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Russian Journal of Sociology

Has been issued since 2015. ISSN 2410-9118 2015. Vol.(1). Is. 1. Issued 4 times a year

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РЕДАКЦИОННАЯ КОЛЛЕГИЯ

Петрова Светлана – Сочинский государственный университет, Сочи, Российская Федерация (Главный редактор)

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РЕДАКЦИОННЫЙ СОВЕТ

Элизбарашвили Элизбар – Телавский государственный университет, Телави, Грузия

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Меньковский Вячеслав – Беларусский государственный университет, Минск, Беларусь

Жеребцов Игорь – Институт языка, литературы и истории Коми научного центра РАН, Сыктывкар, Российская Федерация

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Russian Journal of Sociology, 2015, Vol. (1), Is. 1

C O N T E N T S

Articles and Statements

All Missing Cases are Not Human Trafficking but all Human Trafficking are Missing Cases: Critical Analysis

Pyali Chatterjee ……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 4

Slums and Social Development: A Search for Alternative Paradigms Sribas Goswami …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 12

Defining the Levels of the Audience's Media Competence and Critical Thinking in Sociological Surveys

Anastasia Levitskaya …………………………………………….……………………………………………….. 19

The Influence of Legal Reference Systems on the Content of Courts Decisions in Russia

Anatoliy Pronin …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 27

Indicator Analysis of Corruption Viktor Ya. Tsvetkov ….………………………………………………………………………………….…………. 34

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Copyright © 2015 by Academic Publishing House Researcher

Published in the Russian Federation Russian Journal of Sociology Has been issued since 2015. ISSN: 2409-6288 Vol. 1, Is. 1, pp. 4-11, 2015 DOI: 10.13187/rjs.2015.1.4 www.ejournal32.com

UDC 316

All Missing Cases are Not Human Trafficking but all Human Trafficking are Missing Cases: Critical Analysis

Pyali Chatterjee

Disha Law College, Raipur, India PhD, Assistant Professor E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The relation between missing person and trafficked person was first reported by Sankar Sen

and P.M. Nair in their report “A Report on Trafficking in Women and Children in India 2002-2003”. During my interview with Jagdalpur Legal Aid Group for this research, I found that some where the police officers failed to handle the cases of missing person which was actually a case of trafficking especially in those places where trafficking rate is high. In a recent human trafficking case dealt by JagLag (Jagdalpur Legal Aid Group) where they had rescued three women name Suvita Tati d/o Balsu Tati, Pode Tati d/o Phagnu Tati and Ramdehi Kashyap d/o Lachu Kashyap, age 20, 21 and 23 respectively missing from 28th July, 2014 from village Karli, PS Geedam, District Dantewada, Chattisgrah and when the family members of the missing ladies went to the local police station in Geedam to lodge a complaint on 18.8.2014, the police station in-charge registered only a missing persons complaint and refused to file a FIR. But the police officer finally registered the F.I.R after the interference of JagLag along with the local leader of Aam Aadmi party, Soni Sori. Finally, the ladies were rescued from Indore with the help of a local NGO working there. From this case also we find a strong relationship between both the missing person and trafficking cases. It should be the duty of the police officer to register immediately a cognizable offence by filling a FIR in cases of missing cases. Especially in those areas, where trafficking cases is higher in consideration to other states, in such areas FIR should be registered immediately for a missing person without making any delay.

Even Supreme Court has laid down certain guidelines in Writ Petition (Crl.) No. 610/1996 Hori Lal Vs Commissioner of Police, Delhi & Ors Respondents relating to FIR registration of missing girls or women and also the duty of the investing officer in cases of missing person. But from my interview with JagLag I found that either the police officer was unaware of the Supreme Court guidelines for registering a FIR for missing person or there was lack of proper training to deal with the same.

From past few years through several researches, it have been found that every trafficking cases is a missing cases, and to combat with such cases NGO can play an important role to rescue the trafficked person. And in areas where the trafficking or missing person rate is high the special police team should be formed to deal with such cases from the first day of complaint. Even NGO can spread awareness through awareness camp among the villagers to protect them from becoming the victim of trafficking.

Keywords: trafficking; missing; F.I.R; exploitation and forced labor.

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Introduction Chhattisgarh has become a major hub of human trafficking of girls and women to other

towns and cities in the pretense of work. But in most cases these women and girls are exploited, sold and pushed into domestic slavery, commercial sexual exploitation or forced marriage. They were subject to forced labor as factory workers and beggars. In last year, Jagdalpur Legal Aid Center has experience of various incidents of human trafficking in huge numbers. According to NCRB data, since 2008 more than 16000 cases under human trafficking of girls and women were report throughout the country. The Bastar region of Chattisgarh, marred by poverty is the most badly affected area in Chhattisgarh. The lack of awareness and sensitivity amongst the investigating officers is one of the major reasons why this organized crime goes unchecked as per JagLag. In most of the missing cases, even FIR is not registered and police just enter the information in the missing person’s diary. Thus, even the NCRB data is an underestimate of the reality. JagLag also had a similar experience in one of the trafficking cases where three women, Suvita Tati d/o Balsu Tati, Pode Tati d/o Phagnu Tati and Ramdehi Kashyap d/o Lachu Kashyap, age 20, 21 and 23 respectively from village Karli, PS Geedam, District Dantewada were missing since one month. According to the families, a woman named Kiran informed the local people that she needed workers for an agarbatti factory situated in Kondagaon, Chhattisgarh and took them along with her. Around 28th July, 2014, she took the above-mentioned three young women with her ostensibly to work in the agarbatti factory after which the families lost contact with the women. The families themselves visited Kondagaon, Chhattisgarh and did not find any agarbatti factory there. On the other hand, they uncovered previous history of that above-mentioned Kiran, who has trafficked young women from different area earlier in the name of job. Armed with the information, regarding the phone number of Kiran and the place (shajapur, near indore, MP) where she took previously trafficked women, they went to the local police station in Geedam (district Dantewada) to lodge a complaint on 18.8.2014, but the police station in-charge registered a missing persons complaint and he refused to file an FIR, or to give a copy of the complaint. It was only after the interference of one of the lawyers from JagLag office along with the local leader from Aam Aadmi party, Soni Sori went to the police station, meet the Superintendent of Police for 2 days consequently, and pressurized the police to register the FIR and finally the police registered an FIR. The villagers were bluntly, even after the FIR , told that the tracking device shows Shajapur as the correct location and asked the families to go by themselves and find if the three women are there. However, it was only after the help from a local woman’s group in Indore and complaint to the anti human trafficking cell over there, that the local police from Geedam finally sent a team to locate the girl. Finally, the girls were rescued and told the police that the woman Kiran was trying to sell them and marry them off to some old/disabled men.

Methodology For this research, I have used doctrinal and non-doctrinal research methods. In doctrinal

research, I have gone through various researches done by others in missing person cases as well as literature review. And in non-doctrinal research, I have used interview methods for collecting data.

Relationship between missing and trafficking cases The relation between missing and trafficking person was first discussed by P.M. Nair and

Sankar Sen in their report “A Report on Trafficking in Women and Children in India 2002-2003”*. In their research they found that’s in most of the missing cases whether it’s a child or women the police officer haven`t even registered any F.I.R for missing person. They only registered a missing complaint for the missing person and they never initiate any investigation to rescue the missing person or to find out the missing person. One thing, which is important to mention here, was the case of Reddiarpalayam, P.S. Case no. 70/98† where first time the relation between missing and trafficking person was found. The story of this was that a 15 years girl was missing and her parents register a missing entry. The police made a normal enquiry for the missing entry. But after some time it was found that the girl was trafficked and sold out in a brothel from where she was rescued

* P.M. Nair and Sankar Sen, A Report on Trafficking in Women and Children in India 2002-2003, NHRC - UNIFEM - ISS Project at 203, http://nhrc.nic.in/Documents/ReportonTrafficking.pdf † Ibid at 204

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later. Normally whenever a girl above 18 years is missing from their house her parents approach police to register a F.I.R. In such cases police normally took these matters very casually with comments that your daughter is adult, she might have gone with her lover to some other place for getting married etc, without searching for the actual scenario. That`s why, the girl is missing especially those areas where already trafficking rate is higher than in other area. In such areas police must take special care about the missing cases and should register F.I.R also. As it was already proved in the Reddiarpalayam, P.S. Case no. 70/98 about the linkage between missing and trafficking cases. It is also found that the police only register a missing entry without entering a F.I.R and it becomes the reason why missing person were never rescued and remain untraced. Even to deal with the missing cases of person NHRC* has given certain guidelines in their report. In their research they find that there is a possible linkage between the data of missing women and children with trafficking. They also found that there is an inherent weakness in the existing law enforcement system. It is also mentioned in their report that the issue of missing persons needs to be given serious attention by the law enforcement agencies. There should be prepared proper documentation and monitoring of the enquiries.

As we know that only in cognizable cases like trafficking F.I.R is directly lodged by the police

under section 154 of Criminal procedure code and it’s only after the lodging of the F.I.R where investigation goes started. But not treating missing cases as F.I.R is a grave injustice to the victim of trafficking and towards the society also.

Judgements and guidelines on missing person cases In Writ Petition (Crl) No 610 of 1996 filed by Hori Lal vs Commissioner of Police,

Delhi and Ors, the Honorable Supreme Court has given the following guidelines while dealing with missing girls cases:

“(1) Publish photographs of the missing persons in the Newspaper, telecast them on Television promptly, and in case not later than one week of the receipt of complaint. Photographs of a missing person must be given wide publicity at all the prominent outlets of the city /town/ village concerned that is at the Railway Stations, Interstate bus stands, airport ,regional passport office and through law enforcement personnel at Border checkpoints. This should be done promptly and in any case not later than one week of the receipt of complaint. But in case of a minor/major girl such photographs shall not be published without the written consent of the parents /guardians.

(2) Make inquiries in the neighborhood, the place of work/study of the missing girl from friend’s colleagues, acquaintance, relatives and etc. immediately. Equally all the clues from the papers and belongings of the missing person should be promptly investigated.

(3) To contact the principal, class teacher and students at the missing person’s most recent school/educational institutions. If the missing girl or woman is employed somewhere, then to contact the most recent employer and her colleagues at the place of employment.

(4) Conduct an inquiry into the whereabouts from the extended family of relatives, neighbors, school teachers including school friends of the missing girl or woman.

(5) Make necessary inquiries whether there have been past incidents or reports of violence in the family. There after the investigation the officer/agency should:

(a) Diligently follow up to ensure that the records requested from the parents are obtained and examine them for clues.

(b) Hospitals and mortuaries to be searched immediately after receiving the complaint (c) The reward for furnishing clues about missing person should be announced within a

month of her disappearance. (d) Equally hue and cry notices shall be given within a month. (e) The investigation should be made through women police officers as far as possible. (f) The concerned police commissioner or the DIG/IG of the State Police would find out the

feasibility of establishing a multitask force for locating girl children women.

* Shakti Vahin, Missing Children-India – Govt Initiatives and Court Orders, NATIONAL LEGAL RESEARCH DESK, http://trackthemissingchild.gov.in/trackchild/readwrite/News_Clippings/ NATIONAL _ LEGAL_RESEARCH_DESK.pdf

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(g) Further, in the Metropolitan cities such as Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai the Investigating Officer should immediately verify the red light areas and try to find out the minor girls. If any minor girl (may or may not be recently brought there) is found her permission be taken and she may be taken to the children’s home (Sec 34 of the Juvenile Justice (Care and Protection of the Children) Act 2000, and the I.O. to take appropriate steps that all medical /other facilities are provided for her. “*

So these were the guidelines by the Supreme Court in Hori Lal vs. Commissioner of

Police, Delhi and Ors. But in this present case study we find that no F.I.R was even registered for the missing women. And also no enquiry was initiated. Its means somewhere our law enforcement body is lacking behind to execute the guidelines given by Supreme Court to deal with missing cases. Even we know that India is one of the top countries where trafficking rate is high. Trafficking of women does not always means trafficking of women for prostitution, it may be done for forced labor, egg donor for surrogacy and for surrogate mother and also etc. So in missing cases special care should be taken by the police team and they must be updated with all Supreme Court guidelines to deal with such cases.

“Governments have to do more to guarantee children and young people their right to

protection from trafficking. There is hope, and real and practical solutions exist. Trafficking of children for sexual purposes happens in virtually every country in the world —developed and developing —and we must see governments uphold their commitments to those solutions.

- By Carmen M Madrinan, Executive Director, End Child Prostitution, Child Pornography and Trafficking of Children for Sexual Purposes (ECPAT International)†”

Even Lalita Kumari v. Govt. of U.P W.P.(Crl) No; 68/2008‡, Honarable Supreme

Courts in its judgment strictly said that in every Cognizable offence except in cases of matrimonial cases FIR should be registered immediately by Police Officer under section 154 Criminal procedure Code and failing of which strict action will be taken against the police officer. So, in that sense the missing cases are also cognizable offence according to this judgment, so FIR should be registered immediately.

Even Supreme Court in Writ Petition (Civil 75/ 2012) Bachpan Bachao Andolan vs Union of India and Others, on the issue of children missing and there trafficking, following directions were given by Hon’ble Chief Justice of India Mr. Justice Altamas Kabir and comprising of Hon'ble Mr. Justice Vikramajit Sen and Hon'ble Mr. Justice Sharad Arvind Bobde:

“All cases of missing children in India to be registered as a cognizable offence (as First Information Report) and investigated.

