Rüdiger Ganslandt Handbook of E Edition Lighting Design · Title Handbook of Lighting Design Authors Rüdiger Ganslandt Harald Hofmann Layout and otl aicher and graphic design Monika

Handbook ofLighting Design

E EditionRüdiger GanslandtHarald Hofmann

Vieweg

1,70 m

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Title Handbook of Lighting Design

Authors Rüdiger GanslandtHarald Hofmann

Layout and otl aicher andgraphic design Monika Schnell

Drawings otl aicherReinfriede BettrichPeter GrafDruckhaus Maack

Reproduction Druckhaus Maack, LüdenscheidOffsetReproTechnik, BerlinReproservice Schmidt, Kempten

Setting/printing Druckhaus Maack, Lüdenscheid

Book binding C. FikentscherGroßbuchbinderei Darmstadt

© ERCO Leuchten GmbH, LüdenscheidFriedr. Vieweg & Sohn Verlagsgesell-schaft mbH, Braunschweig/Wiesbaden1. edition 1992

The Vieweg publishing company is a Ber-telsmann International Group company.

All rights reserved. No part of this publi-cation may be reproduced in any form orby any means without permission fromthe publisher. This applies in particular to(photo)copying, translations, microfilmsand saving or processing in electronic systems.

Printed in Germany

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2.3 Light and light sources2.3

Light, the basis for all vision, is an elementof our lives that we take for granted. We are so familiar with brightness, darknessand the spectrum of visible colours thatanother form of perception in a differentfrequency range and with different coloursensitivity is difficult for us to imagine.Visible light is in fact just a small part of anessentially broader spectrum of electro-magnetic waves, which range from cosmicrays to radio waves.

It is not just by chance that the 380 to780 nm range forms the basis for our vision, i.e. “visible light”. It is this very rangethat we have at our disposal as solar radiation on earth in relatively uniformamounts and can therefore serve as a re-liable basis for our perception.

The human eye therefore utilises thepart of the spectrum of electromagneticwaves available to gather information about the world around us. It perceives theamount and distribution of the light thatis radiated or reflected from objects to gain information about their existence or their quality; it also perceives the colourof this light to acquire additional infor-mation about these objects.

The human eye is adjusted to the only lightsource that has been available for millionsof years – the sun. The eye is therefore at its most sensitive in the area in which we experience maximum solar radiation.Our perception of colour is therefore also attuned to the continuous spectrumof sunlight.

The first artificial light source was the flameof fire, in which glowing particles of carbon produce light that, like sunlight, hasa continuous spectrum. For a long timethe production of light was based on thisprinciple, which exploited flaming torchesand kindling, then the candle and the oil lamp and gas light to an increasinglyeffective degree.

With the development of the incan-descent mantle for gas lighting in the second half of the 19th century the principleof the self luminous flame became outdated; in its place we find a material thatcan be made to glow by heating – the flame was now only needed to producethe required temperature. Incandescent gas light was accompanied practically simultaneously by the development ofelectric arc and incandescent lamps,which were joined at the end of the 19thcentury by discharge lamps.

In the 1930s gas light had practically beencompletely replaced by a whole range of electric light sources,whose operationprovides the bases for all modern lightsources. Electric light sources can be dividedinto two main groups, which differ according to the processes applied to convertelectrical energy into light. One groupcomprises the thermal radiators, they includeincandescent lamps and halogen lamps.The second group comprises the dischargelamps; they include a wide range of lightsources, e.g. all forms of fluorescent lamps,mercury or sodium discharge lamps andmetal halide lamps.

43

Light and lightsources

Relative spectral dis-tribution Se (l) of solarradiation (sunlight and sky light) with a pronounced emission maximum in the visiblerange.

Ranges of electromag-netic radiation. Thespectrum of visible ra-diation comprises thenarrow band between380 and 780 nm.

Incandescent lamps Halogen lamps

Low-voltagehalogen lamps

Fluorescent lamps Mercury lamps

Compactfluorescent lamps

Metal halide lamps

Low-pressuresodium lamps

High-pressuresodium lamps

High-pressure lampsLow-pressure lamps

Discharge lampsThermal radiators

Technical lamps

2.3 Light and light sources

44

Representation of thedifferent kinds of electric light sourcesaccording to the means of their lightproduction. In the caseof technical lamps the main distinction is between thermal radiators and dischargelamps. Discharge lampsare further subdividedinto high-pressure and

low-pressure lamps.Current developmentsshow a marked trendtowards the develop-ment of compact lightsources such as low-voltage halogen lamps,compact fluorescentlamps and metal halidelamps.

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2.3 Light and light sources2.3.1 Incandescent lamps

2.3.1 Incandescent lamps

The incandescent lamp is a thermal radiator.The filament wire begins to glow when it is heated to a sufficiently hightemperature by an electric current. As thetemperature increases the spectrum of the radiated light shifts towardsthe shorter wavelength range – the red heatof the filament shifts to the warm whitelight of the incandescent lamp. Dependingon lamp type and wattage the tem-perature of the filament can reach up to3000 K, in the case of halogen lamps over3000 K. Maximum radiation at these temperatures still lies in the infrared range,with the result that in comparison to the visible spectrum there is a high degree ofthermal radiation and very little UV radia-tion. Lack of a suitable material for the filament means that it is not possible toincrease the temperature further, whichwould increase the luminous efficacy andproduce a cool white luminous colour. As is the case with all heated solid bodies– or the highly compressed gas producedby the sun – the incandescent lamp radiates a continuous spectrum. The spectraldistrbution curve is therefore continuousand does not consist of a set of individuallines. The heating of the filament wire results from its high electrical resistance –electrical energy is converted into radiantenergy, of which one part is visible light.Although this is basically a simple principle,there are a substantial number of practicalproblems involved in the construction of an incandescent lamp. There are only afew conducting materials, for example,that have a sufficiently high melting pointand at the same time a sufficiently lowevaporation rate below melting point thatrender them suitable for use as filamentwires.

Nowadays practically only tungsten is usedfor the manufacture of filament wires,because it only melts at a temperature of3653 K and has a low evaporation rate.The tungsten is made into fine wires andis wound to make single or double coiledfilaments.

In the case of the incandescent lamp thefilament is located inside a soft glass bulb, which is relatively large in order to keep light loss, due to deposits of evapo-rated tungsten (blackening), to a minimum.To prevent the filament from oxidisingthe outer envelope is evacuated for low wattages and filled with nitrogen or a nitrogen-based inert gas mixture for higher wattages. The thermal insulationproperties of the gas used to fill the bulbincreases the temperature of the wire filament, but at the same time reducesthe evaporation rate of the tungsten,which in turn leads to increased luminousefficacy and a longer lamp life. The inertgases predominantly used are argonand krypton. The krypton permits a higheroperating temperature – and greater lu-

45

Incandescent lampswith tungsten filamentsin an evacuated or gas-filled glass bulb. General service lamp(left) and pressed-glasslamp with integratedparabolic reflector(right).

