-
Sylla et al. Malar J (2015) 14:275 DOI
10.1186/s12936-015-0789-x
RESEARCH
Sero-epidemiological evaluation ofPlasmodium falciparum malaria
inSenegalKhadime Sylla1* , Roger Clment Kouly Tine1, Magatte
Ndiaye1, Doudou Sow1, Assatou Sarr1, Marie Louise Tshibola Mbuyi2,
Ibrahima Diouf1, Amy Col L1, Annie Abiola1, Mame Cheikh Seck1,
Mouhamadou Ndiaye1, Ada Sadikh Badiane1, Jean Louis A NDiaye1,
Daouda Ndiaye1, Oumar Faye1, Thrse Dieng1, Ymou Dieng1, Oumar
Ndir1, Oumar Gaye1 and Babacar Faye1
Abstract Background: In Senegal, a significant decrease of
malaria transmission intensity has been noted the last years.
Parasitaemia has become lower and, therefore, more difficult to
detect by microscopy. In the context of submicro-scopic
parasitaemia, it has become relevant to rely on relevant malaria
surveillance tools to better document malaria epidemiology in such
settings. Serological markers have been proposed as an essential
tool for malaria surveillance. This study aimed to evaluate the
sero-epidemiological situation of Plasmodium falciparum malaria in
two sentinel sites in Senegal.
Methods: Cross-sectional surveys were carried out in Velingara
(south Senegal) and Keur Soce (central Senegal) between September
and October 2010. Children under 10 years old, living in these
areas, were enrolled using two-level, random sampling methods. P.
falciparum infection was diagnosed using microscopy. P. falciparum
antibod-ies against circumsporozoite protein (CSP), apical membrane
protein (AMA1) and merozoite surface protein 1_42 (MSP1_42) were
measured by ELISA method. A stepwise logistic regression analysis
was done to assess factors associ-ated with P. falciparum
antibodies carriage.
Results: A total of 1,865 children under 10 years old were
enrolled. The overall falciparum malaria prevalence was 4.99% with
high prevalence in Velingara of 10.03% compared to Keur Soce of
0.3%. Symptomatic malaria cases (fever associated with
parasitaemia) represented 17.37%. Seroprevalence of anti-AMA1,
anti-MSP1_42 and anti-CSP antibody was 38.12, 41.55 and 40.38%,
respectively. The seroprevalence was more important in Velingara
and increased with age, active malaria infection and area of
residence.
Conclusion: The use of serological markers can contribute to
improved malaria surveillance in areas with declining malaria
transmission. This study provided useful baseline information about
the sero-epidemiological situation of malaria in Senegal and can
contribute to the identification of malaria hot spots in order to
concentrate intervention efforts.
Trial registration number: PACTR201305000551876
(http://www.pactr.org).
Keywords: Malaria, Plasmodium falciparum, Serology,
Epidemiology, Senegal
2015 Sylla et al. This article is distributed under the terms of
the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and
the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and
indicate if changes were made. The Creative Commons Public Domain
Dedication waiver
(http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the
data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated.
