, including his or her value system, confidence in

his or her subordinates, leadership inclinations and feelings of sensitivity in an

uncertain situation.

b. Forces in the subordinates, including their need for independence, readiness

to assume responsibility, tolerance for ambiguity, interest in the problem,

identification with the goals of the organization, knowledge and expectation of

decision-sharing.

c. Forces in the situation, including the type of organization, the effectiveness

of the group, the nature of the problem and the pressure of time.

Vocabulary

Key terms

132

leadership grid managerial grid manager strategic ownership involvement

concern arrangement contribute capability effectiveness solid contingency

personal attributes promote dimension fascinate attain extreme approach effi-

cient style

A. Match the following words with the correct definitions.

1. management

2. authoritative

3. subordinate

4. confidence

5. solicit

6. reward

7. encourage

8. engage

9. comprehend

10. yield

a) to perceive or understand; take into

the mind; grasp by understanding; have

an idea.

b) the act of treating; directing; carrying

on.

c) to make a request, application or en-

treaty to a person for business, support

etc.

d) to recognized or accepted as being

true or reliable.

e) under the authority or control of

another; of lesser order or importance.

f) full belief in the trust worthiness or

reliability of a person or thing.

g) something given or received in return

for a deed or service rendered.

h) to inspire someone with the courage

or confidence to do something; stimu-

late or help.

i) the income from an investment ex-

pressed in various ways; to give force

or supply a product or result etc.

j) to secure the services of; employ; at-

tract.

B. Complete the statements with suitable words and expressions from the

box.

grid promote leadership extreme managers involvement approach

efficient no concern yielded combination contribute style

1. Nobody has a good all-purpose definition of ________________ .

133

2. The _________ has two dimensions: concern for result and concern for

people.

3. Blake and Mouton recognize four extremes of style. Under 1.1 style (re-

ferred to as ‛impoverished management’) ________ concern themselves

very little with either people or results and have minimum _________ in their

jobs.

4. Another style is 1.9 management in which managers have little or

__________ for the result.

5. They _________ an environment where everyone is friendly, relaxed and

happy.

6. Another ________ are those who are concerned only with developing an

_________ operation.

7. It is possible to place every leadership _________ or management

_________ somewhere on the grid.

8. Classic studies on leadership as a set of personal attributes have _________

many interesting results.

9. The ideal management is a _________ of solid management and clever

leadership.

10. The managerial function of leading is defined as the process of influenc-

ing people so that they will ________ to organization and group goals.

C. Read some people’s advice on how to be a good manager. What do

you think of it? In pairs, discuss and agree on the three most important

pieces of advice.

Being a manager in any industry can be a fulfilling job, but it can also be a

difficult one. You will need to find the right balance of friendliness and au-

thority. You will need to create a good team atmosphere whilst achieving the

bigger goals. So how do you strike that balance? Some tips are to be taken in-

to consideration:

1. Do your job.

First and foremost do your own job. Managing people isn’t an excuse to let

them do the work whilst you look on. Sometimes your job may involve being

more strategic but your staff will respect you for doing what needs to be done

and being willing to pitch in like everyone else at times. Many of us have had

managers who use their role as an excuse to do less. Get the balance right and

earn respect from your staff.

2. Acknowledge the positive.

See the positives in your staff and their work. It is demoralizing for staff to

have someone only see what they have done ‘wrong’. Positivity breeds posi-

134

tivity. Genuine and meaningful praise goes a long way. Give feedback regular-

ly and let them know that you see the good work they do.

3. Don’t be afraid to manage.

Things don’t always go smoothly in any workplace. You are a manager, so

you must be willing to manage. If you need some help with this don’t be

afraid to ask your own boss for help or request training. You can make a work

situation worse by not being clear with staff if you are hesitant about manag-

ing. People appreciate genuine leadership. Practice managing and making the

tough decisions.

4. Be vulnerable.

If you make a mistake, be big about it and apologize. It can be scary, but

your staff will appreciate your honesty. No one expects a manager to be super

human. Everyone likes someone who takes responsibility for your actions. Be-

ing honest will help you create a culture of honesty.

5. Be real with people.

Indeed, be real with people. Being real is showing honesty, openness and

also humility to your subordinates. It can also mean that you truly are sincere

to them. Let people at work know about your life and find out about others. If

you let people know the “real you” it is much easier than having different per-

sonalities for your work and home life.

6. Communicate.

Let your staff know what’s going on behind the scenes, as appropriate.

This doesn’t mean you have to let your staff know everything. Sometimes

keeping communications back until the correct time can save panic and need-

less worrying. Communicate appropriately and consistently but be aware of

how communication (or lack of it) can affect your staff.

7. Lead by example.

If you want your staff to behave in a certain way, then lead by example. It

is not fair to expect your staff to do something if you are not doing it yourself.

6. Be self aware.

Be aware of your moods and how you communicate. You may not realize

how much of an impact you have on your team as a manager. Be aware of

how and what you communicate. Your team will pick up on it.

7. Trust yourself.

There is no one right way to be a manager. Trust yourself and learn

through your mistakes. Managing others is a great way to develop and en-

hance your leadership skills and create a positive work experience for yourself

and others.

Reading

135

A. Read the text.

MANAGERS AND LEADERS

'Management' is a word used extensively in business literature as well as in

business practice today. Its use dates back to the time in the history of indus-

trialization when owners became separated from administrators, that is, when

the former had too many manufacturing sites to handle themselves; so they put

'managers' in charge to run some of these sites.

Later, the use of the word 'manager' became ubiquitous when ownership

was spread over many individuals and institutions, and when such legal busi-

ness firms as 'Ltd', 'Inc.' and so on were established and individuals were ap-

pointed to 'manage' planning, supervising and controlling tasks in those firms.

Today the word 'management' stands for almost any type of administration at

various business levels and different ownership arrangements (private as well

as public), but also administrative positions in non-business organizations

such as sports teams, labour unions and government institutions.

'Leadership' and 'management' are rarely today taken as synonyms. Some

see leadership as a function of management: 'The managerial function of lead-

ing is defined as the process of influencing people so that they will contribute

to organization and group goals'. Others see leadership as a 'higher order or

capability' than management: 'A leader is an individual within an organization

who is able to influence the attitudes and opinions of others within the organi-

zation; a manager is merely able to influence their actions and decisions'.

Managers are people who do things right (efficiency); leaders are people who

do the right things (effectiveness).

However, for a company to be underled and overmanaged could be as

dangerous as for a company to be overled and undermanaged; therefore, the

ideal is a combination of solid management and clever leadership.

FORMAL AND INFORMAL LEADERS

In a sense, all approaches to leadership that have been seen so far are cor-

rect, but none is sufficient:

All deal more with the single leader and multi-follower concept than with

organizational leadership in a pluralistic sense. None deals well with the com-

plexities that arise from the fact that managers are both leaders and followers,

because of the very nature of organizational hierarchies. All bosses, including

CEOs, are also subordinate to other people or pressures.

Nor do any of these approaches deal effectively with another fact of life -

that informal social networks exert an immense influence which sometimes

overrides the formal hierarchy. A boss in one context may be a subordinate,

relative, friend, or colleague in other company settings. A person's formal job

136

status may be clear in the hierarchy, but that is only one part of an organiza-

tion's network of relationships. Less formal network ties often dominate a per-

son's or group's role behaviour.

All of this reminds us of what we often forget. Leadership goes beyond a

person's formal position into realms of informal, hidden, or unauthorized in-

fluence. Moreover, we need to remember that leadership, or the lack of it, is

usually better recognized by the so-called followers than by the formal lead-

ers. To some extent, these perceptions depend upon a person's formal status,

but they also depend upon the roles that a person is assigned, chooses, or is al-

lowed to take by others.

Very few organizational leaders could be called hero-leaders in a hierar-

chy. There is a need for leadership concepts that go beyond the notion of a

formal leader with many followers. What is necessary is a more holistic organ-

izational picture, where leader roles overlap, complement each other, and shift

from time to time and from person to person. This extended theory of organi-

zational leadership involves:

1. many potential 'leaders' in changing role relationships, who

2. move from often vague concepts of purpose and vision into

3. struggles with perceived certainty and uncertainty, and

4. reach patched-together decision actions in

5. a spiralling process involving higher and lower, newer and older producers,

actors and audiences.

This concept of organizational leadership includes both formal hierarchy

and informal or quasi-formal networks (Figure1.).

Formal Informal

In hierarchy Example:

New CEO

Example:

Secretary to CEO

In networks Example:

Shop steward

Example:

Mr. Jones

Figure 1. Multiple leadership

A formal leader in hierarchy can be a newly appointed chief executive of-

ficer (CEO). A formal leader in networks can be a shop steward selected by

the local trade union. An informal leader in hierarchy can be somebody acting

as the real brain behind a weak boss. An informal leader in networks can be

anybody listened to, no matter his or her formal position.

137

Effective organizational leadership involves hierarchical and social net-

work leaderships working in complementary tension patterns over time. Mul-

tiple leaderships and their tensions come from competing hierarchies and net-

works. Hierarchies and networks are mutually exclusive, or complementary

aspects of leadership. Management must constantly develop new leadership

patterns in each.

Barnes and Kriger call their pluralistic leadership approach a 'shoelacing

theory'. This theory is based on the following assumptions:

1. We need to stop talking as though executive leadership in decision-making

is primarily a one-person drama played by CEOs or formal leaders only. That

is an illusion, not an accurate report of how organizational leadership works.

2. We also need to observe and use paradox as a clue for action. For example,

it takes a hierarchical leader to take the step toward exaggerated trust. Only

such a step can begin the complementary networking process. That means

stepping outside of one's hierarchical role to create potentially competitive

networks. Hierarchical leadership is needed to create and support useful net-

working leaderships. Though less obvious, the opposite is also true.

3. Managers need to consider, and work on developing, complementary skills.

They need to create bases of trust across formal boundaries, built more upon

what one is willing to give up than upon what one can take away. Managers

must also face up to the meaning of networking leadership as complementary

to hierarchies, so that people in both roles maintain some autonomy while also

looking for ways to shoelace across the gaps. They might begin by looking

beyond any critical tension, dichotomy, or opposite.

4. Networking leaderships offer flexibility for exploring uncertainty and am-

biguity, as when hierarchical leadership wishes to search out an uncertain en-

vironment or explore new areas of opportunity which will eventually need hi-

erarchical leaderships to run them. The two perspectives must be shoelaced

actively back and forth so that neither, especially the more dominant hierar-

chical perspective, prevails when the other would be more useful. The skill is

to keep each independent and yet complementary. That is easy to say and very

difficult to do.

Culture (as norms, values and assumptions) is known to be implicit and in-

formal, and it operates mainly through the network of an organization. To

study leadership in hierarchies only is not just one-sided, but also misleading.

It is the willingness of people to follow that makes a person a leader.

THE ESSENCE OF LEADERSHIP IS FOLLOWERSHIP

Since people tend to follow those who offer them a means of satisfying

their own personal goals, the more managers are able to understand what mo-

tivates their subordinates and colleagues, and the more they reflect this under-

138

standing in carrying out their management actions, the more effective they are

likely to be as leaders. In the words of Colin Marshall, a former English busi-

ness leader (British Airways):

What is the essential element any successful leader absolutely must have? I

think it can be reduced to one word and a rather simple one at that: caring.

