Russia Russia Welcome to True Democracy! Welcome to True Democracy! *Be sure not to offend Putin in this presentation.* *Be sure not to offend Putin in this presentation.*
Mar 27, 2015
RussiaRussiaWelcome to True Democracy!Welcome to True Democracy!
*Be sure not to offend Putin in this *Be sure not to offend Putin in this presentation.*presentation.*
Sovereignty, Authority, and PowerSovereignty, Authority, and Power
Historically based in strong Historically based in strong autocratic rule under tsarsautocratic rule under tsars
2020thth Century – based in Marxist- Century – based in Marxist-Leninist ideology of democratic Leninist ideology of democratic centralism, rule of the few to benefit centralism, rule of the few to benefit the manythe many
Stalinism pushed it to totalitarianism, Stalinism pushed it to totalitarianism, complete invasive rule by dictatorscomplete invasive rule by dictators
Sovereignty, Authority, and PowerSovereignty, Authority, and Power
Nikita Khrushchev and Mikhail Gorbachev Nikita Khrushchev and Mikhail Gorbachev loosened Communist rule, leading to the loosened Communist rule, leading to the collapse of the U.S.S.R.collapse of the U.S.S.R.
Constitution of 1993 – reformed Russia as Constitution of 1993 – reformed Russia as a presidential republica presidential republic• Approved by referendum of Russian voters to Approved by referendum of Russian voters to
build legitimacybuild legitimacy• Attempted coups and conflict between Attempted coups and conflict between
president and Duma suggested weaknesspresident and Duma suggested weakness• Elections in 2000 and 2004 went smoothly, Elections in 2000 and 2004 went smoothly,
suggesting successsuggesting success
Historical Influences on Political Historical Influences on Political TraditionsTraditions
Common Themes of Russian History:Common Themes of Russian History:• Absolute, Centralized Rule – Geography Absolute, Centralized Rule – Geography
was subject to easy invasion and was subject to easy invasion and conquest, leading to unchallenged, conquest, leading to unchallenged, powerful leadershippowerful leadership
• Extensive Cultural Heterogeneity – Extensive Cultural Heterogeneity – numerous invasions plus expansion of numerous invasions plus expansion of borders created a diverse populationborders created a diverse population
Historical Influences on Political Historical Influences on Political TraditionsTraditions
Common Themes of Russian History:Common Themes of Russian History:• Slavophile vs. Westernizer – pride in slavic Slavophile vs. Westernizer – pride in slavic
customs and resistance to outside influence customs and resistance to outside influence conflicts with modernizing influences from the conflicts with modernizing influences from the westwest
Tsar Peter the Great in late 17Tsar Peter the Great in late 17thth to early 18 to early 18thth century century modeled Russian Empire on Westmodeled Russian Empire on West
• Revolutions of the 20Revolutions of the 20thth Century Century Seize of power by Bolsheviks in 1917, keeping Seize of power by Bolsheviks in 1917, keeping
authoritarian style of rule, but changed social class authoritarian style of rule, but changed social class systemsystem
Dissolution of U.S.S.R. in 1991 Dissolution of U.S.S.R. in 1991
Political CulturePolitical Culture
InfluencesInfluences• GeographyGeography
Largest territory in the worldLargest territory in the world Includes many nationalities and ethnicities, Includes many nationalities and ethnicities,
borders many othersborders many others One of the coldest in the worldOne of the coldest in the world Few warm water ports, often motivated to Few warm water ports, often motivated to
conquer countries that blocked access to the conquer countries that blocked access to the seasea
Many natural resources were locked in Many natural resources were locked in Siberia, but are now accessible due to Siberia, but are now accessible due to technological improvementtechnological improvement
Political CulturePolitical Culture
InfluencesInfluences• Eastern OrthodoxyEastern Orthodoxy
Russia developed economic ties with Russia developed economic ties with Constantinople, not the West, in early Constantinople, not the West, in early centuriescenturies
Missed out on Enlightenment and Missed out on Enlightenment and Reformation idealsReformation ideals
Instead, valued statism, a strong state to Instead, valued statism, a strong state to protect them from geographic vulnerabilitiesprotect them from geographic vulnerabilities
Political CulturePolitical Culture
InfluencesInfluences• Equality of ResultEquality of Result
Russians tend to resent the wealthyRussians tend to resent the wealthy
• Skepticism About PowerSkepticism About Power Despite statism, Russians have little faith in Despite statism, Russians have little faith in
public officials’ competencepublic officials’ competence• Exception: Putin, 70-80% approval ratingException: Putin, 70-80% approval rating
• Importance of NationalityImportance of Nationality Lots of stereotypes about Russians, Baltic Lots of stereotypes about Russians, Baltic
people, Muslim-Turks, Jewspeople, Muslim-Turks, Jews
Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change
Attempts at liberalization have historically Attempts at liberalization have historically resulted in disasterresulted in disaster• Alexander II freed Russian serfs, created local Alexander II freed Russian serfs, created local
assemblies, gets assassinated by assemblies, gets assassinated by revolutionaries (1881)revolutionaries (1881)
• 1919thth century tsars who used capitalist means to century tsars who used capitalist means to industrialize failedindustrialize failed
• Gorbechev’s glasnost ended in widespread Gorbechev’s glasnost ended in widespread criticism of government, a military coup, and criticism of government, a military coup, and the collapse of the U.S.S.R.the collapse of the U.S.S.R.
Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change
Three major periodsThree major periods• Tsarist Rule (13Tsarist Rule (13thth Century – 1917) Century – 1917)
Mongol rulers established cooperative tsars over Mongol rulers established cooperative tsars over Russia, later lost influenceRussia, later lost influence
Tsar Peter the Great (late 17Tsar Peter the Great (late 17thth – early 18 – early 18thth century) century) introduced Western technology and cultureintroduced Western technology and culture
Catherine the Great – ruled as an “enlightened Catherine the Great – ruled as an “enlightened despot”, authoritarian but for public gooddespot”, authoritarian but for public good
1919thth Century – Decembrist Revolt (1825), loss in the Century – Decembrist Revolt (1825), loss in the Crimean War delegitimized tsars, who resorted to Crimean War delegitimized tsars, who resorted to secret police and executions to stay in powersecret police and executions to stay in power
Assassination of Alexander II led his son to undo all Assassination of Alexander II led his son to undo all democratic reformsdemocratic reforms
Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change
Three major periodsThree major periods• Revolution of 1917, Lenin, and StalinRevolution of 1917, Lenin, and Stalin
Loss in Russo-Japanese War (1905) further Loss in Russo-Japanese War (1905) further weakened the stateweakened the state
State collapsed in Feb. 1917 due to World State collapsed in Feb. 1917 due to World War IWar I
• Soldiers often fought with no guns or shoesSoldiers often fought with no guns or shoes• Massive defections ended any sense of legitimacyMassive defections ended any sense of legitimacy
Marxist exile Lenin returned to take powerMarxist exile Lenin returned to take power• Lenin’s 1905 pamphlet “What is to be Done”Lenin’s 1905 pamphlet “What is to be Done”• Followers became known as BolsheviksFollowers became known as Bolsheviks• Formally seize control Oct. 1917Formally seize control Oct. 1917
Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change
Three major periodsThree major periods• Revolution of 1917, Lenin, and StalinRevolution of 1917, Lenin, and Stalin
1918 Civil War1918 Civil War• Red Army (Bolsheviks) victory over White Army Red Army (Bolsheviks) victory over White Army
(funded by Allied Powers)(funded by Allied Powers)• Results in “New Economic Policy” which allows Results in “New Economic Policy” which allows
private property ownership in agrarian U.S.S.R.private property ownership in agrarian U.S.S.R. Death of Lenin in 1924, ensuing power Death of Lenin in 1924, ensuing power
strugglestruggle Stalin placed Communists (CPSU) at the Stalin placed Communists (CPSU) at the
center of controlcenter of control
Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change
Three major periodsThree major periods• Revolution of 1917, Lenin, and StalinRevolution of 1917, Lenin, and Stalin
Stalinism Stalinism • Elite recruitment through Elite recruitment through nomenklaturanomenklatura, ,
recommendation of high level party members to recommendation of high level party members to promote low level party memberspromote low level party members
• Collectivization – no more private land ownership, Collectivization – no more private land ownership, state run “collective farms”state run “collective farms”
Peasants who resisted (kulaks) were sent to Peasants who resisted (kulaks) were sent to cities or labor camps, or executedcities or labor camps, or executed
• Industrialization – Five Year Plans set ambitious Industrialization – Five Year Plans set ambitious production goals in oil, steel, electricityproduction goals in oil, steel, electricity
Plans carried out by Gosplan, the Central State Plans carried out by Gosplan, the Central State Planning CommissionPlanning Commission
Communist Party of the Soviet Union(7% of population)
Central Committee(300ish members)
Politburo(12 members
GeneralSecretary
Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change Three major periodsThree major periods
• Revolution of 1917, Lenin, and StalinRevolution of 1917, Lenin, and Stalin Stalinism Stalinism
• Purges – execution of millions of citizens and up Purges – execution of millions of citizens and up to a million party members who were “disloyal”to a million party members who were “disloyal”
• ReformReform Nikita Khrushchev wins power struggle in Nikita Khrushchev wins power struggle in
1953 after death of Stalin1953 after death of Stalin• Denounces purgesDenounces purges• deStalinization – loosened government control of deStalinization – loosened government control of
