Roisin McGann Human Nutrition PWE project 2014/1 5 Project Title: School Level Socioeconomic Differences in School Lunch Quality: A Cross Sectional Study of 8-11 year old Children Student Name: Roisin McGann Student ID: 12388981 Supervisor: Janas Harrington and Catherine Perry UCD-Tutor: Celine Murrin Academic Year: 2014/15 Submitted in completion of my third year professional work experience To the Institute of Food and Health, University College Dublin July 2015 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
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Roisin McGann Human Nutrition PWE project 2014/15
Project Title: School Level Socioeconomic Differences in School Lunch Quality: A Cross Sectional Study of 8-11 year old Children
Student Name: Roisin McGann
Student ID: 12388981
Supervisor: Janas Harrington and Catherine Perry
UCD-Tutor: Celine Murrin
Academic Year: 2014/15
Submitted in completion of my third year professional work experience
To the Institute of Food and Health, University College Dublin
July 2015
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Personal Contribution to this work
The author’s responsibilities involved the development of the research question, the
conduction of the literature review, the planning and the undertaking of data analysis. The
report author additionally carried out data management tasks such as, recoding and
generating variables and performed various statistical tests throughout the analysis stage.
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ContentsPersonal Contribution to this work.......................................................................................................2
4.3 Analysis of School Lunches..................................................................................................22
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4.3.1 Differences in nutrient intake.........................................................................................22
4.3.2 Difference in dietary quality...........................................................................................24
4.3 The lunchtime intakes of DEIS and non-DEIS 8-11 year olds compared to the SFT and EFSA standards..............................................................................................................................26
4.4 The contribution of lunchtime nutrient intake and dietary quality relative to energy intake28
4.5 Univariate and multivariate analysis of nutrient intake and the dietary quality of school lunch31
Data sources and study selection................................................................................................53
Data extraction and quality assessment......................................................................................54
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Chapter 1: Abstract
Socioeconomic differences in food intake are well documented. This study aims to explore the
potential differences in nutrient intake and dietary quality of school lunch by school level
socioeconomic status (SES). A secondary analysis of the “Cork Children’s lifestyle study”
(CCLaS), which is a representative study of children aged 8-11 (n=1075), was undertaken.
Analyses were stratified based on SES, characterised by a school-level measure of deprivation
known as Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools (DEIS). Children from areas that show
symptoms of deprivation would generally attend DEIS schools whereas their counterparts would
attend non-DEIS schools. Lunchtime intakes were assessed by an estimated 3-day dietary record.
Portion sizes were primarily estimated by a photographic food atlas. Food intakes were entered and
analysed using netWISP version 4. The School Food Trust (SFT) and the European Food Safety
Authority (EFSA) guidelines were used to assess nutritional intakes. Lunchtime energy (kcal) met
the SFT recommendations in DEIS schools but exceeded them in non-DEIS schools (p=0.001).
Protein, fat, carbohydrate, added sugar (AS) and dietary fibre (DF) intakes met recommendations in
both school-types however saturated fat (SF), sugar and sodium intakes were above
recommendations. Adjusting for age, gender, parental education and BMI, DEIS groups were more
likely to adequately consume fat, SF, sugar and sodium compared to non-DEIS groups, while, non-
DEIS attenders were more likely to adequately consume protein, fat, carbohydrate and fruit.
However after controlling for physical activity, no statistical association (p=0.074) was found
between the adequacy of SF consumption between DEIS and non-DEIS groups. Findings suggest
that no disadvantage occurs in school lunch quality in DEIS compared to non-DEIS schools, as they
were similar. However both school types would benefit from addressing SF, sodium and fibre
intakes.
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Chapter 2: Introduction
A large frame of epidemiologic evidence support the theory that food intake is affected by
occupation, education and income levels as well as two primary cofounders; age and sex (1).
The three demographic factors (occupation, education and income) are classified as
conventional indexes of socioeconomic status (SES). There are many publications relating to
SES and poor-quality diets (2) however, community level SES remains an area of interest. In
Ireland, schools in areas of high levels of social deprivation have been awarded DEIS status,
which is a social measure of deprivation.
This report is organised in the following manner. Firstly, the study objectives are highlighted
outlining what is expected to be investigated. Secondly, a background is provided into the
issue of social deprivation, how DEIS plans to address the topic, children and the school
place, school lunch and the role of diet and nutrition in everyday life. Next, the methodology
used to investigate the situation is outlined describing the study design, data collection and
the statistical procedures undertaken. The results are then presented underlining the
nutritional and the dietary quality of school lunches consumed by children aged 8-11 who
attended DEIS and non-DEIS schools. Finally, the report is summarised and conclusions are
drawn from the analysis. Recommendations to be used for further research are also
highlighted in the conclusion.