Spectral distribution Se (¬) of a thermal radiator at different filament temperatures. As the temperature increases the maximumradiation shifts intothe visible range.

Dimming characteristicsof incandescent lamps.Relative luminous flux Ïand colour temperatureas a function of the relative voltage U/Un. A reduction in voltageresults in a dispro-portionate decrease inluminous flux.


46

General service lamp:the principle of produ-cing light by means of an electrically heatedwire filament has been known since1802. The first functional incandescent lampswere made in 1854 byHeinrich Goebel.

The real breakthroughthat made the incan-descent the most com-mon light source canbe ascribed to ThomasAlva Edison, who deve-loped the incandescentlamp as we know it today in 1879.

The inside of the lampis either evacuated or filled with inert gas

Filament, usually adouble coil of tungstenwire

Clear, matt or colouredglass bulb. Parts of theglass bulb can be provi-ded with a silver coatingto form a reflector

Insulated contact forconnection to the phase

Screw cap to securelamp mechanically, alsoserves as a contact to the neutral conductor

Connection wires withintegrated fuse

Glass stem, with insula-ted filament supports

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minous efficacy. Due to the fact that it isso expensive, krypton is only used in specialapplications.

A characteristic feature of incandescentlamps is their low colour temperature -the light they produce is warm in compa-rison to daylight. The continuous colourspectrum of the incandescent lamp providesexcellent colour rendition.

As a point source with a high lumi-nance, sparkling effects can beproduced on shiny surfaces and the light easily controlled using optical equipment. Incandescent lamps can therefore be applied for both narrow-beam accentlighting and for wide-beam generallighting.

Incandescent lamps can be easily dim-med. No additional control gear is re-quired for their operation and the lamps canbe operated in any burning position. In spite of these advantages, there are a number of disadvantages: low luminousefficacy, for example, and a relativelyshort lamp life, while the lamp life relatessignificantly to the operating voltage.Special incandescent lamps are availablewith a dichroic coating inside the bulbthat reflects the infrared component backto the wire filament, which increases theluminous efficacy by up to 40 %.

General service lamps (A lamps) are availa-ble in a variety of shapes and sizes. Theglass bulbs are clear, matt or opal. Specialforms are available for critical applica-tions (e.g. rooms subject to the danger of explosion, or lamps exposed to mechani-cal loads), as well as a wide range of special models available for decorativepurposes.

A second basic model is the reflectorlamp (R lamp). The bulbs of these lamps are also blown from soft glass, although,in contrast with the A lamps, which radiate light in all directions, the R lampscontrol the light via their form and a partly silvered area inside the lamp. An-other range of incandescents are the PAR(parabolic reflector) lamps. The PARlamp is made of pressed glass to provide a higher resistance to changes in tempera-ture and a more exact form; the parabolicreflector produces a well-defined beamspread.

In the case of cool-beam lamps, a subgroup of the PAR lamps, a dichroic, i.e. selectively reflective coating, is applied. Dichroic reflectors reflect visiblelight, but allow a large part of the IR radiation to pass the reflector. The thermalload on illuminated objects can thereforebe reduced by half.

47

Proportion of operatinglamps N, lamp lumens Ïand luminous flux of total installation ÏA

(as the product of bothvalues) as a function of the operating time t.

Exponential correlationbetween the relativevoltage U/Un and elec-trical and photometricquantities.

Relative power P of incandescent lamps asa function of voltage.

Effect of overvoltageand undervoltage on relative luminous flux Ï,luminous efficacy n, electrical power P andlamp life t.

Luminous flux = ( )3.8UUn

ÏÏn

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ææn

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ttn

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48

Top row (from left toright): decorative lamp,general service lamp,reflector lamp with softglass bulb and ellipsoi-dal or parabolic reflec-tor, producing mediumbeam characteristics. Bottom row (from leftto right): reflector lampwith pressed glass bulb and efficient para-bolic reflector (PAR lamp),available for narrow-beam (spot) and wide-beam (flood), also suitable for exterior application due to its high resistance to changes in tempera-ture; high-power pressed-glass reflectorlamp.

PAR lamp with dichroiccool-beam reflector. Visible light is reflected,infrared radiationtransmitted, thereby reducing the thermalload on the illuminatedobjects.

Incandescent lamp with glass bulb coated with dichroic material(hot mirror). This allows visible light to be transmitted; infraredradiation is reflectedback to the filament.The increase in the temperature of the filament results in increased luminous efficacy.

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49

2.3.1.1 Halogen lamps

It is not so much the melting point of thetungsten (which, at 3653 K, is still a rela-tively long way from the approx. 2800 Kof the operating temperature of incan-descents) that hinders the construction ofmore efficient incandescent lamps, butrather the increasing rate of evaporationof the filament that accompanies the increase in temperature. This initially leadsto lower performance due to the blackeningof the surrounding glass bulb until finally the filament burns through. The price to be paid for an increase in luminous efficiency is therefore a shorterlamp life.

One technical way of preventing the blackening of the glass is the adding ofhalogens to the gas mixture inside thelamp. The evaporated tungsten combineswith the halogen to form a metal halide,which takes on the form of a gas at the temperature in the outer section of thelamp and can therefore leave no depositson the glass bulb. The metal halide is splitinto tungsten and halogen once again at the considerably hotter filament and thetungsten is then returned to the coil.

The temperature of the outer glassenvelope has to be over 250° C to allow thedevelopment of the halogen cycle to take place. In order to achieve this a com-pact bulb of quartz glass is fitted tightlyover the filament. This compact form not only means an increase in temperature,but also an increase in gas pressure,which in turn reduces the evaporation rateof the tungsten.

Compared with the conventional incan-descent the halogen lamp gives a whiterlight – a result of its higher operatingtemperature of 3000 to 3300 K; its lumi-nous colour is still in the warm whiterange. The continuous spectrum producesexcellent colour rendering properties. Thecompact form of the halogen lamp makesit ideal as a point-source lamp; its light canbe handled easily and it can create attractive sparkling effects. The luminousefficacy of halogen lamps is well abovethat of conventional incandescents –especially in the low-voltage range.Halogen lamps may have a dichroic, heat-reflecting coating inside the bulbs, whichincreases the luminous efficacy of theselamps considerably.

The lamp life of halogen lamps is longer than that of conventional incandes-cents. Halogen lamps are dimmable.Like conventional incandescent lamps, theyrequire no additional control gear; low-voltage halogen lamps do have to be runon a transformer, however. In the case of double-ended lamps, projector lamps andspecial purpose lamps for studios the burning position is frequently restricted.Some tungsten halogen lamps have to beoperated with a protective glass cover.

