Running head: ATTENTION, SLEEP, IMPULSIVITY, AND ...

Running head: ATTENTION, SLEEP, IMPULSIVITY, AND EMPLOYMENT i

An Investigation of Attention, Sleep, Impulsivity, and Employment in College

Students.

Gary Clare

Bachelor of Arts (Hons) in Psychology

National College of Ireland 2019

ATTENTION, SLEEP, IMPULSIVITY, AND EMPLOYMENT ii

ii

Research Students Declaration Form

(Thesis/Author Declaration Form)

Name: Gary Clare

Student Number: 16495626

Degree for which thesis is submitted: BAPSYCH

Material submitted for award

(a) I declare that the work has been composed by myself.

(b) I declare that all verbatim extracts contained in the thesis

have been distinguished by quotation marks and the sources of

information specifically acknowledged.

(c) My thesis will be included in electronic format in the

College

Institutional Repository TRAP (thesis reports and projects)

(d) Either *I declare that no material contained in the thesis has

been used in any other submission for an academic award.

Or *I declare that the following material contained in the thesis

formed part of a submission for the award of

________________________________________________________

________

(State the award and the awarding body and list the material below)

Signature of research student:

_____________________________________

Date: _____________________

ATTENTION, SLEEP, IMPULSIVITY, AND EMPLOYMENT iii

iii

Submission of Thesis to Norma Smurfit Library, National College of Ireland Student name: Gary Clare Student number: 16495626 School: National College of Ireland Course: BAPSYCH Degree to be awarded: Bachelor of Arts (honours) in Psychology Title of Thesis: An Investigation of Attention, Sleep, Impulsivity, and Employment in College Students One hard bound copy of your thesis will be lodged in the Norma Smurfit Library and will be available for consultation. The electronic copy will be accessible in TRAP (http://trap.ncirl.ie/), the National College of Ireland’s Institutional Repository. In accordance with normal academic library practice all theses lodged in the National College of Ireland Institutional Repository (TRAP) are made available on open access. I agree to a hard bound copy of my thesis being available for consultation in the library. I also agree to an electronic copy of my thesis being made publicly available on the National College of Ireland’s Institutional Repository TRAP. Signature of Candidate: ____________________________________________________________ For completion by the School: The aforementioned thesis was received by__________________________ Date:_______________ This signed form must be appended to all hard bound and electronic copies of your thesis submitted to your school

http://trap.ncirl.ie/

ATTENTION, SLEEP, IMPULSIVITY, AND EMPLOYMENT iv

iv

Acknowledgements

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Michael

Cleary-Gaffney for the continuous support during my undergraduate study and

research, for his patience, motivation, enthusiasm, and continued support

throughout. His guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of

this thesis. I also want to express my gratitude to family and friends who remained

incredibly supportive to me during my undergraduate study and research. I would

also like to acknowledge my father Brendan Clare who motivates and supports

every aspect of my life. Finally I would like to thank my grandparents that have

played a significant role in my life.

ATTENTION, SLEEP, IMPULSIVITY, AND EMPLOYMENT v

v

Abstract

The relationship of attention and sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, chronotype,

social jetlag, sleep duration, impulsivity, hours of weekly employment were

studied in 37 college students. Participants completed a continuous performance

test (CPT) of attention, Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI), Epworth

Sleepiness Scale (ESS), Munich Chronotype Questionnaire (MCTQ), Barratt

Impulsivity Scale (BIS) and were asked demographic questions. Correlation

analyses were run to investigate if an association was present between attention

and all other variables. All correlations returned non-significant results indicating

none of the assessed variables had a relationship with attention. In addition, a t-

test was run to check for differences between males and females on attention.

Similarly it returned a non-significant result indicating that no difference existed

between the groups on attention levels. A t-test was also run for high levels of

sleep duration and low levels of sleep duration on attention. Again, no significant

difference was evident and predictions did not hold through. In conclusions

findings were contradictory towards predictions based on the literature.

ATTENTION, SLEEP, IMPULSIVITY, AND EMPLOYMENT vi

vi

Table of Contents

Research Students Declaration Form ...................................................................... ii

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................ iv

Abstract ................................................................................................................... v

Introduction ............................................................................................................. 7

Research aims .................................................................................................... 12

Methods ................................................................................................................. 14

Participants ........................................................................................................ 14

Design ................................................................................................................ 14

Apparatus ........................................................................................................... 14

Measures ............................................................................................................ 15

Data analysis ...................................................................................................... 19

Results ................................................................................................................... 20

Descriptive statistics .......................................................................................... 20

Inferential statistics ............................................................................................ 22

Discussion ............................................................................................................. 25

References ............................................................................................................. 30

Appendices ............................................................................................................ 38

ATTENTION, SLEEP, IMPULSIVITY, AND EMPLOYMENT 7

7

Introduction

Attention is a very broad concept that contains various different dimensions. The two main

components of attention are intensity and selectivity. Attention can be seen as quality of

information processing decided by selection of stimuli and intensity of focus directed toward the

stimuli. The ability to optimally tune selectivity and intensity in attention results in an efficient

information processing system (Spikman & van Zomeren, 2010). Attention is an important ability

for improving individual’s performance at different tasks. For instance, attention improves sensory

processing in different visual tasks (Carrasco & Barbot, 2019). Cohen and Maunsell (2009)

conducted research that also suggests visual attention improves behavioural performance of

participants in focusing on important information in complex scenes. It is important to understand

that attention is not a single concept but is built up of different types of attention all of which

activated based on situation presented (Spikman & van Zomeren, 2010). Naturally as some aspects

of attention improve cognitive abilities, deficits in attention can also negatively impact cognitive

abilities. One study on college students with and without Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

(ADHD) found that students with ADHD had a significantly lower grade point average, supporting

the idea that attention problems may affect academic performance (Heiligenstein, Guenther, Levy,

Savino & Fulwiler, 1999).

Attention and college students

The previously mentioned research highlights the importance of attention for improving our

cognitive abilities. It also identifies that any deficits or reductions in attention can have a negative

impact cognitive functioning. The population of college students is one which has been

substantially researched with regards to attention (Ramsay & Rostain, 2006; Swartz, Prevatt &

Proctor, 2005; Wei, Wang & Klausner, 2012). In particular the clinical population of college

students with ADHD and their academic performance is researched. Academic performance

problems related ADHD are well documented in school children (Currie & Stabile, 2006; Frazier,


8

Youngstrom, Glutting & Watkins, 2007) and through adolescents to college students (Barkley,

Fischer, Smallish & Fletcher, 2006; Biederman et al., 2006).

The research suggests that college students with ADHD are more likely to face academic

problems. Barry, Lyman and Klinger (2002) reported that severity of ADHD is a significant

predictor of academic underachievement in reading writing and mathematics. Biederman and his

colleagues (2004) found adolescents with ADHD to be at high risk of impaired academic

performance due to lack of ability to maintain attention. The negative effects of ADHD on

academic performance in college students appear to be highly supported in the previously

mentioned literature. The emphasis on ADHD has led to a lack of research with the aim of

investigating attention in non-clinical college student populations. Similarly, there is a wealth of

research comparing gender differences and attention focusing primarily on ADHD populations

(Rucklidge, 2010; Gaub & Carlson, 1997). Gender difference studies tend to report inconsistent

findings potentially through variation in measures.

Sleep quality and college students

An abundance of research has been conducted on student’s sleep, which is often assessed in

different variables such as sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, and chronotype. The voluntary sleep

deprivation of college students on weekdays and subsequent excessive recuperation sleep on the

weekend has been identified as a common problem among students (Hawkins & Shaw, 1992). In

addition to voluntary sleep schedule variations many students report involuntary sleep

disturbances. Two thirds of which report occasional disturbances and about one third of those

report severe sleep difficulties (Coren, 1994). Additional research found that only 11% of students

assessed met the criteria for good sleep quality (Buboltz, Brown & Soper, 2001). As a result of

depriving themselves of sleep, college students increase their daytime sleepiness and subsequently

decrease their ability to pay attention in class (Pilcher & Walters, 1997).

The association of poor sleep quality and how it is associated with a reduction in an

individual’s attention is highlighted in the research (Niu et al., 2011; Gobin, Banks, Fins & Tartar,


9

2015). Other supportive research in children showed that poor sleep quality and shorter sleep

duration resulted in more errors on a continuous performance task (CPT) of attention (Sadeh,

Gruber & Raviv, 2002). One theory suggests that reduced performance of a sleep deprived

individual stems from lack of ability to focus attention and complete task at hand (Johnson, 1982).