In cases where First Information Reports have not been lodged at all and the child is still missing, an F.I.R. should be lodged within a month - this figure is 75,808 for the period 2009 - 2011 alone.

In all missing children cases, there will be a presumption of the crime of kidnapping or trafficking unless proven otherwise from investigation - this is a landmark precedent as for the first time of "presumption of crime" for vulnerable sections of society is recognized.

All complaints regarding children (for non cognizable offences), to be investigated after referring them to a magistrate.

Each police station should have, at least, one Police Officer, especially instructed and trained and designated as a Juvenile Welfare Officer to investigate crimes against children.

National Legal Services Authority (NALSA) to appoint para-legal volunteers, so that there is, at least, one para- legal volunteer, in shifts, in the police station to keep a watch over the

* http://nlrd.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/HORILAL-ORDER-MISSING-CHILDREN.pdf † Preventing and Combating the Trafficking of Girls in India Using Legal Empowerment Strategies, IDLO, at 4 http://www.idlo.org/Publications/FinalReportGirlsProject.pdf ‡ National Legal Research Desk, FIR Registration Is Mandatory & Action Will Be Taken If Fir Is Not Registered: SC, http://nlrd.org/childs-rights-initiative/supreme-court-latest-orders-and-judgements-child-rights-initiative/fir-registration-is-mandatory-action-will-be-taken-if-fir-is-not-registered-sc

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manner in which the complaints regarding missing children and other offences against children, are dealt with.

A computerized programme (website), which would create a network between the Central Child Protection Unit as the Head of the Organization and all State Child Protection Units, District Child Protection Units, City Child Protection Units, Block Level Child Protection Units, all Special Juvenile Police Units, all Police stations, all Juvenile Justice Boards and all Child Welfare Committees, etc. to be created as a central data bank.

Photographs of the recovered child to be put up on the website and through the newspapers and even on the T.V. so that the parents of the missing child could locate their missing child and recover him or her from the custody of the police.

A Standard Operating Procedure (SoP) must be developed to handle the cases of missing children and to invoke appropriate provisions of law where trafficking, child labour, abduction, exploitation and similar issues are disclosed during investigation or after the recovery of the child.

BBA to assist in developing the Standard Operating Procedure (SoP), and also, BBA to be the nodal agency for All India Legal Aid Cell on Child Rights, flagship scheme of NALSA to provide legal aid to any child in need of care and protection in the country.

A missing child has been defined as, “a person below eighteen years of age, whose whereabouts are not known to the parents, legal guardians and any other person, who may be legally entrusted with the custody of the child, whatever may be the circumstances/causes of disappearance. The child will be considered missing and in need of care and protection within the meaning of the later part of the Juvenile Act, until located and/or his/her safety/well being is established.”

Even after recovery of the missing child, the police shall carry out further investigation to see whether there is an involvement of any trafficking in the procedure by which the child went missing.

The State authorities shall arrange for adequate Shelter Homes to be provided for missing children, who are recovered and do not have any place to go to within 3 months.“*

Supreme Court in both Horilal vs Commissioner of Police, Delhi and Ors and in Bachpan

Bachao Andolan vs Union of India and Others has given strong instruction for compulsory registration of F.I.R in case of missing person whether it a child or women. But some where law enforcement body fail to handle the cases of missing person. In many trafficking whish was actually a missing cases delay in registering F.I.R gives chances to the culprit to runaway from the crime site along with the victim. This is great injustice towards the society. Even though repeatedly Supreme Court in the above two decision given a clear direction that for missing cases FIR must be registered without making any delay. But the JagLag story is quite different in reality.

The following are the some of the Dos and Don’ts which have been mentioned by Dr P. M

Nair in the Handbook For Law Enforcement In India “TRAFFICKING WOMEN AND CHILDREN FOR SEXUAL EXPLOITATION”† for the police officer:

“Under section 15 of THE IMMORAL TRAFFIC (PREVENTION) ACT, a Special police officer (SPO) can search without warrant and carry out rescue and thus the SPO is free to act on his own and promptly.

Even the Magistrate has the power to authorize any police officer (SI and above) u/s 16 of ITPA to rescue anybody any time. If SPO has not been notified, the available police officer should feel empowered under this provision. He/she should go to the Magistrate, get orders and then move for rescue.

Do not delay rescue at any cost. Delay denies justice delivery and also exacerbates exploitation. Do gather intelligence and act in time.

*Supreme Court Of India Directs Registration Of Over 75,000 Cases Of Missing Children, BACHPAN BACHAO ANDOLAN, May 21, 2013, http://bba.org.in/?q=content/supreme-court-india-directs-registration-over-75000-cases-missing-children † Dr. P. M Nair, Trafficking Women And Children For Sexual Exploitation, (UNODC, 2nd edition)

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Information source for rescue could be anybody, although NGOs play a significant role. Magistrate can take cognizance of report by anybody including NGO (S.16 ITPA). Magistrate can be anybody from the categories of JM/MM/SDM/DM (S.16 ITPA), having

jurisdiction over the area. The search/rescue party should have two women police officers (WPO) as required u/s

15(6A). Maintain a list of WPOs residing in the jurisdiction of the PS, neighboring PS and other nearby locations. If there is shortage of WPO, get retired WPO notified as SPO u/s 13 (2 A) ITPA.

Two respectable persons are required as witnesses (PW) during search and one of them shall be a women u/s 15(2) ITPA. Utilize the services of local NGO’s. Do network with NGO’s in the area.

Interview of rescued person should be done only in presence of by WPO or woman from an NGO, as per Section u/s 15 (6A) ITPA. Maintain list of NGO’s in the P.S.

Rescued persons are to be produced before the Magistrate forthwith (S.16 ITPA). Keep the victims segregated from the accused and suspects, so that they do not intimidate

or violate the rights of the victims. Rights of rescued persons are to be ensured during rescue and post rescue situations.

This includes the following: • Facilitate the rescued person to carry along with her all her possessions like clothes,

money, jewellery and etc. • If the rescued person has children, they should be allowed to accompany her. Extra

care should be taken to see that the children are not left behind in the brothel. • One should be careful in the use of language/gestures/demeanors. They should not

be abusive or intimidator and should no way violate her rights. • Avoid publicity of the victims so that anonymity is maintained. • Carry out a brief interview of the victims at the place of rescue to know their age (so

that the applicability of JJ Act could be decided) and to locate their assets and possessions (which could be carried along with them before leaving the place). One or two officials should be earmarked exclusively for this purpose.

• Ensure proper handing over of victim’s possessions to her at the appropriate place and time (i.e., the victim’s clothes, etc should be delivered to her immediately after recovery).

• Provide counselors for trauma counseling. Keep a list of NGOs and trained counselors who are willing to work in this field.

• Legal counseling be provided to the victim. Keep a list of lawyers willing to work for the victims.

• Immediate medical relief is provided. Medical relief should include mental health as well. As per s.15(5A) ITPA, the Magistrate has to order medical examination for:

- Age determination - Injuries - Sexual assault - Presence of STD

Children are to be dealt under JJ Act. Therefore, while rescue is going on, please do segregate the children from the adult victims and proceed with them under JJ Act. The children need to be handled by the Child Welfare Committee (CWC) set up under the JJ Act.

The police officers need to know beforehand as to where the Rescue Home is available. If there is a need for such Homes, it should be taken up with the concerned authorities. Of late many NGO’s have set up such Homes. Keep a list of their address, telephone, contact person, etc.

As and when the rescue is done, please notify the authorities of the concerned Home regarding the number of persons going to be lodged so that they could be prepared to receive them and organize themselves.

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Rescue Party should have adequate number of vehicles so that the rescued persons could be transported without publicity and glare. Accused and suspected persons should never be allowed to mix up with the rescued persons.

Search and seizure of all material evidence, including documents in the brothel is an important job. This should be done at the first available opportunity so that evidence is not destroyed or made to disappear by anybody, especially the exploiters.

Training of police officials on victim protocols is a pre-requirement to see that they are aware and sensitized to the issues concerned. A copy of this handbook, translated in the local language would be an appropriate tool kit.

Ensure accountability of all the officials taking part in the rescue. Brief them well in advance on all the points mentioned above and ensure compliance. Accountability demands appreciation of good work as well as condemnation of all wrong-doings, including acts of omission and commission. Utilize the services of reputed NGOs, as independent agency, to understand and assess how things are and were during the search so that appropriate steps could be taken accordingly.”*

Suggestion The following are some suggestion to deal with the missing person cases: 1. FIR should be registered immediately. 2. Special training must be provided to police officer to deal with the missing cases. 3. There should not be any delay in registering FIR especially in places where trafficking

cases are high in number. 4. NGO can play an important role for tracking the missing person by keeping eye on the

surrounding where trafficking cases are high in number. 5. Government can also play an important role to minimize the cases of trafficking women

cases by providing job to them in there home town. 6. Either it is a case of missing or trafficking the foremost duty of the family members of the

victim is to make report in the nearest Police station and asked the officer in charge to register a FIR and GD.

7. There should not be any delay in starting the search operation for the victim person. 8. Special Police team must be there in places where missing person cases and trafficking

cases are high in number. So, that this police personal can take proper care of such cases without making any delay in investigation.

9. All Supreme Court judgment related to trafficking of women and child should be circulated to each police station of the state. And where training is required they should be trained from the professional.

Conclusion From the above research I find that if the law and order administrator follow the guidelines

given by Supreme Court in time to time then the society will be free from such crimes. Whatever law we have to deal with the cases of trafficking, that is sufficient for us the only thing which is needed is proper implementation of this law. And in sensitive zone where missing cases and human trafficking is high in those areas the law and order administrator must be active to initiate the investigation without making any delay. And in such areas NGO can also play an important role to educate the people, so that they can protect themselves from becoming the victim of any form of trafficking. And one must keep on eye in his or her surrounding. And any suspicious activity or any information about any suspicious person should be reported to police station or to a NGO. In this way we can tackle the problem of human trafficking from our side.

Acknowledgement I am thankful to Jagdalpur Lgal Aid group especially Advocate Guneet Kaur and Advocate

Parijata Bhardwaj for their support and sharing their experience and views while rescuing the above mentioned girls.

* Id.23 to 25.

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References 1. P.M. Nair and Sankar Sen, A Report on Trafficking in Women and Children in India

2002-2003, NHRC - UNIFEM - ISS Project at 203, http://nhrc.nic.in/Documents /Reporton Trafficking.pdf

2. Shakti Vahin, Missing Children-India –Govt Initiatives and Court Orders, NATIONAL LEGAL RESEARCH DESK, http://trackthemissingchild. gov.in/trackchild /readwrite/News_ Clippings /NATIONAL_LEGAL_RESEARCH_DESK.pdf

3. Preventing and Combating the Trafficking of Girls in India Using Legal Empowerment Strategies, IDLO, at 4 http://www.idlo.org/Publications /FinalReport GirlsProject.pdf

4. National Legal Research Desk, FIR Registration Is Mandatory & Action Will Be Taken If Fir Is Not Registered: SC, http://nlrd.org/childs-rights-initiative/supreme-court-latest-orders-and-judgements-child-rights-initiative/fir-registration-is-mandatory-action-will-be-taken-if-fir-is-not-registered-sc

5. Supreme Court Of India Directs Registration Of Over 75,000 Cases Of Missing Children, BACHPAN BACHAO ANDOLAN, May 21, 2013, http://bba.org.in/?q=content/ supreme-court-india-directs-registration-over-75000-cases-missing-children

6. Dr. P. M Nair, Trafficking Women And Children For Sexual Exploitation, (UNODC, 2nd edition)

7. P.M. Nair, A Report on Trafficking in Women and Children in India 2002-2003, http://nhrc.nic.in/Documents/ReportonTrafficking.pdf

8. Anju Gupta, Model Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) for Police for Investigation of Cases of Human Trafficking, (International Organization for Migration)

9. http://nlrd.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/02/HORILAL-ORDER-MISSING-CHILDREN. pdf

11




UDC 316

Slums and Social Development: A Search for Alternative Paradigms

Sribas Goswami

Serampore College, Dist- Hooghly, West Bengal, India PhD, Assistant Professor E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Social development has multidimensional aspects, which covers eradication of poverty,

promotion of productive employment acceleration of social integration, opportunity of quality education etc. Social well-being is also designated to enable each individual to improve his ability to take charge of his destiny by means of fruitful activities in the economic, social, cultural, moral, and political fields and to participate in the choices and decisions concerning the society in its collective orientation. To achieve these objectives social development policy must focus on the human person, equity, social justice and security together with social cohesion, respect for human rights and non-discrimination and finally the participation of the people in the whole range of development policies. Social development calls for strategic investments in health, education and social services, and necessitates access of the underprivileged to means of economic well-being. In this study, dimensions of urban poverty and key issues for urban poor and those living in slums are discussed briefly.

Keywords: Slum; decision making; development; human rights; infrastructure.