Influence of overvol-tage and undervoltageon relative luminousflux Ï, luminous effi-cacy n, electrical powerP and lamp life t.

Proportion of operatinglamps N as a function of the operating time t.

Halogen cycle: combi-nation of evaporatedtungsten and halogento produce tungstenhalide in the peripheralarea. Splitting of thetungsten halogens backto the filament.

Halogen lamp for mainsvoltage with screw capand outer envelope(left). The outer envelopemeans that the lampcan be operated with-out a protective glasscovering. Low-voltagehalogen lamp with pinbase and axial filamentin a quartz glass bulb(right).

Like almost all conventional incandescentlamps, halogen lamps can be run onmains voltage. They usually have specialcaps, but some are equipped with an E 27screw cap and an additional glass envelopeand can be used in the same way as conventional incandescents.

As well as mains voltage halogen lamps,low-voltage halogen lamps are also gaining in importance. The advantages of this latter light source – high luminous efficiency in a small-dimensioned lamp –resulted in wide application of low-voltagehalogen lamps in the field of architecturallighting.

The lamp’s small size allows compactluminaire designs and concentrated spreadangles. Low-voltage halogen lamps areavailable for different voltages (12/ 24 V)and in different shapes. Here too a selectioncan be made between clear lamps and various lamp and reflector combinations,or cool-beam reflector versions.


50

The halogen and low-voltage halogen lampsmost commonly used in interior lighting.

Above (from left toright): low-voltage ha-logen bi-pin lamp andaluminium reflector, bi-pin and cool-beamglass reflector, withbayonet connectionand aluminium reflec-tor, with an aluminiumreflector for increasedpower.

Below (from left toright): halogen lampfor mains voltage withan E 27 cap and outerglass envelope, with a bayonet cap, and thedouble-ended version.Low-voltage halogenlamp with transverse filament and axial filament.


51

Single and double-ended halogen lampsfor mains voltage.

Low-voltage halogenlamps, clear, with metal reflector or withcool-beam reflector.

General service lamps,reflector lamps andtwo standard PARlamps for mains voltagewith data regardinglamp classification, power P, luminous flux Ï,lamp length l and lampdiameter d.

General service lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)A60 60 730 107 60A60 100 1380 107 60A65 150 2220 128 65A80 200 3150 156 80Cap: E27/E40 Lamp life 1000 h

LV halogen lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)QT9 10 140 31 9

20 350Cap: G4 Lamp life 2000 h

LV halogen reflector lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)QR38 20 7000 38 38QR58 50 18000 59 58Cap: B15d Lamp life 2000 h

LV halogen lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)QT12 50 950 44 12

75 1600100 2500

Cap: GY6.35 Lamp life 2000 h

LV halogen reflector lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)QR70 20 5000 50 70

75 1500075 19000

Cap: B15d Lamp life 2000 h

LV halogen reflector lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)QR111 50 20000 45 111

75 25000100 45000

Cap: G53 Lamp life 2000 h

LV halogen cool-beam reflector lamp Des. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)QR-CB51 20 8000 45 51QR- 35 13000CB51 50 15000

65/70 20000Cap: GX5.3 Lamp life 3000 h

LV halogen cool-beam reflector lamp Des. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)QR-CB35 20 5000 37/44 35QR- 35 8000CB35

Cap: GZ4 Lamp life 2000 h

Halogen lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)QT32 75 1050 85 32

100 1400 85150 2500 105250 4200 105

Cap: E27 Lamp life 2000 h

Halogen lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)QT18 75 1050 86 18

100 1400 86150 2500 98250 4200 98

Cap: B15dLamp life 2000 h

Halogen lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)QT-DE12 100 1650 75 12

150 2500 75200 3200 115300 5000 115500 9500 115

Cap: R7s-15 Lamp life 2000 h

Reflector lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)R63 60 650 103 63R80 100 1080 110 80R95 100 1030 135 95Cap: E27 Lamp life 1000 h

Parabolic reflector lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)PAR38 60 600 136 122

80 800120 1200


Parabolic reflector lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)PAR56 300 3000 127 179Cap: GX16d Lamp life 2000 h

2.3 Light and light sources2.3.2 Discharge lamps

2.3.2 Discharge lamps

In contrast to incandescent lamps, lightfrom discharge lamps is not produced by heating a filament, but by exciting gasesor metal vapours. This is effected by app-lying voltage between two electrodes located in a discharge tube filled with inertgases or metal vapours. Through the voltage current is produced between the two electrodes. On their way through thedischarge tube the electrons collide withgas atoms, which are in turn excited to radiate light, when the electrons aretravelling at a sufficiently high speed. Forevery type of gas there is a certain wave-length combination; radiation, i.e. light, is produced from one or several narrowfrequency ranges.

If the speed of the electrons increases,the gas atoms are no longer excited on collision, but ionised; the gas atom is de-composed to create a free electron and apositively charged ion. The number of electrically charged, effective particles inthe discharge tube is accordingly increased,giving rise to a corresponding increase in radiation.

It soon becomes evident that dischargelamps have different properties to incan-descent lamps. This applies in the firstplace to the means by which the light ofthe respective lamp is produced. Whereasincandescent lamps have a continuousspectrum dependent on the temperatureof the filament, discharge lamps producea spectrum with narrow bands that aretypical for the respective gases or metalvapours. The spectral lines can occur in all regions of the spectrum, from infraredthrough the visible region to ultraviolet.The number and distribution of the spec-tral lines results in light of different lumi-nous colours. These can be determined bythe choice of gas or metal vapour in the discharge tube, and as a result white lightof various colour temperatures can beproduced. Moreover, it is possible to ex-ceed the given limit for thermal radiatorsof 3650 K and produce daylight-qualitylight of higher colour temperatures. An-other method for the effective productionof luminous colours is through the application of fluorescent coatings on theinterior surfaces of the discharge tube. Ultraviolet radiation in particular, whichoccurs during certain gas discharge pro-cesses, is transformed into visible light bymeans of these fluorescent substances,through which specific luminous colourscan be produced by the appropriate selection and mixing of the fluorescentmaterial.

The quality of the discharge lamp canalso be influenced by changing the pressureinside the discharge tube. The spectral lines spread out as the pressure increases,approaching continuous spectral distribu-tion.This results in enhanced colour renderingand luminous efficacy.

Apart from the differences in the kind of light they produce, there are alsodifferences between incandescent and discharge lamps when it comes to operatingconditions. Incandescent lamps can berun on the mains without any additionalcontrol gear. They produce lightas soon as they are switched on. In the caseof discharge lamps, however, there are various special ignition and operating conditions.

To ignite a discharge lamp there mustbe sufficient electron current in the discharge tube. As the gas that is to be exci-ted is not ionised before ignition, theseelectrons must be made available via aspecial starting device. Once the dischargelamp has been ignited there is an avalanche-like ionisation of the excited gases, which in turn leads to a continuously increasingoperating current, which would increaseand destroy the lamp in a relatively shorttime. To prevent this from happening the operating current must be controlledby means of a ballast.