BackgroundDespite increasing efforts to control malaria and many
African countries reporting a decrease of malaria burden
in recent years, the disease is still a major public health
problem in many sub-Saharan African countries. Accord-ing to the
World Health Organization, there were an estimated 207 million
malaria cases and 627,000 malaria deaths in the world in 2012. This
situation justifies the need to strengthen malaria control
strategies including: (1) clinical case management of malaria cases
using rapid diagnostic test (RDTs) and artemisinin combination
Open Access
*Correspondence: [email protected] 1 Service de
Parasitologie-Mycologie, Facult de Mdecine, Pharmacie et
Odontologie, Universit Cheikh Anta Diop de Dakar, Dakar, SngalFull
list of author information is available at the end of the
article
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Page 2 of 8Sylla et al. Malar J (2015) 14:275
therapy (ACT); (2) universal coverage of long-lasting,
insecticide-treated nets (LLINs); (3) indoor residual spraying
(IRS); and, (4) intermittent preventive treatment [13]. In Senegal,
the National Malaria Control Pro-gramme (NMCP) initiated the
scaling-up of malaria con-trol measures in 2005. Significant
reduction of malaria morbidity has been noted these last years from
35.72% in 2001 to 5.62% in 2008 and 3.07% in 2009 [4]. Malaria
parasitaemia has become lower and therefore more diffi-cult to
detect by microscopy with an increase in the pro-portion of
individuals carrying submicroscopic malaria parasites [5]. This may
induce some limitation in malaria surveillance using microscopy. To
overcome this issue, there is a need to develop innovative malaria
surveillance tools that are more sensitive and more reliable for
better documentation of malaria epidemiology. For this pur-pose,
serology is proposed as a reliable and sensitive tool to assess
malaria epidemiology as well as malaria inter-vention impact on
malaria burden and transmission [68]. Several Plasmodium falciparum
antigens have been studied to assess malaria transmission and
impact on the host immunity. To assess the level of malaria
transmis-sion, a pre-erythrocytic-stage antigen most commonly used
is the circumsporozoite protein (CSP) with a short estimated
half-life. Antibodies against this protein are correlated to
transmission intensity and exposure dura-tion, but not necessarily
to plasmodial infections. This protein is labile and disappears
quickly in the absence of exposure. P. falciparum
erythrocytic-stage antigens, such as merozoite surface protein 1
(MSP) and apical mem-brane antigen (AMA1) with long half-lives,
reflect the cumulative exposure to malaria and can be used as an
indicator of the burden of malaria [6, 7].
The analysis of immune responses against pre-erythro-cytic-stage
antigen (CSP) and erythrocytic-stage antigens (MSP and AMA1) can
contribute to assess malaria trans-mission and the impact on host
immunity. This study was conducted to evaluate the
sero-epidemiological situation of falciparum malaria using CSP,
AMA1 and MSP1_42 in the context of scaling anti-malarial
interventions in Senegal.
MethodsStudy areaThis study was carried out in two health
districts (Velin-gara and NDoffane) with a different endemicity
level. Velingara health district is located in the southeastern
part of Senegal, 500km from the capital city of Dakar. In this
district the study was conducted in Bonconto health post, which is
headed by a nurse and has eight functional health huts staffed with
community health workers,
serving a population of 10,016 inhabitants. Ndoffane is located
in the central part of Senegal, 200 km from Dakar. In this district
the study was conducted in Lamar-ame health post. This health post
is led by a nurse and comprises 49 functional health huts and
serves a popu-lation of 20,000 inhabitants. In both study areas
malaria transmission is seasonal, occurring during the rainy season
(from July to November) with a peak in between October to November.
P. falciparum is the most predom-inant parasite species. These two
areas are part of NMCP sentinel sites. Malaria control strategies
implemented by the NMCP in both sites were represented by the case
management of uncomplicated malaria cases using rapid diagnostic
tests (RDTs) and artemisinin combina-tion therapy (ACT);
intermittent preventive treatment in pregnant women; universal
coverage of LLINs. The IRS is applied only in Velingara.
Study design andpopulationA cross-sectional survey was conducted
in Velingara and Keur Soce in September and October 2010, several
years after the implementation of malaria control measures.
Children under 10 years old, living in the area or who stayed at
the site for at least 6 months and whose par-ents or legal
representatives gave informed consent form approval, were enrolled
in the study using a two-level, random sampling method. Subjects
whose parents or legal representatives did not give informed
consent were excluded from the study.
Data collection methodAn informed consent questionnaire was
administered to collect individual data on socio-demographic (age,
gender, weight, height, area of residence, bed net use). Weight and
height were collected to determine nutri-tional status. In
addition, axillary temperature was measured.
Laboratory methodsParasitological assessmentFor each enrolled
participant, three drops of blood were collected for thick and thin
smear tests for the detec-tion of malaria prevalence using
microscopy. Slides were stained for 15min with a 10% Giemsa
solution. Parasite density was evaluated by counting the number of
asexual parasites per 200 white blood cells (WBCs) and estimated by
number of parasite per l using the following formula: number of
parasites8,000/200 assuming a WBC count 8,000cells/l. Thick and
thin smears were considered as negative after 100-field microscopic
reading without any parasites being detected.
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Serological assessmentMalaria antigensApical membrane antigen
(AMA1) was from the Pichia pastoris expressed ectodomain of P.
falciparum FVO strain comprised amino acids 25545 [9] (Donated by
DrDaniel Dodo, Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research,
University of Ghana, Legon, Ghana).