I cannot claim that caring leadership is terribly clever or even terribly new.

I can only promise that within my experience it works better than anything

else.

Leadership is partly a function of skilful deployment of personal qualities

but probably more of the interactive processes between leaders and their fol-

lowers and the more general processes through which purpose and commit-

ment are generated and sustained within an organization.

Culturally cultivated corporations have leaders whom managers and work-

ers can emulate - not just faceless bureaucrats.

Another way to state this is to say that a successful leader is relying on le-

gitimate power. Power often arises from position but it is derived from our

cultural system of rights, obligations and duties whereby a 'position' is ac-

cepted by people as being 'legitimate'.

TRANSACTIONAL AND TRANSFORMATIONAL LEADERS

So, leadership is many things:

• It is patient, usually boring coalition-building.

• It is meticulously shifting the attention of the institution through the mun-

dane language of management systems.

• It is altering agendas so that new priorities get enough attention.

• It is being visible when things are going awry, and invisible when they are

working well.

• It is building a loyal team at the top that speaks more or less with one voice.

• It is listening carefully much of the time, frequently speaking with encour-

agement, and reinforcing words with believable action.

• It is being tough when necessary.

• It is the occasional naked use of power.

Most of these actions are what Burns calls 'transactional leadership'. They

are necessary activities of the leader that make up most of his or her day.

However, Burns has posited another form of leadership, which he refers to as

'transformational leadership'. This kind of leadership builds on human beings'

need for meaning, leadership that creates institutional purpose:

The transforming leader is concerned with minutiae, as well. But he is

concerned with a different kind of minutiae; he is concerned with the tricks of

the pedagogue, the mentor, the linguist - the more successfully to become the

139

value shaper, the exemplar, the maker of meanings. His job is much tougher

than that of the transactional leader, for he is the true artist, the true pathfinder.

After all, he is both calling forth and exemplifying the urge for transcendence

that unites us all. At the same time, he exhibits almost boorish consistency

over long periods of time in support of his one or two transcending values. No

opportunity is too small, no forum too insignificant, no audience too junior.

Tichy and Devanna profile a number of common characteristics that dif-

ferentiate transformational leaders from transactional managers:

• They identify themselves as change agents. These leaders make a differ-

ence and transform the organization for which they have assumed responsibil-

ity.

• They are courageous individuals They are able to take a stand, able to take

risks and able to stand against the status quo in the larger interest of the organ-

ization.

• They believe in people. They are not dictators. They are powerful yet sensi-

tive to other people, and ultimately work towards the empowerment of others.

• They are value-driven. They are able to articulate a set of core values and

exhibit behaviour that is quite congruent with their value positions.

• They are lifelong learners. They are able to talk about mistakes they have

made. However, they do not view them as failures, but as learning experienc-

es.

• They have the ability to deal with complexity, ambiguity and uncertainty.

They are able to cope with and frame problems in a complex, changing world.

• They are visionaries. They are able to dream, able to translate those dreams

and images so that other people can share them.

It may be agreed that through culture (probably transformational more than

transactional), leaders can and should influence how other employees act and

how they spend their time. How this is done varies from one national (and of-

ten corporate) culture to another. Tichy and Devanna's list above is based on

experiences in the Western world.

Oral speech practice

D. Finish the following phrases:

1. Today the word 'management' stands for almost any type of …

2. 'A leader is an individual within an organization who is able to …

3. Effective organizational leadership involves …

4. To study leadership in hierarchies only …

5. Culturally cultivated corporations …

6. Power often arises from position but …

7. Through culture (probably transformational more than transactional), lead-

140

ers can and should influence how …

E. Divide the text into paragraphs. Find in each paragraph 1 - 3 sentenc-

es which best introduce or summarize information.

F. Discuss the following issues in pairs.

• Organizational Issues. Many systems fail because their designers make

unrealistic assumptions about the ability, motivation, and discipline of the

people who will operate it. This isn’t just a matter of one-off analysis.

• Methodology. Large projects usually take longer than planned, cost more

than budgeted for, and have more bugs than expected.

• Does your company/organization have a history of dealing with situations

like this one?

• Pretend you are a manager of a small company having some ethical prob-

lem. How would you solve it? Romans in the workplace. Your actions.

Activities

1. There is a vacant position for a new appointment in the sales department.

There are three candidates. They all have some experience working as sales

representatives. Decide who to select as a successful candidate. Explain your

choice. Give at least three strengths of the candidate you have chosen.

2. You are the sales manager. There are problems in the department. People

often have to work overtime and are, therefore, under a lot of pressure. They

are dissatisfied by the working conditions and you understand you must do

something about it. Your actions.

Writing

H. Give a short summary of the text.

I. Translate into Russian the following sentences.

1. A leader is an individual within an organization who is able to influence the

attitudes and opinions of others within the organization; a manager is merely

able to influence their actions and decisions.

2. 'Concern for result' includes the attitude of а manager/leader toward а wide

variety of things, such as the quality of policy decisions, procedures and pro-

cesses, creativeness of research, quality of staff services, work efficiency and

volume of output.

3. 'Concern for people' includes such elements as degree of maintenance of the

141

self-esteem of workers, placement of responsibility оп the basis of trust rather

than obediеnсе, provision of good working conditions and maintenance of sat-

isfying interpersonal relations.

4. Every epoch in history is asking for its own type of leadership as an expres-

sion of existing values in society.

5. In medieval society, leadership was built into social institution. In industrial

society, leadership had a major role in planning and supervising work - tech-

nological rationalism was combined with patriarchal values. In information

society, discussion is very much about people looking for charismatic leaders

who can provide meaning in life and reduce modern uncertainties at the same

time as social structures become more horizontal, and time as well as distance

is disappearing.

6. All societies, no matter where, are asking for leaders in their own terms,

exerting their function in their own environment.

7. It appears that where a company faces intense competition in its environ-

ment, the chief executive officer not only utilizes a more participative style in

decision-making but also introduces more control to be sure the delegated de-

cisions are carried out as intended.

8. The ability of leaders to draw others to them, not just because they have a

vision but because they communicate an extraordinary focus of commitment.

UNIT 2.

BUSINESS LEADERSHIP AND NATIONAL CULTURE.

UNDERSTANDING OF LEADERSHIP

Starting up

A. Discuss these questions

1. The definition and discussion of leadership has to do with culture as culture

has to do with people. Do you agree? What is your opinion?

2. In what way do leaders influenced themselves as well as influencing others

by their national norms, values and assumptions act in a business setting?

3. Do you agree that individual people within a business organization in any

position, without necessarily being heroes or formally appointed to power, can

have followers, that is, have a strong influence in shaping the standards and

beliefs of the organization.

4. It is very important to analyse business leadership in various national cul-

tures. How do you understand national culture?

B. Consider the following information and say what conclusions you can

142

come to: 1. Doing Business in Belarus

- Most of Belarus’s economy remains state-controlled but privatization has

recently increased.

- Belarus boasts historically important industries in wood and textiles and has

an abundance of cultural and historical sites. Belarus is highly industrialized

country and relies on Russia for its energy and raw materials. Foreign invest-

ment has not been popular historically, however Belarus is increasingly in-

volved in greater trade with Europe, exporting goods to places like Russia and

the UK.

2. Working practices in Belarus

- Before doing business in Belarus, it is essential to be aware of the unique

Belarusian business culture and the historical and political context which in-

fluences it.

- Negotiations and decision-making can be a slower process in Belarus than

what you find in more western societies. Be patient when doing business in

Belarus as rushing them might slow down and negatively impact business ne-

gotiations.

3. Structure and hierarchy in Belarusian companies

- Bear in mind that Belarusian business systems tend to be quite hierarchical

so always respect the different levels within an organization.

4. Working relationships in Belarus

- It is important to spend time building relationships with your Belarusian

counterpart.

- Don’t expect to make significant business progress if you are not prepared

to take the time to build trust and mutual respect.

- Indirect communication is common in Belarusian culture so pay special at-

tention to you Belarusian counterparts’ non-verbal gestures as they can add

significant meaning to a conversation.

Vocabulary

Key terms

distinctive implicit culture corporate culture interrelation interwined

management process affect legitimate comparative assumption contention

sociocultural variables inadequate methodological difficulty contextual varia-

bles evidence influence interact

A. Match the following words with the correct definitions.

143

1. distinctive

2. assumption

3. corporate

4. affect

5. comparative

6. contention

7. legitimate

8. inadequate

a) not adequate; insufficient.

not capable or competent; lacking.

b) denoting or involving comparison.

c) serving or tending to distinguish.

d) the act of taking something for

granted or something that is taken for

granted.

e) struggling between opponents;

competition; dispute in an argument.

f) forming a corporation; incorpo-

rated.

g) to act upon or influence, esp. in an

adverse way; to move or disturb emo-

tionally.

h) enjoying full filial rights; based on

correct or acceptable principles of

reasoning; sensible or valid.

B. Complete the statements with suitable words and expressions from the

box.

legitimate positions interrelation corporative significant

interact contention Influence interwined process

1. Individual people within a business organization in any position, without

necessarily being heroes or formally appointed to power, can have followers,

that is, have a strong ________ in shaping the standards and beliefs of the or-

ganization.

2. Some people are more change agents than others, and more likely to be

found in senior_______.

3. To understand a culture, it is necessary to know that the parts of the larger

cultural system and smaller organizational subsystem are interrelated and

_______ in an ongoing process of conflict and cooperation and accommoda-

tion.

4. For managers involved in international business, the nature and scope of

the _________among individuals, firms, and the national culture in which

they are located is critically important.

5. Corporate activity and national culture are closely _______so that national

cultural activity and understanding are essential to corporate activity, whether

international or not.

144

6. A nation's culture might influence any aspect of the management________.

7. In _________national management studies, culture is usually considered to

be a background factor (almost synonymous with country), an explanatory

variable or a broad framework influencing the development and reinforcement

of beliefs.

8. Cultural differences from any country to another are more ________than

many writers now appear to recognize.

9. There is increasing evidence to support the ________that management

practices, behaviour and effectiveness are functions of such contextual varia-

bles as size, technology, location and market conditions.

10. It is a well-established fact that different cultures possess different organi-

zational norms and behaviours standards and they are recognized as

_________ forms of influence.

C. Read some advice on Doing Business in Belarus. What do you think of

it?

Authors: Laura Dunn, MA in CrossCultural Communication

Mélanie Simon MA in International Communication

* Source: CIA World Factbook 2011 E: [email protected]

Doing Business in Belarus © Communicaid Group Ltd. 2011

Communicaid

Mitre House

12-14 Mitre Street

EC3A 5BU London

Belarusian Culture - Key Concepts and Values

Family – Although families in Belarus tend to be small, the connection be-

tween family generations is strong. It is not uncommon for a family to live in

confined spaces and often you will find three generations living under the

same roof. Children will usually have their elderly parents live with them in-

stead of sending them to retirement houses. As a result, you may find close

bonds between grandparents and their grandchildren. Falling birth rates in

Belarus have recently prompted the government to encourage families to have

at least three children.

Hospitality – At first, Belarusians may appear reserved and cold, however,

beyond this initial reserve you will discover that they are very giving, kind-

hearted individuals who try hard to look after their guests. Sometimes their

eagerness to please their foreign guests may appear over-friendly and very un-

usual to foreigners. Belarusians are keen to show the positive side of their life

145

and culture and will go to great effort to make their visitors feel welcome,

happy and impressed.