Additional equipment is necessary forboth the ignition and operation of dischargelamps. In some cases, this equipment isintegrated into the lamp; but it is normallyinstalled separate from the lamp, in theluminaire.

The ignition behaviour and performanceof discharge lamps depend on the operatingtemperature; in some cases this leads to lamp forms with additional glass bulbs.If the current is interrupted it is usuallynecessary to allow the lamp to cool downfor a while before restarting it. Instantreignition is only possible if the startingvoltage is very high. There are special re-quirements for some of the lamps regardingthe burning position.

Discharge lamps can be divided into twomain groups depending on the operatingpressure. Each of these groups has different properties. One group compriseslow-pressure discharge lamps. Theselamps contain inert gases or a mixture of inert gas and metal vapour at a pressurewell below 1 bar. Due to the low pressureinside the discharge tube there is hardly any interaction between the gas molecules.The result is a pure line spectrum.

The luminous efficacy of low-pressuredischarge lamps is mainly dependent onlamp volume. To attain adequate luminouspower the lamps must have large dischargetubes.

High-pressure discharge lamps, on theother hand, are operated at a pressurewell above 1 bar. Due to the high pressureand the resulting high temperatures there is a great deal of interaction in the discharge gas. Light is no longer radiatedin narrow spectral lines but in broaderfrequency ranges. In general, radiationshifts with increasing pressure into the long-wave region of the spectrum.

The luminous power per unit of volumeis far greater than that of a low-pressure

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discharge; the discharge tubes are small.High-pressure discharge lamps – similar toincandescent lamps – are point sourceswith high lamp luminance. As a rule theactual discharge tubes are surrounded byan additional outer envelope, which stabilises the operating temperature of thelamp, or, if necessary, serves as a UV filterand can be used as a means of containingthe fluorescent coating.

2.3.2.1 Fluorescent lamps

The fluorescent lamp is a low-pressure discharge lamp using mercury vapour.It has an elongated discharge tube with anelectrode at each end. The gas used to fill the tube comprises inert gas, which ignites easily and controls the discharge,plus a small amount of mercury, the vapour of which produces ultraviolet radia-tion when excited. The inner surface of the discharge tube is coated with a flu-orescent substance that transforms the ultraviolet radiation produced by thelamp into visible light by means of fluore-scence.

To facilitate ignition of the fluores-cent lamp the electrodes usually take theform of wire filaments and are coatedwith metallic oxide (emissive material) thatpromotes the flow of electrons. The electrodes are preheated at the ignitionstage, the lamp ignites when the voltageis applied.

Different luminous colours can beachieved through the combination of ap-propriate fluorescent materials. To achievethis three different luminous substancesare frequently combined, which, when mixed together, produce white light. Depending on the composition of the luminous substances, a warm white, neutralwhite or daylight white colour is pro-duced.

In contrast to point sources (see incandes-cent lamps, above) the light from fluores-cent sources is radiated from a larger surface area. The light is predominantlydiffuse, making it more suitable for theuniform illumination of larger areas thanfor accent lighting.

The diffuse light of the fluorescent lampgives rise to soft shadows. There are no sparkling effects on glossy surfaces.Spatial forms and material qualities are therefore not emphasised. Fluorescentlamps produce a spectrum, which is notcontinuous, which means that they havedifferent colour rendering compared withincandescent lamps. It is possible to pro-duce white light of any colour temperatureby combining fewer fluorescent materials,but this light still has poorer colour rendering properties than light with acontinuous spectrum due to the missingspectral components. To produce fluores-cent lamps with very good colourrendering properties more luminous sub-

53

When leaving the elec-trode (1) the electrons(2) collide with mercuryatoms (3). The mercuryatoms (4) are thus excited and in turn pro-duce UV radiation (5).The UV radiation istransformed into visiblelight (7) in the fluorescent coating (6).

Relative spectral dis-tribution Se (¬) of low-pressure discharge of mercury vapour. The radiation produced is to a large extent beyond the spectral sensitivity of the eye V (¬).

Relative spectral distri-bution Se (¬) of standardfluorescent lamps withvery good colour rende-ring in warm white(above), neutral white(centre) and daylightwhite (below).

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stances have to be combined in such a way that the spectral distribution corre-sponds as closely as possible to that of acontinuous spectrum.

Fluorescent lamps have a high luminousefficacy. They have a long lamp life, butthis reduces considerably the higher the switching rate.Both ignitors and ballastsare required for the operation of fluores-cent lamps. Fluorescent lamps ignite immediately and attain full power within ashort period of time. Instant reignition is possible after an interruption of current. Fluorescent lamps can be dimmed.There are no restrictions with regard toburning position.

Fluorescent lamps are usually tubular inshape, whereby the length of the lamp is dependent on the wattage. U-shaped orring-shaped fluorescents are available for special applications. The diameter of thelamps is 26 mm (and 16 mm). Lamp types with a diameter of 38 mm are of littlesignificance.

Fluorescent lamps are available in awide range of luminous colours, the mainones being warm white, neutral white anddaylight white. There are also lamps avai-lable for special purposes (e.g. for lightingfood displays, UV lamps) and colouredlamps. The colour rendering properties of fluorescents can be improved at the costof the luminous efficacy; enhanced lumi-nous efficacy therefore means a deteriora-tion in the colour rendering quality.

Fluorescent lamps are usually ignitedvia an external starting device and preheated electrodes. Some models have integrated ignition, which means that they can do without a starting devicealtogether. These are mainly used inenclosed luminaires, for environments wherethere is a risk of explosion.

2.3.2.2 Compact fluorescent lamps

Compact fluorescent lamps do not functionany differently from conventional fluorescent lamps, but they do have amore compact shape and consist of eitherone curved discharge tube or the combination of several short ones. Somemodels have an outer glass envelope around the discharge tube, which changesthe appearance and the photometric pro-perties of the lamp.

Compact fluorescent lamps basicallyhave the same properties as conventionalfluorescents, that is to say, above all, high luminous efficacy and a long lamp life.Their luminous efficiency is, however, limited due to the relatively small volumeof the discharge tube. The compact form does offer a new set of qualities andfields of application. Fluorescent lamps inthis form are not only confined to applica-tion in louvred luminaires, they can also be used in compact reflector luminaires(e.g. downlights). This means that concentra-

54

Proportion of operatinglamps N, lamp lumens Ïand luminous flux oftotal installation ÏA

(as the product of bothvalues) as a function of the operating time t.Through the applica-tion of electronic control gear (EB) theoperating quality ofthe lamps is improvedby comparison with the operation withconventional controlgear (CB).

Effect of overvoltageand undervoltage onrelative luminous flux Ïand electrical power P.