MSP1_42 protein was from the C-terminal MSP1_42 amino acid
sequence of the Uganda-Palo Alto (FUP) P. falciparum isolate
(GenBank Accession No. M37213) expressed in Escherichia coli (Ec)
system. The recombi-nant protein, EcMSP1_42-FUP (Uganda-Palo Alto
strain), represents the 33kDa fragment from the 3D7 P. falcipa-rum
variant and the E-K-NG point mutations identified in the 19kDa
fragment within the MSP1_42 native mol-ecule [10].
CSP was a full-length protein expressed in an Escheri-chia coli
system containing amino-acids Leu19 to Ser411 (Indian isolate,
GenBankTM No: AAN87606) [11].
MSP1_42 and CPS were donated by Dr Patrick Duffy and Dr Richard
Shimp from NIH/NIAID (National Insti-tutes of Health/National
Institute of Allergy and Infec-tious Diseases).
Enzymelinked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)Three drops of blood
were collected onto Whatman 3MM filter paper, which was sealed and
stored dry with desiccant at room temperature. Reconstituted sera
were obtained from filter paper bloods spots described pre-viously
[12, 13]. Sera were tested for anti-MSP1_42 IgG antibodies,
anti-AMA1 IgG antibodies and anti-CSP antibodies by indirect ELISA.
Samples were also tested on freeze thawed P. falciparum schizont
extract (con-centration of 1108/ml), which was coated onto ELISA
plates at 1/500.
Briefly, 96 well ELISA plates were coated with 100l/well of
0.1l/well of MSP1_42 and CSP antigens and 0.026 l/well of AMA1 in
coating buffer (1.59 g Na2CO3, 2.93 g NaHCO3, 1 liter distilled
water, pH 9.4). The plates were incubated overnight at 4C. After
incubation, plates were washed at three times using PBS (5.7 g
NaH2PO4, 16.7 g Na2HPO4, 85 g NaCl in 1 l distilled water) plus
0.05% Tween 20 (PBS/T) and blocked with 1% (w/v) skimmed milk power
in PBS/T for 1 h at 37C. Eluates were removed from 4C just before
use. After three more washes, eluates were diluted at a ration
1/100 in PBS/T and added 200l in duplicate in a well plate.
For each plate three types of control were used: deep well
without serum but with a second antibody to meas-ure the
non-specific binding, pool of sera from patients with P. falciparum
malaria (positive control) and pool of sera from non-infected
subjects (negative control) from
Copenhagen. Three washes were performed before incu-bation for
1h at 37 with secondary antibody (100l of horseradish
peroxidase-conjugated rabbit anti-human IgG, SouthernBiotech ).
After incubation for 1 h at 37C, plates were developed with TMB/E
(Upstate, Chemicon et Linco, Millipore) as substrate for 30min at
room temperature in the absence of light and the reac-tion was
stopped by the addition of 50 l/well of 2 M H2SO4. Optical density
was read at 450 nm against a 620nm with an ELISA TECAN SUNRISE
reader.
Haematological assessmentOne drop of blood was collected from
all participants for haemoglobin (Hb) level measurement using
Hemo-Cue machine (HemoCue Hb 301). Anaemia was defined as Hb
concentration below 11g/dl.
Statistical methodsAfter data collection, date entry work was
performed using Excel software. Thereafter, analysis was carried
out using Stata software version IC 12 software.
For serological assessment, the optical density was obtained by
subtracting the average OD (Optical density) of duplicate wells
from that of the corresponding blank wells. Values were converted
into arbitrary units (AUs), as follows [14]:
To assess the nutritional status, data were transferred into Epi
Info 3.04 d. The Z-scores for weight-for-age (underweight) and
height-forage (stunting) were derived using Epinut Anthropometry.
Children with Z-scores below2 standard deviation (SD) of the
National Cen-tre for Health Statistic (NCHS), United States
reference population median were considered to be malnourished.
Quantitative variables were described in terms of means, SD.
Inter-group comparisons were done using ANOVA test or Student t
test where appropriate, oth-erwise non-parametric tests such as
MannWhitney or KruskalWallis were used.
For descriptive data, percentage was used to each out-come.