Introduction Major cities in India are projecting immense development with sky scrapers, fancy flyovers,

massive shopping malls and multiplexes. But what are co-existing are poverty, poverty of employment, poverty of shelter, poverty of basic necessities and poverty of access to basic infrastructure like electricity, water, drainage and sanitation. Housing for the poor is so scarce and consequently slums are mushrooming everywhere, with little action on the part of the authorities to ensure cheap housing for the poor (Chakraborti, 1995). The so called slum rehabilitation authority does precious little by way of locating suitable land and constructing tenements with basic necessities. Poverty can be seen in the form of slum. Slums may be the byproduct of the development. Here the concern is to explore the development discourse in the form of slums and urban poor. Paradox of economic growth in urban areas is the growing number of urban poor. Increasing population pressure resulting in deterioration of physical environment and quality of life further aggravates the problem (Knack, 1995). In this study, dimensions of urban poverty and key issues for urban poor and those living in slums are discussed in detail. Society develops by building up higher and higher levels of organizations. The establishments of each successive new layers of organization occur as an overlay on the foundations of the society’s previous achievements. We refer to these essential foundations as the infrastructure for the next stage of

12



development. The term infrastructure is commonly used to refer to the physical infrastructure of roads, ports, navigable rivers, railways and electric power that support economic activity. Here we give extended meaning to the term by including three other levels of infrastructure – social, mental and psychological -- that are necessary for further developmental achievements. The social infrastructure consist of all the laws, systems, administrative, commercial, productive and financial organizations like colleges, research institutes, banks, stock exchanges, courts, etc. built up during previous stages of development that serve as a foundation for future progress. The mental infrastructure includes the availability of information, the level of education and awareness in society, the technical knowledge and skills of the workforce. The psychological infrastructure consists of the collective social energy, aspirations, attitudes and values that make the society open to new ideas, responsive to opportunities, willing to change, dynamic and hard working – all of which are essential characteristics for rising to higher levels of development (Rawls, 1971). The remarkable advances in the development of organizations conform to the same principle. It is the continued growth in the capacity of human beings to conceive, design, plan, allocate, systematize, standardize, coordinate, and integrate actions, systems and organizations into larger, more complex and more productive arrangements which are responsible for the process of social development discussed in this study.

Methodology For the present study it is decided to use purposive sampling method to choose respondents

from Raipur city slums in India. Purposive sampling may involve studying the entire population of some limited group or a subset of a population. Here the sample size is 300 persons from four slums taking 95 women from Gandhi Nagar, 88 women from Moulipara, 100 women from Kushalpur and 17 women from Kota Basti proportionately distributed. For the present study ten percent of total number of families in each selected slum area is taken. In case of Gandhinagar ten percent total family size is 95.7, for Moulipara 87.8, for Kushalpur 100.3 and Kota 16.6. But the figures have been rounded off for the sake of convenience for calculation. All individuals selected in the sample were asked to provide informed voluntary consent.

Analysis of the findings

Table 1: Awareness of Civic Rights and Duties of Respondents

Name of Slum

Awareness of Right Awareness of Duties Total

Respondents Aware

Un-

awar

e

Tota

l

Aware

Un-

awar

e

Cas

ting

vot

e

Thro

ugh

deci

sion

m

akin

g

By

acti

ve

part

icip

atio

n

Indi

rect

ly

Act

ive

Kota Basti 7 (41.18%)

5 (29.41%)

5 (29.41%)

17 (100%)

4 (23.53%)

8 (47.06%)

5 (29.41%)

17 (100%)

Kushalpur 56 (56.00%)

17 (17.00%)

27 (27.00%)

100 (100%)

31 (31.00%)

56 (56.00%)

13 (13.00%)

100 (100%)

Gandhinagar 62 (65.26%)

20 (21.05%)

13 (13.69%)

95 (100%)

51 (53.68%)

38 (40.00%)

6 (6.23%)

95 (100%)

Moulipara 37 (41.67%)

8 (9.33%)

7 (9.33%)

88 (100%)

15 (17.05%)

68 (77.27%)

5 (5.68%)

88 (100%)

Total 181 (60.33%)

60 (20.00%)

59 (19.66%)

300 (100%)

101 (33.67%)

170 (56.67%)

29 (9.66%)

300 (100%)

13


Rights and duties are complimentary in the sense absence of one may create disequilibrium in social life. Since human are social by nature, they are meant to live with others and to work for one another's welfare. A well-ordered human society demands that people recognize and observe their mutual rights and duties. It also demands that people contribute generously to the establishment of a civic order in which rights and duties are more sincerely and effectively acknowledged and fulfilled. Beginning our discussion of the rights of the human person, it is seen see that everyone has the right to life, to bodily integrity, and to the means which are suitable for the proper development of life, these are primarily food, clothing, shelter, rest, medical care, and finally the necessary social services. Here in the table 1 about 20% people are unaware about their rights mostly due to ignorance. But aware respondents have said that they apply their rights by casting vote (60.33%) and 20% respondents have said that through community participation they enjoy rights. So far the duties are concerned near about 10% respondents are unaware. Here the gap can be seen between level of awareness of rights and duties which are almost 10%. In the present time political awareness is increasingly growing among the marginalized sections along with the mainstream population. In an effective democracy the participation of local people is necessary to get the fruitful result and this comes from awareness of rights and duties to the society. In the present study it can be seen that the majority people participate in the voting process for choosing their representative from their respective areas. But it is also being noticed that only by casting votes people can’t be empowered unless they participate in decision making process. The percentage of unaware people about their rights in Kota Basti and Kushalpur are almost same. In Moulipara maximum people are aware of their rights. On the contrary in Kota Basti 29.41% people are unaware about their duties to the society.

People’s participation can be defined as the process by which people are able to organise

themselves and are able to identify their needs and share in the participatory action (Goswami, 2013). The involvement of people down to the grassroots level is essential to ensure the success of social development programmes. Participation involves in the right to exercise voice and choice and developing human, organisational and management capacity in order to sustain improvement. Informal methods of fostering education through community participation can also reap benefits for the local population. During 1990-91 periods, Integrated Slum Development (ISD) is developed from a theoretical framework to an implementable programme based on the past personal experience and understanding the lives of slum residents. Up to the 1990s, the existing development paradigm of central planning considered slum residents as passive recipients of developmental inputs and not as active participants in the development processes affecting them. This welfare approach to slum development has created an overall feeling that the slum residents are inferior citizens of the city and hence the government has to take the burden of developing the slums. From an activist’s viewpoint, there is a greater concern; that slum residents themselves are internalising this attitude, leading to decreased self-esteem and a diffident attitude. The ISD concept is developed assuming that the slum residents themselves are willing to be active participants in their own development process.

The decision making process is one of the ways of measuring the weaker section’s

empowerment, although mere participation in any matter does not corroborate full empowerment of such group. However, participation in decision-making process in community matters considers that the slum dwellers are accounted in the community. Participation in decision making refers to different mechanisms for the public to express opinions and ideally exert influence regarding political, economic, management or other social decisions. Participatory decision making can take place along any realm of human social activity, including economic, political, management, cultural or familial. Levels of participation are judged by the number of registered civil society organizations, memberships of political parties, trade unions and business associations and key international conferences and events and the levels of voting turn out. Ensuring gender equity and equality, and the empowerment of women depend on overcoming cultural, social and economic constraints that limit women's access to education, as well as providing universal access to reproductive health education and services that allow them to protect their health, control their fertility and develop their full potential in all aspects of public and private life. Removing social and family barriers to women's and marginalized sections’ equal social, economic and political

14


participation and combating against discrimination are essential. Reproductive health and rights such as the right to decide the number, timing and spacing of children, free from coercion and violence are central to women's empowerment and gender equality, and to women's enjoyment of other human rights.

Table 2: Familiarity of Local Counselor by Respondents

Nam

e of

Sl

um

Fully

K

now

n

%

Not

wel

l K

now

n

%

Don

’t K

now

%

Tota

l R

espo

nde

nts

Kota Basti 11 64.70 3 17.65 3 17.65 17 (100%)

Kushalpur 33 33 44 44 23 23 100 (100%) Gandhinagar 57 60 22 23.16 16 16.84 95 (100%)

Moulipara 57 64.77 10 11.36 21 23.87 88 (100%) Total 158 52.67 79 26.33 63 21 300 (100%)

Success of any development programme is possible through active participation of local community. Local community generally participates through their local leaders or ward Counselors in the development programmes. The slum community has legitimate representation in the Municipal Corporation by election of the counselor from where they belong. Counselor is accountable to person who is supposed to look after the necessities of local people. So communication with counselor is very vital for good governance. Table 2 shows 52.67% respondents are very much familiar with counselor. 26.33% people partially know and 21% people don’t know their counselor. The people of Kota Basti (64.70%) and Moulipara (64.77%) know their counselor fully. 23% people of Kushalpur and 23.87% people of Moulipara don’t know their local counselor.

Table 3: Opinions of Respondents Regarding Participation

in Decision-Making Process

Nam

e of

Slu

m

Oft

en ta

kes

sugg

esti

on

%

Som

e ti

me

take

s su

gges

tion

%

Nev

er ta

ke

sugg

esti

on

%

Tota

l R

espo

nden

ts

Kota Basti 1 5.88 3 17.65 13 76.47 17 (100%)

Kushalpur 12 12.00 29 29.00 59 59.00 100 (100%)

Gandhinagar 15 15.79 42 44.21 38 40.00 95 (100%)

Moulipara 8 9.09 54 61.36 26 29.55 88 (100%)

Total 36 12.00 128 42.67 136 45.33 300 (100%)

15


The counselors not only have a larger stake in and commitment to improving the living conditions of their communities, but their own importance in greater domain is decisive factor for the well-being of their communities. Therefore, peoples’ involvement and participation play crucial role in bringing about change. Conscious efforts to involve them through the cooperative are made. The counselors are the key persons for implementation of any policy. Some time denial of slum dwellers’ participation in the drafting of the various policies and programs for them made by the local leader is noticed. The planning process and the experience with development projects so far indicate that citizens have been totally excluded from the discussion about the location and nature of development projects, their size, their socio-environment impact, the distribution of their costs and benefits. The above table (3) shows that 45.33% respondents are never asked for their demand and requirement by their counselors, whereas only 12% people have said they are involved for local job some time. 42.67% respondents have said that some time they are given due importance for the framing plan for development of local slums. In Kota Basti it seems the decision making process is lagging behind than other slums. The peoples’ participation in the decision making process is better in Moulipara.

Table 4: Participation in Development Programme

in Locality by the Respondents

Nam

e of

Sl

um

Alw

ays

part

icip

ate

%

Som

etim

e pa

rtic

ipat

e

%

Nev

er

part

icip

ate

%

Tota

l R

espo

nden

ts

Kota Basti 1 5.88 2 11.77 14 82.35 17 (100%)

Kushalpur 3 3.00 42 42.00 55 55.00 100 (100%)

Gandhinagar 6 6.32 46 48.42 43 45.26 95 (100%)

Moulipara 1 1.14 31 35.23 56 63.64 88 (100%)

Total 11 3.67 121 40.33 168 56.00 300 (100%)

Table 4 shows that 3.67% respondents always participate, 40.33% respondents some time

participate and 56% people never participate in the development programmes of locality. From this table it is seen that for all slums very few people actively participate in the development programmes. Except Kota Basti people of other three slums sometime participate. Regarding participation of local people in development programmes Kota Basti is lagging far behind than other slums.

16


Table 5: Place for Redresses of Grievances

In order to ensure effectiveness of the machinery for redress of public grievances, the

guidelines are stipulated in almost every government offices. But another grievance arises out of solving the grievance sought to solve. As the redress mechanism doesn’t work effectively. From the table 5 respondents have said that they go to counselor’s office (77%) directly depending upon the nature of the problem. Some of them (12.67%) have said that they go to corporation office, 7.66% respondents go to the local leaders for place the grievances for redress and 2.67% people don’t do anything in this regard. The general attitude of the respondents is that they go to the counselors’ office for redress but they receive lots of assurances rather practical solutions because as long the problem exists the demand of counselor will continue to exist. People of Moulipara (92%) directly go to the counselor’s office. But people of Kota Basti mostly depend on municipality in this regard.

Concluding remarks The poor lacks access to information about various Government schemes. NGOs could play a

significant role by conducting mass education and mass awareness programs. Programmes may not be target driven but focused on achieving the objective laid out. Implementation programmes must be transparent and follow a time-bound procedure. Sufficient resources may be allocated for primary education especially for job-oriented education (Kumar, 2003). The thematic areas of intervention are access to housing, water, sanitation, food security, waste management and creating a safe living environment. Expressions of expectations about requirements for community reveal the other ideas that embody the cultural values. It increases the capacity of one's strength of arguments. The general convention does not permit the slum people to participate in larger matters owing to their less importance as they belong to some insignificant place. The experience of implementing poverty programmes clearly brings out the need for an integrated response to deal with the problems of urban poor (Khan, 2008). The experience highlights the fact that no sectoral intervention would mitigate the problems of the urban poor or improves their quality of life. It is also noted that programmes for the poor need to focus on particularly vulnerable groups among them, like women and children, disabled and destitute, the aged and children in difficult circumstances.

Lack of coordination of several agencies working on slums is observed, which leads to

inefficient use of resources. Deterioration of infrastructure created by investments under various slum improvement programmes due to inadequate maintenance in slums is noted. The infrastructure created in slums is not linked to the citywide networks.