Doing Business in Belarus - Most of Belarus’s economy remains state-

controlled but privatization has recently increased. Belarus boasts historically

important industries in wood and textiles and has an abundance of cultural and

historical sites. Belarus is highly industrialized country and relies on Russia

for its energy and raw materials. Foreign investment has not been popular his-

torically, however Belarus is increasingly involved in greater trade with Eu-

rope, exporting goods to places like Russia and the UK. Before doing busi-

ness in Belarus, it is essential to be aware of the unique

Belarusian business culture and the historical and political context which

influences it.

Working practices in Belarus - Belarusians tend to prefer business meet-

ings that are fairly unpretentious and modest, however they do appreciate for-

mality so make sure that you dress smartly.

Negotiations and decision-making can be a slower process in Belarus than

what you find in more western societies. Be patient when doing business in

Belarus as rushing them might slow down and negatively impact business ne-

gotiations.

Working relationships in Belarus - It is important to spend time building

relationships with your Belarusian counterparts.

Avoid addressing your Belarusian counterparts by his or her first name un-

til you are invited to do so.

Belarusians will usually centre their social events around food. If you are

invited to dinner it’s polite to bring a gift of food or drink.

It is very common to offer foreign guests lots of drinks during dinner and

sometimes it is difficult to say no without offending the Belarusian side. For-

eigners are sometimes invited to a Russian Banya, a completely unique expe-

rience and great opportunity to build relationships so accept the invitation if

possible.

Reading

A. Read the Text

UNDERSTANDING OTHER COUNTRIES

Basic for understanding values and their development is that people tend to

stick to what is well known, to an already given environment and form of life

that they are used to. The fact that people are a product of their own culture

makes it difficult for everybody, researchers, ordinary human beings and lead-

ers alike, to live in a cultural context at the same time as questioning it. It is

146

difficult to engage in contextual, reflexive leadership and research, with the

requirement of examination and critique of people's own assumptions and val-

ues. It is difficult; but that is what a cultural framework for leadership and re-

search urges people to do.

As nearly all meanings attached to life are affected by values, practically

all are affected by culture, and this is reflected in human behaviour. The

strength and depth of cultural knowledge and beliefs, therefore, makes it diffi-

cult not only to question a person's point of view but also to adopt another's.

The overwhelming majority of people everywhere approach intercultural ex-

perience from a position grounded strongly in ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism is

the practice of judging people of other cultures by the standards of one's own.

It takes a prolonged stay abroad and mixing with other nationals to recognize

the numerous and often subtle differences in behaviour, because that is how

society has moulded people. Studies have proved that people are blind to their

own culture. In order to be able to work successfully with and for persons

from other cultures people must, therefore, first understand their own culture.

In the past, business managers who did not want to worry about the cultur-

al challenge could simply decide not to do so and concentrate on domestic

markets. In today's business environment, a company has no choice. It will

face international competition even if it still operates only domestically. In this

new environment, believing that concern about culture and its manifestations

is a waste of time often proves to be disastrous. In addition, because of serious

and costly errors, many managers, executives and technicians working in mul-

ticultural environments are now asking themselves questions such as:

1. What must I know about the social and business customs of country X?

2. What skills do I need to be effective as a negotiator in country Y?

3. What prejudices and stereotypes do I have about the people in country Z?

4. How will these influence my interaction?

The study of organizational behaviour at management schools, which in

the past almost exclusively reflected the American viewpoint, is now conduct-

ed from a variety of perspectives that consider the cultural norms, values and

assumptions in the area being studied. It is fair to say that managers have be-

come more sensitive to the variety of cultural manifestations in the modern

world. However, on a more basic (cultural) level than simply differences in

behaviour in various countries, the nature of what culture is and how multina-

tional firms can deal with it is less understood than it should be. Oversimplifi-

cations can lead to dangerous assumptions, so international leaders need cul-

tural sensitivity in their analysis of trends in world management and com-

merce.

147

Different nations have different cultural heritage which is largely invisible.

The invisible part consists of values, interpersonally held by a major part of

the population (but possibly differentiated by social class and ethnic group).

These values (as such, and as norms and assumptions) are what have been

called culture. This culture proper is transferred from generation to generation

through education and early life experience. These values have grown into so-

cietal norms. Such norms are very difficult to separate from more basic cultur-

al values. Societal norms, values and assumptions about life lead to behaviour

and determine to a large extent the political, economic and organizational so-

lutions which are feasible within that particular national culture. As mentioned

several times, such behaviour and solutions are not included themselves in

culture in this study, but understood as cultural manifestations.

So, there are at least two types of knowledge related to culture which an

individual manager and marketer must possess in order to cope with the prob-

lems of a different culture. One is a need for factual knowledge, that is, how

culture manifests itself in social customs. Such customs are relatively easy,

with a bit of effort, to anticipate, study and learn. The other type of knowledge

is harder to acquire; that is a more interpretive type of knowledge, an ability to

understand what is behind these social customs, that is, to get at the level of

social norms, interpersonal values and existential assumptions. This study

concentrates on this second, interpretive type of knowledge of culture and

many examples of such norms, values and assumptions will be discussed in

subsequent chapters. A few ways in which these may manifest themselves in

various social and business contexts, that is, introduce a few examples of cul-

ture as factual knowledge, are described in the following section.

At the factual level of understanding, managers in, for example, multina-

tional corporations need to know the social and business customs (manifesta-

tions of culture) of the countries in which they expect to operate. A few exam-

ples of such customs are:

Personal acceptability. Customs relating to personal acceptability are

perhaps the most important of social customs, and they differ widely. In Eu-

rope, people shake hands when they meet someone and again when they part.

In Russia, they may get kissed on both cheeks, but not in India, where people

do not touch when they greet each other. An Arab likes to carry out a conver-

sation more or less eyeball to eyeball. Latin Americans also like to stay close

when talking. Americans and Europeans want more distance. In Thailand, if

people sit with their legs crossed, they are rude. If people place their hands on

their hips, the Chinese will think that they are angry. A friendly slap on the

back by a foreigner will insult an Indonesian. In England, people who are ag-

gressive are boors. Americans and Europeans hold their forks in different

148

hands, and, in Arab countries, people are uncouth if they eat with their left

hand.

Time in social events. The part that time plays in social events also differs

among cultures. If a person is invited to someone's house in Sweden for a

meal, he or she should arrive on time. However, in Latin America, he or she

should arrive at least one hour late. In Spain, two hours late is better still. This

is the case for business appointments as well as for social events. In some

countries, 'tomorrow' does not necessarily mean the day after. Americans are

always in a hurry. They want to get on with whatever it is. Some other coun-

tries like to spend more time with preliminary discussions. Talking, negotiat-

ing and bargaining are all parts of the game. In Latin countries, as well as in

the Middle and Far East, haggling over prices is expected. The discussion

should not be hurried either. Pressing to get down to business right away will

intimidate a Japanese just as pressing for a deadline will offend an Arab.

Friendship and politeness. In most parts of the world, people do business on-

ly with people they know and like. If a new company offers them a product at

a lower price, local customers may say 'no' if this company's managers are

new to the community or are otherwise unacceptable. In order to carry on

business, a company's manager may have to be around for a while and to de-

velop friends. The Japanese are not likely to say 'no' directly if it offends

someone. With the Japanese, too, a 'yes' at first is not to be taken as a firm

'yes'. It may be just a politeness 'yes' which keeps the door open for further

negotiations which later on may become a 'no'.

The enculturation process, or the way in which values and rules of behav-

iour are passed from generation to generation, begins in infancy. The major

tool for this process is language. Language, including the many forms of non-

verbal communication, transmits elements so subtly that individuals usually

are not consciously aware that they act in response to the values and the norms

of the culture. Very often mastery of the language is required before a person

is accultured to a culture other than his or her own. Language mastery, howev-

er, must here go beyond technical competency because every language has

words and phrases that can be understood only in a context. Such phrases are

carriers of culture; they represent special values that have been developed to

view some aspect of human existence, for instance, what it means 'to succeed'

or 'to be a friend'. Language capability serves four distinct roles in internation-

al business:

1. Language is important in information-gathering and evaluating efforts.

2. Language provides access to local society.

3. Language capability is increasingly important in company communica-

tions.

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4. Language provides more than the ability to communicate. It extends beyond

mechanisms to the integration of contexts.

Again, it is not to be forgotten that nonverbal behaviour can be a commu-

nication process by which meanings can be exchanged between individuals.

Head nods, smiles, raised eyebrows and other facial expressions or body

movements have long been recognized as communication symbols.

LEARNING FROM OTHER COUNTRIES

The fact that countries have different cultures and cultural manifestations

does not mean that they cannot learn from each other. On the contrary, looking

across one's own border is one of the most effective ways of getting new ideas

in the area of management, organization or politics. One obvious example of

cultural transfers is that languages borrow extensively from each other to

avoid the need for circumlocution for useful terms for which the own language

has no equivalent. Words are borrowed for concrete objects (sauna from Finn-

ish; smorgasbord from Swedish) but also for concepts with a flavour related to

the cultural context of their country of origin (laissez-faire and savoir-vivre

from French; verboten and Weltanschauung from German; jihad and hajj from

Arabic; kanban from Japanese; and guan-xi from Chinese).

There are occasions when nations have denounced it as a shame or a defeat

to borrow customs from other nations - it has even been labelled 'cultural

imperialism' to do so. On the other hand, the Japanese built up their modern

country by borrowing extensively from others; and South-East Asia was

booming until 1997, partly because its newly industrialized countries eagerly

adopted American management and Japanese institutions. That this could be

progressive proves that methods in other countries are not completely culture-

bound.

In spite of the fact that, by and large, culture in this study is treated as a

given, independent factor, the international business entity and its leaders can,

of course, act as 'change agents' in their environment by introducing new

products, ideas, practices and values. However, deep-rooted norms, values and

assumptions are slow to change.

Modernization, perceived as a process whereby the old and the new ways

of life mix and coexist, will invariably result in tension between the modern

and the traditional. A country may, therefore, achieve economic progress and

become modern in some but not all aspects of human life. It could become

'neo-traditionalist'; new and modern in form and style but not in substance or

essence. In my words: a nation may change its cultural manifestations without

changing its culture!

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ISSUES WHEN 'MEASURING' NATIONAL CULTURE

As there is much misunderstanding when approaching a different culture in

practical life, there are many potential pitfalls when trying to comprehend

what is done when attempting to characterize or to measure a culture and try-

ing to understand the consequences of such attempts.

First of all, is a nation a meaningful unit of analysis? In one way, nations

merit special consideration in the study of cultures because they are the most

'complete' human groups that exist. As organizations, nations are defined both

according to territory and citizenry, and people are all ascribed one by birth.

However, the degree of cultural integration varies between one nation and an-

other, and may be especially low for some of the newer nations.

Even then, any nation could be looked at from a multicultural point of

view. Most nations are very complex and subculturally heterogeneous. Even if

reasonably homogeneous, there are many potential cultural dimensions to con-

sider, therefore, when nations are studied from a cultural point of view, this

can only meaningfully be done with a limited group in mind. Even then, try to

concentrate on one or a few phenomena. (for example, leadership).