press, decentralized economic decision makingpress, decentralized economic decision making• Relaxed Cold War tension Relaxed Cold War tension • Failure in Cuban Missile Crisis resulted in Failure in Cuban Missile Crisis resulted in
replacement by conservative Brezhnevreplacement by conservative Brezhnev
Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change Three major periodsThree major periods
• ReformReform Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1991)Mikhail Gorbachev (1985-1991)
• Westernizer attempting to save USSR from Westernizer attempting to save USSR from collapsecollapse
Glasnost – “openness,” allowed political Glasnost – “openness,” allowed political discussion and criticismdiscussion and criticism
Democratization – created a directly elected Democratization – created a directly elected Congress of People’s Deputies, and a Congress of People’s Deputies, and a President selected by Congress, later electedPresident selected by Congress, later elected
Perestroika – transfer of state economic Perestroika – transfer of state economic powers to the market, like authorization of powers to the market, like authorization of privately owned companies, penalties for privately owned companies, penalties for under-performing state businessesunder-performing state businesses
Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change Failed Coup and Revolution of 1991Failed Coup and Revolution of 1991
• Coup to remove Gorbechev in August led by Coup to remove Gorbechev in August led by conservatives, vice-president, head of KGB, top conservatives, vice-president, head of KGB, top military brassmilitary brass
• Ended by popular protest, defection of soldiersEnded by popular protest, defection of soldiers Protesters led by Boris Yeltsin, recently elected Protesters led by Boris Yeltsin, recently elected
President of RussiaPresident of Russia• Had been removed from Politburo due to extreme Had been removed from Politburo due to extreme
views, but won popular electionviews, but won popular election
• 11 republics declared independence after the 11 republics declared independence after the coup, leading Gorbechev to announce the end coup, leading Gorbechev to announce the end of the U.S.S.R.of the U.S.S.R.
• Yeltsin initiates “shock therapy” – rapid Yeltsin initiates “shock therapy” – rapid conversion to market economyconversion to market economy
Political and Economic ChangePolitical and Economic Change
Modern RussiaModern Russia• Yeltsin resigned unexpectedly in 1999 Yeltsin resigned unexpectedly in 1999
Perpetual economic decline in the 1990’sPerpetual economic decline in the 1990’s ““Loans for Shares” scandalLoans for Shares” scandal Inability to work with DumaInability to work with Duma Numerous diseases, including alcoholismNumerous diseases, including alcoholism Rapid hiring and firing of Prime MinistersRapid hiring and firing of Prime Ministers
• Resignation brings Putin to power, who wins Resignation brings Putin to power, who wins reelection in 2000 and 2004reelection in 2000 and 2004
Stability in the political and economic systemStability in the political and economic system Retreat from democratic commitments of YeltsinRetreat from democratic commitments of Yeltsin
Citizens, Society, and the StateCitizens, Society, and the State CleavagesCleavages
• NationalityNationality 80% Russian, but many Tartars, Ukrainians, 80% Russian, but many Tartars, Ukrainians,
Armenians, etc.Armenians, etc. Most well-integrated, but slightly autonomousMost well-integrated, but slightly autonomous
• Exception: Chechnya, predominantly Muslim, fighting Exception: Chechnya, predominantly Muslim, fighting for independencefor independence
• ReligionReligion Tsarist Russia was Eastern OrthodoxTsarist Russia was Eastern Orthodox U.S.S.R. responded by banning all religionU.S.S.R. responded by banning all religion Yeltsin encouraged Orthodoxy againYeltsin encouraged Orthodoxy again Most Russians say they are Orthodox, but rarely Most Russians say they are Orthodox, but rarely
attend servicesattend services
Religious/Ethnic Affiliation in Religious/Ethnic Affiliation in RussiaRussia
ReligionReligion• Russian Orthodox – Russian Orthodox –
15-20%15-20%• Muslim – 10-15%Muslim – 10-15%• Other Christian – Other Christian –
2%2%• Non-practicing or Non-practicing or
non-religious is non-religious is largest segmentlargest segment