Antibodies seroprevalence was calculated and expressed by
percentage with their 95% confidence inter-vals. Proportions were
compared using Chi square test or the Fisher exact test (univariate
analysis). A stepwise logistic regression analysis was done to
assess factors associated with P. falciparum antibodies carriage.
Signifi-cance level of the different tests was set at 5%.
Ethical considerationsThe study was nested into a
cluster-randomized trial [15] which had been approved by the
Senegalese
AU = 100
[Ln(OD test sample) Ln(OD negative control)
Ln(OD positive control) Ln(OD negative control)
]
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National Ethical Committee (Conseil National dEthique et de
Recherche en Sant) and registered at the Pan African Clinical Trial
Registry: registration num-ber: PACTR201305000551876. In the field,
individual informed consent was required prior to each participant
enrolment. Community sensitization was done prior to the study to
explain the planned investigations.
ResultsStudy participant characteristicsA total of 1,865
participants were studied (866 from Velingara and 999 from Keur
Soce). The mean age of the study population was 4.242years. The
study popula-tion was mainly represented by children under 5 years
old (53.62%). A proportion of 7.83% were less than 1year old.
Children over 5 years represented 38.55%. The sex ratio was 1.03.
The mean Hb level was 9.93 3.3 g/dl and was lower in Velingara (8.5
3.4g/dl). The overall prevalence of anaemia (Hb
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Page 5 of 8Sylla et al. Malar J (2015) 14:275
value= 0.8] in children under 5 years old while it was more
important in children over 5 years old 47.57% [ORa=1.28; IC
(0.871.87), p value=0.43].
For children with malaria infection, the seroprevalence of
anti-MSP1_42 antibody was 52.69% [ORa = 1.01; IC (0.651.55); p
value = 0.95]. For children over 5 years, the seroprevalence of
anti-CSP antibody was 43.53% [ORa = 1.08; IC (0.751.56); p = 0.66]
compared to other children. Anti-CSP antibody was more important in
female children (41%), children with stunting 43.72% [ORa=1.09; IC
(0.851.4); p=0.45] and children with anaemia (40.44%). The
prevalence of anti-CSP antibody was associated with active malaria
infection. Prevalence of anti-CSP antibody was more important in
children with malaria infection 46.24% [ORa=1.2; IC (0.781.84);
p=0.4]. The prevalence of anti-CSP antibody was more important in
Velingara 52.66% [ORa = 2.63; IC (2.133.24); p
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are consistent with results from national malaria indica-tor
surveys conducted 20082009, which showed similar patterns in terms
of P. falciparum carriage and anaemia prevalence [20]. The national
survey conducted in 2012 and 2013 showed an overall prevalence of
P. falciparum at 2.8% with disparities between the southern part
(9.3%) and the central part (2.2%) of the country [21]. The
dif-ference in malaria prevalence between the two areas
demonstrates once again the heterogeneity of malaria transmission
in Senegal. This was demonstrated in Gam-bia in 2008 and 2009
[22].
Similar results were found in 2005 with the heteroge-neity of
malaria in the east and west of Cambodia [23]. Despite the low
prevalence of P. falciparum, anaemia was closely associated with
malaria parasitaemia. Other stud-ies demonstrated that the main
factors influencing anae-mia occurrence in the central and the
southern parts of the country are mainly represented by P.
falciparum carriage, malnutrition, sickle cell traits and
alpha-thalassaemia [24].
The overall seroprevalence of AMA1, MSP1_42 and CSP antibodies
was 38.12, 41.55 and 40.38%, respectively. Sig-nificant difference
between the two areas was observed with a higher seroprevalence in
the southern part (Velin-gara). Although the serological assessment
confirmed malaria heterogeneity as shown by microscopy. Propor-tion
of P. falciparum carriage was significantly lower than antibodies
level. These findings are in accordance with what were observed in
Madagascar [6]. In Tanzania, similar results were noted with a high
seroprevalence of antibodies against AMA1 (40.7%) and MSP1 (64.1%)
[19]. Similar results were found in Ghana with high seropreva-lence
of AMA1 and CSP antibodies [25]. A high preva-lence of PfMSP1 and
PfAMA1 antibodies was found in Indonesia whatever the area and the
season [26].