Furthermore, when national cultures are compared, do not compare single

individuals. In all nations, there is a huge variation around any kind of 'centre'

or 'norm'. Many individuals do not fit this 'typical' picture. However, in every

nation, experiences 'are joined together' intersubjectively, somehow, and there

are feelings of belonging or nonbelonging among the inhabitants in a nation.

Even with a limited group in mind it is fair to say that it is possible, in every

nation, to find leadership behaviour which does not fit my characteristic at all

- and may even gain from diverting from it! On the other hand, from an

intersubjective point of view, it sounds logical that a more effective business

organization should fit in with the national culture, if for no other reason than

that fewer people would feel alienated.

So, how should a picture of a national culture be read? To answer this

question the distinction between explaining - the rationalist view - and under-

standing - the interpretist view - will have to be brought up again. Those who

attempt to explain a national culture are looking for 'typical' characteristics in

the sense of 'most frequent' among the members of the Culture. However, this

“most frequent” does not have to mean that it exists in absolute majority. It is

enough for an explanaticist that, in a comparative perspective, a characteristic

is more common in one nation compared with another to get a description of

their differences. What is consequently typical for a nation in an explanatory

perspective is, then, its specific distribution of cultural characteristics and the

151

percentage of individuals that share a certain profile. What might then be a

unique national characteristic is the dominating combination of cultural traits.

The explanatory orientation commonly leads to a conclusion among research-

ers that they are looking at the value system shared by a majority among the

middle classes in a society.

Applying an understanding approach makes things different. For an

interpretist, a statistical distribution of a cultural characteristic cannot exist

having a physical reality of its own - because meaning cannot be quantified!

Cultures can be distinguished from each other by the differences in shared

meanings they expect and attribute to their environment. Culture is not a

'thing', a substance with a physical reality of its own. Rather, it is made by

people interacting, at the same time determining further interaction. An under-

standing orientation is also based on a specific view on re-presentativity. A

representative sample (in a statistical sense) consisting of some members of a

national population providing a 'true', even if minimized, picture of the culture

makes, therefore, no sense (does not even exist). On the other hand, as long as

a person is in a cultural interaction, he or she is (or becomes) a carrier, even if

unconsciously so, of the culture in question. 'The problem' with a picture of

culture for the understanding researcher, then, is a matter of studying various

cultural manifestations (hopefully as much as possible actually living in the

culture or, at least, listening to and/or reading about statements from its mem-

bers - possibly indirectly through documentations from other researchers) and

from such studies arriving at an interpretation concerning norms, values and

assumptions among the members of the culture. This picture is a 'typified' (or

'ideal-typified') description, that is, a picture valid only given certain specified

idealized circumstances, circumstances which never exist in full at the same

time in reality. It could be said that the remainder of this study provides typi-

fied descriptions, that is, descriptions of business leadership in various cul-

tures as if leaders in those cultures were true to their type - behaving logically

and naturally consistent as a consequence of their particular cultural norms,

values and assumptions. Business leadership will rarely, if ever, appear in

such pure forms in reality.

Cultural pictures are consequently, with an understanding and interpretive

approach, by necessity a product of the researcher's interpretive efforts more

than true pictures in the sense of being 'average' or 'typical'. However, this

does not mean that these pictures are completely subjective and up to the re-

searcher alone. They should, at least, be adequate in the sense of being truly

accepted by other researchers with a similar orientation 'knowing' about the

culture in question, 'fit' theirs and the researcher's own data (which are mainly

qualitative), and be meaningful to the members of that culture (these people

152

should feel 'at home' in these pictures). If so, the pictures are a good typified

(but not typical) description.

It could be said that explanaticists want to make particular generalizations,

while hermeneuticists want to make general particularizations.

I have 'collected' my information by living for several years in each of the

five cultures that I describe and/or working with their nationals over extensive

periods of time. I am also Scandinavian-born and have a postgraduate degree

in Business based on American thinking.

Finally, no culture or society is able to create unique cultural characteris-

tics, which are only shown there and nowhere else. Cultures overlap each oth-

er and it is possible in one culture to find individuals who are more like mem-

bers of other cultures than, for instance, marginal cases in their own.

Oral speech practice

A. Finish the following phrase.

1. As nearly all meanings attached to life are affected by values …

2. Different nations have different cultural heritage which is largely invisible.

The invisible part consists of values, interpersonally held by a major part of

the population (but possibly differentiated by social class and ethnic group).

These values (as such, and as norms and assumptions) are …

3. Societal norms, values and assumptions about life lead to behaviour and de-

termine to a large extent …

4. Personal acceptability. Customs relating to personal acceptability are …

5. In Europe, people …

6. An Arab likes to …

7. In Thailand, if people sit with their legs crossed, …

8. If people place their hands on their hips, the Chinese will think …

9. Time in social events. The part that time plays in social events also differs

among cultures. If a person is invited to someone's house in Sweden for a

meal, …

10. However, in Latin America, he or she …

11. In Spain, …

12. Friendship and politeness. In most parts of the world, people do business..

13. The Japanese are not likely to say 'no' directly if it offends someone. With

the Japanese, too, a 'yes' at first is not to be taken as a firm 'yes'. It may be just

…

14. The enculturation process, or the way in which values and rules of behav-

iour are passed from generation to generation, begins in infancy. The major

tool for this process is language. Language, including the many forms of non-

153

verbal communication, transmits elements so subtly that …

15. Very often mastery of the language is required before a person is

accultured to a culture other than his or her own. Language mastery, however,

must here go beyond technical competency because every language has words

and phrases …

B. Divide the text into paragraphs. Find in each paragraph a sentence

which best introduces or summarizes information.

C. Discuss the following issues in pairs.

Describe the culture imperative for studying intercultural communi-

cation. Give examples to support your point of view.

Identify and describe the economic imperative for studying inter-

cultural communication. Illustrate your words with examples.

There are many reasons to study intercultural communication, in-

cluding the ones discussed in the text. What other imperatives can you identi-

fy?

What benefits can come out of interactions with those from differ-

ent cultures?

What is important for successful intercultural communication?

What are the factors which contributed to the expansion of intercul-

tural communication in the world?

What must one know about the social and business customs of

country X?

How will these influence you interaction?

Activities

1. Give the examples of the Belarusian Culture - Key Concepts and Values.

2. Read the news about intercultural events. Try to find articles about the

same incident from other newspapers that may come from communities quite

different from your own. What are the differences in the presentation of the

news?

Writing

A. Give a short summary of the text.

B. Translate into Russian the following sentences.

1. The fact that countries have different cultures and cultural manifestations

154

does not mean that they cannot learn from each other. On the contrary, looking

across one's own border is one of the most effective ways of getting new ideas

in the area of management, organization or politics.

2. Modernization, perceived as a process whereby the old and the new

ways of life mix and coexist, will invariably result in tension between the

modern and the traditional. A country may, therefore, achieve economic pro-

gress and become modern in some but not all aspects of human life.

3. There is much misunderstanding when approaching a different culture in

practical life.

4. There are many potential pitfalls when trying to comprehend what is

done when attempting to characterize or to measure a culture and trying to un-

derstand the consequences of such attempts.

5. Most nations are very complex and sub-culturally heterogeneous.

6. When national cultures are compared, do not compare single individuals.

In all nations, there is a huge variation around any kind of 'centre' or 'norm'.

Many individuals do not fit this 'typical' picture.

7. There are many potential cultural dimensions to consider, therefore, when

nations are studied from a cultural point of view, this can only meaningfully

be done with a limited group in mind (for example businesspeople). Even

then, try to concentrate on one or a few phenomena.

8. In every nation, experiences 'are joined together' intersubjectively, some-

how, and there are feelings of belonging or nonbelonging among the inhabit-

ants in a nation.

9. On the other hand, from an intersubjective point of view, it sounds logi-

cal that a more effective business organization should fit in with the national

culture, if for no other reason than that fewer people would feel alienated.

10. Culture is not a 'thing', a substance with a physical reality of its own.

Rather, it is made by people interacting, at the same time determining further

interaction.

UNIT 3.

AMERICAN CULTURE

INTRODUCTION

Starting up

A. Discuss these questions.

1. What is American culture to you ?

2. America has no culture. This country’s indigenous population was

pushed aside by its immigrant population. Do you agree to this?

3. American society is tolerant. Black, White, green, Black, gay, straight,

155

they're tolerant of anything. Here there's a big emphasis on not offending peo-

ple and I think it's nice to be polite and courteous and well mannered.

4. The better you understand the basic aspects of American culture, the bet-

ter you will be able to interact constructively with Americans and achieve

your objectives while you are living among them.

B. Consider the following information and say what conclusions you can

come to: 1. Americans are extremely independent, individualistic, and like to be dif-

ferent from each other.

2. 66% of Americans are overweight; 37% of those are obese.

3. Approximately 1% of Americans are homeless (3.5 million people).

4. Americans say that they don’t want to talk about politics, but sometimes

they do. It’s best to just listen first to see the other person’s point of view be-

fore you let them know your thoughts.

5. Americans talk easily to the homeless but use good judgment and are

careful with whom they talk.

6. Americans smile a lot and talk easily to strangers, sharing personal sto-

ries.

7. Asking “How are you?” is simply a greeting and is not a question about

your health.

8. Americans don’t push or stand too close to anyone in line. They always

wait their turn.

9. In a restaurant, the server is usually very friendly and helpful and often

will tell you his or her name. When the service is good, tipping is expected to

be 15 – 20% of the bill.

10. Usually, when friends meet at a restaurant they each pay their share of

the bill or split the bill in half. It’s called going Dutch.

11. Usually, when friends meet at a restaurant they each pay their share of

the bill or split the bill in half. It’s called going Dutch.

12. Americans have parties for many reasons. Sometimes they are held for

friends to get together and to meet new people. There is rarely music or danc-

ing at a typical American party.

13. At an American funeral, it is not normal to make loud sad sounds.

Americans try to keep strong emotions inside.

14. There is no traditional color or flower that symbolizes death. Any and

all flowers can be used at funerals.

15. It is not uncommon for American men and women to share an apart-

ment as roommates and not have a sexual relationship with each other.

16. Never ask Americans a direct question about their religion, age, money,

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salary, weight, or dress/suit size.

17. Be careful: Meet new friends in a public place many times before you

get into a car or give out your address.

Vocabulary

Key terms

impact descendant delineate hazardous indication anticipate abundance con-

vergence ethnocentric destruction egalitarian social barriers, informality

frankness efficiency promptness adequate

A. Match the following words with the correct definitions.

1. hazardous

2. anticipate

3. delineate

4. indication

5. descendant

6. abundance

7. convergence

8. ethnocentric

9. destruction

10. egalitarian

a) relating to, or upholding the doc-

trine of the equality of mankind and

the desirability of political, social, and

economic equality.

b) a person, animal, or plant when

described as descended from an indi-

vidual, race, species, etc.

c) to trace the shape or outline of;

sketch.

d) involving great risk.

e) to foresee and act in advance.

f) something that serves to indicate or

suggest; the degree or quantity repre-

sented on a measuring instrument or

device; the action of indicating; some-

thing that is indicated as advisable,

necessary, or expedient.

g) a copious supply; great amount.

h) a tendency for two or more econ-

omies to become more similar. This

may be, for example, in respect of per

capita incomes, real growth rates, in-

flation rates, interest rates, methods of

economic organization, or social poli-

cies.

i) home-country oriented.

j) the act of destroying or state of be-

ing destroyed; demolition.