EthnicityEthnicity• Russian – 79.8%Russian – 79.8%• Tartar – 3.8%Tartar – 3.8%• Ukrainian – 2%Ukrainian – 2%• Chuvash – 1.1%Chuvash – 1.1%• Other – 12.1%Other – 12.1%
Citizens, Society, and the StateCitizens, Society, and the State CleavagesCleavages
• Social ClassSocial Class Tsarist Russian nobles/peasant class systemTsarist Russian nobles/peasant class system CPSU membership and nomenklatura CPSU membership and nomenklatura
replaced nobility as a status symbol, though replaced nobility as a status symbol, though egalitarian and blind to social backgroundegalitarian and blind to social background
Now appears that market economy and Now appears that market economy and entrepreneurship is becoming the basis of entrepreneurship is becoming the basis of social class divisionssocial class divisions
• Oligarchs – wealthy individuals believed to be Oligarchs – wealthy individuals believed to be “pulling the strings” of the government, and “pulling the strings” of the government, and benefiting from preferential treatmentbenefiting from preferential treatment
• Urban (73%) vs. Rural Urban (73%) vs. Rural
Citizens, Society, and the StateCitizens, Society, and the State
Beliefs and AttitudesBeliefs and Attitudes• Mistrust of the government Mistrust of the government • StatismStatism• Economic beliefs – right/left divisions Economic beliefs – right/left divisions
formed since Yeltsin’s reformsformed since Yeltsin’s reforms Conservatives are those who support “the Conservatives are those who support “the
good old days” of Soviet Communismgood old days” of Soviet Communism
• Westernization – slavophile vs. Westernization – slavophile vs. westernizer still characterizes political westernizer still characterizes political divisionsdivisions
Citizens, Society, and the StateCitizens, Society, and the State
Political ParticipationPolitical Participation• Elections – voter turnout around 65-70% Elections – voter turnout around 65-70%
typically for presidenttypically for president• Civil SocietyCivil Society
Undeveloped private organizations (people don’t Undeveloped private organizations (people don’t attend church, join recreational clubs, labor unions, attend church, join recreational clubs, labor unions, etc.)etc.)
Soviet system was state corporatism, party controlled Soviet system was state corporatism, party controlled all “private” groupsall “private” groups
Government still places tight restrictions on activities Government still places tight restrictions on activities of groups critical of the governmentof groups critical of the government
• Youth Groups – created by Putin to support the Youth Groups – created by Putin to support the governmentgovernment
InstitutionsInstitutions Federal SystemFederal System
• 83 regions, 21 of which are non-Russian 83 regions, 21 of which are non-Russian majority called “republics”majority called “republics”
• Asymmetric federalism – not all regions are Asymmetric federalism – not all regions are equally sovereign, some are more powerful equally sovereign, some are more powerful than othersthan others
• Putin’s changes (since 2000)Putin’s changes (since 2000) Super-Districts – 7 federal districts with head Super-Districts – 7 federal districts with head
appointed by president to “oversee” local authoritiesappointed by president to “oversee” local authorities Power for president to remove a governorPower for president to remove a governor Ended election of governors, now appointedEnded election of governors, now appointed Federation Council was comprised of the governors, Federation Council was comprised of the governors,
now that isn’t allowednow that isn’t allowed
Colored regions on this map are “republics,” each with relatively smaller Russian ethnic compositions, and with more autonomy
from the federation than other Russian regions
Linkage InstitutionsLinkage Institutions
Political Parties – based on personalities, Political Parties – based on personalities, not ideology, and loyalty is weaknot ideology, and loyalty is weak• United Russia – party of power, built by United Russia – party of power, built by
oligarchs to help Putin get elected in 2000oligarchs to help Putin get elected in 2000• CPRF – not really “communist,” but not CPRF – not really “communist,” but not
reformist eitherreformist either• Yabloko, Union of Right Forces – both reformist, Yabloko, Union of Right Forces – both reformist,
support democratization and marketizationsupport democratization and marketization• Liberal Democrats – not liberal, not democratic, Liberal Democrats – not liberal, not democratic,
CRAZY!!CRAZY!!