Although most research predominantly aims to assess sleep variables in college students

with only brief reference to how they affect attention (Pilcher & Walters, 1997; Lund, Reider,

Whiting & Prichard, 2010). The literature has less research where attention is the anchoring

variable compared to sleep quality and other sleep associated variables in college students.

Furthermore, even fewer papers assess these variables in non-clinical student population that do

not strictly have ADHD.

Daytime sleepiness

The negative impact of poor sleep quality on attention is evident in the previously mentioned

papers (Niu et al., 2011; Gobin, Banks, Fins & Tartar, 2015). Daytime sleepiness is another aspect

related to sleep that is associated with poor sleep quality in the literature. Mikulincer, Babkoff,

Caspy and Sing (1989) investigated sleep deprivation and found participants reported increased

feelings of sleepiness related as levels of sleep deprivation increased. The most common

consequence of insufficient or disturbed sleep is suggested to be an increase in daytime sleepiness

(Fallone, Owens & Deane, 2002; Moore & Meltzer, 2008). Research conducted in Seoul found that

students had poor sleep quality and a consequent increase in daytime sleepiness that highly

correlated with decline academic performance (Shin, Kim, Lee, Ahn & Joo, 2003). Increased

daytime sleepiness may also impair certain brain areas and reduce cognitive function (Dahl, 1996;

Jones & Harrison, 2001). The strongly supported idea that daytime sleepiness is a result of poor

sleep quality suggest that it would be practical to look at both while researching attention.


10

Chronotype and attention

Chronotype is the term used to describe an individual’s circadian rhythm and whether it

corresponds to morningness or eveningness. An individual with a preference for morningness is

someone gets up easily and is more alert in the morning. In comparison, an individual with a

preference for eveningness is someone who is more alert in the evening and sleeps late into the

afternoon (Preckel, Lipnevich, Schneider & Roberts, 2011). Studies consistently show that

morningness and academic achievement have a strong positive correlation. In contrast,

eveningness has a strong negative relationship with academic achievement (Kirby & Kirby, 2006).

Considering that deficits in attention correlate with poor academic performance and eveningness

has strong negative relationship with academic performance. An investigation of eveningness and

attention would appear to be rational as academic performance may be a confounding variable.

Overall, papers investigating chronotype and cognitive ability appear inconsistent (Killgore &

Killgore, 2007). Chronotype is an individual difference in sleep timing and some individuals may

benefit more from eveningness while others benefit more from morningness. Considering this may

explain why inconsistencies occur while comparing the chronotype of individuals on certain

cognitive abilities.

The use of social jetlag which is the difference between an individual’s circadian clock and

social clock may produce more consistent results (Roenneberg, Allebrandt, Merrow & Vetter,

2012). The circadian clock is governed by internal cues that are influenced by external factors such

as light. In contrast the social clock is decided by external factors, such as an individual being

required to start work at 8 o’clock in the morning (Wittmann, Dinich, Merrow & Roenneberg,

2006). Large discrepancies between the circadian clock and social clock are recorded to result in

chronic sleep loss (Roenneberg et al., 2007; Wittmann, Dinich, Merrow & Roenneberg, 2006).

Chronic sleep loss is also related to an individual’s sleep quality and daytime sleepiness which the

research suggests both can have an effect on attention (Gobin, Banks, Fins & Tartar, 2015). In

comparison, social jetlag appears to be superior to chronotype for assessing psychological

variables such as attention due to its incorporation of individual differences. Although, chronotype


11

is not directly interchangeable with social jetlag so it may still hold value in some areas of

research.

Impulsivity, chronotype, and attention

Impulsivity is a concept that covers a broad range of actions that are poorly considered,

prematurely expressed and often inappropriate to the situation at hand (Evenden, 1999).

Impulsivity appears to have an inverse relationship with academic achievement (Fink & McCown,

1993; Vigil-Coleṭ & Morales-Vives, 2005). A close relationship can be seen between attention and

impulsivity when considering ADHD. One of the main characteristics of ADHD is impulsive

behaviours that reduce the ability to maintain attention (Miller, Derefinko, Lynam, Milich &

Fillmore, 2009; Toplak et al., 2009). In addition the Barrett Impulsivity Scale (BIS) a validated

measure of impulsivity contains a specific component of attention factors (Patton, Stanford &

Barratt, 1995). Furthermore, higher rates of impulsiveness has linked with individuals that report

eveningness compared with those that report morningness (Caci, Robert & Boyer, 2004; Russo,

Leone, Penolazzi & Natale, 2012).

Although impulsivity is highly associated with ADHD a lack of papers investigating

impulsivity and attention in a non-clinical student population exists.

College students and employment

College students often need to hold a part time job in order to support themselves during

their education. The literature presents a mixed report on whether having a part time job while in

college has a negative or positive effect on academic performance. Some research presents a

negative effect of having a part time job on academic performance (Singh, 1998; Oettinger, 1999).

Alternative research found that grades improve with low work hours and fall with long work hours

(Schill, McCartin & Meyer, 1985; Quirk, Keith & Quirk, 2001). It is also reported that excessive

working hours lead to less available time to complete college work and reduced energy

(DeSimone, 2008). Contrasting research suggests that there is no relationship between the two


12

(Schoenhals, Tienda & Schneider, 1998; Warren, LePore & Mare, 2001). Dustmann and Van Soest

(2006) found that part-time work has a small negative effect on exam performance in males. One

potential mechanism suggested by Kalenkoski and Pabilonia (2012) is that work reduces students’

homework time or sleep and thus negatively affects their grades. Investigation of how employment

effects sleep quality may yield beneficial data to why such vast amounts of college students report

poor sleep quality.

Research aims

The main aim of the current study is to assess the attention levels of a non-clinical college

student population. An investigation into the factors that are potentially associated with attention

will also be conducted. Substantial research of attention in college students strictly with ADHD

(Barkley, Fischer, Smallish & Fletcher, 2006; Biederman et al., 2006) exists but a lack of

assessment on students without ADHD warrants fair rationale for exploration of this area.

Review of the literature identified five factors, sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, chronotype,

impulsivity, and employment all of which are potentially associated with attention. The data

produced in the present research can be used to indicate what factors are associated with decreased

attention so that these factors can be targeted while trying to improve attention levels.

In sum, to investigate the desired factors for the current research five specific questions

answered by eight hypotheses have been formulated. First, do gender differences exist in attention

between males and females? In order to assess this question we assessed both males and females

levels of attention using a Continuous Performance Task (CPT). We hypothesised that no

difference would be found between males and females on attention (H1). On the basis of a meta-

analysis conducted not finding and gender differences with regards ADHD (Guab & Carlson,

1997).

The second question of our study was to determine if a significant association existed

between sleep quality and daytime sleepiness compared with attention. A self-reported measure of

both sleep quality and daytime sleepiness with performance levels on an attention task were


13

assessed. Two hypotheses were developed to tackle this research question. The first hypothesis

states, sleep quality will have a positive relationship with attention (H2). Research suggests that it

is rationale to assume a relationship between sleep quality and attention (Niu et al., 2011; Gobin,

Banks, Fins & Tartar, 2015). The second hypothesis states, daytime sleepiness will have a negative

relationship with CPT (H3).

The third research question aimed to assess aspects of chronotype and its association with

attention levels. Self-reported measures of chrontoype and social jetlag were used. Attention levels

were also indicated by CPT performance which is consistent through this study. In addition, sleep

duration was split into high and low sleep durations so comparisons could be made on attention

levels between the groups. Three hypotheses were established to explore the research question. The

first hypothesis states, chronotype will have a significant relationship with attention levels (H4).

The second hypothesis states, participants with increased social jetlag will have decreased

performance on CPT (H5). A final hypothesis predicts, individuals with high sleep duration will

have increased performance on CPT (H6).

The objective of the next research question was to explore if impulsiveness is associated with

attention levels in the non-clinical student population. Self reported impulsivity measures and

performance on CPT were used for the current question. It was hypothesised that an increase in

impulsiveness will lead to more errors on the CPT (H7). On the basis that research suggests a

significant amount of crossover between impulsivity and attention (Miller, Derefinko, Lynam,

Milich & Fillmore, 2009; Toplak et al., 2009).

The final research question investigates employment and its association with attention.

Self reported hours of work per week and performance on CPT were used. One hypothesis was

formulated to examine the current research. We predicted that increased employment hours will be

associated with reduce performance on CPT (H8).