2.1 Objective
The primary objective of the present study was to investigate the quality of school lunch
defined by the SFT, consumed by 8-11 year old primary school children, living in Cork,
Ireland. Nutritional intake and dietary quality were examined and in completion, it was
estimated whether there were any significant differences associated with community level
SES (i.e. DEIS or non-DEIS school). The nutritional quality assessed adherence of total
energy (TE), protein, fat, saturated fat (SF), sugar, added sugar (AS), fibre, and sodium to the
SFT guidelines. A secondary objective was to explore any differences further by adjusting for
confounders such as gender, age, parental education, BMI and physical activity (PA) on
school lunch quality consumed in DEIS and non-DEIS primary schools.
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2.2 Background
2.2.1 The issueDeprivation is a multi-dimensional problem characterised by social, economic or cultural
discrepancies among groups. Typical outcomes of deprivation are exclusion and unequal
access to resources, capabilities and rights (3). Additionally, lower life expectancy and
increased risk of developing serious illnesses are associated with poor social and economic
factors (3). Deprivation and disadvantage usually results from various evolutions throughout
the lifespan, e.g. marital break-up in early childhood, level of education change, moving
away from home, starting work, changing job, redundancy and retirement (3).
Deprivation is been defined by Townsend (4), who stated; “Individuals, families and
population groups who are in poverty lack the resources to obtain the types of diet, participate
in the activities and have the living conditions and amenities which are customary or are at
least widely encouraged or approved in the societies to which they belong”(4).
Deprivation on a food level has received a great deal of attention in recent years as
imbalances in nutrient and food intake was found to be associated with health-related
problems later in life (5). This form of deprivation is otherwise known as food poverty,
defined as “the inability to access a nutritionally adequate diet and related impacts on health
culture and social participation” (6) . This is an emerging issue, which can negatively affect
children’s educational success by weakening their behavioural and cognitive functioning (5).
This can result in poor school performance, absenteeism and leaving school prior to receiving
any real qualification (5).
In Ireland, DEIS and non-DEIS schools have classified social deprivation on a community
level. Children and adolescents from areas that show various symptoms of deprivation, e.g.
high unemployment levels and high numbers of medical card holders would generally attend
DEIS schools whereas their counterparts would not.
2.2.2 DEISBoth social and economic development of children and adolescents is enriched by education.
However, the Irish Government noted that certain population groups were not gaining from
the education system and consequently were unable to participate in Irish society to their
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maximum potential. The extent of educational under-achievement and early school leave
were higher in students from disadvantaged areas compared to areas of higher affluence (7).
In May 2005, a policy entitled Delivering Equality of Opportunity in Schools (DEIS) was
launched by the Department of Education and Skills. DEIS had the intention of addressing
the educational needs of Irish children and adolescents aged 3-18 years living in
disadvantaged communities (7). DEIS is one sequence of an intervention which addresses
disadvantage and deprivation in Ireland. It proposed to introduce a “second chance”
education and training system for deprived population groups as well as increase the
participation of underrepresented groups both in further and higher education. (7)
For primary schools, identification was grounded by a survey carried out by the Educational
Research Centre (ERC) in May 2005. From survey analysis, the ERC could identify any
deprivation characteristics, such as, unemployment, single parent, travellers, large families
(>5 children) and being eligible for free school books (7). Currently, DEIS operates in 657
primary schools, 336 being situated in an urban setting and 321 in a rural location.
2.2.3 The school placeIn the Republic of Ireland, primary school children are entitled to attend school 5 days a week
over a 37 week period spread throughout the year (8), making it an area in which
approximately one third of their wakeful day is spent (9). As a result, it is suggested that
school lunch should provide one third of their daily nutrient requirements (10). The school
place has recently been acknowledged as a priority setting for healthy food provision in order
to promote health and educational success (11). This is particularly important for low-income
groups as the school environment permits children to benefit from food experimentation
without any financial limitations (5). Some argue that school lunch is not important provided
that children maintain energy and nutrient balances over the whole day. However, this does
not take into account poorer children for which school lunch is a top priority as they could be
malnourished at home (12). Therefore, there is a paramount need to analyse school lunch
quality and assess whether children’s consumption agree with recommended nutrient
guidelines.