Relative luminous flux Ïof fluorescent lamps as a function of voltage.

The effect of ambienttemperature T on lamplumens Ï.

Lamp life t as a func-tion of switching frequency per day N. Nominal lamp life of 100 % is achieved at a switching rate of 8 times every 24 hours.

Comparison of lengthsof standard T26 fluore-scent lamps.

TC-L 18W, 24W, 36W, 40/55W

TC 5W, 7W, 9W, 11W TC-D 10W, 13W, 18W, 26W


ted light can be produced to accentuatethe qualities of illuminated objects bycreating shadows.

Compact fluorescent lamps with anintegrated starting device cannot be dimmed, but there are models available with external igniting devices and four-pinbases that can be run on electronic controlgear, which allows dimming.

Compact fluorescent lamps are mainlyavailable in the form of tubular lamps, in which each lamp has a combination oftwo or four discharge tubes. Starting device and ballast are required to operatethese lamps; in the case of lamps withtwo-pin plug-in caps the starting device isintegrated into the cap.

Alongside the standard forms equippedwith plug-in caps and designed to be runon ballasts, there is a range of compactfluorescent lamps with integrated startingdevice and ballast; they have a screw cap and can be used like incandescentlamps. Some of these lamps have an additional cylindrical or spherical glass bulbor cover to make them look more like incandescent lamps. If these lamps are used in luminaires designed to take incandescent lamps it should be noted thatthe luminaire characteristics will be compromised by the greater volume of thelamp.

2.3.2.3 High-voltage fluorescent tubes

High-voltage fluorescent tubes work onthe principle of low-pressure gas discharge,the gas being either an inert or rare gas or a mixture of inert gas and mercury vapour. In contrast to fluorescent lamps,the electrodes contained in these lampsare not heated, which means they have to be ignited and run on high voltage. As there are special regulationsconcerning installations run at 1000 Vand more, high-voltage tubular lamps are usually operated at less than 1000 V.There are, however, high-voltage dis-charge lamps available that run at over1000 V.

High-voltage fluorescent tubes have aconsiderably lower luminous efficacy thanconventional fluorescent lamps, but theyhave a long lamp life. Rare-gas dischargedoes not allow much scope when it comes to producing different colours; red can be produced using neon gas orblue using argon. To extend the spectrumof colours available it is possible to usecoloured discharge tubes. However, mer-cury is usually added to the inert gas andthe resulting ultraviolet radiation trans-formed into the desired luminous coloursusing fluorescent material. High-voltagefluorescent tubes require a ballast; they are operated on leakage transformers,which manage the high voltages requiredfor ignition and operation. High-voltage

55

Arrangement of tubesin compact fluorescentlamps: TC/TC-L (above),TC-D (centre), TC-DEL(below).

Compact fluorescentlamps with two-pinplug-in cap and inte-gral starting device(above), four-pin plug-in cap for operation on electronic controlgear (centre), screw capwith integral ballastfor mains operation(below).

In contrast to con-ventional fluorescentlamps, in the case ofcompact fluorescentsboth ends of the discharge tube(s) aremounted on a singlecap.

Comparison of sizes of standard TC, TC-Dand TC-L compact fluore-scent lamps.

100

80

60

40

20

2 4t (min)

10 1286

Ï (%)

Se (%)100

80

60

40

20

400 500 600 700 ¬(nm)800

V (¬)

LST 35 W, 90 W

100

80

60

40

20

t (h)5000 7500 100002500

ÏA (%)

100

80

60

40

20

t (h)5000 7500 100002500

Ï (%)

100

80

60

40

20

t (h)5000 7500 100002500

N (%)


fluorescent tubes ignite instantly and theycan be restarted when hot. There are no restrictions with regard to burningposition.

High-voltage fluorescent tubes comein various diameters and lengths. Diffe-rent tubular shapes can be manufacturedto meet the requirements of specific applications, e.g. for written signs and com-pany logos. They are available in a varietyof colours.

2.3.2.4 Low-pressure sodium lamps

Low-pressure sodium lamps are comparableto fluorescent lamps in the way they areconstructed and how they operate. In thiscase sodium vapour is excited instead of mercury vapour. This leads to a numberof essential differences to fluorescentlamps. In the first place, sodium lamps aremore difficult to ignite than mercurylamps, because solid sodium – as opposedto liquid mercury – does not produce metal vapour at room temperature. In thecase of sodium lamps, ignition can onlybe effected with the aid of additionalinert gas; only when the rare-gas dischargeproduces sufficient heat does the sodiumbegin to evaporate, thereby enabling the actual metal vapour discharge to takeplace. Low-pressure sodium lamps requirehigh ignition voltage and a relatively longrun-up time before they reach maximumefficacy. To guarantee a sufficiently highoperating temperature, the dischargetube is usually encased in a separate glassenvelope that is often designed to reflectinfrared radiation.

Another difference is the kind of lightthe lamp produces. Whereas mercury vapour excited at low pressure producesmainly ultraviolet radiation, which istransformed into light with the aid of fluorescent substances, sodium vapour pro-duces light directly. Low-pressure sodiumlamps therefore require no luminous substances to be added. Moreover, the luminous efficacy of these lamps is so high that the lamp volume required isconsiderably smaller than is the case forfluorescent lamps.

The most striking feature of low-pressuresodium lamps is their extraordinarily high luminous efficacy. As the low-pressuresodium lamp has a very long lamp life,it is the most economically efficient lightsource available.

Low-pressure sodium vapour only pro-duces light in two spectral lines which arevery close together; the light radiated by the lamp is monochrome yellow. Due toits monochromatic character it does notproduce any chromatic aberration in the eye and therefore guarantees visualacuity. The obvious disadvantage of theselamps with regard to the advantagesmentioned above is their exceptionallypoor colour rendering quality. Colour ren-

56

Relative spectral dis-tribution Se (¬) of low-pressure sodiumvapour discharge. The line spectrum produced is close tothe maximum spectral sensitivity of the eye,but limits colour rendering through its monochromaticcharacter.

Low-pressure sodiumlamp with U-shapeddischarge tube in adichroic glass bulb. Theinfrared radiation pro-duced by the lamp isreflected back into thedischarge tube via thedichroic coating on theglass, thereby cuttingdown the time requi-red to reach operatingtemperature.


(as the product of bothvalues) as a function of the operating time t.

Run-up characteristic:lamp lumens Ïin relation to time t.

Comparison of sizes of low-pressure sodiumlamps (LST).