14

Methods

Participants

Participants were recruited from the student body of National College of Ireland. The sample

contained 37 students, (N=37) 21 males (56.8%) and 16 females (43.2%) all of which completed

all aspects of the study. The method of sampling employed was convenience sampling. The mean

age of participants in the study was 21.27 (SD= 1.407).

Design

The design of the current study is both cross-sectional and experimental. Between groups and

within group measures were also required to assess the different research questions. H1 and H6

both required between groups design, all other hypothesis utilised within group design. The main

variable of the research was attention all other variables were used to compare with attention.

The between groups design of H1 and H6 resulted in the necessary use of t-tests. The

independent variable for H1 was gender while the dependent variable was errors on the CPT. The

independent variable for H6 was sleep duration divided into high and low while the dependent

variable was errors on CPT. The other hypotheses were within groups and used correlation analysis

which does not require identification of Independent and dependent variables. When analysing and

testing the remaining six hypotheses the variables correlated with attention were sleep quality,

daytime sleepiness, chronotype, social jetlag, impulsiveness, and weekly hours of employment.

Apparatus

The use of a laboratory was necessary to create a controlled environment without distracting

stimuli while conducting the CPT attention test. A laptop was required for participants to complete

the CPT, the same laptop was used for all participants. The software program PEBL containing the

CPT was used to run experiment. A questionnaire containing demographic questions, PSQI, ESS,

MCTQ, and BIS were provided for participants along with a pen.


15

Measures

Demographics

Initial questions were administered to participants to assess both gender and age of the

sample. In addition participants were asked how many weekly days of paid employment and how

many weekly hours of paid employment they were currently taking on. The purpose of these

questions was to gain information on employment in the sample.

Continuous Performance Task

The Continuous Performance Task (CPT) developed by Rosvold, Mirsky, Sarason,

Bransome and Beck (1956) is a test of participant’s ability to sustain attention. Participants are

presented with one letter on screen at a time and have to elicit or withhold a button press response

depending on the letter. Participants were instructed to elicit a button press response for every letter

except X. The duration of the test was approximately 14 minutes and contained a total of 36 X’s. A

withheld button press response in the presence of the letter X is counted a correct foil. The amount

of correct foils is used to quantify attention levels in participants. Commission errors (CE) defined

the amount of times the letter X was shown and the button press was withheld. The current

research used commission errors (CE) for valuation of attention. In the current research the CPT

was administered using the PEBL software program.

Preliminary analysis of the internal validity yielded a Cronbach’s alpha α = .85, which shows

the test is reliable. The CPT is a widely used method of measuring attention so re-test reliability

information exists in bulk. Several papers support re-test reliability of CPT as a measure of

attention (Soreni, Crosbie, Ickowicz & Schachar, 2009; Raz, Bar-Haim, Sadeh & Dan, 2012).

Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index

The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index (PSQI) devised by Buysse, Reynolds, Monk, Berman &

Kupfer, (1989) is a questionnaire that assesses sleep quality of individuals. The PSQI contains 19

self-report questions that which produce seven components; sleep latency, sleep disturbances,


16

habitual sleep deficiency, daytime dysfunction, sleep duration, and subjective sleep quality all of

which amount to global sleep quality. Each component is scored from 0-3 which provides a global

score out of 21. High scores indicate poor sleep quality while low scores indicate good sleep

quality.

Preliminary analysis of the internal validity yielded a Cronbach’s alpha α = .61. The PSQI is

a widely used measure of sleep quality in many different populations. One study of patients with

insomnia assessed the group twice and test-retest reliability was .87 which is a strong reliability

(Backhaus, Junghanns, Broocks, Riemann & Hohagen, 2002).

Epworth sleepiness scale

The Epworth sleepiness scale (ESS) is a questionnaire that measures daytime sleepiness

produced by Dr Murray Johns (1991). The questionnaire requires respondents to indicate from 0-3

the chance of dozing off in 8 different situations. 0 indicates that the respondent would never dose

while 3 indicates high chance of dozing. The eight situations added together create a total score in

a range of 0-24. A score of range 0-9 is reported to be normal, a score of range 10-24 it is

suggested that participant acquires expert advice.

Preliminary analysis on the internal validity of the current study found a Cronbach’s alpha α

= .63 which is slightly lower than desired α = .7. Although, other research reported a Cronbach’s

alpha α = .88 displaying strong validity (Johns, 1992). A systematic review of research using ESS

reports moderate test-retest reliability (Kendzerska, Smith, Brignardello-Petersen, Leung &

Tomlinson, 2014).

Munich ChronoType Questionnaire

The Munich Chronotype Questionnaire (MCTQ) measures chronotype and additional related

aspects of sleep. The MCTQ was developed by Roenneberg, Wirz-Justice and Merrow, (2003) and


17

asks participants seven questions about workday sleep-wake habits and seven questions about free

day sleep-wake habits. The midpoint of sleep on free days is used as an indicator of chronotype.

Social jetlag is also assessed through the MCTQ by calculating the difference in the midpoint of

sleep on workdays and the midpoint of sleep on free days. Social jetlag indentifies the difference in

a participant’s circadian clock and social clock. Data on sleep duration is also collected in the

MCTQ which was required for the present research.

The MCTQ is one of the most commonly used measures of chronotype in the literature

(Fabbian et al., 2016; Jankowski, 2015). Although investigations of across different pieces of

research for re-test reliability is limited.

Barratt Impulsivity Scale

The Barrett Impulsivity Scale (BIS) was original developed in 1959 but since has been

revised by Patton, Stanford, and Barratt (1995). The BIS is compiled of 30 statements that are

assessed using a likert scale answer system. The responses range from 1-4, 1 indicating a response

of rarely/never and 4 indicating almost always/always. The BIS can be broken down into six

different aspects if required. For the purpose of the current study only the total scale measure of

impulsivity was required.

Preliminary analysis of the internal validity reported a Cronbach’s alpha α = .59. In contrast

while conducting an update and review paper on the BIS Stanford and colleagues (2009) report a

Cronbach’s alpha of α = .83. In addition a Spearman’s Rho test was conducted to assess test-retest

reliability which was reported at .83.

Procedure

The current research firstly obtained ethical approval from the National College of Ireland

board of ethics. In order to recruit participants, students were accessed before lectures, briefly

informed of the aim of the research and invited to take part.

Participants who volunteered for the study were instructed all aspects of the research would

take 20-25 minutes to complete. Coupled with the necessity of a laboratory for the CPT which had


18

to be booked on campus at the National College of Ireland meant participants were scheduled into

timeslots. Each participant received a timeslot that was possible for them to attend.

Upon arrival of participants to the laboratory they were given an information sheet with the

aim of the study and consent form. Once complete, participants were seated at the laptop

displaying the CPT on the PEBL program which provides instructions for the task on screen. The

participants were also verbally told that they must press the space bar for every letter on screen

except the letter X. Participants were instructed to not begin the test until the researcher had left

and fully closed the door of the laboratory. This measure was deemed necessary to eliminate any

distraction that may be caused by the research leaving the laboratory.

After completion of the CPT the researcher re-entered the laboratory and presented the

participant with the questionnaire containing demographic questions, PSQI, ESS, MCTQ, and BIS.

Participants were instructed to complete all aspects of the questionnaire as accurately as possible.

After collection of both the CPT data and Questionnaire data participants were provided with a

debriefing sheet.

The PEBL program automatically recorded data for each participant into save file. The

completed questionnaires for each participant were all transcribed into SPSS and saved. Original

paper copies of questionnaires were also stored until data analysis was complete to allow data to be

rechecked if necessary.


19

Data analysis

The present study used quantitative measures for assessing all hypotheses. H1 aimed to

assess a categorical variable gender and a continuous variable CPT errors representing attention.

The identified test to deal with these variables in the hypothesis was a t-test. H2-H5, additionally

H6 and H7 all assessed the association of attention and one other continuous variable. The

appropriate test identified to evaluate the associations present in theses hypotheses was a

correlation test. The final hypothesis H6 aimed to assess high sleep duration group and low sleep

duration group on their levels of attention. T-test were chosen as the correct test to assess the

previously mentioned between groups investigation.


20

Results

Descriptive statistics

The analysis of gender found that the sample showed a slightly higher percentage of males.

The figures for both gender and sleep duration groups were identical although no there is no

intended association. The detailed analysis are displayed and can be observed in the below Table 1.