Growing up in Ireland (GUI), an Irish longitudinal childhood study recently reported 19% of
9 year old children are overweight with 7% being obese (13). Results showed that girls had a
significantly greater risk of being overweight or obese compared to boys (30% vs. 22%;
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P<0.001) (13). Previous Irish research demonstrates that children generally over-consume
sugar sweetened beverages as well as foods high fat and sugar and under-consume fruit and
vegetables at lunchtime (14). The National Taskforce on Obesity recommended that schools
should be encouraged to develop policies to promote healthy eating and address what is being
provided in school meals including school lunches (15).
Dissimilar to other European countries, canteen style facilities are typically unavailable in
Irish primary schools (16) and as a result, it is up to the child themselves or their guardian to
have their school lunch prepared at home and brought into school. This is otherwise known as
a packed lunch (9). However, the Irish Department of Social Protection provides funding
towards school meal provision through the ‘School Meal Programme’ for which
disadvantaged (DEIS) schools are prioritised (17). Filled rolls or sandwiches as well as two
other items, i.e. fruit, milk or yogurt are typically offered by the scheme (17)., The Irish
government has displayed increased support towards school meal provision over the past
decade, with social welfare expenditure reaching €32 million in 2008 (5). Other funding
schemes supporting school food included the School Retention Programme and the European
Union School Milk Scheme (5). There are no set nutrient standards for school lunch in
Ireland. Schools also have to choose lunches within the grant budget and can be guided to
provide healthy lunches following the food pyramid guidelines. A new resource was
published by Healthy Food for All in 2009, which provides updated guidelines that schools
can follow to provide healthy school lunches (5), however this is food rather than nutrient
based too.
2.2.4 School Food TrustIn 2005, the UK government established the School Meals Review Panel (18), which
published a report on developing school lunches to suit desired nutritional standards. This
brought upon the School Food Trust (SFT), a guide that provides information on how to meet
the British Government’s food and nutrient based standards for school lunch. Such standards
apply to all food and drink provided by school governing bodies to pupils on and off school
premises during the school period (19). As there are no Irish recommendations set for
weighted school lunch nutrient intakes, the present report used the lunchtime food and
nutrient guidelines provided by the SFT to analyse the lunchtime intakes of the sample of
children.
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In 2006, two standards were developed by the SFT, which set both food and nutrient based
standards for primary schools. These were implemented in September 2006 and 2008
respectively (19).
Children should get an appropriate balance of food and nutrients in order to grow and
develop. For many students school lunch could be their main meal of the day. Therefore, it is
important that a school lunch contains sufficient energy and nutrients to promote good
nutritional health and to protect those who are nutritionally vulnerable, i.e. underweight or
overweight. Nutrient based standards therefore aim to make school lunch healthier by giving
recommended energy intakes, minimum levels of vitamins and minerals and maximum
desirable levels of fat, SF, AS and sodium.
Nutrient based standards apply to the average school lunch on both a primary and a
secondary school level. For the purpose of the present study, primary school guidelines only
were focused on. Such guidelines state that a typical school lunch must provide 530 kcal
(±5%), 7.5-g of protein, <=20.6g of fat, <=6.5g of SF, >=70.6g of carbohydrate, <=15.5g of
AS, >=4.3g of DF and <=499mg of sodium. Weighted intakes for TS were not found in SFT
report and were therefore taken from the European Food Safety Authority guidelines (EFSA),
which recommended that 90g/day (30g for lunchtime intake) be consumed (20).
The food-based standards for school lunches apply to all school lunch services, including hot,
cold and packed lunch services provided on a school day. The current standards have set
minimum lunchtime requirements for healthier food and restrictions on less healthy foods
(19).
2.2.5 Nutrient intakeInadequate nutrient intake is critical in the aetiology of deficiency diseases and non-
communicable diseases such as type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM), cardio vascular disease
(CVD) and obesity (21). Increased energy intake is associated with overweight and obesity
(21), excessive fat and saturated fat (SF) is positively associated with insulin resistance (22)
and elevated sugar intake could increase serum triglycerides (23). Conversely, low intakes of
dietary fibre (DF) has been linked with higher insulin resistance, raised total and LDL-
cholesterol and an increased risk of obesity (24).
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A school lunch should deliver 30% of the individual’s total daily requirements, provided that
three main meals are consumed per day. As school lunch should offer one-third of the daily
intake it is necessary that its contribution be well balanced (19). Food energy is defined as
energy, which comes from food and is measured as percentage energy (%E). Food energy
comes from the macronutrients carbohydrate, fat and protein. Irish standards for food energy
are provided by the Irish food-based dietary guidelines (25)
Total carbohydrate (TC) is the most fundamental nutrient required in every meal and should
deliver between 45-65 %E to 5-13 year old children (25). TC is composed of TS, DF and
starch however this report assesses lunchtime TS and DF intake only. The proposed labelling
reference intake for TS is set by the EFSA (20) as no Irish recommendations were found.