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B. Complete the statements with suitable words and expressions from

the box.

informality exhibit reflected market value

emotion social barriers frankness

1. In the course of history, Americans have had to break down ________

again and again.

2. _________ seems to be a theme that runs through the American value

system.

3. It has been suggested that ________ is a primary value in the American

type of culture and that, therefore, company information should be available to

anyone who needs it within the organization.

4. Promotion is both from inside and outside and based on ________

('cosmopolitanism').

5. The power distance of a culture is ________ in the superior subordinate

relations in business organizations.

6. Americans tend to _________ yet separate it from 'objective' and

'rational' decisions.

7. Americans believe that individuals can influence the nature by hard work

('where there is a will there is a way'). This may called 'effort optimism',

which means that no goal is too remote for the individual who has the will and

the __________ .

C. Intercultural communication is now taking place all over the world. We

are encountering people with different ways of communicating in every area

of our lives including our careers and the business world, our social lives and

in our academic courses. This is an exciting moment but do you sometimes

feel confused or lost in these encounters? Did you ever wonder why your col-

league said "yes, I will try " when he really meant "no, absolutely not"? Cul-

ture is more complex than we realize! To be successful in intercultural com-

munication, we need some knowledge and skills. To communicate successfully

with a friend, colleague or acquaintance from another culture you should im-

prove your cultural competence and become a better intercultural communi-

cator.

Read some advice how to improve communication skills given to students

by experts in intercultural communication. What do you think of it?

1. Be aware of your own culture. Self awareness is the first step to effective

intercultural communication. Think about how you develop your communica-

tion style.

158

2. Be a learner: When you are trying to solve a problem with people from

all different parts of the world, you know that you have a rich opportunity for

learning. Try to focus less on asserting your own opinion or ideas and instead,

try to find out what other people's ideas are, how those ideas might reflect

their own culture and how various points of view could create a stronger solu-

tion to your problem.

3. Get curious: Curiosity is important when you are dealing with different

cultures. If you aren't curious about other cultures, then you probably haven't

had the chance to experience them. The challenge and the exciting thing about

intercultural communication is that everyone is operating on different assump-

tions and values. Travelling abroad is a great way to spark your curiosity

about different cultures.

4. Listen and observe: In US American culture, there is a lot of emphasis

placed on the value of speaking and voicing your opinion but not as much val-

ue is placed on observing and listening. There is so much that you can gain if

you are willing to listen more than you talk and watch how others communi-

cate. How do your international colleagues communicate nonverbally? How

close do they stand to the people they are talking with? How do they change

their intonation or speaking rhythm and what purpose does that serve?

5. Experience different cultures regularly: Travelling is the best way to in-

spire curiosity about other cultures but you can also have exposure to different

cultures by visiting different kinds of places and countries. You can also join

social groups for international professionals or even attend plays, art museums

or watch movies that are from another culture. Increase the variety of cultures

that you encounter in your daily life.

Reading

A. Read the text.

AMERICAN CULTURE

INTRODUCTION

The USA (also called 'America' in this study) is a big country in more than

one sense. The size of its economy, for instance, is roughly 20-25 per cent of

the world economy. Its impact on the rest of the world is, therefore, difficult to

neglect for anybody, particularly in business.

Due to its size, but also due to the fact that it is built up by a mix of immi-

grants and their descendants, the American culture is more complex and vary-

159

ing than most other cultures. Any attempt to delineate an American national

culture is consequently hazardous. In the USA, white American middle-class

cultural characteristics are considered dominant, but even then they do not en-

compass many significant characteristics among, for example, American Indi-

ans, Afro-Americans, Mexican Americans, and Japanese Americans.

Nevertheless, it is generally understood that a relatively clear American

business culture exists. There is also an impressive amount of research being

done discussing this topic. And, even if in America, as in other countries, there

is often a difference between the corporate culture of large corporations and

smaller companies, say in strength and/or family feeling, they may both be

part of the national culture.

In global discussions of culture, America is often placed in an Anglo-

American group together with countries such as Canada, Australia, the United

Kingdom and Ireland.

PROGRESS AND GROWTH

People in America tend to be future-oriented rather than oriented to the

present or the past. It is one of their fundamental assumptions that the capacity

to defer gratification (doing something that is not particularly pleasant today to

further future pleasure) is a positive indication. It is generally thought that

with this concentration on the future - together with a high value placed on ac-

tion and work, it is not only possible, but mandatory, to improve on the pre-

sent.

A future is also anticipated to be bigger and better. Americans foster a cult

of progress, and belief in progress involves accepting change and the idea that

change can be steered in a good direction. Progress in America is often meas-

ured in materialistic possessions, and it is perhaps most frequently associated

with technological control of the environment.

This is not only because of an optimism about people's amount of initiative

and ambition, even a drive for leadership, in the American type of culture, but

an American approach for dealing with the human element in productivity is

to concentrate attention on the environment.

A basic assumption of US culture is that nature and the physical environ-

ment not only can be, but should be, controlled for human convenience. If a

river overflows its banks and destroys homes and crops, dam it up or change

its course; if a mountain stands in the way of convenient travel between two

points, slice it off the top of the mountain or tunnel through it; if gravity is a

barrier to walking on the moon, simply build a sufficiently large enough en-

gine to propel past the earth's gravitational pull.

In short, Americans assume that the environment can be subjugated to the

160

human will, given enough time, effort and money. And it should - in the ser-

vice of humankind. This exploitative attitude toward nature has led to a mate-

rial richness of American society no doubt, but such a culture also ranks

preservation of the environment as only a tertiary value.

This American orientation is based on an economy of abundance, stem-

ming from the immense physical and natural resources of an entire continent.

In business, American managers not only value change relatively highly but

also value caution less. This suggests an active or dynamic orientation and a

willingness to make risky decisions. Uncertainty of life is accepted as normal,

and economic risks are judged by potential rewards. Many scholars have certi-

fied that the American economy is very entrepreneurial.

One aspect of controlling today for the future is that managers in the

American type of culture are more involved in strategy, and that they catego-

rize strategic issues as opportunities, while some other cultures (such as the

Japanese) overwhelmingly view them as problems.

Growth is seen as a vital need in America in its own right, but also to grow

bigger:

Big ... has always been the American calling card. In fact, I bet you can't

drive more than seventy-five miles in any direction, from anywhere in the

United States, without running into a 'biggest in the world' of some sort.

Some outsiders see American managers as obsessed with mergers, acquisi-

tions and short-term gains.

Controlling today (for the future) means to control time. To the American,

time is seen as just another part of the environment to deal with. In a culture

like the American, time is perceived as passing in a straight line, compart-

mentalized into discrete segments in a sequence of disparate events.

And in America, 'time is money'; it should be carefully used, properly

budgeted and should not be wasted.

Thus, time becomes a major concern, and in fact, plays a central role in the

everyday life of the typical North American. The majority of adults in the

United States have strapped to their wrist a device that divides hours into

minutes and minutes into seconds, so that no matter where we are we will al-

ways know the correct time. We punch time clocks to determine the quantity

of our work. We measure how long it takes a sprinter to run 100 meters in

hundredths of a second.

Even the biological function of eating is done in response to the clock, for

we often eat because it is lunchtime or dinnertime. Several years ago a major

US watch company spent millions of dollars on an advertising campaign that

claimed that their watches were guaranteed to lose less than two seconds per

month. Clearly, the company would not have spent that much money to con-

161

vey that particular message if it was not what the American consumer wanted

to hear.

Cultures with a sequential view of time, such as in America (and in Brit-

ain), are usually short term in their business strategies. Cultures with a syn-

chronous view of time, for instance in Japan (and in Germany), are typically

long term strategically. On the other hand, promptness in American society is

highly valued. To be kept waiting is often taken as an insult or a sign of irre-

sponsibility and, if late for an appointment, an apology is expected to be of-

fered.

There was a time when America took the ethnocentric view that they were

the greatest, and that everybody else was trying to reach their standard. One

example is an American business management professor who said: 'The only

difference between the American way of doing things and the way the rest of

the world does things is that the rest of the world hasn't caught up yet.'

However, the basic assumption of convergence among cultures is begin-

ning to be abandoned in the USA. The Americans, being so exposed, are natu-

rally highly criticized (as well as praised), for instance, because of

overcommercialization or because of a society breaking up, going from

Gemeinschaft to Gesellschaft (a distinction introduced by the German sociolo-

gist Tonnies more than 100 years ago). Occasionally, American firms success-

fully use American themes abroad. However, phenomena such as McDonald's

and Coke in a society may mean that it has adopted a foreign cultural manifes-

tation without necessarily having changed its own cultural values, a possibility

which was mentioned in the last chapter and which is an important distinction

for business.

MODERNITY

One aspect closely associated with progress and growth among Americans

is that they live in a society where youthfulness is appreciated. Americans tend

to emphasize what is new and young by keeping up with new trends (creating

many of them themselves) and maintaining a youthful spirit. The American

free enterprise system has encouraged this love affair with all things new,

quickly getting rid of old things. This 'throwaway', or disposable, mentality

has occasionally meant that the American culture has been characterized as

inhabited by 'waste makers'.

So, as part of their future orientation, Americans prefer to conform to

standards that are momentarily current and up to date rather than old-fash-

ioned. No current generation of Americans wants to be called old-fashioned.

Old-fashioned, however, is not the same as conservative. Even if there is a

tendency in the American type of societies to be less conservative, it may be

162

fashionable to be conservative - particularly if an aspect of the American way

of life is threatened!

On the business scene, American managers endorse 'modern' management

ideas and try to be up to date. And the American business style has truly been

popular (and in many parts of the world still is):

Currently the American business style is dominant because it appears to pro-

duce the efficiency required. Commenting on this, a European executive of a

United States company has emphasized five major traits in the American man-

agerial philosophy which have produced a successful penetration into other

cultures. One is the belief in growth as a vital need in its own right; another is

the belief in profit as a mark of efficiency and performance, and a producer of

social benefits. The third is a belief in free initiative and private enterprise as a

system which, in spite of its imperfections, has hitherto performed more effec-

tively than any other. The fourth element in this philosophy is that hard deci-

sions must be accepted for the sake of the well being of the whole organiza-

tion. Such decisions include the elimination of inefficient businesses, the dis-

missal of weak executives, and the down-grading of conventional status sym-

bols. The final feature is that change must be accepted in every aspect of the

working existence.

MATERIALISM

The action culture in America has made available the mass-produced

goods the American market wants - better than anyone else has. Americans

consider it almost a right to be materially well off and physically comfortable.

They expect convenient transport, a variety of clean and healthful foods and

comfortable homes equipped with lab our saving devices.

Materialism is a major force behind the American genius for devising and

employing machines to provide efficiency and convenience in daily life.

Americans are famous for taking all kinds of gadgets and machines with them

on their trips abroad. They exhibit a strong tendency to perceive their tasks as

requiring the use of machines, tools, and equipment.

The high value placed on materialism in the American culture is some-

times reflected in an ethnocentric attitude towards other individuals, groups

and societies as being 'underdeveloped' or 'poor', if they do not have the high

standard of living as measured by American material orientation.