100

80

60

40

20

400 500 600 700 ¬(nm)800

V(¬)

Se (%) 100

80

60

40

20

t (h)5000 7500 100002500

N (%)

100

80

60

40

20

t (h)5000 7500 100002500

(%)Ï

100

80

60

40

20

t (h)5000 7500 100002500

(%)AÏ 100

80

60

40

20

2 4 6 t (min)

(%)Ï

HME 125W HMG 80W HMR 125W


dering in the usual sense does not exist.All that is perceived is saturated yellow invarious shades, from the pure colour to black. Low-pressure sodium lamps havetherefore been replaced by high-pressuresodium lamps to a great extent, especiallyin their main field of application: streetlighting.

A combination of ignitor and ballastis necessary to operate some of the tubularmodels, but usually a leakage transformeris used as a starting device and ballast.Low-pressure sodium lamps require arun-up time of a few minutes and a shortcooling time before re-ignition. Instantre-ignition is possible if special controlgear is used. There are restrictions regardingthe burning position.

Low-pressure sodium lamps are normallyU-shaped, sometimes also tubular, surrounded by an additional glass envelope.

2.3.2.5 High-pressure mercury lamps

High-pressure mercury lamps have a shortquartz glass discharge tube that containsa mixture of inert gas and mercury. Electrodes are positioned at both ends of the discharge tube. In close proximity to one of the electrodes there is an additional auxiliary electrode for the igni-tion of the lamp. The discharge tube is surrounded by a glass envelope that stabilises the lamp temperature and protectsthe discharge tube from corrosion. The outer glass can be provided with afluorescent coating to control the luminouscolour.

When the lamp is ignited, there is aninitial luminous discharge from the auxili-ary electrode which gradually extends to the second main electrode. When the gashas been ionised in this way, there is anarc discharge between the two main elec-trodes, which, at this point in time, is theequivalent of a low-pressure discharge.Only when all the mercury has been eva-porated via the arc discharge and the resulting heat has produced sufficient ex-cess pressure, does high-pressure dischargetake place and the lamp produce full power.

High-pressure mercury lamps have moderateluminous efficacy and a very long lamplife. As a light source they are relativelycompact, which allows their light to becontrolled via optical equipment.

The light produced by high-pressuremercury lamps is bluish-white in colour due to the lack of the red spectral range.Colour rendering is poor, but remainsconstant throughout the entire lamp life.A neutral white or warm white colour appearance and improved colour renderingproperties are achieved by the addition offluorescent materials.

Due to the integrated auxiliary elec-trode there is no need for high-pressure

57


(as the product of both values) as a function ofthe operating time t.

Standard high-pressuremercury lamps with elliptical bulb (HME),spherical bulb (HMG)and integrated reflec-tor (HMR).

Relative spectral dis-tribution Se (l) of high-pressure mercurylamps.

High-pressure mercurylamp with quartz glassdischarge tube and elliptical bulb. As a rulethe bulb is coated witha layer of fluorescentmaterial which trans-

forms the UV radiationproduced by the lampinto visible light, thereby improving luminous efficacy andcolour rendering.

Run-up characteristic:lamp lumens Ï in rela-tion to time t.

100

80

60

40

20

¬(nm)400 500 600 700 800

V(¬)

Se (%) 100

80

60

40

20

2000 4000 t (h)6000

N (%)

100

80

60

40

20

2000 4000 t (h)6000

Ï(%)

100

80

60

40

20

2000 4000 t (h)6000

Ï (%)A

1 2 3 t (min)

140

120

100

80

60

Ï(%)

HME-SB 160W HMR-SB 160W


mercury lamps to have an ignitor, butthey do have to be run on a ballast. High-pressure mercury lamps require a run up time of some minutes and a longercooling time before restriking. There areno restrictions as to the burning position.

High-pressure mercury lamps are availablein various shapes and sizes; the outer bulbscan be spherical, elliptical or mushroom-shaped, the latter versions being designedas reflector lamps.

2.3.2.6 Self-ballasted mercury lamps

Self-ballasted mercury lamps are basicallyconstructed in the same way as high-pressure mercury lamps. They have an additional filament in the outer glass bulb,however, which is connected in serieswith the discharge tube. The filament takeson the role of a current limiter, making an external ballast unnecessary. The warmwhite light produced by the filamentcomplements the missing red content in the mercury spectrum, which improvesthe colour rendering. Self-ballasted mercury lamps usually contain additionalfluorescent material to enhance the luminous colour and improve the luminousefficacy.

Self-ballasted mercury lamps have similarqualities to high-pressure mercury lamps. Luminous efficacy and lamp life rates are not so good, however, with the conse-quence that they are seldom used for architectural lighting. Since they requireno ignitor or control gear and are pro-duced with an E 27 cap, self-ballastedmercury lamps can be used as incandescentlamps.

The filament in self-ballasted mercurylamps radiates light immediately on ignition. After a few minutes the incande-scent component diminishes and themercury vapour discharge reaches full power.Following an interruption to the mainssupply self-ballasted mercury lamps require a cooling-off period. Self-ballastedmercury lamps cannot be dimmed. There are restrictions as to the burning positionfor certain lamp types.

Self-ballasted mercury lamps are availablewith an elliptical bulb or as mushroom-shaped reflector lamps.

58

Self-ballasted mercurylamp with a quartzglass discharge tubefor high-pressure mer-cury discharge and an additional filamentthat takes on the func-tion of preresistanceand supplements the spectrum in the redrange. The ellipticalbulb is frequently pro-vided with a coating oflight-diffusing mate-rial.


Proportion of functio-nal lamps N, lamp lumens Ï and luminousflux of overall installa-tion ÏA (as the productof both values) in rela-tion to the operatingtime t.

Standard self-ballastedmercury lamp with elliptical bulb (HME-SB),or integral reflector(HMR-SB).

Relative spectral dis-tribution Se (¬) of a self-ballasted mercurylamp with the combi-nation of the spectraproduced by the high-pressure mercury dis-charge and the fila-ment.

100

80

60

40

20

1 2 3 t (min)

Ï(%)

100

80

60

40

20

2000 4000 t (h)6000

Ï(%)

< 1

381224

100

80

60

40

20

2000 4000 t (h)6000

N (%)

100

80

60

40

20

2000 4000 t (h)6000

Ï(%)

100

80

60

40

20

2000 4000 t (h)6000

Ï (%)A100

80

60

40

20

300 400 500 600 ¬(nm)700

V(¬)

Se (%)

T = 4000 K

100

80

60

40

20

300 400 500 600 ¬(nm)700

V(¬)

Se (%)

T = 3000 K

100

80

60

40

20

300 400 500 600 ¬(nm)700

V(¬)

Se (%)

T = 5600 K


2.3.2.7 Metal halide lamps

Metal halide lamps are a further develop-ment of mercury lamps and are therefore similar to these with regard to constructionand function. Apart from mercury they also contain a mixture of metal halides. In contrast to pure metals, halogen compounds have the advantage that theymelt at a considerably lower temperature.This means that metals that do not produce metal vapour when the lamp is inoperation can also be used.