Table 1 (for displaying information regarding categorical variables)

Frequencies for the current sample of college students on each demographic variable (N = 37)

Variable Frequency Valid Percentage

Gender

Male

Female

21

16

56.8

43.2

Sleep Duration

High duration 21 56.8

Low duration 16 43.2

The descriptive statistics were conducted to investigate all continuous variables. The reported

frequencies were mean, standard error mean, median, standard deviation and range. The range of

errors on the CPT displayed a large range among the population. Another notable range was age

showing the population could be considered as you adults. A large standard deviation can also be

observed in impulsivity Frequencies for all variables can be seen in below Table 2.


21

Table 2 (Presenting descriptive statistics for continuous variables)

Descriptive statistics of all continuous variables

Mean (95%

Confidence Intervals)

Std. Error

Mean

Median SD Range

Age 21.27 (20.80-21.74) .23 21 1.41 18-25

CPT errors 16.76 (14.83-18.68) .95 17 5.76 7-30

Sleep quality 8.19 (7.16-9.22) .51 8 3.09 2-16

Daytime sleepiness 8.46 (7.37-9.55) .54 8 2.86 2-18

Chronotype 5.45 (5.02-5.87) .21 5.32 1.28 2.49-9

Social jetlag 1.18 (.57-1.80) .30 1.25 1.84 -3.75-4.62

Sleep duration FD 8.60 (8.18-9.02) .21 8.5 1.26 5.67-11.50

Impulsiveness 68.14 (65.81-70.47) 1.15 67 6.99 55-92

Employment hours 7.59 (6.72-8.47) .43 8 2.62 0-12

Tests of normality were conducted on all continuous variables to identify appropriate

inferential statistic measures for each hypothesis. Normally distributed data was found in six of the

nine continuous variables. The normally distributed variables were PSQI scores, Daytime

sleepiness, chronotype, social jetlag, sleep duration, and CPT errors. The remaining four variables

age, impulsivity, and hours of employment all showed none normal data. H1 and H6 required the

use of t-tests, due to the normal distribution of CPT Commission errors independent samples t-tests

were required. The variables used in H2-H5 displayed normally distributed data so Pearson’s

correlation was used. H7 and H8 involved correlating impulsivity and employment hours both of

which non-normally distributed with CPT errors. The non-normal distribution meant that

Spearman’s Rho correlations were required.


22

Inferential statistics

Table 3(for displaying correlations between variables)

Correlations between attention and all continuous variables.

Variables CPT errors (attention)

1.CPT errors (attention) 1

2. Sleep quality -.16

3. Daytime sleepiness .17

4. Chronotype .01

5. Social Jetlag -.13

6. Impulsivity .07

7. Employment hours -.09

Note. Statistical significance: *p< .05; **p< .01; ***p< .001

The relationship between attention and sleep quality was investigated using Pearson product-

moment correlation coefficient. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure no violation of the

assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity. There was a weak, negative correlation

between the two variables (r = -.16 [95% CI = -.44 - .11], n = 37, p > .05). This indicates that the

two variables share approximately 2.5% of variance in common. Results indicate that higher levels

of attention are not associated with lower levels of sleep quality.

The relationship between attention and daytime sleepiness was investigated using Pearson

product-moment correlation coefficient. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure no

violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity. There was a weak,

positive correlation between the two variables (r = .17 [95% CI = -.16-.43], n = 37, p > .05). This

indicates that the two variables share approximately 2.9% of variance in common. Results indicate

that higher levels of attention are not associated with higher levels of daytime sleepiness.

The relationship between attention and sleep chronotype was investigated using Pearson

product-moment correlation coefficient. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure no


23

violation of the assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity. There was a weak,

positive correlation between the two variables (r = .01 [95% CI = -.31-.26], n = 37, p > .05). This

indicates that the two variables share approximately 0% of variance in common. Results indicate

that higher levels of attention are not associated with higher levels chronotype (eveningness).

The relationship between attention and social jetlag was investigated using Pearson product-

moment correlation coefficient. Preliminary analyses were performed to ensure no violation of the

assumptions of normality, linearity and homoscedasticity. There was a weak, negative correlation

between the two variables (r = -.13 [95% CI = -.43-.15], n = 37, p > .05). This indicates that the

two variables share approximately 1.7% of variance in common. Results indicate that higher levels

of attention are not associated with higher levels of social jetlag.

The relationship between attention and impulsivity was investigated using Spearman Rho

correlation coefficient. Preliminary analyses found a violation of the assumption of normality

requiring non-parametric measures. There was a weak, postive correlation between the two

variables (r = .07 [95% CI = -.31-.43], n = 37, p > .05). This indicates that the two variables share

approximately 0.4% of variance in common. Results indicate that higher levels of attention are not

associated with higher levels of impulsivity.

The relationship between attention and weekly hours of employment was investigated using

Spearman Rho correlation coefficient. Preliminary analyses found a violation of the assumption of

normality requiring non-parametric measures. There was a weak, negative correlation between the

two variables (r = -.13 [95% CI = -.43-.15], n = 37, p > .05). This indicates that the two variables

share approximately 1.7% of variance in common. Results indicate that higher levels of attention

are not associated with lower weekly hours of employment.

An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare levels of attention between males

and females. There was no significant difference in scores (t(35) = 1.72, p = .09) with males (M =

18.14, SD = 5.98) scoring higher than females (M = 14.94, SD = 5.08). The magnitude of the

differences in the means (mean difference = 3.21, 95% CI: -.57 – 6.98) was medium (Cohen’s d =

.58).


24

An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare levels of attention between high

sleep durations and low sleep durations. There was no significant difference in scores (t(35) = .69,

p = .49) with high sleep durations (M = 17.33, SD = 5.78) scoring higher than low sleep durations

(M = 16.00, SD = 5.83). The magnitude of the differences in the means (mean difference = 1.33,

95% CI: -2.57 – 5.24) was medium (Cohen’s d = .23).

In addition to the tests run to prove all stated hypotheses in the research aims, two ANOVA

tests were conducted to explore the variables more deeply. A two-way between groups analysis of

variance was conducted to explore for: (1) differences in sleep qualiy, and impulsivity, on levels of

hit accuracy in the CPT, and (2) to examine if the effect of sleep quality on levels of hit accuracy

depends upon the impulsivity type.

Initial findings indicated a violation of the assumption of homogeneity of variance (p = .1)

therefore a new alpha level of .01 was selected to determine statistically significant effects.

The interaction effect between sleep and impulsivity was not statistically significant, F (2,

33) = .12, p = .73. The main effect for sleep quality was not significant and of a small magnitude

(F (2, 33) = .12, p = .73, eta-squared = .01). The main effect for impulsivity was not significant

based on the newly selected alpha level and the effect was of a small (F (2, 33) = .64, p = .43, eta-

squared = .02).

A two-way between groups analysis of variance was conducted to explore for: (1) differences

in sleep quality and impulsivity, on reaction time in the CPT, and (2) to examine if the effect of

sleep quality on reaction time depends upon the impulsivity type.

Initial findings indicated a violation of the assumption of homogeneity of variance (p = .1)

therefore a new alpha level of .01 was selected to determine statistically significant effects.

The interaction effect between sleep and impulsivity was not statistically significant, F (2,

33) = .32, p = .58. The main effect for sleep quality was not significant and of a small magnitude

(F (2, 33) = .26, p = .61, eta-squared = .01). The main effect for impulsivity was not significant

based on the newly selected alpha level and the effect was of a small (F (2, 33) = .17, p = .68, eta-

squared = .01).


25

Discussion

As we predicted, the results from the current study indicated that no significant difference

existed in attention between males and females. A study testing the gender differences in boys and

girls on the CPT also failed to find the presence of any significant discrepancies in attention

(Hasson & Fine, 2012). Contradictory findings suggest that women make less CPT errors thus

indicating higher attention levels, although their response times were significantly lower (Burton et

al., 2010). Concluding information on the gender differences on attention not specific to ADHD

research is not hugely focused on by the literature. It may be the case that in-depth research on this

topic is not necessary.

The research question of whether both sleep quality and daytime sleepiness were associated

with attention did not return the expect results. In the case of sleep quality there was no association

found with attention levels contradictory to literature (Niu et al., 2011; Gobin, Banks, Fins &

Tartar, 2015. Furthermore, Sadeh, Gruber, and Raviv (2002) found that poor sleep quality had a

relationship with omission errors and commissions errors on the CPT. Omission errors which were

participants eliciting a button press when required and commission errors which were withholding

button press when required. Similarly, there was no association found between daytime sleepiness

and attention. Other research finds that this is not the case and an association is present. Golan,

Shahar, Ravid and Pillar (2004) showed that children with attention deficits reported more daytime

sleepiness. It is suspected that the small sample size of 37 restricted the present research in

producing significant associations. Taking this into consideration, Golan and colleagues (2004)

found a significant association with a sample of 34 participants.