Actual things Zhirinovsky (Liberal Actual things Zhirinovsky (Liberal Democrats) has said:Democrats) has said:
““Jews are often to blame for Anti-Semitism”Jews are often to blame for Anti-Semitism” Visited the U.S., said that whites were “in danger of turning their Visited the U.S., said that whites were “in danger of turning their
country over to blacks and Hispanics.”country over to blacks and Hispanics.” "Condoleezza Rice needs a company of soldiers [and] needs to be "Condoleezza Rice needs a company of soldiers [and] needs to be
taken to barracks where she would be satisfied." taken to barracks where she would be satisfied." Advocated use of tactical nukes on Chechnyan villagesAdvocated use of tactical nukes on Chechnyan villages Threatened to nuke Japan in the event of another Russo-Japanese Threatened to nuke Japan in the event of another Russo-Japanese
WarWar claimed Russia possesses "Elipton," a weapon of mass destruction claimed Russia possesses "Elipton," a weapon of mass destruction
supposedly more powerful than nuclear weapons supposedly more powerful than nuclear weapons To eradicate bird flu, he proposed arming all of Russia's population To eradicate bird flu, he proposed arming all of Russia's population
and ordering them and the troops to shoot down the migrant birds and ordering them and the troops to shoot down the migrant birds returning to Russia from wintering returning to Russia from wintering
accused Great Britain (according to him, "the most barbaric accused Great Britain (according to him, "the most barbaric country on the planet") of fomenting World War I, the October country on the planet") of fomenting World War I, the October Revolution, World War II, and the collapse of the Soviet Union Revolution, World War II, and the collapse of the Soviet Union
Got in a “juice fight” during a debate in 1995.Got in a “juice fight” during a debate in 1995.
Linkage InstitutionsLinkage Institutions
ElectionsElections• ReferendumReferendum
used for Constitution of 1993used for Constitution of 1993 regional Constitutions like Chechnya’s that regional Constitutions like Chechnya’s that
declared it an “inseparable part” of Russiadeclared it an “inseparable part” of Russia
• DumaDuma 450 seats, was ½ SMD, ½ PR with a 5% 450 seats, was ½ SMD, ½ PR with a 5%
thresholdthreshold Changed by Putin to fully PR with a 7% Changed by Putin to fully PR with a 7%
thresholdthreshold
2003 Results, prior to Putin’s changes
2007, after changes to the system
Linkage InstitutionsLinkage Institutions
ElectionsElections• ReferendumReferendum
used for Constitution of 1993used for Constitution of 1993 regional Constitutions like Chechnya’s that declared regional Constitutions like Chechnya’s that declared
it an “inseparable part” of Russiait an “inseparable part” of Russia
• DumaDuma 450 seats, was ½ SMD, ½ PR with a 5% threshold450 seats, was ½ SMD, ½ PR with a 5% threshold Changed by Putin to fully PR with a 7% thresholdChanged by Putin to fully PR with a 7% threshold
• PresidentialPresidential 2-ballot majority2-ballot majority Questionable in fairness and competitiveness (Putin Questionable in fairness and competitiveness (Putin
won 71% in 2004)won 71% in 2004)
Linkage InstitutionsLinkage Institutions Interest GroupsInterest Groups
• Formerly only allowed by CPSU under state Formerly only allowed by CPSU under state corporatismcorporatism
• Putin has returned to a similar systemPutin has returned to a similar system OligarchsOligarchs
• 1991 move to market system allowed many 1991 move to market system allowed many insiders (nomenklatura) to purchase state-insiders (nomenklatura) to purchase state-owned industries for almost nothingowned industries for almost nothing
• Controlled early political processes, propped up Controlled early political processes, propped up Yeltsin and later PutinYeltsin and later Putin
Ex. Berezovsky used his TV networks to help both, later Ex. Berezovsky used his TV networks to help both, later worked with other oligarchs to create Unity Partyworked with other oligarchs to create Unity Party
• Putin now solidifying control and loyalty from Putin now solidifying control and loyalty from oligarchsoligarchs
Arrest of Khodorkovsky who financed oppositionArrest of Khodorkovsky who financed opposition Arrest and seize of Gusinsky’s TV companyArrest and seize of Gusinsky’s TV company