Slum dwellers generally participate through their local leaders or ward Counselors in the

process of development programmes. The slum community has legitimate representation in the

Nam

e of

Sl

um

Cou

nsel

or

%

Cor

pora

tion

of

fice

%

Oth

ers

%

Don

’t do

%

Tota

l R

espo

nden

ts

Kota Basti 10 58.82 4 23.53 1 5.88 2 11.77 17 (100%)

Kushalpur 68 68.00 19 19.00 13 13.00 - - 100 (100%)

Gandhinagar 72 75.79 15 15.79 2 2.10 6 6.32 95 (100%)

Moulipara 81 92.05 - - 7 7.95 - - 88 (100%)

Total 231 77.00 38 12.67 23 7.66 8 2.67 300 (100%)

17


Municipal Corporation by election of the counselor from where they belong. The general attitude of the respondents is that they go to the counselors’ office for redress but they get lots of assurances rather practical solutions because as long the problem exists the demand of counselor will continue to exist.

While achieving considerable feats of inventiveness in self-help housing on an individual

basis, the collective power of urban poor groups has produced exceptional results in building new homes and upgrading existing slum housing, as reflected in official development literature which recommends participatory slum improvement as the best practice for housing interventions in India. Land possession continues to be threatening issue in addressing the problems of the poor. People living in non-notified slums are most susceptible, as they are not officially recognized. They are most vulnerable with no regular incomes, access to basic services, absence of tenure rights, etc. Programmes for development are targeted mostly on notified and developed slums.

The planning process and the experience with development projects so far indicate that slum

dwellers have been totally excluded from the discussion about the location and nature of development projects, their size, their socio-environment impact, the distribution of their costs and benefits.

References: 1. Bose K, Bisai S, Das P, Dikshit S & Pradhan, S (2007): “Interrelationships of income,

chronic energy deficiency, morbidity and hospitalization among adult male slum dwellers of Midnapore, West Bengal, India”. Journal of Bio soc Sci 39: 779-787.

2. Chatterji, R (2005): “Contributions to Indian Sociology, Plans, habitation and slum development: The production of community in Dharavi”, 39, 197 – 218, Mumbai.

3. Chakraborti, B K (1995): “Slum Problem in India - Magnitude, Genesis and Possible Solution”, Urbanization and Slums, Har Anand Publications, New Delhi.

4. Goswami, S and Manna, S (2010): “Social aspects of environment: A study of slums of Raipur city”, Man and Life, January-June Vol-36 1&2, Bidisha, India.

5. Goswami, S (2012): “Health and Child Development Paradox: Findings from Raipur Slums” , Global Journal of Human Social Science Sociology, Economics & Political Science, Volume 12 Issue 14 Version 1.0 Year 2012, USA.

6. Goswami S (2013). A glimpse on women’s fertility: a study in the fringe of Bilaspur, India” Evidence Based Women's Health Journal, LWW, Vol. 4, (2), pp. 72-77, DOI: 10.1097/01.EBX.0000440883.60043.42.

7. Kumar, S, Shigeo, K and Harada , H (2003): “Living Environment and Health of Urban 8. Poor: A Study in Mumbai”. Economic and Political Weekly, August, Delhi. 9. Kantor, P and Nair, P (2003) “Risks and responses among the urban poor in India.”

Journal of International Development 15(8): 957–967. 10. Knack, S and Philip K (1995): “Institutions and Economic Performance: Cross-Country

Tests Using Alternative Measures”, Economics and Politics, 7(3), 207-227 Wiley Blackwell, U.K. 11. Konrad, K. A (2002): “Investment in the Absence of Property Rights; the Role of

Incumbency Advantages”, European Economic Review 46(8), 1521-1537, Elsevier. 12. Khan, M. H and Kraemer, A. (2008): “Socio-economic factors explain differences in

public health-related variables among women in Bangladesh: A cross-sectional study” (BMC Public Health. 2008; 8: 254. Published online 2008 July 23.

13. Rappaport, J (1986): "Collaborating for Empowerment: Creating the language for mutual help”, New Populism: the Politics of Empowerment, PA: Temple University Press. p. 10, Philadelphia.

14. Rappaport, J (1987): “Terms of empowerment/examples of prevention: Toward a theory for community psychology”, American Journal of Community Psychology, 15:121-148.

15. Rawls, J (1971): “Social Unity and Primary Goods. In: A Theory of Justice”, MA: Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

18




UDC 316

Defining the Levels of the Audience's Media Competence

and Critical Thinking in Sociological Surveys

Anastasia Levitskaya

Taganrog Management and Economics Institute, Russian Federation PhD, Associate Professor E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The author of the article agrees that sociological researches of the levels of media

literacy/competence of different groups of citizens are very timely today. However such researches require a significant shift of emphasis: the most important indicator should be the audience's ability to analyze and evaluate media messages and media's role in society (including a media text's analysis); only afterwards such skills as creation and communication of own media production and skills to use media technology should follow. The article attempts to illustrate that otherwise the findings of sociological surveys on media competence will display a common flaw - the over-estimation of user's skills. The author emphasizes that media literacy does not benefit from its reduction as a technical matter.

Keywords: media education; media literacy; media criticism; media competence; analytical thinking; sociological surveys.

Introduction In 2009 the results of a large scale sociological survey addressing the levels of media literacy

development in different states of the European Union were published [Celot, 2009]. According to its findings, the countries of EU were divided into 3 groups:

- EU countries manifesting a heightened level of media competence: Austria, the UK, Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Finland, France, Sweden;

- EU countries with a median level of media education and media literacy of people: Belgium, Hungary, Germany, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Lithuania, Malta, Portugal, Slovenia, the Czech Republic, Estonia;

- EU countries with a limited/basic degree of media competence of people: Bulgaria, Greece, Cyprus, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia [Celot, 2009, p.69].

In 2011 a similar European survey was conducted, according to which EU countries were also grouped into 3 clusters:

- EU countries with a high level of media literacy and media education: Austria, the UK, Germany, Denmark, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Finland, France, Sweden;

- EU countries with a medium level of media education and media literacy of people: Belgium, Hungary, Ireland, Spain, Italy, Lithuania, Malta, Portugal, Slovenia, Cyprus, the Czech Republic;

19



- EU countries with a low level of media education and media literacy of people: Bulgaria, Greece, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Slovakia, Estonia [Testing…, 2011, p. 38].

Materials and methods Comparison of these groups/clusters shows that on the whole there has not been many

changes in differentiation of EU countries according to the development levels of media education and media literacy over 3 years: Germany only managed to join the group of the most advanced in media education countries. Cyprus and Slovakia went up from the third group into the second, and Estonia, on the contrary, lowered its position and moved down to the third group.

Thus, Great Britain in both sociological surveys (2009 and 2011) along with France,

Netherlands, Austria and some Nordic countries was included into the group of the most advanced in the sphere of media education EU countries. It is interesting that comparing and contrasting the development of media education in Great Britain and Russia, one can draw the conclusions about some similarities in current processes. Undoubtedly, media education in the UK has been developing more actively, national educational curricular include media literacy aspects (as a rule, in subjects like English, Citizenship, Social Studies, Arts, Health) [Bazalgette, 2010]. However, as in modern Russia, on the whole, media education in the UK is still largely dependent on the interest and enthusiasm of individual teachers, with the inevitable result of the inhomogeneous and different level of quality. Moreover, only a small minority of teachers are reasonably aware of media education, during which the cultural experience, critical methods of analysis, creative abilities of pupils are being developed due to the integrated approach embedded in the curriculum [Bazalgette, 2010].

Moreover, the initiative of the organization Ofcom, created in 2003 and aimed at regulating

electronic media including telecommunications and Internet, quite differs from the cultural studies approach to media education, implemented by the educational department of the British Film Institute (BFI). Ofcom interprets media literacy very broadly, encouraging media industry to get interested in media education in new ways; it does useful researches ranging from people's access to media technologies to people's trust in media. However as a regulatory body, Ofcom unavoidably relies on the protection of people against the alleged negative effects of media, as well as on the development of media literacy in terms of basic technical skills (for instance, how to block spam, etc.). Taking into consideration that Ofcom belongs to the British Department of Culture, Media and Sport (DCMS), it does not have any significant impact on the actual educational policy [Bazalgette, 2010].

Ofcom argues that media literacy "enables people to have the skills, knowledge and understanding to make full use of the opportunities presented by both traditional and new communications services. Media literacy also helps people to manage content and communications, and protect themselves and their families from the potential risks associated with using these services". It defines media literacy as "the ability to use, understand and create media and communications in a variety of context" [http://stakeholders.ofcom.org.uk/market-data-research/other/media-literacy/]. This definition has been widely spread in Britain. Since Ofcom primarily acts as an economic regulator, a regulator of the market, rather than a content regulator, in this context, "it would be possible to interpret media literacy as a familiar neo-liberal strategy. In a deregulated, market-driven economy, the argument goes, people need to be responsible for their own behaviour as consumers. Rather than looking to the government to protect them from the negative aspects of market forces, they need to learn to protect themselves. What does it matter if Rupert Murdoch owns the media, if we are all wise and critical consumers? And so media literacy becomes part of a strategy of creating well-behaved, self-regulating “citizen-consumers” (to use Ofcom’s term): it reflects a shift from public regulation to individual self-regulation that we can see in many other areas of modern social policy. Of course, this comes packaged as a democratic move – a move away from protectionism and towards empowerment. But it is also an individualising move: it seems to be based on a view of media literacy as a personal attribute, rather than as a social practice. Indeed, it could be seen to place a burden on individuals that they might not necessarily be disposed or able to cope with. And while it gives people responsibilities, it does not also extend their rights: it positions them as consumers rather than as citizens. It has become the

20


duty of all good consumers – and, when it comes to children, of all good parents —to regulate their own media uses" [Buckingham, 2009, p. 16-17].

The situation with Ofcom is very similar to the Russian 2013 case with "Roskomnadzor"

(http://eng.rkn.gov.ru/), the regulatory body that has no influence of the system of education. In 2010, the Federal Law No. 436-FZ On Protecting Children from Information Harmful to Their Health and Development came into effect and Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology, and Mass Media prepared the Framework of Information Security of Children, where in Chapter 20 there is a "Strategy, Aims, Objectives, and Methods of Information Literacy of Children and Teenagers" [Vartanova, Matvejeva, Sobkin, Soldatova, Sharikov et all, 2013]. Firstly, this Framework, likewise the Ofcom activity, is mainly aimed at the protection of the underage audience from harmful media impact. Secondly, it does not affect the real educational process in Russia.

The same line of development is characteristic of Zircon, a Moscow research group

specializing in sociological and marketing researches and consulting (http://www.zircon.ru /en/about/). The purpose of its study "Monitoring of media literacy level of the population of Russia" (for The Ministry of communications and mass communications of the RF, 2009-2013) [Zircon, 2013] was to examine primarily the skills and abilities of using the media by the audience. The surveys of 1600 respondents were conducted annually. Findings from a national research project conducted by Zircon reveal the following:

- level of skills to use information sources; - skills to use media gadgets, Internet, and frequency of use (defined by the territory and

age); - citizens' access to computers and Internet; - access rate to traditional media vs. new media; - types of attitudes of the people towards the information flow, its critical perception, and

verification; - people's activities when disclosing false information (grouped by gender, age, level of

education, and location); - types of assessment judgments about media flow [Zircon, 2013]. The large-scale survey studies report that from 2009 to 2013 1600 Russian respondents

increased their use of mobile telephone communication dramatically (from 85% in 2009 to 93% in 2013), computers (from 49% in 2009 to 71% in 2013), Internet (from 37% in 2009 to 69% in 2013), the television consumption stayed at about the same level (99%-100%), as well as the use of own book library (53%-54%), MP3 players (27%-26%) and video cameras (22%-26%), in contrast, the number of radio consumers decreased (from 61% in 2009 to 41% in 2013) [Zircon, 2013].

In this sense, Zircon's research proves that in spite of the active growth of contacts with

Internet, its television and mobile communication that remain the leading media in Russia. Nearly every day according to Zircon data, 95% of respondents use a mobile telephone, over 80% of people daily watch television, and 72-73% go on the Internet. Whilst 43% listened to the radio in 2013 daily, and still fewer people read press – only 17% in 2013 read newspapers and 10% read magazines [Zircon, 2013]. Do these numbers say anything about the level of media literacy of the people? In our view, no. On the whole, the high level of media consumption alone is not directly linked to the high level of media competence [Potter, 2014; Tyner, 2009, etc.].

Same oblique relationship to media competence is demonstrated by the findings of Zircon

about the differentiation of media consumption according to one's location, age, education and gender. Evidently, media consumption is higher in big cities than in smaller towns and villages (although television remains the medium most liked by small towns/village residents and the amount of television exposure in the villages is bigger compared to other media). Young people, especially men, contact with new media more often than elderly people, and so on. Moreover, the frequent contacts with media may actually mean that a considerable part of respondents is only hooked on a particular reality show or tabloid websites.

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Media activity, defined by Zircon as "a person's activity of creation of information artifacts and their dissemination (creating and maintaining own webpages, posting texts, photographs, etc., sending information to media (press, radio, TV)", comes closer to the identification of the media competence level [Zircon, 2013]. Zircon's research suggests that 47,3% of population have the low level of media activity, 29,4% have the medium level and 23,3% only have the high one [Zircon, 2013]. However one should not forget that such media activeness alone can not only be positively but also negatively charged, even anti humanistic. So it would be wrong to make a judgment of a person's high level of media competence solely based on his/her media activity index.