By adding metal halides, luminous efficacy is improved and, above all, colourrendering enhanced. If the metal combi-nations are correct then multi-line spectracan be produced, similar to those of fluorescent lamps; by using specific combi-nations it is possible to create a practicallycontinuous spectrum consistingof numerous of spectral lines. Additional fluorescent substances to enhance colourrendering are not necessary. The mercurycomponent primarily serves as an ignitionaid and to stabilise the discharge process;when the metal halides have been evaporated via the initial mercury vapourdischarge, these metal vapours essentiallyproduce light.

The presence of halogens inside thelamp bulb means that auxiliary electrodesare not required as part of a starting device. Metal halide lamps require externalcontrol gear.

Metal halide lamps have excellent lumi-nous efficacy and good colour renderingqualities; their nominal lamp life is high.They are extremely compact light sources,whose light can be easily controlled. The colour rendering and colour temperatureof metal halide lamps is, however, not constant; it varies between individuallamps in a range and changes depending onthe age of the lamp and the ambient conditions. This is particularly noticeablewhen it comes to the warm white lamps.

To operate metal halide lamps both an ignitor and a ballast are required. Theyrequire a run-up time of some minutesand a longer cooling time before restarting.Instant reignition is possible in the case of some double-ended types, but specialignitors or an electronic ballast is necessary. As a rule metal halide lampscannot dimmed. The burning position is usually restricted.

Metal halide lamps are available in warmwhite, neutral white and daylight white, as single or double-ended tubular lamps,as elliptical lamps and as reflector lamps.

59

Double-ended metalhalide lamp with com-pact discharge tubeand quartz glass outerenvelope.

Proportion of functionallamps N, lamp lumens Ïand luminous flux ofoverall installation ÏA

(as the product of bothvalues) in relation to the operating time t.

Relative spectral dis-tribution Se (¬) of stan-dard metal halide lampwith luminous colourwarm white (above),neutral white (centre)and daylight white (be-low).

Decline in luminousflux Ï at differentswitching frequenciesof 24, 12, 8, 3 and < 1times per day.


HSE 70W

HST 70W

HST 100W

HST-DE 150W

HIT 35W, 70W, 150W HIT 35W, 70W, 150W

HIT-DE 75W, 150W, 250W

HIE 100W


2.3.2.8 High-pressure sodium lamps

Similar to mercury lamps, the spectrumproduced by sodium lamps can also be extended by increasing the pressure. If the pressure is sufficiently high thespectrum produced is practically continuouswith the resultant enhanced colour ren-dering properties. Instead of the mono-chrome yellow light produced by the low-pressure sodium lamp, with the extremelypoor colour rendering properties, the lightproduced is yellowish to warm white pro-ducing average to good colour rendering.The improvement in colour rendering is,however, at the cost of luminous efficacy.High-pressure sodium lamps are comparableto mercury lamps with regard to theirconstruction and function. They also havea small discharge tube, which is in turnsurrounded by a glass envelope. Whereasthe discharge tube in high-pressure mercury lamps is made of quartz glass, thedischarge tube in high-pressure sodiumlamps is made of alumina ceramic, since high-pressure sodium vapours havean aggressive effect on glass. The lampsare filled with inert gases and an amalgam of mercury and sodium, suchthat the rare gas and mercury componentserve to ignite the lamp and stabilise thedischarge process.

The surrounding bulb of some high-pressure sodium lamps is provided with aspecial coating. This coating only servesto reduce the luminance of the lamp andto improve diffusion. It does not containany fluorescent materials.

The luminous efficacy of high-pressure sodium lamps is not so high as that of low-pressure sodium lamps, but higherthan that of other discharge lamps. These lamps have a long nominal lamp life.Colour rendering is average to good, distinctly better than that of monochromeyellow low-pressure sodium light.

High-pressure sodium lamps are runon a ballast and require an ignition device.They require a run-up time of some minutes and cooling time before restarting.Instant re-ignition is possible in the caseof some double-ended types, but specialignition devices or an electronic ballast is necessary. As a rule there are no restrictions as to the burning position.

High-pressure sodium lamps are availableas clear glass tubular lamps or with speci-ally coated ellipsoidal bulbs. They are alsoavailable as compact, double-ended lineartype lamps, which allow instant reignitionand form an especially compact light source.

60

Standard high-pressuresodium lamps, single-ended elliptical (HSE),tubular (HST), anddouble-ended tubular(HST-DE).

Standard metal halidelamps, single-ended(HIT) and double-endedversions (HIT-DE), pluselliptical version (HIE).

Single-ended high-pressure sodium lampwith ceramic dischargetube and additional outer glass envelope.

Se (%)100

80

60

40

20

400 500 600 700¬(nm)

800

100

80

60

40

20

6000 t (h)3000 9000 12000

N (%)

100

80

60

40

20

Ï(%)

6000 t (h)3000 9000 12000

100

80

60

40

20

6000 t (h)3000 9000 12000

Ï (%)A 100

80

60

40

20

2 4 6 t (min)

Ï(%)


61

Relative spectral distri-bution Se (¬) of high-pressure sodium lamps.By increasing the pres-sure the spectrum isinverted, in contrast tolow-pressure discharge.The result is wide spec-tral distribution with a minimum in the low-pressure sodium lamps.

Proportion of functionallamps N, lamp lumens Ïand luminous flux ofoverall installation ÏA

(as the product of bothvalues) in relation to the operating time t.

Run-up characteristic:lamp lumens Ïin re-lation to time t.


62

Tubular fluorescent lamp (diameter 26 mm),of standard power.

Single-ended low-pressure sodium lampin the standard form with U-shapeddischarge tube.

High-pressure mercurylamps and self-ballastedmercury lamps, both lamp types withan ellipsoidal outer envelope and as a reflector lamp. Choice of power for interiorlighting including dataon lamp description;power P, luminous flux Ï,length of lamp Iand lamp diameter d.

Compact fluorescentlamps in the standardshapes TC, TC-D and TC-L, and with integral electronic ballast and E 27 cap: TC-DEL.

Fluorescent lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)T26 18 1350 590 26

30 2400 89536 3350 120038 3200 104758 5200 1500


Compact fluorescent lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)TC-L 18 1200 225 17

24 1800 32036 2900 41540 3500 53555 4800 535

Cap: 2G11 Lamp life 8000 h

Compact fluorescent lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)TC-DEL 9 400 127

11 600 14515 900 17020 1200 19023 1500 210


Compact fluorescent lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)TC 7 400 138 12

9 600 16811 900 238


Compact fluorescent lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)TC-DEL 15 900 148 58

20 1200 16823 1500 178

Cap: E27 Lamp life: 8000 h

Compact fluorescent lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)TC-D 10 600 118 12

13 900 15318 1200 17326 1800 193


Mercury lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)HME 50 2000 130 55

80 4000 156 70125 6500 170 75250 14000 226 90

Cap: E27/E40 Lamp life 8000 h

Mercury reflector lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)HMR 80 3000 168 125

125 5000Cap: E27 Lamp life 8000 h

Self-ballasted mercury lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)HME-SB 160 3100 177 75Cap: E27 Lamp life 5000 h

Self-ballasted mercury reflector lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)HMR-SB 160 2500 168 125Cap: E27 Lamp life 5000 h

Low-pressure sodium lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)LST 35 4800 310 54

55 8000 425 5490 13500 528 68

Cap: BY22d Lamp life 10000 h


63

Metal halide lamp, asan ellipsoidal and reflector lamp and assingle and double-ended versions. Choiceof standard wattagesfor interior lighting.