Achievement is defined in terms of recognition and wealth in the Ameri-

can type of societies. This orientation towards money and materialistic posses-

sions may even make people prefer additional salaries to shorter working

hours. In general, American companies appear to rely much more on monetary

rewards than do, for instance, typified Japanese firms.

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ACTIVITY AND WORK ORIENTATION

Unlike cultures in the East, the West has developed separate institutions

with separate spheres of influence for the spiritual life and for the material as-

pects of life of human beings. The commercial institutions have been allocated

the role of the latter. This means that the spiritual and social life of humankind

in Western thinking is outside work.

In fact, one of the most important distinctions in the forms of activity in

American life is the separation of work from play. Work is pursued for living.

Play is relief from work. However, that is not all; the American culture is also

very doing-oriented. This is reflected in phrases like: 'Getting things done' and

'Let's do something about it'. This, together with the American materialistic

way, makes the country an almost perfect example of a culture that stresses

activity and work. A foreign visitor in the USA quickly gains an impression of

life lived at a fast pace and of people constantly active.

One element in America's lexicon of values is the emphasis placed on

work, activity, and achievement. Throughout its history as a nation, the United

States has been known for its high levels of human energy, its aversion to

idleness, and its preference for the person of action over the person of ideas.

These values, that is, those individuals must work hard to accomplish ob-

jectives and the positive sanctions to work, achievement and activity, were

brought over by some of the immigrants and were necessary for surviving and

taming the wilderness. They became known as the 'Protestant ethic'. This Puri-

tan orientation views human nature as basically evil but perfectible. Constant

control and discipline of self is required.

So, Americans believe that individuals can influence the nature by hard

work ('where there is a will there is a way'). This may be called 'effort

optimism', which means that no goal is too remote for the individual who has

the will and the determination. The converse also holds, that is, failure means

that the individual did not try hard enough, is lazy, or even worthless. Promo-

tion and pay should be based on performance, not seniority, and people should

be removed, or even fired, if they cannot perform, according to the American

culture.

INFORMALITY AND EQUALITY

Americans are informal. This, together with goal orientation, means that

Americans tend to be on the expressive side. Perhaps this is because their

country is inhabited by many immigrants. In the course of history, Americans

have had to break down social barriers again and again. This could be a differ-

ent experience from living in a more 'settled' country. In such a case, it may be

164

harder to avoid those you grew up with; friendship tends to start early in life

and lasts many years.

Informality seems to be a theme that runs through the American value sys-

tem. Americans also frequently assume that informality is a prerequisite for

sincerity. They may feel uncomfortable faced with formal ceremonies and

strict traditions. Their informality may make them resist referring to ascribed

characteristics such as age and birthplace. Informality is also shown in the

English language where, unlike several European continental languages, there

is no difference between an informal and a formal you.

It has been suggested that frankness is a primary value in the American

type of culture and that, therefore, company information should be available to

anyone who needs it within the organization.

As a consequence of informality and openness in American organizations,

conflicts are seen as natural. Deviant behaviour is also not felt like a threat;

people have greater tolerance and preparedness to trust others. Americans tend

to exhibit emotion, yet separate it from 'objective' and 'rational' decisions.

This could be seen as a result of the clear distinction between work and pleas-

ure in the USA, a fact which has already been mentioned.

Power distance is medium in the USA. Characteristics of such a culture in-

clude:

• subordinates expect superiors to consult them but will accept autocratic

behaviour as well;

• ideal superior to most is a resourceful democrat;

• laws and rules apply to all but a certain level of privileges for superiors is

judged as normal;

• status symbols for superiors contribute moderately to their authority and

will be accepted by subordinates.

There are no generally recognized social classes in the USA, income and

achievement act as the main differentiators, and the American culture empha-

sizes equality in social relationships. The value of equality is prevalent in both

primary (in the family) and secondary (among friends, at work) social rela-

tionships in American society. There is also relative equality of sexes in the

USA. Furthermore, an emphasis on external conformity easily develops out

of the American premise of basic human equality: if all are equal, then all

have an equal right to judge their fellows and to criticize their conduct accord-

ing to commonly accepted standards. There are, as is widely known, many

people in higher official positions in the USA who have had their moral stand-

ards scrutinized in public.

The value of basic human equality and democracy is so ingrained among

Americans that many of them became shocked and even frightened when they

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perceived that the communist world undermined such a value in substance and

officially claimed otherwise.

The power distance of a culture is reflected in the superior subordinate re-

lations in business organizations. A short power distance is an inducement to

greater volume and variety of vertical communication and participative deci-

sion style. As previously mentioned, the USA has a medium power distance. It

is common for such countries to advocate participation in the manager's deci-

sions by his or her subordinates; however, the initiative towards this is sup-

posed to be taken by the manager.

The value of equality in the American culture sometimes conflicts with the

values of individualism and freedom. Opportunities, value standards, policies

and practices apply to all ('universalism') in this culture; at the same time a

person who, on his or her own, is able to make it and stand out above the

crowd, is much admired.

Company triangles (the organizational hierarchies) are generally very flat

in the USA. A hierarchy in the American culture means inequality of roles,

established for convenience. Promotion is both from inside and outside and

based on market value ('cosmopolitanism'). Proposals for promotion and for

an increase in salary can come from the employee's direct superior, and do not

have to come from the top of the hierarchy. The organization type is implicitly

structured in the American culture; managers are more interpersonally orient-

ed and flexible in their styles, and informal employee consultation is possible

without formal participation.

Increasingly popular in the American business society (which corresponds

well to the calls for the destruction of bureaucracy, to the democratic norms

prevalent there and to its increasingly better educated workforce) is to use task

forces, integrating managers and project structures. Even such a relatively

complex organizational structure as a matrix could be adequate there. This is

because in the American culture, problems are resolved not by referring to hi-

erarchy, not by establishing procedures, but by horizontal negotiations. There

are fewer written rules in this culture and organizational development tech-

niques for stimulating interpersonal openness and feedback are natural there.

Management by objectives is also an appropriate management system in the

American culture.

Oral speech practice

A. Finish the following phrases.

1. Americans foster a cult of progress, and belief in progress involves … .

2. Progress in America is often measured in materialistic possessions, and it

166

is perhaps most frequently associated with … .

3. A basic assumption of US culture is that nature and the physical envi-

ronment not only can be, but .. . .

4. Promptness in American society is highly valued. To be kept waiting is

often as … .

5. One aspect closely associated with progress and growth among Ameri-

cans is that … .

6. Currently the American business style is dominant because … .

7. One of the most important distinctions in the forms of activity in Ameri-

can life is … .

8. Americans are informal. This, together with goal orientation, means that

Americans tend to be on the expressive side. Perhaps this is because … .

9. The value of equality in the American culture sometimes conflicts … .

B. Divide the text into paragraphs. Find in each paragraph a sentence

which best introduces or summarizes information.

C. Discuss the following issues in pairs.

• There are many reasons to study different cultures including the one

discussed in the text. What important information have you learnt which may

be useful for your intercultural communication?

What benefits can come out of interactions with those from differ-

ent cultures?

How different is the American culture from your country?

In what way?

Activities

1. There are many students from different countries at the University. There

is a great opportunity for you to increase intercultural communication. Try to

use every opportunity to speak to foreign students and socialize with them.

2. Take an interview from some of them, ask about their national culture,

compare it with the Belarusian culture, use it in your work/social activity.

Writing

A. Give a short summary of the text.

167

B. Translate into Russian the following sentences.

1. On the business scene, American managers endorse 'modern' manage-

ment ideas and try to be up to date.

2. Currently the American business style is dominant because it appears to

produce the efficiency required.

3. Americans consider it almost a right to be materially well off and physi-

cally comfortable.

4. They expect convenient transport, a variety of clean and healthful foods

and comfortable homes equipped with labour-saving devices.

5. Unlike cultures in the East, the West has developed separate institutions

with separate spheres of influence for the spiritual life and for the material as-

pects of life of human beings.

6. The American culture is also very doing-oriented. This is reflected in

phrases like: 'Getting things done' and 'Let's do something about it'.

7. One element in America's lexicon of values is the emphasis placed on

work, activity, and achievement.

8. Americans believe that individuals can influence the nature by hard work

('where there is a will there is a way'). This may be called 'effort optimism',

which means that no goal is too remote for the individual who has the will and

the determination.

9. An emphasis on external conformity easily develops out of the American

premise of basic human equality: if all are equal, then all have an equal right

to judge their fellows and to criticize their conduct according to commonly ac-

cepted standards.

10. Promotion is both from inside and outside and based on market value.

UNIT 4

AMERICAN CULTURE

LOGIC, EFFICIENCY AND PRAGMATISM

Starting up

A. Discuss these questions.

1. Efficient is a word of high praise in American society that has long em-

phasized adaptability, technological innovation, economic expansion, mass

production, standardization, up-to-dateness, practicality, expediency, and

'getting things done'.

168

2. From what has been understood of the American culture so far, it is natu-

ral to expect that the typified American management is very task-oriented and

rational, known for solving problems successfully, quickly and decisively.

3. Time orientation is intense in the American culture. So, when an Ameri-

can manager complains that 'I have spent the whole damn day on the phone',

he or she is giving voice to the image that a precious resource - time - may

have been wasted.

4. Like many of his other public pronouncements, President Obama’s recent

comment about self-made wealthy people - “If you’ve been successful, you

didn’t get there on your own.” - is a truism that actually proves the opposite of

what he suggests.

B. Consider these statistics and say what conclusions you can come to:

Some interesting Facts About The U.S. Economy In 2012

By Michael, on February 22nd, 2012

1. According to Gallup, the unemployment rate was at 8.3% in mid-January

but rose to 9.0% in mid-February.

2. Sadly, 43 percent of all American families spend more than they earn

each year.

3. If you gathered together all of the workers that are "officially" unem-

ployed in the United States into one nation, they would constitute the 68th

largest country in the entire world.

4. When Barack Obama first took office, the number of "long-term unem-

ployed workers" in the United States was approximately 2.6 million. Today,

that number is sitting at 5.6 million.

5. The average duration of unemployment in the United States is hovering

close to an all-time record high.

6. According to the New York Times, approximately 100 million Ameri-

cans are either living in poverty or in "the fretful zone just above it".

7. After adjusting for inflation, U.S. college students are borrowing about

twice as much money as they did a decade ago.

8. Since 1983, over 10 million Americans have reached the 12th grade

without having learned to read at a basic level. Over 20 million have reached

their senior year unable to do basic math. Almost 25 million have reached

12th grade not knowing the essentials of U.S. history.

9. Underfunded. Many high schools are seriously underfunded, resulting in

less opportunities for students to succeed, particularly in low-income or urban

schools. In Chicago, more money is spent housing adult prisoners ($21,000

annually) than educating students ($10,000 annually).

10. Teacher salaries. The average teacher salary is $47,602 a year with new

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teachers averaging $31,753 a year. Some teachers earn as little as $28,590 a

year. The federal poverty guideline for a single parent with two children is

$18,310. New teachers and teachers in poorer districts are earning just over

$10,000 above poverty level.

Teacher qualifications. While most high school teachers have majored in

the field they teach and many are also certified in that field, it is surprising to

learn that among math teachers, 24% of them did not major in math.