These results show that serology could be a good indicator for
malaria surveillance. 5% of the total study participant was found
positive by microscopy while anti-bodies excretion increased by at
least sixfolds. The study demonstrated that using microscopy alone
for malaria surveillance could underestimate malaria burden,
par-ticularly in areas with reduced malaria transmission. These
data are confirmed by other studies [6, 19, 23, 27].
The study showed that seroprevalence of AMA1, MSP1_42 and CSP
antibodies increased with age, P. falciparum carriage and the area
of residence. Similar results were found in Vanuatu in 2008 and in
northern Peru between 2008 and 2010 [28, 29]. In 2002, a study in
Ghana showed that the level of antibody was higher among older
subjects [30]. This was also demonstrated in The Gambia and Senegal
in 2002 [22, 31]. In chil-dren with P. falciparum infection, the
seroprevalence of antibodies is higher compared to those without P.
falci-parum infection. The association between malaria and
Table 5 Factors influencing the seroprevalence of anti-MSP1_42
antibodies
Number (%)
OR (95% CI)
ORa (95% CI)
p value
Age group (year)
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Page 7 of 8Sylla et al. Malar J (2015) 14:275
level of antibody (anti-AMA1, anti-MSP1_42 and anti-CSP) has
been demonstrated by several immuno-epide-miological studies
[3239]. Comparing both sites, the seroprevalence of antibodies is
higher in Velingara than in Keur Soce. This may be due to the fact
that malaria transmission is most intense in southern Senegal. The
variation of malaria between areas has been demon-strated [22].
Gender, Hb level and nutritional status did not play a role in
antibody production. This was demonstrated in 2002 in Senegalese
preschool children when assessing the immunological consequences of
intermittent preventive treatment [30].
Serological markers can be a useful tool for malaria
epidemiology characterization particularly in areas with a decrease
of malaria and can even contribute to the identification of malaria
hot spots in order to con-centrate intervention efforts. Others
studies suggest that sero-epidemiological analysis will be useful
tool in assessing short-term changes in exposure and malaria
transmission in area with a low or seasonal transmission. It was
demonstrated in Ghana, Kenya and Indonesia [40, 41].
Study limitationThe age of the study population being limited to
10years constituted a study limitation. To better document the
changing profile of malaria epidemiology, it would be rel-evant to
extend the study to the other age groups in order to characterize
the burden of the disease in the study areas.
ConclusionSerological markers can be used as complementary tools
for malaria survey in areas with a declining pattern of malaria in
Senegal. This study provided useful baseline information about the
sero-epidemiological situation of malaria in Senegal and can
contribute to the identifica-tion of malaria hot spots in order to
concentrate inter-vention efforts.
Authors contributionsKS, RCT, MN, DS, AS, MLT, ID, ACL, AA, MCS,
MN, ASB, JLN, DN, OF, TD, YD, ON, OG, and BF conceived and designed
the study. KS and RCT monitored the data collection. KS, MN, AS,
and MLT collected data in the site. KS analysed the data and wrote
the first draft of the manuscript. All authors read and approved
the final manuscript.
Author details1 Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Facult de
Mdecine, Pharmacie et Odon-tologie, Universit Cheikh Anta Diop de
Dakar, Dakar, Sngal. 2 Dpartement de Parasitologie-Mycologie,
Universit des Sciences de la Sant, Libreville, Gabon.
AcknowledgementsWe thank all patients who agreed to participate
in the study. We also acknowledge Dr Patrick Duffy and Dr Richard
Shimp from NIH/NIAID (National
Institutes of Health/Nantional Institue of Allergy and
Infectious Diseases) and Daniel Dodo, from Noguchi Memorial
Institute for Medical Research, Univer-sity of Ghana, Legon, Ghana)
who provided the antigens.
Compliance with ethical guidelines
Competing interestsThe authors declare that they have no
competing interests.
Received: 30 January 2015 Accepted: 1 July 2015
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Sero-epidemiological evaluation ofPlasmodium falciparum malaria
inSenegalAbstract Background: Methods: Results: Conclusion:
BackgroundMethodsStudy areaStudy design andpopulationData
collection method
Laboratory methodsParasitological assessment
Serological assessmentMalaria antigensEnzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA)Haematological assessmentStatistical
methodsEthical considerations
ResultsStudy participant characteristicsMalariaometric
indices
DiscussionStudy limitation
ConclusionAuthors contributionsReceived: 30 January 2015
Accepted: 1 July 2015References