High-pressure sodiumlamp, ellipsoidal plustubular, single-endedand double-ended versions. Choice ofstandard wattages forinterior lighting.

High-pressure sodium lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)HSE 50 3500 156 70

70 5600 156 70100 9500 186 75150 14000 226 90250 25000 226 90


High-pressure sodium lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)HST 50 4000 156 37

70 6500 156 37100 10000 211 46150 17000 211 46250 33000 257 46


Metal halide lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)HIE 75 5500 138 54

100 8500 138 54150 13000 138 54250 17000 226 90


Metal halide reflector lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)HIR 250 13500 180 125Cap: E40 Lamp life 6000 h

Metal halide lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)HIT 35 2400 84 26

70 5200150 12000

Cap: G12/PG12 Lamp life 5000 h

Metal halide lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)HIT-DE 75 5500 114 20

150 11250 132 23250 20000 163 25

Cap: RX7s Lamp life 5000 h

High-pressure sodium lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)HST 35 1300 149 32

70 2300100 4700

Cap: PG12 Lamp life 5000 h

High-pressure sodium lampDes. P (W) (lm) l (mm) d (mm)HST-DE 70 7000 114 20

150 15000 132 23Cap: RX7s Lamp life 10000 h


64

Compact fluorescentlamp with integral ballast and screw cap.This lamp is mainlyused domestically asan economic alterna-tive to the incandes-cent lamp

Discharge tube contai-ning a mixture of rare earth gases and low-pressure mercury vapour

Fluorescent material for transforming ultra-violet radiation into visible light

Insulated contact forconnection to the phase

Screw cap to secure lampmechanically, also servesas a contact to the neutralconductor

Integral electronic ballast

Heated coil electrode

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Elmer, W. B.: The Optical Design of Reflec-tors. Wiley, New York 1979

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Arbeitsstättenrichtlinien ASR 7/3, (6/79)

Besseres Licht im Büro. Licht 1985, Februar,Vol. 37 No. 1

DIN 5034 Teil 1 (2/83), Tageslicht in Innen-räumen, Allgemeine Anforderungen

DIN 5035 Teil 1 (6/90), Beleuchtung mitkünstlichem Licht; Begriffe und allgemeineAnforderungen

DIN 5035 Teil 2 (9/90), Beleuchtung mitkünstlichem Licht; Richtwerte für Arbeits-stätten in Innenräumen und im Freien

DIN 5035 Teil 7 (9/88), Innenraumbeleuch-tung mit künstlichem Licht; SpezielleEmpfehlungen für die Beleuchtung vonRäumen mit Bildschirmarbeitsplätzen undmit Arbeitsplätzen mit Bildschirmunter-stützung

DIN 66234 Teil 7 (12/84), Bildschirmarbeits-plätze, Ergonomische Gestaltung desArbeitsraums; Beleuchtung und Anordnung

Lichtarchitektur. Daidalos 1988, März,Heft 27

Lighting Technology Terminology. BS 4727,1972

Lighting Up the CRT Screen – Problems andSolutions. Lighting Design + Application1984, February

5.0 AppendixAcknowledgements

AcknowledgementsGraphic material

Archiv für Kunst und Geschichte17 Shop window lighting using gas light

CAT Software GmbH165 Illuminance distribution165 Luminance distribution

Daidalos 27. Lichtarchitektur. March 198823 Wassili Luckhardt: Crystal on the

sphere23 Van Nelle tobacco factory, Rotterdam

Deutsches Museum, Munich20 Goebel lamps

ERCO24 Ambient light25 Focal glow25 Play of brilliance

Institut für Landes- und Stadtentwick-lungsforschung des Landes Nordrhein-Westfalen ILS (Hrsg.): Licht im Hoch- undStädtebau. Band 3.021. S. 17. Dortmund198013 The influence of light on northern and

southern architectural forms

Addison Kelly116 Richard Kelly

William M. C. Lam: Sunlighting asFormgiver for Architecture. New York(Van Nostrand Reinhold) 1986117 William Lam

Osram photo archives20 Heinrich Goebel

Correspondence Course Lighting Applica-tion. Vol. 2. History of Light and Lighting.Eindhoven 198413 Brass oil lamp15 Christiaan Huygens15 Isaac Newton17 Carl Auer v. Welsbach18 Jablochkoff arc lamps20 Joseph Wilson Swan20 Thomas Alva Edison21 Theatre foyer lit by Moore lamps23 Joachim Teichmüller

Henry Plummer: Poetics of Light.In: Architecture and Urbanism. 12. 198712 Sunlight architecture

Michael Raeburn (Hrsg.): Baukunst desAbendlandes. Eine kulturhistorische Doku-mentation über 2500 Jahre Architektur.Stuttgart 198212 Daylight architecture

Ernst Rebske: Lampen, Laternen, Leuchten.Eine Historie der Beleuchtung. Stuttgart(Franck) 196216 Lighthouse lighting using Fresnel

lenses and Argand burners17 Drummond’s limelight19 Siemens arc lamp, 186820 Swan lamp

Wolfgang Schivelbusch: Lichtblicke.Zur Geschichte der künstlichen Helligkeitim 19. Jhdt. München (Hanser) 198318 Arc lighting at the Place de la Concorde22 American lighthouse

Trilux: Lichter und Leuchter. Entwicklungs-geschichte eines alten Kulturgutes. Arns-berg 198714 Lamps and burners developed in the

2. half of the 19. century15 Paraffin lamp with Argand burner16 Fresnel lenses and Argand burner17 Incandescent mantle as invented by

Auer v. Welsbach18 Hugo Bremer’s arc lamp20 Edison lamps21 Low-pressure mercuy vapour lamp

developed Cooper-Hewitt

Ullstein Bilderdienst16 Augustin Jean Fresnel

Sigrid Wechssler-Kümmel: Schöne Lam-pen, Leuchter und Laternen. Heidelberg,München 196213 Greek oil lamp

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Rüdiger Ganslandt Handbook of E Edition Lighting Design · Title Handbook of Lighting Design Authors Rüdiger Ganslandt Harald Hofmann Layout and otl aicher and graphic design Monika

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