11. Suicide. Suicide is the 11th leading cause of death in America, ahead of

murder, which is ranked 15th and is the 3nd leading cause of death in teens.

Handguns are by far the leading method of suicide for both boys and girls at

55%.

Vocabulary

Key terms

social barriers frankness induce promotion task-oriented rational sophisti-

cated predilection dissimilarity concern steer implementation appreciate pro-

motion profit economic ground intrinsic implementation integrated part(s)

loyalty

A. Match the following words with the correct definitions.

1. concern

2. dissimilarity

3. appreciate

4. rational

5. sophisticated

6. induce

7. frankness

8. promotion

a) straightforwardness; sincerity;

integrity; openness; plainness.

b) to persuade or use influence on ...

c) given a more important job or rank

in the organization that you work for;

an attempt to make a product or event

popular or successful, especially by

advertising.

d) using reason or logic in thinking

out a problem; of sound mind; sane.

e) having refined or cultured tastes

and habits; unduly refined or cultured;

(of machines, methods, etc.) complex

and refined.

f) difference; unlikeness; a point or

instance of difference; contrast.

g) to relate to; to affect; to involve or

interest (oneself); anxiety, worry.

h) feel thankful or grateful for; to ap-

preciate a favour; to value highly.

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B. Complete the statements with suitable words and expressions from the

box.

Implementation communicative skills economic ground

profit task-oriented intrinsic promotion failures

1. Typified American management is very ________ and rational.

2. The important business goal is ______ (and share price).

3. American management systems develop from a purely logical and

_______.

4. Motivations tend to be _______ in this culture; people are able to feel

enthusiastic about, identify with and struggle towards the final product. And

they are paid by performance.

5. America has a long history of developing business leadership models.

These models tend to be normative and concentrate on the planning and

making of the decision rather than on its_______.

6. Americans are not supposed to show signs of shyness (even if they have

the feeling). The USA has certainly a long tradition of rhetoric and students

perceive a pressure and demand for high _______ .

7. Though the American culture appreciates other kinds of achievement as

well (actors, entertainers, statespeople, scientists and generals, to name but a

few), _______ in business serves as the main path for moving up the ladder

for most people in society.

8. There is sympathy for the successful achiever in America. Americans

strongly disagree that respect should depend on family background. Young

men (and increasingly young women) are expected to make a career for them-

selves; those who do not are generally seen as _________.

C. Read some advice how to improve communication skills given to stu-

dents by experts in intercultural communication. What do you think of it? Ways to Improve Intercultural Communication

By Sue Balk, eHow Contributor.

1. Be Respectful. Treat others with respect and address them appropriately;

this is especially important for closing and opening conversations. If you’re

unsure of how to address someone, ask questions.

2. Be an attentive listener. Always check for understanding, and ask ques-

tions if you have any doubts.

3. Learn About Other Cultures. In order to avoid insensitive comments and

misunderstandings, research and learn about specific cultures. At the same

time, avoid overgeneralizing and stereotyping. Each person is an individual, so

171

try not to make assumptions about a person of another culture based on what

you have learned. Instead, aim for a better understanding and more effective

communication.

4. Avoid Using Slang and Idioms. Use specific and relevant words when

speaking. Slang and idioms will not be understood by people of other cultures;

try not to put others in a position that requires them to "read between the

lines." Think before you speak. Clarify or rephrase your dialogue when you

catch yourself saying something that may be misinterpreted.

5. Be Aware. Be aware of your body and energy; nonverbal cues and ges-

tures may communicate more than you think. At the same time, pay attention

to and be aware of others' nonverbal cues and gestures.

Reading

A. Read the text.

LOGIC, EFFICIENCY AND PRAGMATISM

From what has been understood of the American culture so far, it is natural

to expect that the typified American management is very task-oriented and ra-

tional, known for solving problems successfully, quickly and decisively.

Efficiency is a primary value in the West. American emphasis on efficiency

has consistently impressed observers.

Efficient is a word of high praise in this society that has long emphasized

adaptability, technological innovation, economic expansion, mass production,

standardization, up-to-dateness, practicality, expediency, and 'getting things

done'. The mere listing of those words and phrases reveals how the multiple

extensions of efficiency are used as a standard against which activity is

judged. ... American concern for efficiency at once sets this society apart from

others that place greater emphasis upon aesthetic, contemplative, ritualistic,

mystical, or other-worldly concerns.

It has also been seen that time orientation is intense in the American cul-

ture. So, when an American manager complains that 'I've spent the whole

damn day on the phone', he or she is giving voice to the image that a precious

resource - time - may have been wasted.

It may even be said that American problem-solving is scientific instead of

traditional. Logic and scientific methods have been internalized as the means

of solving new problems and solutions are perceived as progress or improve-

ments. In their need to control nature, the Americans believe science and its

related technologies are the major tools for explaining it. Science is based on

the assumption that reality is and can be rationally ordered by humans, thereby

being predictable and manoeuvrable. However, the prime quality of science is,

172

in this context, not in its applications but in its basic method of approaching

problems - a rational way of thought and a logical set of procedures for inter-

preting experience. This reflects the values of the rationalistic-individualistic

tradition in America. The USA has also gained many Nobel Prizes for its con-

tribution to applied natural sciences.

As American corporations, abetted by American universities and especial-

ly their business schools, have confronted the challenge of size, complexity

and diversity, they have developed a disposition for sophisticated structures

and systems.

American organizational structures and job descriptions have long been

more formally and more clearly defined and developed than the European or

Asian. America-based multinationals have also stressed quantifiable standards,

prescriptive manuals and the latest management fads. American managers

have tended to trust 'scientific management' and quantitative data in their ef-

forts to evaluate and improve job performance. Americans have become pre-

occupied with more easily measured and compared short-term results as re-

flected in growth and profits set forth in yearly, quarterly and even monthly

statements. This predisposition has been fostered by American financial mar-

kets that can analyze short-term results more easily than long-term potential,

by business schools that can teach quantitative methodology better than quali-

tative judgement, and by shareholders who prefer an immediate return on their

investments. Thus American businesses have stressed goals that can be quan-

tified, progress that can be measured and the tools for these efforts.

The Americans value explicit objectives at work, and have stronger expec-

tations concerning deadlines, policies and procedures, job descriptions and

feedback. The working tasks may be specified in details and control mecha-

nisms may be very explicit.

This is not to be misunderstood. The dissimilarities in American corpora-

tions are remarkable. The American multinationals share the predilection for

growth and profits, but they often differ in the way they attempt to achieve

these results. The preferred tools of management have been to attack the or-

ganization: its structure, its policies, its rules, job descriptions and task objec-

tives. The task comes first, people second.

Practicality or pragmatism is a positive value in the American culture.

When persons from other cultures do not show similar concern for efficiency

or practicality, Americans become very frustrated. What works is important.

Actions are justified by ends. Such a culture has been characterized as

'cybernetic' in the sense that it homes in on its target using feedback signals. It

rarely, if ever, changes its mind about its target. Steering, however, could be

corrective, open to new means. If rules cannot be kept, they should be

173

changed.

The important business goal is profit (and share price). In general terms,

the American model of management concentrates on finance and marketing.

Spurred by the need to find more and better means of managing their large

and complex businesses, American corporations developed well-defined struc-

tures, sophisticated systems and precise job specifications. Increasingly, their

systems and processes have stressed the 'harder' quantitative data which facili-

tate more rigorous comparison and calculation than does the more elusive,

'softer' qualitative information. Numbers, especially financial numbers, have

not only become the common denomination of diversified businesses, they

have also lent themselves to more rigorous comprehensive scrutiny. Business

schools, by stressing courses focusing on systems and number crunching, have

promoted these principles and practices. Americans are taught to act on logic.

Others may be taught to act on emotion. A study by Schwind and Peterson

shows that American MBA students prefer rational thought rather than emo-

tional thought, and logical thinking more than intuition. This suits the Ameri-

can textbook norm: 'fact-based' rather than intuitive management and 'fast de-

cisions based on clear responsibilities' rather than the use of informal, personal

contacts and the concern for consensus.

Operating in a low-contextual culture. American management systems de-

velop from a purely logical and economic ground. There is also less ritual be-

haviour in such a culture. Verbal communication relies on facts and logical

explanations; statements are direct. The company is seen as a tool, and the in-

volvement with it becomes calculative. In a study by Trompenaars, a small

but, compared with many other cultures, significant majority of American re-

spondents opted for conceiving a company as a system rather than as a social

group (54 per cent). In another study 57 per cent of American managers were

found to have a pragmatic orientation and only 30 per cent had a moralistic

orientation.

The American management system is egalitarian and task-oriented, but al-

so impersonal. That reveals a specific attitude to people in the American cul-

ture. Americans seem to assume that people are basically rational and that they

can be trusted to make decisions for themselves even though, naturally, they

may make mistakes. On the other hand, Americans believe that human nature

is very plastic and possible to mould. People should 'take orders' from the situ-

ation and act to control the situation; it is, in this tradition, possible to control

the situation as well as people. The ultimate criterion of human value in an

American type of culture is how you perform and to what extent you contrib-

ute to the jointly desired outcome. Change comes quickly to such a culture.

New targets appear, new groups are found and old ones dissolve. All the time,

174

however, loyalties to profession and career are greater than loyalties to the

company. Motivations tend to be intrinsic in this culture; people are able to

feel enthusiastic about, identify with and struggle towards the final product.

And they are paid by performance.

A few aspects related to opinions about managers in the American type of

culture are:

• Managers follow the textbook norms, centered around decisions.

• There is a belief that management skills, which in themselves could be

specified, do not have to be tied to a specific industry, and a belief in common

sense, even though good experts are admired.

• Managers should be selected on other criteria than seniority.

• The use of power should be legitimate; authorities are there to serve.

Some characteristics of American management development programmes

of relevance here are:

• They are more oriented towards formulas than understanding relations and

systems.

• Their objectives are well denned in advance, not a result of participants'

discussions in the programmes themselves.

• Participants are earmarked, not self-selected.

• The result, not the process, is evaluated.

It is agreed that successful decision-makers should use the best available

techniques of problem-solving to reach their decisions, but they must also fol-

low proper institutional and procedural implementation of the decision envi-

ronment. America has a long history of developing business leadership mod-

els. These models, however, tend to be normative (because they assume ra-

tionality) and to concentrate on the planning and making of the decision rather

than on its implementation. Simplistically put, it can be said that Americans

try to find the best strategy, even if it may not be fully implemented as decid-

ed. The Japanese try to find a consensus strategy that can be implemented in

full, even if it may not be the objectively best one for the 'firm' as such.

Perfect rationality exists only in theory and any implementation of a deci-

sion must consider culture in the context where implementation takes place.

Even if America is the world's largest exporter of management theories

('management' is a very American thing), it should not be taken for granted

that these theories apply elsewhere. Also, with the increasing international

challenge during the last couple of decades, many American businesses and

business schools have begun to question the general applicability of their tra-

ditional emphasis on sophisticated systems, comparable statistics, account-

ability to the numbers and more readily taught management dynamics. How-

ever, only a few American-based multinationals have self-consciously long

175

promoted the concept of a culture and the development of human resources.

INDIVIDUALISM AND ACHIEVEMENT

If people were to choose the hallmark of American culture, this should

probably be the value of the individual that is, reliance on individual initia-

tive, self-assertion, and personal achievement and responsibility.