It seems that a person's attitude to the media flow can say more about his/her level of media

competence. Zircon's research of 2013 shows that only 29% of respondents confessed that it is difficult for them to find their way in the information flow. However 40% are sure that such navigation is no problem for them, and 26% of people add that not only do they easily operate in the media world, but also do not see any problem in a huge amount of available media information [Zircon, 2013]. But can it be true? Psychologists [Rubinstein, 1973; Leontiev, 2002, p. 380; Potter, 2012] have long been aware of the effect of an inflated self-concept of one's skills, knowledge and abilities; but the verification of respondents' real skills in media field was not included into the research by Zircon.

In reference with the key indicators of media competence, the results of Zircon's research

related to the audience's skills of critical/analytical thinking are more interesting. Thus, in 2013 58% of respondents admit that while watching TV, listening to radio, reading newspapers and magazines they often have a feeling of being deceived or misled, that is given false, unverified information, being imposed some views on. Whilst the respondents trust Internet as a source of information more (42% in 2013) than TV programs (only 15% in 2013), press (11%) or the radio (6%) [Zircon, 2013]. On the whole, the sum total of the audience that is critical about media texts is 58%. This correlates significantly with the identified by Zircon, data of the previous part of the survey, when 66% of people argue that they easily manage information flow [Zircon, 2013].

It is worth mentioning the answers to three thesеs that respondents needed to evaluate.

Thus, the thesis "media should bear responsibility for low-quality information just as a manufacturer is responsible for the low-quality product" in 2013 was supported by 86% of respondents. The theses "I usually know where (from what source) I can get the information I need" and "media should only tell facts, and it is up to a person to derive their meaning" were approved by 76% of people [Zircon, 2013].

The research findings demonstrate that 74% of respondents in 2013 pointed out that

different media repeat the same information, at the same time, 70% of people were sure that information messages from different sources often contradicted each other. Still 52% mentioned that they often compared information with other sources in order to verify it. Moreover, 41% of respondents answered that while evaluating the information they tried to find out whose interests a media agency served. But over one third of respondents (38%) admitted that they are used to believing media messages. On the whole only 19% of respondents revealed a basic level of evaluation skills, while 38% are in the middle, and 43% have highly developed evaluation skills [Zircon, 2013].

The comprehensive index of media literacy was calculated by Zircon by combining three

indices: 1) the use of media devices activity index (partial index A), 2) index of self evaluation of skills to operate the information (partial index B), and 3) index of one's media activity (partial index C). Within the framework of a sociological survey, Zircon adopted the following estimation of the level of media literacy/competence: a media literate person is the one who demonstrates a high level of use of media gadgets (A), a high level of self evaluation of skills to operate the information (B), and a high or a medium level of one's media activity (C). 14,5% of all the respondents in the data set of the research conducted by Zircon met these criteria [Zircon, 2013].

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Nevertheless, in our opinion, the technique of estimation of the integrated level of media competence of the audience proposed by Zircon, contains a methodological error, because by summing up the results of the sociological survey some key indices of media literacy were not considered. As we have noted above, a high level of media gadgets' use (A) in most cases does not testify for the similarly high level of analytical assessment of the information, of a media text, and a wide range of relations between a person and media sphere. The direct link between the high level of media literacy and a high level of self-evaluation of user's skills (B) looks quite vague, too. A high level of one's media activities, certainly, has to do with the level of media literacy much more than the level of media consumption. However it cannot be considered as the priority one in the ranking of markers of media literacy/media competence.

Broadly, one can agree that "these four components - access, analysis, evaluation and content

creation - together constitute a skills-based approach to media literacy. Each component supports the others as part of a non-linear, dynamic learning process: learning to create content helps one to analyze that produced professionally by others; skills in analysis and evaluation open the doors to new uses of the internet, expanding access, and so forth" [Livingstone, 2004, p. 5].

Yet, to my mind, the ranking order (and therefore, the percent of its index volume) of the

markers of any sociological research claiming to determine the levels of media literacy, should be the following:

1) level of the analytical evaluation of information, a media text, a wide range of interrelations with media sphere by a respondent;

2) level of one's media activity of a respondent; 3) level of activeness of using media gadgets; 4) level of self-evaluation of a respondent of one's skills to operate the information (although

this marker could be omitted due to the possibility of inadequately elevated self-evaluation). Consequently, if the level of analytical evaluation of media messages had been the main

marker in the Zircon survey, then "the comprehensive index of media literacy" of the people would have been different. It would have much more depended on the fact that in 2013 the survey revealed that 38% of respondents had a medium level of evaluation skills when working with mass media, and 43% - the high one.

It should be noted that the level of analytical evaluation of media messages was detected only

indirectly by Zircon. The direct evidence of this marker of media literacy/media competence could be received by and by working in focus groups and by respondents' actually completing some analytical assignments, related to media, and later assessed by experts.

Our opinion about the priority of the level of analytical evaluation of information in

sociological researches is shared by other media educators, including those who produced the survey in European Union in 2011. The first place in the ranking of media literacy core markers was given to critical understanding of information that is presented by different media sources and skills in critically evaluating the credibility of information, comparison of information across sources with skills in managing privacy and protecting self from unwanted messages, content creation in various media forms following up [Testing…, 2011, p. 6-7]. The critical understanding of media contents can be found at the top of the pyramid of main criteria of media literacy in the EU research in 2009, as well [Celot, 2009, p. 8].

The importance of analytical evaluation of media information is stressed by Pérez Tornero

and T. Varis. They insist that the development of analytical thinking in media education can be regarded as the way to use information for analysis and assessment, creation of new concepts, ideas, arguments and hypothesis. Critical thinking makes instruments for understanding the environment and its patterns develop. Taking into consideration that the huge part of information process is realized via media technologies, the development of media literacy should be aimed at stimulating critical thinking [Pérez Tornero, Varis, 2010, p. 79].

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The ranking of indexes (according to their significance) in All-Russian sociological research headed by G. Soldatova is constructed more convincingly, compared to Zircon research. Soldatova's research was aimed at distinguishing the levels of digital competence of adolescents and their parents [Soldatova et al., 2013]. We should say that the authors of the research define "digital competence" as the one "based on continuing mastering the competencies (system of corresponding knowledge, skills, motivation and responsibilities), the ability of a person to choose and use information and communication technologies in various spheres of life (work with content, communications, use) confidently, efficiently, critically and safely; and his/her willingness to such activities" [Soldatova, 2013, p. 4].

This research of 2013 used a stratified sample of 1203 teenagers aged 12 to 17 and

1209 parents living in 58 towns from 45 regions of all 8 federal districts of Russia with the population of 100 thousand people and more [Soldatova, 2013, p. 4]. Setting up a questionnaire, the authors distinguished "four spheres of life that to a large extent reveal great opportunities and new risks of Internet space. These are the information (content) environment (creation, search, selection, critical evaluation of the content), communication sphere (creation, development, sustaining relationship, identity, reputation, self representation), consumption sphere (use of Internet as consumers - orders, services, shopping, etc.) and technological sphere (use of computer hardware and software, furthermore, technical safety)" [Soldatova, 2013, p. 16]. We think it is only fair that the analytical and evaluation activity of a person is placed first and foremost.

As one would expect, the sociological research headed by G.Soldatova shows that Russian

teens surpass their parents in frequency of Internet use: 89% of teens use it daily vs. 53% of parents (moreover, 17% of parents do not use Internet at all). Yet, five types of teenage users were distinguished: "education oriented" (29%), "communicators" (25%), "web readers" (22%), "gamers" (17%), "universal users" (7%) " [Soldatova, 2013, p. 5-7].

As it's known, "Information Technology" is an obligatory subject in Russian schools, that is

why it is this subject that should develop pupils' "digital literacy" in the first place. The large group of parents that took part in the survey by Soldatova also reported that schools should inform their kids about Internet threats (42%), teach safe surfing the Net (38%), and teach to use modern information and communication technologies efficiently (39%). Moreover, one in five parents would like to be informed about Internet security and safety rules on the Internet during school parent meetings" [Soldatova, 2013, p. 11].

However the sociological survey guided by G. Soldatova demonstrates that "teenagers

evaluate school teachers' help low: only 40% of schoolchildren are fully or partially satisfied with the knowledge about using Internet that they got at school. While 44% of teenagers think that the school does not provide any useful knowledge in this field. Every tenth teenager believes that he/she knows more about the Internet than a teacher does. One in ten teens gets the information about safe Internet use at school" [Soldatova, 2013, p. 10]. Therefore, based on the findings of this research it can be concluded that IT school lessons achieve their objectives poorly and ineffectively.

On the whole, Soldatova's research shows that on average the level of digital literacy of

Russian teenagers as well as their parents is about one third of the possible rate (31% by parents, and 34% by teens). The questions that were answered negatively both by parents and children (i.e. that they don't know how to do something, can't do this, don't want to learn it, don't lay emphasis on it, etc.) twice more outnumber the positive answers (meaning that they feel competent in doing something) [Soldatova, 2013, p. 6].

Nevertheless, if compared to the media literacy survey done by Zircon in the same year of

2013, there the number of media literate respondents was half – 14,5% [Zircon, 2013]. This discrepancy may be explained by the fact that firstly, the researchers had different criteria of media literacy and digital competence, and secondly, half of Soldatova's respondents were teenagers who in many ways surpass adults in media use skills.

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Conclusions Summing up, determining the media literacy/media competence levels of various groups of

people is an important and well-timed task, however, it is not an easy task. It requires a significant shift of emphasis: the indices of the audiences' skills to analyze and evaluate media messages and their role in society should come first, and only then such skills as creation and communication of self media production, and skills to use media gadgets should follow. Otherwise the description of the research findings on the topic of media competence will reveal a common drawback – the predominance of the importance of user's skills.

Acknowledgement This article is written within the framework of a study supported by the grant of the Russian

Science Foundation (RSF). Project № 14-18-00014 "Synthesis of media education and media criticism in the preparation of future teachers", performed at Taganrog Management and Economics Institute.

References 1. Bazalgette, C. (2010) Media Education in the UK. London, 2010. 2. Buckingham, D. (2009). The future of media literacy in the digital age: some challenges

for policy and practice // Verniers, P. (ed.) (2009). Media literacy in Europe: controversies, challenges and perspectives. Bruxelles: EuroMeduc, p.13-24.

3. Celot, P. at all (eds.) (2009). Study on Assessment Criteria for Media Literacy Levels. Brussels: EAVI, 139 p.

4. Leontiev, D.A. (2002). I - the ultimate authority in the person // Personality psychology in the works of local psychologists. St-Petersburg: Peter.

5. Livingstone, S. (2004). Media Literacy and the Challenge of New Information and Communication Technologies. The Communication Review, N 7, pp. 3–14.

6. Pérez Tornero, J.M. and Varis, T. (2010). Media Literacy and new Humanism. Moscow: UNESCO Institute for Information Technologies in Education, 136 p.

7. Potter, W. J. (2012). Media effects. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 377 p. 8. Potter, W.J. (2014). Media Literacy. L.A.: Sage, 2014, 452 p. 9. Rubinstein, S.L. (1973). Man and World: Problems of General Psychology. Moscow. 10. Soldatova, G.U. at all. (2013). Digital competence of adolescents and parents. The

results of nationwide research. Moscow: Foundation for Internet Development, 2013. 144 p. 11. Testing and Refining. Criteria to Assess Media Literacy Levels in Europe. Bruselles:

European Commission, 2011, 236 p. 12. Tyner, K (2009). Audiences, Intertextuality, and New Media Literacy. IJLM. Vol. 1, N 2,

pp. 25-31. 13. Vartanova, EL, Matveeva, L.V., Sobkin, V.S., Soldatova, G.U., Sharikov, A.V. at all.

(2013). Strategy, goals, objectives and methods of information education of children and adolescents // Information Security Concept children. Moscow: Roscomnadzor, 2013. 108 p.

14. Zircon, A research group. (2013). Current status and prospects of literacy of the population of the Russian Federation on the basis of national monitoring of media conduct (2009-2013). Moscow: Zircon. http: //www.zircon.ru/publications/sotsiologiya-smi-i-massovykh-kommunikatsiy/ УДК 316

Уровни медиакомпетентности аудитории в зеркале социологических опросов

Анастасия Левицкая

Таганрог институт управления и экономики, Российская Федерация кандидат педагогических наук, доцент E-mail: [email protected]

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Аннотация. Автор статьи считает, что социологические исследования уровней медиаграмотности / медиакомпетентности различных групп граждан весьма актуальны. Однако такие исследования требуют значительного смещения акцентов: самыми важными показателями должны быть умения аудитории анализировать и оценивать медийные сообщения и роль медиа в обществе; только после этого могут следовать показатели медиакомпетентности, связанные с умениями создания и распространения собственных медиатекстов, с практическим использованием медиатехники. В противном случае результаты социологических опросов, выявляющих уровень медиакомпетентности, будут страдать общим недостатком – доминированием компетенций, связанных с (медиа)пользовательскими навыками.