The investigation of the third research question aimed to assess chronotype, social jetlag, and

sleep duration all of which are components of the MCTQ. The correlation assessments of both

chronotype and social jetlag showed no significant association with attention. Again, it should be

considered that sample size may have reduced the ability to find any significant association.

Investigations of chronotype and attention produce inconsistent results in the literature (Killgore &

Killgore, 2007). Matchock and Mordkoff, (2008) conducted a study of attention by examining


26

three separate components alerting, orienting and executive functioning. Comparing these three

separate elements of attention with chronotype showed no difference in morning type and evening

type with the exception of alerting which morning types favoured slightly. The present study

presents similar findings as no association between chronotype and attention is in essence the same

as no difference between morning and evening types on attention. In regards to social jet lag some

research has found that significant small magnitude associations have been found with ADHD

symptoms. Although ADHD and attention levels are not exactly interchangeable so comparisons

should be drawn with caution.

The final prediction tied to the chronotype research question found high duration sleepers

and low duration sleepers did not have a statistical difference on levels of attention. Sleep duration

tends to be regarded as secondary in the literature to sleep quality and daytime sleepiness. Dewald,

Meijer, Oort, Kerkhof and Bögels (2010) found stronger relationships of both sleep quality and

daytime sleepiness with academic performance than sleep duration. It could be of interest to assess

these relationships directly to attention to provide a better comparison. Examination of which has

the strongest relationship with attention would help clarify if sleep quality, daytime sleepiness or

sleep duration should gain focus in order to improve attention.

The link between impulsivity and attention is a prevalent one throughout the research

(Carmona et al., 2009; Day et al., 2007). The research question formulated in the current study did

not find a significant association between the impulsivity and attention. Considering that one of the

main characteristics of ADHD is impulsiveness (Miller, Derefinko, Lynam, Milich & Fillmore,

2009; Toplak et al., 2009). It provided valid rationality to predict that an association would exist be

impulsivity and attention. The inability to find a significant association with impulsivity and

attention is especially surprising due to how related the concepts are in the literature.

Finally we predicted that increased hours of weekly employment would be associated with

lower levels of attention. The correlation returned a non-significant association contradicting the

current hypothesis. A number of factors could have caused the unexpected non-significant result.

For instance, the relatively small sample size of the research could potentially be making it hard to


27

find a significant association. Research suggests that grades improve with low work hours and fall

with long work hours. Considering that academic performance is linked with attention in the

literature, it could be predicted that attention improves with low work hours and falls with high

work hours (Schill, McCartin & Meyer, 1985; Quirk, Keith & Quirk, 2001). Although literature is

somewhat inconsistent as other research suggests a negative relationship on holding a part-time job

and academic performance (Singh, 1998; Oettinger, 1999). There may also potentially be a

relationship between sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, sleep duration and weekly work hours.

Investigations may find that longer work hours may lead to less time available for sleep and

subsequently reduce sleep duration, sleep quality and increase daytime sleepiness all of which have

been associated with decreased attention.

Two further ANOVA tests were run to explore differences in sleep quality and impulsiveness

on hit accuracy and reaction time of CPT results. The results found that no effect between sleep

and impulsivity on hit accuracy or reaction time was present.

In sum, only one of the eight initially stated hypotheses we predicted was true. The other

seven all returned non-significant results from testing which is all case were conflicting of what we

predicted based on the review of the literature prior to investigation.

The main limitation of the current study was the relatively small sample size of 37. Data

collection required the use of a laboratory in the National College of Ireland. Due to a large

number of researchers conducting separate experiments the use of the laboratory had to be booked

and was not always freely available. Coupled with the 25 minute duration of the test restricted the

ability to reach a desired sample size of 50 or higher. It has been acknowledged that sample size

may have influenced the fact that seven out eight hypotheses failed to show any significant results.

Future research would be beneficial to replicate this study but with a larger sample size and

reassess these hypotheses.

Attention is an extensively researched topic although a vast majority of the research can be

seen as using ADHD samples. It is understandable that the focus of research should be gauged


28

towards providing data on the populations that have difficulties with normal functioning so

therapies and interventions can be developed. Although, sometimes larger social difficulties can

occur when a large group of individuals have moderate psychological problems as oppose to a few

individuals with extreme psychological problems. In the case of this research we identified that

ADHD samples flood the literature which represent extreme end of attention so there is a need for

assessment of moderate attention levels. The present research employed a non-clinical sample as a

representation of moderate attention difficulties in the population. Unfortunately, participants with

ADHD were not screened for and it cannot be presumed that the sample was strictly non-clinical.

Future research or replications of this study would benefit greatly from screening against this

limitation.

The difficulty of drawing comparisons with the present research and the literature was hard

to distinguish due to most studies using ADHD samples. A suggested area for future research

would be to clearly identify if ADHD directly represents attention levels or do differences exist as

ADHD is a mental disorder and contains more dimensions that just attention. For example, it is

heavily attributed to impulsiveness which is also considered highly associated with attention but

not the same.

In conclusion the research assessed eight hypotheses built around three research questions.

The main findings reported that no there was no difference between males and females on

attention. Sleep quality and daytime sleepiness did not present any association with attention. A

suspected association between chrontotype and attention was not presented. Similarly, an

association of social jetlag and attention could not be found contradictory to the literature. High

social jetlag has been associated with chronic sleep loss which is related to sleep quality and

daytime sleepiness (Roenneberg et al., 2007; Wittmann, Dinich, Merrow & Roenneberg, 2006).

The present study supports previously mentioned statement by showing sleep quality, daytime

sleepiness, social jetlag were all not associated with attention. If results reported an association


29

with sleep quality and daytime sleepiness on attention but not social jetlag and attention, the results

would be contradictory. The assessment of sleep duration which split the sample into high and low

sleep durations did not find any difference in attention between the groups. The investigation of

Impulsiveness did not find any association with attention. Furthermore, when split into high

impulsivity and low impulsivity groups no difference was found on attention levels between the

groups. The final variable assessed was hours of weekly employment and if an association existed

it attention levels. The results concluded that hours of weekly employment were not associated

with attention.

The results produced were all contradictory to what was predicted in the research aims with

the exception of gender differences. A replication of the current study with much larger sample

may provide more significant results that support the predictions as oppose to contradict them. It is

widely supported that poor sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, and other sleep problems affect the

attention levels in college students. Information on college students highly prevalent levels of poor

sleep quality due to varying sleep schedules and how this decreases attention can provide valuable

data. The construction of interventions or plans that students can use to help improve their attention

would benefit greatly from such research. Improved attention levels in college students could

potentially then lead to better academic performance and overall educational success.


30

References

Backhaus, J., Junghanns, K., Broocks, A., Riemann, D., & Hohagen, F. (2002). Test–retest reliability and

validity of the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index in primary insomnia. Journal Of Psychosomatic

Research, 53(3), 737-740. doi: 10.1016/s0022-3999(02)00330-6

Barkley, R., Fischer, M., Smallish, L., & Fletcher, K. (2006). Young Adult Outcome of Hyperactive

Children: Adaptive Functioning in Major Life Activities. Journal Of The American Academy Of

Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 45(2), 192-202. doi: 10.1097/01.chi.0000189134.97436.e2

Barry, T., Lyman, R. and Klinger, L. (2002). Academic Underachievement and Attention-

Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal of School Psychology, 40(3), pp.259-283. doi:

10.1016/S0022-4405(02)00100-0

Biederman, J., Faraone, S., Spencer, T., Mick, E., Monuteaux, M., & Aleardi, M. (2006). Functional

Impairments in Adults With Self-Reports of Diagnosed ADHD. The Journal Of Clinical

Psychiatry, 67(04), 524-540. doi: 10.4088/jcp.v67n0403

Biederman, J., Monuteaux, M., Doyle, A., Seidman, L., Wilens, T., Ferrero, F., Morgan, C. and Faraone,

S. (2004). Impact of Executive Function Deficits and Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder

(ADHD) on Academic Outcomes in Children. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology,

72(5), pp.757-766.