The ideal of the individual is deeply rooted in American social, political,

and economic institutions. Although historians, philosophers, and social scien-

tists don't always agree on its origins or its more recent forms, there is a gen-

eral understanding that the value of the individual is supreme and it is the in-

dividual who has the capacity to shape his or her own destiny. Some funda-

mental characteristics of individualistic cultures are:

• Nuclear families and independent children. There is a nuclear family

structure with a central husband-wife relationship; parents put less value on

children's obedience; everyone is supposed to take care of him- or herself and

his or her immediate family.

• Private lives and opinions appreciated. Everyone has the right to a

private life and opinion; involvement of individuals with organization is, as

already mentioned, primarily calculative.

• Self-orientation and self-motivation. Identity is based on the individ-

ual; behaviour is very much determined by perception of the self; people tend

to be self-motivated and their business relationships are based on self-interest.

• Freedom and variety are important. There is more importance at-

tached to freedom and challenge in jobs; people are supposed to choose their

belongings and consumption pattern on their own and have a variety to choose

from in all aspects of life; relationships with other people are developed by

free choice.

• Education promotes independence. Students put high value on edu-

cation; they consider it socially acceptable to pursue their own ends without

minding others.

• Individual initiative is encouraged. Policies and practices should al-

low for individual initiative; employees are expected to defend their own in-

terests; people are encouraged to make their own decisions, develop their own

opinions, solve their own problems, have their own things, and, in general,

learn to see the world from the point of view of the self.

• Stronger ambition for individual advancement and leadership. Man-

agers rate autonomy as more important; there is a stronger achievement moti-

vation; managers aspire to leadership.

• Individuals do the job and are rewarded as such. People believe in

individual decisions rather than decisions made in a group; individuals are re-

sponsible; individuals take actions and individuals are rewarded.

176

• Cosmopolitan outlook. A minimum set of relations with organization

exists; people have the feeling of being an integral part of the world outside

the organization; there are more 'cosmopolitans' than locals in powerful posi-

tions.

• Strong feelings against collectivism. There are strong pressures to de-

fend oneself from all kinds of collectivistic tendencies.

Japanese managers have, by tradition, learnt to depend on each other, to be in-

tegrated parts in a larger human unit. Not so in the West. Western (particularly

American) managers have, by tradition, learnt to look for independence of

others, being self-governed and self-sufficient. Americans assert individual

differences when they seem justifiable, even if in conflict with the goals and

values of the group. Internal values are more important than external values.

America scores high on Hofstede's Masculinity Index. Masculinity is here

associated with independent, individual decision making, decisiveness, being

tough, but also not showing emotions.

This typified American lack of emotions is not to be misunderstood. Amer-

icans are very extrovert and can certainly show emotions - but only on single,

particular issues, not to the detriment of rationality. They have also a high

'willingness to communicate'. Americans are not supposed to show signs of

shyness. The USA has certainly a long tradition of rhetoric and students per-

ceive a pressure and demand for high communicative skills.

Due to Americans' deep repugnance for collectivism and social levelling,

they may have problems in appreciating the concept of corporate culture.

Americans, dedicated to individuality, regard 'socialization' as suspect. Stem-

ming from this tradition, American organizations allow their members to do

their own thing to a remarkable degree. Trendy campaigns like 'becoming a

strong culture' might encounter resistance when members are asked to give up

their idiosyncrasies:

The crux of the dilemma is this: We are intellectually and culturally op-

posed to the manipulation of individuals for organizational purposes. At the

same time, a certain degree of social uniformity enables organizations to work

better. The less we rely on informal social controls, the more we must inevita-

bly turn to formal financial controls and bureaucratic procedures. US firms

that have perfected and systemized their processes of socialization tend to be a

disproportionate majority of the great self-sustaining firms which survive from

one generation to the next. Virtually none of these companies discuss

'socialization' directly. It occurs as an exercise of the left hand - something that

just happens 'as the way we do things around here'. An important point here is

that Americans take culture less seriously in the sense of believing they are

more able to manage it than compared to, say, Europeans:

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The very notion that culture can be 'managed' is, in itself, culture-bound. For

example, in discussing corporate culture, American managers tend to see cul-

ture as something organizations have; European managers are more likely to

see it as something that organizations are and thus more dubious about being

able to change it. The American assumption of being able to control one's des-

tiny and the propensity to take action have created quite a market for how-to,

self-improvement books and for books about managing across cultures.

Individual managers become much more crucial in a culture such as the

American one. They accumulate individual experience, become very knowl-

edgeable and may possess great skills. Problems may arise, however, when

this knowledge and these skills are supposed to be integrated into a coherent

picture in situations which are too complex for one person alone.

Another much publicized aspect of the American culture is its positive ap-

preciation of achievement - being able to reach individual wealth, recognition

and self-actualization. Modesty is a negligible value in the West compared to

the East. In one study, reported by Trompenaars, 89 per cent of Americans

believed that what happens to them is their own doing. Americans certainly

like a challenge and this, together with earnings, recognition and advancement

is relatively more important in this culture. Excelling means 'trying to be the

best' in America.

There is sympathy for the successful achiever in America. The strong tend

to be compensated and given the rewards. Social status of managers is de-

pendent on rank. Americans strongly disagree that respect should depend on

family background. Young men (and increasingly young women) are ex-

pected to make a career for themselves; those who do not are generally seen as

failures:

The 'success story' and the respect accorded to the self-made person is dis-

tinctly American. Ascribed status (in the form of fixed, hereditary social strati-

fication) has been minimized, and achieved status through self-motivation and

hard work has been maximized.

Though the American culture appreciates other kinds of achievement as

well (actors, entertainers, states people, scientists and generals, to name but a

few), promotion in business serves as the main path for moving up the ladder

for most people in society. In this respect, typified America organizations ap-

ply quick evaluation and promotion, specialized career paths and short-term

employment.

There is a high rate of mobility among employees in the USA. If employ-

ees have problems moving to another job, restructuring of their existing job,

permitting individual achievement, is appreciated Performance appraisals are

greatly used in the American culture. There is also a very American way of

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conducting such appraisals.

FREEDOM AND COMPETITION

As reported by Trompenaars, one question that participants have been

asked in his seminars is the following:

Two people were discussing ways in which individuals could improve the

quality of life.

A. One said: 'It is obvious that if individuals have as much freedom as possible

and the maximum opportunity to develop themselves, the quality of their life

will improve as a result.'

B. The other said: “If individuals are continuously taking care of their fellow

human beings the quality of life will improve for everyone, even if it obstructs

individual freedom and individual development.'

Which of the two ways of reasoning do you think is usually best, A or B?

An overwhelming majority (79 per cent) of participants from America opt-

ed for 'individual freedom' (answer A). Since American society is seen among

its participants as an instrument for satisfying the needs of individuals, a polit-

ical philosophy has developed calling for freedom from coercion from institu-

tions like the church, the state and others.

Individuals demand independence of government policy. Some further

characteristics of this freedom are:

• Authoritarian attitudes in students, if they exist, are a matter of per-

sonality, not culture.

• Employees are less afraid of disagreeing with their boss.

• Students have positive associations with 'power' and 'wealth'.

The idea of individual freedom is related to the American use of persua-

sion:

Americans tend to dislike motives originating in others which are then applied

to them. They strongly reject motivation in the form of orders, injunctions and

threats emanating from authority. Probably it is this dislike which makes

Americans anti-militaristic rather than a rejection of fighting or violence....

The American concept of the self and self-motivation causes stress both in

American institutions and in the general lifestyle prevalent in the United

States. If coercion is disapproved and authority rejected, how do Americans

manage to coordinate their lives and activities? The answer is through persua-

sion. The desire to act according to the wishes of others is instilled in the indi-

vidual by means of examples, incentives and subtle hints of failure.

Closely associated with the American preference for individualism, free-

dom and achievement is the emphasis placed on competition. Most Americans

want to experience the 'thrill of victory'. In the study by Schwind and Peter-

son, more American MBA students valued free competition higher than mo-

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nopoly. The idea is that competition stimulates high performance.

There certainly is no dearth of evidence of the high value placed on com-

petition, winning and getting ahead in American society. Examples provided

by Ferraro range from the Anti-Trust Division in the US Department of Justice

to popular games such as Monopoly.

KNOWLEDGE AND SPECIALIZATION

The status of the individual in the West is tied to education and knowledge

and, as mentioned before, in the American type of culture, experts are treated

with great respect and loyalties to a profession are greater than loyalties to the

company. Relationships between employees could be characterized as 'specific

tasks in a cybernetic system targeted upon shared objectives. In the previously

mentioned study by Schwind and Peterson, American MBA students mainly

preferred specialized training to generalized training.

In America, specialists are well defined and even part of a person's identi-

ty. In the West in general, when people from the same country meet for the

first time, it appears that the initial conversation revolves around a person's

occupation or profession (not family background or employer, which is com-

mon in the East).

American business education looks at management as a specialist profes-

sion using rational, 'scientific' tools. There is a generalist orientation and an

elaborate educational system built into the company in Japanese management;

Western management has a specialized orientation and if new skills are re-

quired, outsiders (temporary 'troubleshooters') are employed. Such outsiders

can serve an integrative role at the same time as they can allow individuals to

develop even more in-depth skills for future use.

Specialist expertise has long been a hallmark of American management.

Classical management itself, which has influenced business school as well as

corporate thinking, has defined roles in terms of specific job descriptions and

well-designated responsibilities. The increasing specificity of these roles has

been concomitant with the proliferation of technical and professional special-

isms and societies and specialized educational programmes. American manag-

ers have generally begun their career as specialists and their rise to manage-

ment ranks has been based upon their success as specialists. Consequently,

American corporations are more likely than non-American ones to hire on the

basis of specialist qualifications; and they are more likely to go outside the

company to find someone with specific qualifications. Thus US MBA pro-

grammes include a specialist concentration while European ones do not. US

executives have long tended to be more vocationally specialized, more likely

to identify their career interests with their professional specialism than with

their company, and more likely to identify with a specialized faction of the

180

company than the whole company.

It is worth mentioning that typified American management development

programmes (compared with European programmes) target managers only

(not managers and other employee representatives) and the result should be

definable skills, knowledge and attitudes (not learning to learn, preparedness

and ability to adjust).

A TYPIFIED INTERPRETATION OF AMERICAN

BUSINESS LEADERS

The American culture has been discussed focusing on the following themes:

• Progress and growth

• Modernity

• Materialism

• Activity and work orientation

• Informality and equality

• Logic, efficiency and pragmatism

• Individualism and achievement

• Freedom and competition

• Knowledge and specialization

• Progress and growth

• Modernity

• Materialism

• Activity and work orientation

• Informality and equality

• Logic, efficiency and pragmatism

• Individualism and achievement

• Freedom and competition

• Knowledge and specialization

Based on these themes, it is possible to give a typified interpretation of Amer-

ican business leaders as follows:

• They are future-oriented; want to improve on the present for growing

bigger and better in the future; look at technology as one factor to control,

time another.

• They accept change and think they can steer it; appreciate modernity

(also in their own profession); measure progress materialistically.

• They are active, action-oriented, and dynamic; are willing to take

risk; focus very much on decisions.

• They find work important, but draw a strict line between work and

private life; conceive the company as a system rather than as a social group;