Ключевые слова: образование медиа; медиаобразование; медиаграмотность; медиакритика; медиакомпетентность; аналитическое мышление; социологические опросы.

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UDC 316

The Influence of Legal Reference Systems

on the Content of Courts Decisions in Russia

Anatoliy Pronin

Voronezh State University, Russian Federation Lecturer E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The author makes an attempt to analyze how could the court’s informatization and

appearance of the legal reference systems influence on the evolution of the court’s decisions. The article gives a brief review of researches over the specified object, conducted abroad. It is highlighted the universal increasing of the court decision`volume, and, also the quantity of references on regulations and decisions of other courts. Due to the exploratory investigation, the same is similarly to Russia. In conclusions the article proposes a methodology to conduct the research, which will assess the degree of influence of reference legal systems on the evolution of court decisions in Russia.

Keywords: law and society; reference legal systems; court precedent; court decision; application of law; references and networks.

Введение Работа современного юриста немыслима без справочно-правовых систем (далее —

СПС). Еще в 2001 г., известные американские ученые Кароль Баст и Рансфорд Пуле, описывая состояние американских правовых исследований, указывали на грядущие перемены в этой сфере [1. P. 286]. Автору доводилось видеть в районном суде апокалипсические картины, связанные с "падением" сервера «Консультант плюс». Работа суда была временно парализована, помощники судей звонили своим друзьям и просили посмотреть их в своих, работающих СПС, свежую судебную практику и конкретные нормы законов. Как мы дальше увидим, параллельными с распространением СПС процессами проиходит увеличение текста судебного решения, возрастание роли прецедента для стран, принадлежащих к романо-германской правовой семье, а как следствие, увеличение количества прямых и непрямых цитирований прецедентных решений в решениях нижестоящих судов.

Теперь несколько слов об употребляемой в этом тексте терминологии. В англоязычной

юридической литературе часто применяется один важный для нашего исследования термин, не имеющий точного эквивалента в русском языке — «Legal research», означающий процесс исследования положений закона, судебных решений и прецедентов для принятия правового решения (преимущественно судьёй) [3. p. 1]. Соответственно, когда в

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англоязычной литературе речь идёт об исследовании положений нормативных актов при помощи СПС, используется термин Computer-assisted legal research или аббревиатура CALR. Как использование СПС коррелирует с правоприменением, отражаясь в содержании судебных решений?

1. Эффект увеличения объёма судебного решения Первые научные работы [2], повествующие о преимуществах от использования СПС

появились в США, в середине 70-х, и в основном, были связаны с существующей и ныне системой LEXIS [5]. Однако, на тот момент они носили лишь описательный по отношению к СПС характер. Авторов интересовало, что такое СПС, какова методика работы с ними и каковы их возможности? На стыке 90-х и 2000-х годов начинают появляться первые работы [4], исследующие влияние СПС на судебную практику и содержание судебного решения, а также на процесс принятие решения судьёй. Ряд из таких исследований финансировался за счёт системы LEXIS. Таким образом, можно указать на наличие двух волн интереса в исследовании СПС: первая, связанная с описанием существенных свойств справочных систем; и вторая, связанная с воздействием СПС на право и правосудие. Работы на русском языке [13, 14, 15], существующие в настоящий момент, относятся к первой волне.

В работах авторов из разных государствах, придерживающихся как англосаксонской,

так и романо-германской правовых семей, отмечается увеличение размера судебного решения. Австралийскими учёными из университета Монаша — Метью Гровесом и Расселом Смитом проводилось исследование [6] изменения размера судебных решений Высокого суда Австралии (высшая судебная инстанция государства) на временном промежутке с 1903 по 2001 годы. Авторы изучили все решения суда, публиковавшиеся в официальном сборнике судебных решений Содружества, присваивая каждому из массива решений набор переменных с заранее определённым значением. В конечном итоге было установлено постепенное увеличение размера решения с трёх страниц в 1903 году до 13 страниц в 2001, при этом наиболее значительный рост длинны текста решений наблюдался в 1980– 1990-е годы. Исследователи связали такое увеличение со следующими факторами: 1) рядом существенных изменений национального процессуального права; 2) эффектом социальных изменений и значительным увеличением сложности дел; 3) возрастанием роли ссылок. Количество цитируемых решений и нормативных актов также постепенно возрастало на протяжении XX века (с 6 в 1920 году до 44 в 1996 году), при этом отмечается, что тексты некоторых решений стали обрастать подстрочными сносками, по образу научных статей; 4) появлением в суде компьютеров с доступом к базам данных; 5) увеличением количества помощников судей.

Однако, на наш взгляд, данное исследование имеет недостаток, связанный с

отсутствием установленных причинно-следственных связей между выведенными факторами и полученными эмпирическими данными. Авторы приводят их как данность, практически не указывая какого-то обоснования.

Схожее исследование проводилось в Верховном Суде Калифорнии [7. p. 285]. Методика

выглядела следующим образом. На временном промежутке с 1944 по 2003 год в случайном порядке были выбраны три решения, вынесенные в каждый из диапазона годов; впоследствии решения анализировались, а в базу данных вносились определенные переменные. В первую очередь, было отмечено, что СПС изменили способ написания решений. Пол Хельер также указывает на ряд закономерностей, связанных с появлением в суде СПС: а) увеличение объёма текста в решениях; б) увеличение количества ссылок на судебные прецеденты; в) увеличение количества ссылок на не публиковавшиеся решения.

Проведённый в первом из вышеназванных исследований анализ текстов высшей

судебной инстанции может говорить о сложившемся порядке вещей только в высшей судебной инстанции и не может распространяться на страну в целом. Это связано со спецификой рассмотрения дел в таких судах: судебные составы более многочисленны, судьи имеют большую квалификацию, чем их коллеги из обычных судов, количество

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рассматриваемых дел, также значительно ниже. Насколько мне известно, пока нет исследования, в котором бы показывалось воздействие СПС на судебные решения в масштабе целой страны.

2. Судебный прецедент в России В контексте нашего исследования важным будет разрешение вопроса о статусе

судебных прецедентов в России. Тема эта уже довольно давно широко обсуждается отечественной юридической общественностью, и тезис о существовании в российской системе права прецедентов сыскал себе много сторонников [12]. Позволю себе по этому вопросу согласиться с образным выражением А. Н. Верещагина [10. С. 18]: «лучше прямо пустить его (Прецедент — А.П.) в дверь, чем заставлять всякий раз лезть в окно». Не вдаваясь в полемику подчеркну, что судебные решения, претендующие на прецедентные характер можно разделить на две группы: во-первых, имеющие под это легитимирующее правовое обоснование; во-вторых, решения, которые хотя фактически и используемые, как прецедентные, но легитимирующего правового обоснования под это не имеющие.

К первой группе мы отнесём приведённые в ст. 392 ГК и в 311 АПК РФ «новые

обстоятельства», являющиеся основанием для пересмотра дела. Список, приведённый в обоих кодексах семантически идентичен и включает в себя: 1) постановления Конституционного суда; 2) решения ЕСПЧ; 3) надзорные определения Верховного суда РФ (в АПК этот пункт не упомянут, но в соответствии со ст. 16 ФКЗ «Об арбитражных судах в Российской Федерации» разрешается Президиумом, а соответственно подпадает под следующий пункт); 4) постановления Президиума ВС РФ или ВАС (в частности ими утверждаются обзоры практики, в ВАС — информационные письма); 5) постановления Пленумов ВС РФ или ВАС. Все вышеназванные источники открыто упоминаются и цитируются в судебных решениях, при этом, на практике, суды общей юрисдикции могут цитировать решения ВАС, а арбитражные суда — решения ВС.

Мы проанализировали все решения коллегии по гражданским делам, приведённые в

трёх бюллетенях Верховного Суда за 2013 год и получили следующую картину. Девять из двадцати решений цитировали позиции других судов. В этих девяти решениях содержалось 15 ссылок на позиции других судов, включая: 1) 7 ссылок на постановления Пленума ВС; 2) пять ссылок на постановления и определения Конституционного суда; 3) одну ссылку на постановление Пленума ВАС; 4) одну ссылку на совместное постановление Пленума ВС и ВАС; 5) одну ссылку на обзор законодательства и судебной практики ВС.

Ко второй группе мы относим любые решения иных судов (как правило, вышестоящих

по отношению к суду, рассматривающему дело). Например, среди судов общей юрисдикции районного звена активно цитируются решения вышестоящего по отношению к ним суда субъекта РФ, в системе арбитражных судов суды субъектов РФактивно цитируют позиции своих апелляционных и кассационных судов. Такое цитирование носит скрытый характер, в судебном решении не приводится прямая ссылка на решение вышестоящего суда, впервые озвучившего позицию по определённому правоотношению, но сама позиция дословно копируется.

Наиболее интересным, на наш взгляд, представляется эффект, когда позиция,

сформулированная в решении суда, попавшем в СПС, выступает в качестве шаблона и начинает копироваться работниками других судов. При этом абсолютно не важно, какой суд (арбитражный или общей юрисдикции, первой инстанции или в порядке кассации) принял появившееся в СПС решение. Например, 16.10.2012 ВАС РФ было вынесено определение № ВАС-10690/12 по делу № А73-15149/2011, содержавшее в своём тексте следующую правовую конструкцию, обосновывающую возможность подачи искового заявления по выплате неустойки из договора участия в долевом строительстве, при пропуске общего срока исковой давности: «Ст. 207 ГК РФ установлено, что с истечением срока исковой давности по главному требованию истекает срок исковой давности и по дополнительным требованиям (неустойка, залог, поручительство и т.п.). Основное обязательство по передаче объекта

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долевого строительство было исполнено застройщиком с просрочкой, но до истечения срока исковой давности по указанному требованию…». Практически сразу после опубликования определения на сайте Картотеки арбитражных дел [8], оно попадает в базу данных СПС «Консультант плюс». Если осуществить поиск вышеприведённой конструкции по каталогу той же самой СПС «Консультант плюс», то по состоянию на 27.02.2014 в результатах выдачи мы увидим четыре решения судов, дословно или с незначительными изменениями содержащих такую же формулировку. В частности её содержат: Апелляционное определение Самарского областного суда от 20.02.2013 по делу № 33-1692, Постановление Президиума ВАС РФ от 15.01.2013 № 10690/12 по делу № А73-15149/2011, Постановление Восьмого арбитражного апелляционного суда от 14.08.2013 по делу № А70-2440/2013, Апелляционное определение Новосибирского областного суда от 15.08.2013 по делу № 33-6490/2013. Естественно ни одно из названных решений не содержит ссылок друг на друга. Очевидным представляется то, что работники суда, готовившие решение по схожему делу, находили правовое обоснование позиции в СПС «Консультант плюс». Такой эффект в какой-то мере может стирать грань между существующей иерархией судов, делая более употребимой на практике позицию, разработанную не самым высоким в иерархии судом.

Гипотетически возможны ситуации, когда высшим судебным инстанциям придётся

сталкиваться с уже сформированной, и благодаря СПС используемой на практике, правовой позицией, которую судам высшего уровня нужно будет только закрепить в своих обзорах практики, или аналогичных документах, таким образом, придав правовой позиции легитимацию.

В целом, переход судей от работы с бумажными текстами источников права к

повсеместному использованию СПС сделал право менее стабильным и структурированным, но при этом более подвижным и быстро реагирующим на изменения общественных отношений. Видимо, в ближайшем будущем мы полностью осознаем, насколько более динамичной стала структура права России, и как сильно меняется система источников права, вектором от нормативистской иерархии, к постмодернистской ризоме.

Неоспоримым является тот факт, что судьи и их помощники работают в условиях

правовой информационной перегрузки. Исследование Д.Я. Примакова, А.В. Дмитриевой, В.В. Волкова [11] наглядно демонстрирует увеличение количества принимаемых и действующих законов в постсоциалистических странах, но законы — это лишь верхушка айсберга, также увеличивается и количество действующих подзаконных актов. Постоянно растёт и количество гипотетически возможных правоотношений. Инструментам для снижения этой информационной перегрузки выступают СПС; когда судья сталкивается с мало ему знакомым правоотношением, ему достаточно найти в «Консультанте плюс» или его аналогах рамочную для регулирования этого правоотношения норму, кликнуть в расположенную слева от нормы кнопку «I» и выбрать наиболее понравившуюся ему правовую позицию другого суда. Таким образом, информационная перегрузка для судейских работников, через призму СПС, ведёт к шаблонизации и рационализации их действий. Как мы показали приведёнными выше исследованиями американских и австралийских учёных, судьи этих стран, так же, как и их российские коллеги используют, в целом, схожие повседневные практики сбора информации, что на наш взгляд говорит о макдональдизации [16. C. 401] судов.

Заключение Вышеизложенное наводит на мысль о желательности проведения в России

исследования, которое покажет динамику развития судебных решений по гражданским делам в судах общей юрисдикции и в арбитражных судах и позволит установить каким образом появление в судах общей юрисдикции и арбитражных судах СПС повлияло на содержание выносимых ими решений. Мы сознательно откидываем анализ решений по уголовным, административным и иным публичным делам. Конечно, полученная по ним информация была бы крайне интересной, и, очевидно, будет обладать своей спецификой, но такое расширение предмета и объекта исследования значительно усложнит его проведение.