Linkage InstitutionsLinkage Institutions
Russian Mafia – gained a lot of power in Russian Mafia – gained a lot of power in chaos of 1991, control local businesseschaos of 1991, control local businesses
Russian Media – privately owned, Russian Media – privately owned, effectively state controlledeffectively state controlled• Critical journalists often get killed mysteriouslyCritical journalists often get killed mysteriously• Journalists Union was evicted to give the Journalists Union was evicted to give the
building to Russia Today channel, state owned building to Russia Today channel, state owned to promote Russia’s image abroadto promote Russia’s image abroad
State InstitutionsState Institutions President and Prime MinisterPresident and Prime Minister
• Semi-Presidential systemSemi-Presidential system• President – head of statePresident – head of state
Directly elected by votersDirectly elected by voters Appoints prime minister and cabinetAppoints prime minister and cabinet
• appointments may be rejected by Duma, but Duma is appointments may be rejected by Duma, but Duma is dissolved if they reject the choice 3 timesdissolved if they reject the choice 3 times
Can issue decrees that have the force of lawCan issue decrees that have the force of law Can dissolve the Duma and call for new electionsCan dissolve the Duma and call for new elections
• Prime Minister – head of governmentPrime Minister – head of government not majority party leader, usually a career bureaucrat not majority party leader, usually a career bureaucrat
loyal to the Presidentloyal to the President Becomes president if president dies or resignsBecomes president if president dies or resigns Putin attempted to transfer control of military and Putin attempted to transfer control of military and
FSB to Prime Minister before becoming PMFSB to Prime Minister before becoming PM
State InstitutionsState Institutions Bicameral Legislature, Federal AssemblyBicameral Legislature, Federal Assembly
• Lower House, the State DumaLower House, the State Duma 450 Deputies, elected by PR450 Deputies, elected by PR Passes bills, approves budget, confirms presidential Passes bills, approves budget, confirms presidential
appointmentsappointments Powers are limited due to presidents ability to pass Powers are limited due to presidents ability to pass
law through decreelaw through decree Process of impeachment and rejecting appointments Process of impeachment and rejecting appointments
are effectively uselessare effectively useless
• Upper House, Federation CouncilUpper House, Federation Council 2 members from each of 84 regions, 168 members2 members from each of 84 regions, 168 members
• One elected by provincial legislature, one appointed by One elected by provincial legislature, one appointed by regional governorregional governor
Can only really delay legislation – can be overridden Can only really delay legislation – can be overridden by State Dumaby State Duma
State InstitutionsState Institutions
The JudiciaryThe Judiciary• Constitutional CourtConstitutional Court
Attempt by Constitution of 1993 to create Attempt by Constitution of 1993 to create independent judicial systemindependent judicial system
19 members appointed by president, confirmed by 19 members appointed by president, confirmed by Federation CouncilFederation Council
Supposed to have “judicial review”Supposed to have “judicial review”
• Supreme CourtSupreme Court Final place to appeal civil and criminal casesFinal place to appeal civil and criminal cases
• Problem – most attorneys were trained in the Problem – most attorneys were trained in the old Soviet systemold Soviet system
• Courts don’t tend to challenge governmentCourts don’t tend to challenge government
State InstitutionsState Institutions
The MilitaryThe Military• 4 million members, most in world 4 million members, most in world
(compare to #2 U.S. at under 1.5 (compare to #2 U.S. at under 1.5 million)million)
• Source of power of CPSU from 1945 to Source of power of CPSU from 1945 to 1991, but never challenged authority of 1991, but never challenged authority of PolitburoPolitburo
• Showing no signs of becoming a political Showing no signs of becoming a political institutioninstitution