Buboltz, W., Brown, F., & Soper, B. (2001). Sleep Habits and Patterns of College Students: A

Preliminary Study. Journal Of American College Health, 50(3), 131-135. doi:

10.1080/07448480109596017

Burton, L., Pfaff, D., Bolt, N., Hadjikyriacou, D., Silton, N., & Kilgallen, C. et al. (2010). Effects of

gender and personality on the Conners Continuous Performance Test. Journal Of Clinical And

Experimental Neuropsychology, 32(1), 66-70. doi: 10.1080/13803390902806568

Buysse, D., Reynolds, C., Monk, T., Berman, S., & Kupfer, D. (1989). The Pittsburgh sleep quality

index: A new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Research, 28(2), 193-

213. doi: 10.1016/0165-1781(89)90047-4

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4405(02)00100-0

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-4405(02)00100-0


31

Caci, H., Robert, P., & Boyer, P. (2004). Novelty seekers and impulsive subjects are low in

morningness. European Psychiatry, 19(2), 79-84. doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2003.09.007

Carmona, S., Proal, E., Hoekzema, E., Gispert, J., Picado, M., & Moreno, I. et al. (2009). Ventro-Striatal

Reductions Underpin Symptoms of Hyperactivity and Impulsivity in Attention-

Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Biological Psychiatry, 66(10), 972-977. doi:

10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.05.013

Carrasco, M., & Barbot, A. (2019). Spatial attention alters visual appearance. Current Opinion In

Psychology, 29, 56-64. doi: 10.1016/j.copsyc.2018.10.010

Cohen, M., & Maunsell, J. (2009). Attention improves performance primarily by reducing interneuronal

correlations. Nature Neuroscience, 12(12), 1594-1600. doi: 10.1038/nn.2439

Coren, S. (1994). The prevalence of self-reported sleep disturbances in young adults. International

Journal Of Neuroscience, 79(1-2), 67-73. doi: 10.3109/00207459408986068

Currie, J., & Stabile, M. (2006). Child mental health and human capital accumulation: The case of

ADHD. Journal Of Health Economics, 25(6), 1094-1118. doi: 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2006.03.001

Dahl, R. (1996). The regulation of sleep and arousal: Development and psychopathology. Development

And Psychopathology, 8(01), 3. doi: 10.1017/s0954579400006945

Day, M., Pan, J., Buckley, M., Cronin, E., Hollingsworth, P., & Hirst, W. et al. (2007). Differential

effects of ciproxifan and nicotine on impulsivity and attention measures in the 5-choice serial

reaction time test. Biochemical Pharmacology, 73(8), 1123-1134. doi: 10.1016/j.bcp.2006.12.004

DeSimone, J. (2008). The Impact of Employment during School on College Student Academic

Performance. doi: 10.3386/w14006

Dustmann, C., & van Soest, A. (2006). Part-time work, school success and school leaving. Empirical

Economics, 32(2-3), 277-299. doi: 10.1007/s00181-006-0086-1

Dewald, J., Meijer, A., Oort, F., Kerkhof, G., & Bögels, S. (2010). The influence of sleep quality, sleep

duration and sleepiness on school performance in children and adolescents: A meta-analytic

review. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 14(3), 179-189. doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2009.10.004


32

Evenden, J. (1999). Varieties of impulsivity. Psychopharmacology, 146(4), 348-361. doi:

10.1007/pl00005481

Fabbian, F., Zucchi, B., De Giorgi, A., Tiseo, R., Boari, B., & Salmi, R. et al. (2016). Chronotype,

gender and general health. Chronobiology International, 33(7), 863-882. doi:

10.1080/07420528.2016.1176927

Fallone, G., Owens, J., & Deane, J. (2002). Sleepiness in children and adolescents: clinical

implications. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 6(4), 287-306. doi: 10.1053/smrv.2001.0192

Frazier, T., Youngstrom, E., Glutting, J., & Watkins, M. (2007). ADHD and Achievement. Journal Of

Learning Disabilities, 40(1), 49-65. doi: 10.1177/00222194070400010401

Fink, A. D., &McCown, W. G. (1993). Impulsivity in children and adolescents: Measurement, causes

and treatment. The impulsive client, theory, research and treatment, 279-308.

Gobin, C., Banks, J., Fins, A., & Tartar, J. (2015). Poor sleep quality is associated with a negative

cognitive bias and decreased sustained attention. Journal Of Sleep Research, 24(5), 535-542. doi:

10.1111/jsr.12302

Gaub, M., & Carlson, C. (1997). Gender Differences in ADHD: A Meta-Analysis and Critical

Review. Journal Of The American Academy Of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(8), 1036-1045.

doi: 10.1097/00004583-199708000-00011

Golan, N., Shahar, E., Ravid, S., & Pillar, G. (2004). Sleep Disorders and Daytime Sleepiness in

Children with Attention-Deficit/ Hyperactive Disorder. Sleep, 27(2), 261-266. doi:

10.1093/sleep/27.2.261

Hasson, R., & Fine, J. (2012). Gender Differences Among Children With ADHD on Continuous

Performance Tests. Journal Of Attention Disorders, 16(3), 190-198. doi:

10.1177/1087054711427398

Hawkins, J., & Shaw, P. (1992). Self-Reported Sleep Quality in College Students: A Repeated Measures

Approach. Sleep, 15(6), 545-549. doi: 10.1093/sleep/15.6.545


33

Heiligenstein, E., Guenther, G., Levy, A., Savino, F., & Fulwiler, J. (1999). Psychological and Academic

Functioning in College Students With Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal Of

American College Health, 47(4), 181-185. doi: 10.1080/07448489909595644

Jankowski, K. (2015). Composite Scale of Morningness: Psychometric properties, validity with Munich

ChronoType Questionnaire and age/sex differences in Poland. European Psychiatry, 30(1), 166-

171. doi: 10.1016/j.eurpsy.2014.01.004

Johns, M. (1991). A New Method for Measuring Daytime Sleepiness: The Epworth Sleepiness

Scale. Sleep, 14(6), 540-545. doi: 10.1093/sleep/14.6.540

Johns, M. (1992). Reliability and Factor Analysis of the Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Sleep, 15(4), 376-

381. doi: 10.1093/sleep/15.4.376

Johnson, L. C. (1982). Sleep deprivation and performance. Biological rhythms, sleep, and performance,

111-141.

Jones, K., & Harrison, Y. (2001). Frontal lobe function, sleep loss and fragmented sleep. Sleep Medicine

Reviews, 5(6), 463-475. doi: 10.1053/smrv.2001.0203

Kalenkoski, C., & Pabilonia, S. (2012). Time to work or time to play: The effect of student employment

on homework, sleep, and screen time. Labour Economics, 19(2), 211-221. doi:

10.1016/j.labeco.2011.10.002

Kendzerska, T., Smith, P., Brignardello-Petersen, R., Leung, R., & Tomlinson, G. (2014). Evaluation of

the measurement properties of the Epworth sleepiness scale: A systematic review. Sleep Medicine

Reviews, 18(4), 321-331. doi: 10.1016/j.smrv.2013.08.002

Killgore, W., & Killgore, D. (2007). Morningness-Eveningness Correlates with Verbal Ability in

Women but Not Men. Perceptual And Motor Skills, 104(1), 335-338. doi: 10.2466/pms.104.1.335-

338

Kirby, E., & Kirby, S. (2006). Improving Task Performance: The Relationship Between Morningness

and Proactive Thinking. Journal Of Applied Social Psychology, 36(11), 2715-2729. doi:

10.1111/j.0021-9029.2006.00124.x


34

Lund, H., Reider, B., Whiting, A., & Prichard, J. (2010). Sleep Patterns and Predictors of Disturbed

Sleep in a Large Population of College Students. Journal Of Adolescent Health, 46(2), 124-132.

doi: 10.1016/j.jadohealth.2009.06.016

Matchock, R., & Toby Mordkoff, J. (2008). Chronotype and time-of-day influences on the alerting,

orienting, and executive components of attention. Experimental Brain Research, 192(2), 301-301.

doi: 10.1007/s00221-008-1619-y

Mikulincer, M., Babkoff, H., Caspy, T., & Sing, H. (1989). The effects of 72 hours of sleep loss on

psychological variables. British Journal Of Psychology, 80(2), 145-162. doi: 10.1111/j.2044-

8295.1989.tb02309.x

Miller, D., Derefinko, K., Lynam, D., Milich, R., & Fillmore, M. (2009). Impulsivity and Attention

Deficit-Hyperactivity Disorder: Subtype Classification Using the UPPS Impulsive Behavior

Scale. Journal Of Psychopathology And Behavioral Assessment, 32(3), 323-332. doi:

10.1007/s10862-009-9155-z

Moore, M., & Meltzer, L. (2008). The sleepy adolescent: causes and consequences of sleepiness in

teens. Paediatric Respiratory Reviews, 9(2), 114-121. doi: 10.1016/j.prrv.2008.01.001