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В качестве временных рамок исследования предлагается выбрать промежуток с 1996 по наше время. Нижняя временная планка связана с годом опубликования Федерального конституционного закона «О судебной системе Российской Федерации», утвердившего иерархию судов России, которая существует и сейчас. Подобное исследование должно проводиться в несколько этапов, с применением незначительно различающейся методологии. На первом этапе должна быть проведена выборка постановлений Президиума, решений и определений Судебных коллегий ВС РФ по гражданским делам, опубликованных в Бюллетене Верховного Суда (единственный официальный источник опубликования подобных документов). В базе данных должны будут фиксироваться сведения о количестве знаков в тексте каждого акта, количестве процитированных в нём нормативно-правовых актов, решений других судов, международных документов. Кроме того, постановления Президиума ВС должны проверяться через СПС «Консультант плюс» на количество цитирований в актах других судов, в разбивке по годам. На втором этапе должен быть проведён анализ решений Высшего арбитражного суда, методология при этом будет полностью соответствовать первому этапу. На третьем этапе предполагается сделать выборку решений районных судов Воронежа, отметив в базе данных те же критерии, что и на предыдущем этапе, уделяя особое внимание тому, произошли ли какие-либо изменения в содержании решений, после появления в судах СПС (для Воронежа это 2002 год). Также решения будут сверяться с наиболее распространёнными позициями вышестоящих судов для выявления фактов копирования шаблона. Наконец, на четвёртом этапе будут проанализированы решения Арбитражного суда Воронежской области, методология видится такой же, как и не предыдущем этапе. Поскольку бюллетени ВС и ВАС содержат информацию обо всех вынесенных решениях по гражданским делам, то на уровне этих высших судебных инстанций будут проанализированы все вынесенные решения, что практически исключает возможность статистической погрешности.

Перспективное видение результатов исследования представляются следующим:

1) увеличение объёма текста в решениях; 2) увеличение количества процитированных в судебном решении нормативных актов; 3) увеличение количества ссылок на международные документы (в первую очередь на решения ЕСПЧ); 4) увеличение количества ссылок на решения высших судебных инстанций РФ (Верховного суда и Конституционного суда и Высшего арбитражного суда, который мы скоро утратим). Особенно интересным в свете объединения Верховного и Высшего арбитражного суда представляется соотнесение полученных данных по решениям этих органов. Если будут получены подобного рода результаты исследования, то можно говорить о фактически складывающейся в России прецедентной системе права.

Примечания: 1. Carol M. Bast, Ransford C. Pyle. Legal Research in the Computer Age: A Paradigm Shift? //

Law Library Journal. 2001. No 93 (2). Р. 285-302. 2. James A. Sprowl. Computer-Assisted Legal Research-An Analysis of Full-Text Document

Retrieval Systems, Particularly the LEXIS System // American Bar Foundation Research Journal. Vol. 1. No. 1 (1976). Р. 175-226.

3. J. Myron Jacobstein and Roy M. Mersky. Fundamentals of Legal Research. 8th ed., Foundation Press, 2002.

4. Kirt Shuldberg. Digital Influence: Technology and Unpublished Opinions in the Federal Courts of Appeals // California Law Review. Vol. 85. No. 2 (Mar., 1997). Р. 541-575.

5. Lexis Research System // URL: www.lexisnexis.com. 6. Matthew Groves, Russell Smyth. A century of judicial style: changing patterns in judgment

writing on the High Court 1903–2001 // Federal Law Review, 2004. Vol. 32. Р. 255-280. 7. Paul Hellyer. Assessing the Influence of Computer-Assisted Legal Research: A Study of

California Supreme Court Opinions // Law Library Journal. 2005. No 97 (2). Р. 285-298. 8. Банк решений арбитражных судов РФ // URL: www.ras.arbitr.ru. 9. Бирюков П.Н. Международное право: учебник. 5-е изд., перераб. и доп. М.: Юрайт,

2011. 793 с.

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10. Верещагин А.Н. Несколько мифов о прецедентном праве России // Журнал конституционного правосудия. 2013. № 4. С. 15-18.

11. Законодательная активность, стабильность законодательства и качество правовой среды: сравнительный анализ постсоциалистических стран / Авторский коллектив: Примаков Д.Я., Дмитриева А.В., Волков В.В. СПб.: ИПП ЕУ СПб, 2010. 24 стр.

12. Карапетов А.Г. Борьба за признание судебного правотворчества в европейском и американском праве. — Статут, 2011.

13. Кевеш А.Л. Правоприменительная практика, доступность и качество информации // Вопросы статистики. 2013. № 10. С. 3-10.

14. Макаренко С.Н. История и перспективы развития справочно-правовых систем в России // Известия Южного федерального университета. Технические науки. 2010. Т. 105. № 4. С. 148-153.

15. Ракитская Л.М. Лекция-тренинг — эффективная форма обучения пользователей поиску документов в справочно-правовых системах (Опыт центра правовой информации РГБ) // Научные и технические библиотеки. 2012. № 12. С. 5-12.

16. Ритцер Джордж. Макдональдизация общества. М.: Праксис, 2011. 592 с. References: 1. Carol M. Bast, Ransford C. Pyle. Legal Research in the Computer Age: A Paradigm Shift? //

Law Library Journal. 2001. No 93 (2). Р. 285-302. 2. James A. Sprowl. Computer-Assisted Legal Research-An Analysis of Full-Text Document

Retrieval Systems, Particularly the LEXIS System // American Bar Foundation Research Journal. Vol. 1. No. 1 (1976). Р. 175-226.

3. J. Myron Jacobstein and Roy M. Mersky. Fundamentals of Legal Research. 8th ed., Foundation Press, 2002.

4. Kirt Shuldberg. Digital Influence: Technology and Unpublished Opinions in the Federal Courts of Appeals // California Law Review. Vol. 85. No. 2 (Mar., 1997). Р. 541-575.

5. Lexis Research System // URL: www.lexisnexis.com. 6. Matthew Groves, Russell Smyth. A century of judicial style: changing patterns in judgment

writing on the High Court 1903–2001 // Federal Law Review, 2004. Vol. 32. Р. 255-280. 7. Paul Hellyer. Assessing the Influence of Computer-Assisted Legal Research: A Study of

California Supreme Court Opinions // Law Library Journal. 2005. No 97 (2). Р. 285-298. 8. Bank reshenij arbitrazhnyx sudov RF // URL: www.ras.arbitr.ru (data obrashheniya:

15.04.2015). 9. Biriukov P.N. Mezhdunarodnoe pravo: uchebnik. 5-e izd., pererab. i dop. M.: Yurajt, 2011.

793 s. 10. Vereshhagin A. N. Neskolko mifov o precedentnom prave Rossii // Zhurnal

konstitucionnogo pravosudiya. 2013. № 4. S. 15-18. 11. Zakonodatelnaya aktivnost, stabilnost zakonodatelstva i kachestvo pravovoj sredy:

sravnitelnyj analiz postsocialisticheskix stran. Avtorskij kollektiv: Primakov D.Ya., Dmitrieva A.V., Volkov V.V. SPb: IPP EU SPb, 2010. 24 s.

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УДК 316

О влиянии справочных правовых систем на содержание судебного решения в России

Анатолий Пронин

Воронежский государственный университет, Российская Федерация Преподаватель E-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация. В настоящей статье делается попытка проанализировать, каким образом

информатизация судов, а также появление в судах справочных-правовых систем повлияли на эволюцию судебных решений. Приводится краткий анализ исследований, проводившихся в зарубежных странах по обозначенному объекту. Отмечается повсеместное увеличение объёма судебного решения, а также, количества ссылок на нормативные акты и решения других судов. Настоящее справедливо и для России, что было подтверждено результатами разведочного исследования. В выводах к статье предлагается методология для проведения исследования, которое позволит оценить степень влияния справочных-правовых систем на эволюцию судебного решения в России.

Ключевые слова: право и общество; справочные правовые системы; судебный прецедент; судебное решение; правоприменение; ссылки и сети.

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UDC 316.48, 316.012

Indicator Analysis of Corruption

Viktor Ya. Tsvetkov

Moscow State Technical University of Radio Engineering, Electronics and Automation, Russian Federation Dr. (Technical), Professor E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract This article describes the analysis of corruption indicator. The article presents analysis of the

basic concepts related to corruption. It shows factors that identify corruption. Article shows the importance of information asymmetry on the appearance of corruption. Article gives typing corruption. The article reveals the qualitative analysis Indication outward signs of corruption. The article reveals the qualitative analysis of the Internal Indication signs of corruption. It described "Corruption Perceptions Index" as a tool for comparing different countries in terms of corruption.

Keywords: sociology; social phenomena; analysis; corruption; situation assessment; indicators.

Введение Коррупция – сложное социально-экономическое явление, не имеющее единственного

определения [1]. Описание коррупции включает латентные характеристики, которые необходимо выявлять с помощью специального анализа. На основе выявленных характеристик создается информационная ситуация, характеризующая реальность и результат. В результате анализа формируются заключения и выводы. В одних случаях наличие или отсутствие коррупции можно определить, а для других однозначный вывод сделать нельзя, нужны либо дополнительные исследования, либо дополнительные условия оценки. Часто рассматривается «традиционный» вид коррупции – государственная коррупция (а именно бюрократическая), которая связана с нарушением существующих правил или законом, например нарушением правил свободной конкуренции в условиях конкурсов и торгов. В статье рассматриваем коррупцию и коррупционность, которая имеет место при проведении конкурсов и тендеров. При исследовании этого явления важно выявлять не только результат коррупционной деятельности, но и условия предрасполагающие к этому.

Индикаторы – аналитические расчетные показатели, используемые в мировой

практике, содержательно характеризующие состояние и развитие отраслевой системы. Цель формирования системы индикаторов – обеспечить руководителей и общественность

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аналитической информацией о состоянии и тенденциях развития какого либо социального фактора для последующего принятия решений и мер.

Лингвистический анализ. Коррупция – многоаспектное понятие. Как явление,

коррупция – субстанциональное понятие, которое отображает социально-экономическое явление. Как процесс, коррупция – процессуальное понятие, которое отображает процесс, связанный с нарушением правил или законов.

Коррупция происходит в некой ситуации, которая может характеризоваться понятием

коррупционности. Коррупционность – атрибутивное понятие, которое отображает характеристику реальной ситуации, то есть наличие свойства. Задача оценки ситуации состоит в нахождении этого свойства или в получении вывода об отсутствии этого свойства для данной ситуации.

Необходимость анализа реальной ситуации и ее информационного описания приводит

к необходимости введения понятия и рассмотрения модели "информационная ситуация" [2]. Эта модель служит основой описания реальной ситуации, инструментом анализа реальной ситуации и основой для вывода. Информационная ситуация – это информационная модель реальной ситуации, определенная через набор информационно определяемых параметров [3]. Информационная ситуация может характеризовать коррупцию как сущностный признак. Информационная ситуация может характеризовать коррупционность как вспомогательный признак.

Латентность коррупционной ситуации обуславливает ввести в рассмотрение модель

информационной асимметрии [4]. Применительно к коррупционным сделкам и процессам (особенно на торгах) информационная асимметрия имеет несколько видов. Внешняя информационная асимметрия — это несоответствие информации, предоставляемой общественности с реальной информацией описывающей сделку. Внутренняя информационная асимметрия — это несоответствие информации, предоставляемой выбранному участнику конкурса или торгов, с информацией, предоставляемой другим участникам.

Латентность связей при коррупционных действиях обуславливает ввести в

рассмотрение модель коррелятивных (скрытых) факторов и проведение коррелятивного анализа.

На основе рассмотренных понятий можно переходить к факторам или методам

выявления коррупционности или коррупции. Выявление коррупции или коррупционности возможно:

- на основе явного выявления процессов нарушения законов или правил; - на основе выявления признаков информационной (описательной) ситуации, которые

характеризуют коррупционность; - на основе выявления признаков информационной асимметрии, которые

характеризуют нарушение законов или правил. - на основе выявления признаков коррелятивной зависимости между организаторами

торгов и отдельными участниками, которые характеризуют нарушение законов или правил. Существуют разные подходы к типизации коррупции [5, 6]. По масштабу можно

выделить следующие типы: межгосударственная (государство – государство или транснациональная кампания – государство); внутригосударственная (торги, конкурсы); межфирменная (фирма – фирма или фирма – чиновник); операционная (субъект – чиновник, агент принципал). В аспекте взаимодействия рассматривают триаду отношений «хозяин – исполнитель – клиент» (principal – agent – model) [7]. Анализ может быть направлен на выделение бинарных отношений из этой триады и их детального исследования.

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Качественный индикационный анализ внешних признаков коррупционности. Внешние признаки коррупционности связаны с внешней ситуацией в которой проходят торги или конкурсы. Для характеристики такой ситуации целесообразно ввести показатель – внешняя характеристика коррупционности. Внешняя характеристика коррупционности (ВХК) может характеризоваться качественно (индикационно) и количественно. Индикационная (индикаторная) характеристика отражает дихотомию [8]: наличие или отсутствие коррупционности, без исследования глубины явления. Она позволяет проводить качественное сравнение. Соответственно, это дает возможность применять метод прецедентов для анализа ситуации. В таблице 1 приводятся характерные факторы коррупционности.

Таблица 1. Индикационные факторы коррупционности (ИФК)

Группа факторов

Факторы Индекс ИФК

Фундаментальные Несовершенство экономических институтов и экономической политики; несовершенство системы принятия политических решений, неразвитость конкуренции, чрезмерное государственное вмешательство в экономику, монополизация отдельных секторов экономики, контроль государства над ресурсной базой, низкий уровень развития гражданского общества, неэффективность судебной власти

ИФКФ=1

Правовые Отсутствие ясной законодательной базы. Частое изменение экономического законодательства, несоблюдение норм международного права, неадекватные меры наказания за коррупционные сделки, возможность влияния на судебные решения, наличие норм, позволяющих субъективно трактовать нормативные акты

ИФКП=1

Организационно-экономические

Слабый контроль распределения ресурсами, трудности управления большой территорией, относительно низкая оплата труда служащих, дискриминация в доступе к инфраструктурным сетям, жесткий торговый протекционизм (тарифные и нетарифные барьеры), некомпетентность руководства

ИФКОЭ=1

Информационные информационная асимметрия [4], информационные риски, отсутствие реальной свободы слова и печати, наличие оффшорных зон, отсутствие исследований проблемы коррупции

ИФКИ=1

Социальные Клановые структуры, традиции непотизма, эксплуатация «дружеских связей», традиция «дарения» подарков-взяток, низкий уровень культуры и образования

ИФКС=1

Ситуация, в которой проводится конкурс или торги имеет вид функции ВХК дихотомических переменных из таблицы 1. Например, при существовании правовых и социальных условий коррупционности функция имеет вид

ВХК (0, 1, 0, 0, 1).

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При наличии дополнительно информационных условий коррупционности функция имеет следующие аргументы.

ВХК (0, 1, 0, 1, 1).

Наличие единицы сигнализирует о существовании данного признака

коррупционности, 0 – говорит об его отсутствии. Чем больше нулей, тем меньше коррупционность. Эта таблица и методика расширяема и модифицируема.

Качественный индикационный анализ внутренних признаков

коррупционности. При качественном анализе внутренних признаков коррупционности исследуется взаимодействие государство – фирма. Рассматриваются следующие ситуации:

Ситуация А. Предпочтения относительно контракта четко сформулированы и ряд фирм конкурируют между собой с целью получения контракта. Результат

А.1. Контракт получает фирма имеющая видимое преимущество перед другими А.2. Контракт получает фирма не имеющая видимое преимущество перед другими Ситуация В. Предпочтения относительно контракта нечетко сформулированы, и ряд

фирм конкурируют между собой с целью получить контракт. Результат. В.1. Контракт получает фирма имеющая видимое преимущество перед другими В.2. Контракт получает фирма не имеющая видимое преимущество перед другими Ситуация С. Предпочтения относительно контракта нечетко сформулированы и в

отсутствии конкуренции фирма хочет получить контракт. Результат. С.1. Контракт получает фирма не имеющая видимое преимущество перед другими В таблице 2 сведены индексы коррупционности ситуации (ИКС) в порядке увеличения

коррупционной составляющей. ИКС имеет порядковое значение.

Таблица 2. Индекс коррупционности ситуации (ИКС)

Ситуация Результат Индекс ситуации (ИКС) А А.1 0 А.2 1 В В.1 2 В.2 3 С С.1 4

Чем выше индекс ИКС, тем больше оснований проводить проверку состоявшихся

торгов. Таблица 1 является расширяемой и модифицируемой. Можно добавлять новые ситуации и менять числовые оценки индекса ситуации по мере накопления опыта.

Количественный анализ внутренних признаков коррупционности.

Количественная оценка дает общую количественную оценку ситуации и позволяет проводить количественное сравнение. Она получается на основе применения различных методик ранжирования. Для ее реализации можно использовать известный метод анализа иерархий [9] или менее известный метод теории предпочтений [10], который отличается от многих других методов предпочтений [11] тем, что допускает нарушение условия транзитивности, то есть необязательностью переноса свойств.

Сущность количественного анализа в детализации характеристик фирм участвующих в

торгах. Затем на основе сравнения отдельных характеристик фирм производится бальная оценка каждой фирмы по каждой характеристике. Если характеристика фирмы предпочтительнее других, фирма получает оценку предпочтительности (бал). Сумма балов по все характеристикам всех фирм сводится к единой оценке через весовые коэффициенты, показывающие важность каждого фактора в общей системе факторов. Итоговая сумма балов позволяет ранжировать фирмы в порядке предпочтительности с условием торгов и сравнивать с результатами реального конкурса. Если конкурс выигрывает фирма стоящая не

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на первом месте в ранжированной системе – есть основание говорить о коррупционности. Чем ниже в рейтинге стоит фирма, тем больше оснований для признаний торгов коррупционными и пересмотра их результатов. естественно для полного анализа проводится статистический анализ в вычислением ошибок первого и второго рода.

Количественная оценка является эффективным средством анализа сложных ситуаций,

со скрытыми и неявными характеристиками. Она позволяет переходить от субъективно экспертной оценки и к объективной, которая воспроизводима и проверяема любым человеком, знакомым с основами арифметики. Знание эксперта – неявно [12], оно необъяснимо и непонятно другим. Кроме того экспертная оценка может зависеть не только от опыта и знаний эксперта, но даже от его ментальности и состояния здоровья. Количественная оценка дает объективный метод, не зависящий от субъективности. Развитием данного подхода может служить коррелятивный анализ [13], который находит скрытые связи между признаками и процессами

«Индекс восприятия коррупции». Для оценки степени коррупционности

применяют «Индекс восприятия коррупции» («Corruption Perceptions Index», - CPI), разработанный специалистами Transparency International. Этот интегральный индекс позволяет проводить ранжирование государств по уровню совокупной коррумпированности, поскольку он учитывает разные виды и формы коррупции. Это обеспечивается самим способом построения индекса.

Целью расчета CPI является предоставление информации об общем уровне коррупции

различных стран по сравнению друг с другом. CPI не оценивает коррупцию, связанную с деятельностью граждан рассматриваемого государства на территории других стран. Для подобной информации авторы CPI рекомендуют обращаться к другой их разработке – Индексу Склонности к Взяточничеству. Это позволяет перевести сравнительное изучение коррупции на инструментально иной уровень и избежать дублирования.

CPI рассчитывается с 1995 года на основе анализа данных различных исследований,

проводящихся независимыми институтами в различных странах мира. Количество государств, входящих в Индекс зависит от наличия достаточного количества надёжной информации по конкретной стране.

В таблице 3 приведены выборочные данные CPI по ряду стран в 2014 году [14]. Расчеты проводились для 174 стран. Первый столбец показывает страны с минимальной корумпированностью. Второй столбец показывает страны с максимальной корумпированностью.

Столбец "место" показывает рейтинг или место страны в общемировом списке стран. Столбец CPI показывает численное значение индекса для данной страны. Чем меньше CPI, тем более корумпрированной является страна. Первое место занимает Дания (CPI=92), последнее место занимает Северная Корея (CPI=8). Россия (CPI=27) в этом рейтинге делит 136-141 место со странами: Камерун, Иран, Киргизстан, Ливан, Нигерия.

Таблица 3. Выборочный рейтинг стран по индексу восприятия коррупции на 2014 [14]

Место Страна CPI Место Страна CPI 1 Denmark 92 136 Cameroon 27 2 New Zealand 91 136 Iran 27 3 Finland 89 136 Kyrgyzstan 27 4 Sweden 87 136 Lebanon 27 5 Norway 86 136 Nigeria 27 6 Switzerland 86 136 Russia 27 7 Singapore 84 142 Comoros 26 8 Netherlands 83 142 Uganda 26

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9 Luxembourg 82 142 Ukraine 26 10 Canada 82 145 Bangladesh 25

11 Australia 80 145 Guinea 25 12 Germany 79 145 Kenya 25 13 Iceland 79 145 Laos 25 14 United Kingdom 78 145 Papua New Guinea 25 15 Belgium 76 150 Central AfricanRepublic 24 16 Japan 76 150 Paraguay 24 17 Barbados 74 152 Congo Republic 23 18 Hong Kong 74 152 Tajikistan 23 19 Ireland 74 154 Chad 22 20 United States 74 154 Democratic Republic of the Congo 22 21 Chile 73 156 Cambodia 21 22 Uruguay 73 156 Myanmar 21 23 Austria 72 156 Zimbabwe 21 24 Bahamas 71 25 United Arab Emirates 70 174 Korea (North) 8 26 Estonia 69 174 Somalia 8

Заключение При оценке состояния национальной любой отрасли важную роль играют

международные сопоставления. Они позволяют выявить общемировые тенденции развития социального фактора определить степень соответствия или не соответствия им характеристик отдельных стран. Метод индикаторов основывается на том, что состояние каждой социально-экономической системы может быть описано набором показателей. По существу эта такая модель, которая отображается набором однозначно идентифицируемых и информационно определяемых параметров. В целом индексный (индикаторный) метод является одним из инструментов оценки коррупционности и коррупционной ситуации. Используемые при расчете индикаторов исходные статистические данные представляют собой широкий спектр информации, получаемой из различных источников регионального и национального уровня.

Примечания: 1. Mauro P. Corruption and growth // The quarterly journal of economics. 1995. p. 681-712. 2. Tsvetkov V. Ya. Information Situation and Information Position as a Management Tool //

European Researcher. 2012. Vol.(36), № 12-1, p. 2166-2170. 3. Rissanen J. Modeling by shortest data description // Automatica. 1978. V. 14, №. 5.

p. 465-471. 4. Tsvetkov V. Yа. Information Asymmetry as a Risk Factor // European Researcher, 2014,

Vol.(86), № 11-1, pp. 1937-1943. DOI: 10.13187/er.2014.86.1937. 5. Begovic B. Corruption: concepts, types, causes and consequences // Center for Liberal-

Democratic Studies, Year III No. 2005. Т. 26. 6. Wei S. J., Shleifer A. Local corruption and global capital flows // Brookings Papers on

Economic Activity. 2000. №. 2. p. 303-346. 7. Aidt T. S. Economic analysis of corruption: a survey // The Economic Journal. 2003.

V. 113, №. 491. p. F632-F652. 8. Tsvetkov V.Ya. Dichotomous Systemic Analysis // Life Science Journal 2014; 11(6).

рр. 586-590 9. Rishi P., Moghe S., Upadhyay B. K. Analysis of hierarchy of needs and motivational

strategies for eco-development planning in two national parks of India // Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2008. V.52, № 5. p. 707-718.

10. Цветков В.Я. Основы теории предпочтений. М.: Макс Пресс, 2004. 48 с. 11. Neumann J. von, Morgenstern О. Theory of Games and Economic Behaviour. Princeton,

New York, Princeton University Press, 1947.

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12. Цветков В.Я. Неявное знание и его разновидности // Вестник Мордовского университета. 2014. Т. 24. № 3. С. 199-205

13. Tsvetkov V.Ya. Framework of Correlative Analysis // European Researcher, 2012, Vol.(23), №6-1. p. 839- 844.

14. https://www.transparency.org/cpi2014/results References: 1. Mauro P. Corruption and growth // The quarterly journal of economics. 1995. p. 681-712. 2. Tsvetkov V. Ya. Information Situation and Information Position as a Management Tool //

European Researcher. 2012. Vol.(36), № 12-1, p. 2166-2170. 3. Rissanen J. Modeling by shortest data description // Automatica. 1978. V. 14, №. 5.

p. 465-471. 4. Tsvetkov V. Ya. Information Asymmetry as a Risk Factor // European Researcher, 2014,

Vol.(86), № 11-1, pp. 1937-1943. DOI: 10.13187/er.2014.86.1937. 5. Begovic B. Corruption: concepts, types, causes and consequences // Center for Liberal-

Democratic Studies, Year III No. 2005. T. 26. 6. Wei S. J., Shleifer A. Local corruption and global capital flows // Brookings Papers on

Economic Activity. 2000. №. 2. p. 303-346. 7. Aidt T. S. Economic analysis of corruption: a survey // The Economic Journal. 2003.

V. 113, №. 491. p. F632-F652. 8. Tsvetkov V.Ya. Dichotomous Systemic Analysis // Life Science Journal 2014; 11(6). rr.

586-590 9. Rishi P., Moghe S., Upadhyay B. K. Analysis of hierarchy of needs and motivational

strategies for eco-development planning in two national parks of India //Resources, Conservation and Recycling. 2008. V.52, № 5. p. 707-718.

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УДК 316.48, 316.012

Индикаторный анализ коррупции

Виктор Яковлевич Цветков

МГТУ МИРЭА, Российская Федерация Доктор технических наук, профессор E-mail: [email protected]

Аннотация. Статья описывает индикаторный анализ коррупции. Статья дает анализ основных понятий, связанных с коррупцией. Показаны факторы, которые позволяют выявлять коррупцию. Статья показывает значение информационной асимметрии на появление коррупции. Статья дает типизацию коррупции. Статья раскрывает качественный индикационный анализ внешних признаков коррупционности. Статья раскрывает качественный индикационный анализ внутренних признаков коррупционности. Описан «Индекс восприятия коррупции» как инструмент сравнения разных стран по уровню коррупции.

Ключевые слова: социология; социальные явления; анализ; коррупция; оценка ситуации; индикаторы.

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