Niu, S., Chung, M., Chen, C., Hegney, D., O'Brien, A., & Chou, K. (2011). The Effect of Shift Rotation

on Employee Cortisol Profile, Sleep Quality, Fatigue, and Attention Level. Journal Of Nursing

Research, 19(1), 68-81. doi: 10.1097/jnr.0b013e31820c1879

Oettinger, G. (1999). Does High School Employment Affect High School Academic

Performance?.Industrial And Labor Relations Review, 53(1), 136. doi: 10.2307/2696166

Patton, J., Stanford, M., & Barratt, E. (1995). Factor structure of the barratt impulsiveness scale. Journal

Of Clinical Psychology, 51(6), 768-774. doi: 10.1002/1097-4679(199511)51:6<768::aid-

jclp2270510607>3.0.co;2-1

Pilcher, J., & Walters, A. (1997). How Sleep Deprivation Affects Psychological Variables Related to

College Students' Cognitive Performance. Journal Of American College Health, 46(3), 121-126.

doi: 10.1080/07448489709595597


35

Preckel, F., Lipnevich, A., Schneider, S., & Roberts, R. (2011). Chronotype, cognitive abilities, and

academic achievement: A meta-analytic investigation. Learning And Individual Differences, 21(5),

483-492. doi: 10.1016/j.lindif.2011.07.003

Quirk, K., Keith, T., & Quirk, J. (2001). Employment During High School and Student Achievement:

Longitudinal Analysis of National Data. The Journal Of Educational Research, 95(1), 4-10. doi:

10.1080/00220670109598778

Ramsay, J., & Rostain, A. (2006). Cognitive Behavior Therapy for College Students with Attention-

Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Journal Of College Student Psychotherapy, 21(1), 3-20. doi:

10.1300/j035v21n01_02

Raz, S., Bar-Haim, Y., Sadeh, A., & Dan, O. (2012). Reliability and Validity of the Online Continuous

Performance Test Among Young Adults. Assessment, 21(1), 108-118. doi:

10.1177/1073191112443409

Roenneberg, T., Allebrandt, K., Merrow, M., & Vetter, C. (2012). Social Jetlag and Obesity. Current

Biology, 22(10), 939-943. doi: 10.1016/j.cub.2012.03.038

Roenneberg, T., Kuehnle, T., Juda, M., Kantermann, T., Allebrandt, K., Gordijn, M., & Merrow, M.

(2007). Epidemiology of the human circadian clock. Sleep Medicine Reviews, 11(6), 429-438. doi:

10.1016/j.smrv.2007.07.005

Rosvold, H., Mirsky, A., Sarason, I., Bransome, E., & Beck, L. (1956). A continuous performance test of

brain damage. Journal Of Consulting Psychology, 20(5), 343-350. doi: 10.1037/h0043220

Rucklidge, J. (2010). Gender Differences in Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychiatric

Clinics Of North America, 33(2), 357-373. doi: 10.1016/j.psc.2010.01.006

Russo, P., Leone, L., Penolazzi, B., & Natale, V. (2012). Circadian Preference and the Big Five: The

Role of Impulsivity and Sensation Seeking. Chronobiology International, 29(8), 1121-1126. doi:

10.3109/07420528.2012.706768

Sadeh, A., Gruber, R., & Raviv, A. (2002). Sleep, Neurobehavioral Functioning, and Behavior Problems

in School-Age Children. Child Development, 73(2), 405-417. doi: 10.1111/1467-8624.00414


36

Schill, W., McCartin, R., & Meyer, K. (1985). Youth employment: Its relationship to academic and

family variables. Journal Of Vocational Behavior, 26(2), 155-163. doi: 10.1016/0001-

8791(85)90015-6

Schoenhals, M., Tienda, M., & Schneider, B. (1998). The Educational and Personal Consequences of

Adolescent Employment. Social Forces, 77(2), 723. doi: 10.2307/3005545

Shin, C., Kim, J., Lee, S., Ahn, Y., & Joo, S. (2003). Sleep habits, excessive daytime sleepiness and

school performance in high school students. Psychiatry And Clinical Neurosciences, 57(4), 451-

453. doi: 10.1046/j.1440-1819.2003.01146.x

Singh, K. (1998). Part-Time Employment in High School and Its Effect on AcademicAchievement. The

Journal Of Educational Research, 91(3), 131-139. doi: 10.1080/00220679809597533

Soreni, N., Crosbie, J., Ickowicz, A., & Schachar, R. (2009). Stop Signal and Conners’ Continuous

Performance Tasks. Journal Of Attention Disorders, 13(2), 137-143. doi:

10.1177/1087054708326110

Spikman, J., & van Zomeren, E. (2010). Assessment of attention. The handbook of clinical

neuropsychology, 81-96.

Swartz, S., Prevatt, F., & Proctor, B. (2005). A coaching intervention for college students with Attention

Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder. Psychology In The Schools, 42(6), 647-656. doi:

10.1002/pits.20101

Toplak, M., Pitch, A., Flora, D., Iwenofu, L., Ghelani, K., Jain, U., & Tannock, R. (2009). The Unity and

Diversity of Inattention and Hyperactivity/Impulsivity in ADHD: Evidence for a General Factor

with Separable Dimensions. Journal Of Abnormal Child Psychology, 37(8), 1137-1150. doi:

10.1007/s10802-009-9336-y

Vigil-Coleṭ, A., & Morales-Vives, F. (2005). How Impulsivity is Related to Intelligence and Academic

Achievement. The Spanish Journal Of Psychology, 8(02), 199-204. doi:

10.1017/s1138741600005072


37

Warren, J., LePore, P., & Mare, R. (2001). Employment During High School: Consequences for

Students' Grades in Academic Courses. Journal Of Vocational Education Research, 26(3), 366-

411. doi: 10.5328/jver26.3.366

Wei, F., Wang, Y., & Klausner, M. (2012). Rethinking College Students' Self-Regulation and Sustained

Attention:Does Text Messaging During Class Influence Cognitive Learning?. Communication

Education, 61(3), 185-204. doi: 10.1080/03634523.2012.672755

Wittmann, M., Dinich, J., Merrow, M., & Roenneberg, T. (2006). Social Jetlag: Misalignment of

Biological and Social Time. Chronobiology International, 23(1-2), 497-509. doi:

10.1080/07420520500545979


38

Appendices

Appendix 1 (Form of Consent)

Form of consent to research

I, the undersigned, confirm that (please tick box as appropriate):

1. I have read and understood the information about the project, as provided in the

Information Sheet dated ________________.

2. I have been given the opportunity to ask questions about the project and my

participation.

3. I voluntarily agree to participate in the project.

4. I understand I can withdraw at any time without giving reasons and that I will not

be penalised for withdrawing nor will I be questioned on why I have withdrawn.

5. The procedures regarding confidentiality have been clearly explained (e.g. use of

names, pseudonyms, anonymisation of data, etc.) to me.

6. The use of the data in research, publications, sharing and archiving has been

explained to me.

7. I understand that other researchers will have access to this data only if they agree

to preserve the confidentiality of the data and if they agree to the terms I have

specified in this form.

8. I, along with the Researcher, agree to sign and date this informed consent form.

Participant:

________________________ ___________________________ ________________

Name of Participant Signature Date

Researcher:

________________________ ___________________________ ________________

Name of Researcher Signature Date

Appendix 2 (Information Sheet for study)


39

PARTICIPANT INFORMATION SHEET

PROJECT TITLE

An Investigation of Attention, Sleep, Impulsivity, and Employment in College students.

INVITATION

I would like to invite you to take part in a research study on the sleep patterns and work habits of

college students affects their academic performance, more specifically attention. I am a psychology

student in the National College of Ireland. As part of my undergraduate research, I am required to

research a particular topic of interest. The proposed research has gained ethically approval through

the ethics committee of psychological research within the National College of Ireland.

WHAT WILL HAPPEN

In this study, you are required to complete a Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index, Epworth Sleepiness

Scale, Munich Chronotype Questionnaire, Barratt Impulsivity Scale, and Continuous Performance

Test. These measure date on sleep quality, daytime sleepiness, chronotype, Impulsivity, and

attention. In addition, information on how many hours of part-time employment you hold will be

required. The data provide by all participants will be kept confidential throughout all stages of the

research. At any point that a participant feels uncomfortable or does not want to continue, they may

withdraw from the study and all data relevant to them.

TIME COMMITMENT

The study typically takes 25 minutes to complete.

PARTICIPANTS’ RIGHTS

You may decide to stop being a part of the research study at any time without explanation. You

have the right to ask that any data you have supplied to that point be withdrawn/destroyed.


40

You have the right to omit or refuse to answer or respond to any question that is asked of you.

You have the right to have your questions about the procedures answered. If you have any

questions as a result of reading this information sheet, you should ask the researcher before the

study begins.

RISKS

There is no substantial risk to taking part in this study. The only recommendation is that if you are

significantly distressed in test situations that you do not volunteer.

Your participation in this study is voluntary.

CONFIDENTIALITY/ANONYMITY

The data we collect do not contain any personal information about you. The only form that will

contain any personal information is the consent form that requires the participant’s signature.

Consent forms will not be identifiable to participant’s data upholding the confidentiality of the

study.


41

Appendix 3 (Debriefing Sheet)

DEBRIEFING SHEET

An Investigation of Sleep, Impulsivity, employment, and attention.

Thanks and appreciation for your participation in this current study.

The study is trying to assess sleep habits and work routines of college students and how

that affects their ability to maintain attention. The way in which your data will be

assessed is by taking your scores from the Pittsburgh sleep Quality Index, Epworth

sleepiness scale, Munich Chronotype Questionnaire and amount of hours spent working

a week and how this may affect your performance in the Continuous Performance Task.

All data will be stored anonymously and will be unidentifiable. Due to the

unidentifiable nature of the data you will be unable to withdraw your data down the

line.

Your participation is greatly appreciated.

In addition if you may have any additional queries following this research contact

information is provided below.

Gary Clare

National College of Ireland,

IFSC,

Mayor Square,

Dublin 1

Tel: 01 4498500

Supervisor: Michael Cleary-Gaffney


42

Appendix 4 (demographic questions)

An exploration of the factors affecting attention in college

students

The following is questions regarding demographics and employment.

Q1) Gender

Male Female

Q2) Age

_____

Q3) On average how many days of paid employment do you work weekly.

_____

Q4) On average how many hours of paid employment do you work daily.

_____


43

Appendix 5 (Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index)

The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index Name Date Instructions: The following questions relate to your usual sleep habits during the past month only. Your answers should indicate the most accurate reply for the majority of days and nights in the past month. Please answer all the questions. 1. During the past month, when have you usually gone to bed at night?

usual bed time

2. During the past month, how long (in minutes) has it usually taken you to fall asleep each night?

number of minutes

3. During the past month, when have you usually got up in the morning?

usual getting up time

4. During the past month, how many hours of actual sleep did you get at night? (This may be different than the number of hours you spend in bed).

hours of sleep per night For each of the remaining questions, check the one best response. Please answer all questions. 5. During the past month, how often have you had trouble sleeping because you…… (a) Cannot get to sleep within 30 minutes

Not during the Less than Once or three or more past month once a week twice a week times a week

(b) Wake up in the middle of the night or early morning

Not during the Less than Once or Three or more past month once a week twice a week times a week

(c) Have to get up to use the bathroom


(d) Cannot breathe comfortably


(e) Cough or snore loudly

Not during the Less than Once or three or more


44

past month once a week twice a week times a week (f) Feel too cold


(g) Feel too hot


(h) Had bad dreams


(i) Have pain Not during the Less than Once or three or more past month once a week twice a week times a week

(j) Other reason(s), please describe

How often during the past month have you had trouble sleeping because of this?


6. During the past month, how would you rate your sleep quality overall?

Very good Fairly good Fairly bad Very bad

7. During the past month, how often have you taken medicine (prescribed or “ over the counter”) to help you sleep?


8. During the past month, how often have you had trouble staying awake while driving, eating meals, or engaging in social activity?



45

9. During the past month, how much of a problem has it been for you to keep up enough enthusiasm to get things done? No problem at all Only a very slight problem Somewhat of a problem A very big problem 10. Do you have a bed partner or roommate?

No bed partner or roommate Partner/roommate in other room Partner in same room, but not same bed Partner in same bed

11. How often do you feel tired during the following times during the day? Morning:

0 1 2 3 most days often occasionally never

Afternoon:


Evening:



46

Appendix 6 (Epworth Sleepiness Scale)

The Epworth Sleepiness Scale Initials: Date: Date of Birth: Gender: Male/ Female (delete as appropriate) How likely are you to doze off or fall asleep in the following situations, in contrast to just feeling tired? This refers to your usual way of life in recent times. Even if you have not done some of these things recently, try to work out how they would have affected you. Use the following Scale to choose the most appropriate number for each situation: 0 - would never doze 1 - slight chance of dozing 2 - moderate chance of dozing 3 - high chance of dozing Situation Chance of Dozing Sitting and reading Watching TV Sitting, inactive in a public place (e.g. Cinema) As a passenger in a car for an hour with out a break Lying down to rest in the afternoon when given a chance

Sitting and talking to someone Sitting quietly after lunch with out alcohol In a car, while stopped for a few minutes in traffic

Office Use Only: Score ________


47

Appendix 7 (Munich Chronotype Questionnaire)

Munich ChronoType Questionnaire (MCTQ)

In this questionnaire, you report on your typical sleep behaviour over the past 4 weeks. We ask about work

days and work-free days separately. Please respond to the questions according to your perception of a

standard week that includes your usual work days and work-free days.

I have a regular work schedule (this includes being, for example, a housewife or househusband): Yes I work on 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 days per week. No

Is your answer “Yes, on 7 days” or “No ”, please consider if your sleep times may nonetheless differ

between regular ‘workdays’ and ‘weekend days’ and fill out the MCTQ in this respect.

Please use 24-hour time scale (e.g. 23:00 instead of 11:00 pm)!

Workdays

Image 1: I go to bed at _________ o’clock.

Image 2: Note that some people stay awake for some time when in bed!

Image 3: I actually get ready to fall asleep at _________ o’clock.

Image 4: I need _________ minutes to fall asleep.

Image 5: I wake up at _________ o’clock.

Image 6: After _________ minutes I get up.

I use an alarm clock on workdays:

Yes

No

If “Yes”: I regularly wake up BEFORE the alarm rings: Yes

No

Free Days

Image 1: I go to bed at _________ o’clock.

Image 2: Note that some people stay awake for some time when in bed!

Image 3: I actually get ready to fall asleep at _________ o’clock.

Image 4: I need _________ minutes to fall asleep.

Image 5: I wake up at _________ o’clock.

Image 6: After _________ minutes I get up.

My wake-up time (Image 5) is due to the use of an alarm clock: Yes

No

There are particular reasons why I cannot freely choose my sleep times on free days:

Yes

If “Yes”: Child(ren)/pet(s)

Hobbies

Others

, for example:___________________

No

Appendix 8 (Barratt Impulsivity Scale)

1

1

Barratt

Impulsivity

Scale

Never Rarely Almost

Always

Always

1. I plan

tasks

carefully □ □ □

□

2. I do

things

without

thinking.

□ □ □ □

3. I make-up

my mind

quickly.

□

□

□

□

4. I am

happy-go-

lucky.

□

□

□

□

5. I don’t

pay

attention.

□

□

□

□

6. I have

‘racing’

thoughts.

□

□

□

□

7. I plan

trips well

ahead of

time.

□

□

□

□

8. I am self-

controlled. □ □ □ □

9. I

concentrate

easily. □ □ □ □

10. I save

regularly. □ □ □ □

2

2

11. I

‘squirm’ at

plays or

lectures.

□ □ □ □

12. I am a

careful

thinker. □ □ □ □

13. I plan for

job security □ □ □ □

14. I say

thinks

without

thinking.

□ □ □ □

15. I like to

think about

complex

problems.

□ □ □ □

16. I change

jobs. □ □ □ □

17. I act on

impulse. □ □ □ □

18. I get

easily bored

when

solving

thought

problems.

□ □ □ □

19. I act on

the spur of

the moment. □ □ □ □

20. I am a

steady

thinker. □ □ □ □

3

3

21. I change

residences. □ □ □ □

22. I buy

things on

impulse. □ □ □ □

23. I can

only think

about one

thing at a

time.

□ □ □ □

24. I change

hobbies. □ □ □ □

25. I spend

or charge

more than I

earn.

□ □ □ □

26. I often

have

extraneous

thoughts

when

thinking.

□ □ □ □

27. I am

more

interested in

the present

than the

future.

□ □ □ □

4

4

28. I am

restless at

the theater or

lectures.

□ □ □ □

29. I like

puzzles. □ □ □ □

30. I am

future

oriented. □ □ □ □

Running head: ATTENTION, SLEEP, IMPULSIVITY, AND ...

Documents