EFSA suggest that TS should provide no more than 18%E for a 2000 kcal diet (20). TS is
comprised of indigenous and extrinsic sugars (20). Indigenous sugars include those naturally
present in foods such as fruit, vegetables and milk products. Extrinsic or added sugars (AS)
account for all sugars found in fruit juices, table sugar, honey, sucrose, glucose, syrups and
50% of the sugars found in canned, stewed, dried or preserved fruit (19). AS provide many
calories but few essential nutrients to the body (19) and high intakes could lead to tooth
decay. The Irish food-based dietary guidelines suggest no more than 10%E of AS be
consumed. An English survey highlighted that 50% of school lunches consumed by primary
school children are too high in AS (26).
DF are non-digestible carbohydrates that pass straight to the large intestine (27) and assists
bowel function, preventing issues such as diarrhoea and constipation (19). As DF is not
absorbed, it has a low energy content meaning no recommended food energy is set for its
consumption. A previous survey announced that 79% of boys do not obtain sufficient DF
from school meals (28). Protein is necessary for the growth and repair of body tissues, i.e.
muscle. To maintain protein balance, 5-13 year old children are guided to consume 10-30%E
(25).
Dietary fat is a concentrated source of energy providing over double the calories weight for
weight than carbohydrate and protein. High fat intake can elevate LDL and lower HDL
concentrations in the blood (29) and could result in the development of cardio vascular
disease (CVD) (30). However, fat provides essential fatty acids by enhancing the absorption
of fat-soluble vitamins and as a result some fat in the diet is necessary. Children aged 5-13
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are advised to keep fat intakes within 25-35%E (25). Total fat (TF) is made up of saturated
and unsaturated fat however this report analyses only the children’s lunchtime saturated fat
(SF) intake.
SF is the main contributor of TF that is strongly associated with CVD development (31).
Atherosclerotic change in childhood has been correlated with the same risk factors as was
identified in adults, implicating that atherosclerosis could begin during childhood (32). As a
result, children are advised to maintain a healthy lipid profile i.e. to reduce their LDL and to
elevate their HDL concentrations (29) in order to reduce their likelihood of developing CVD.
No meal consumed by 5-13 year old children should contain more than 10%E of SF. See
appendix 4 for a detailed account on the instruments used to measure saturated fat intake.
Sodium is a component of salt, needed for nerve and muscle functioning and for fluid balance
maintenance in the body (19). However, as sodium is a micronutrient, it is needed only in
small amounts to have such a beneficial effect on the consumer. When sodium is over-
consumed it can lead to various health problems in later life such as high blood pressure,
stroke or heart and kidney diseases (19). As sodium does not provide energy to the body, no
food energy guideline is provided for its intake.
2.2.6 Diet QualityThe present study also examines the dietary quality of school lunches consumed by primary
school children attending DEIS and non-DEIS school in Ireland. The food groups selected as
markers of dietary quality were fruit and vegetables (F&V) and sugar sweetened beverages
(SSB).
Diet quality is an umbrella term used predominately in the nutritional epidemiology to
evaluate the dietary habits of a given population (33). It is also an index used to predict
various health outcomes and disease development (34). Diet quality can also describe an
individual’s diet with respect to the recommended guidelines (35), i.e. a healthy, balanced
and nutrient dense diet would provide the individual with their required needs to maintain
optimum health (35).
Diets high in fruit and vegetables (F&V) are less energy dense but provide the consumer with
ample nutrients and minerals (36). When consumed regularly, F&V are associated with
overall better health (37). The SFT recommends that at least two portions of F&V should be
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consumed during the school hours, one portion coming from fruit and the other coming from
vegetables (19). The current recommendation for F&V intake is five portions a day, which
equates to 45 g of fruit and vegetables per MJ of energy intake. Thus, one portion of both
fruit and vegetables equates to 9g per MJ of total energy intake (38). As the median energy
intake over the full day was 7.18 MJ, weighted lunchtime consumption of both fruit and
vegetable should be 65g. Conversely, SSBs are energy dense and nutrient poor (2). SSBs
include all soft drinks, fruit juices and vitamin water drinks containing added sugars
(39).Such beverages are sweetened by High Fructose Corn Syrup (HFCS), sucrose or fruit
juice concentrate (39). HFCS is a commonly consumed additive, particularly in the form of
SSB. It is 55% fructose and 45% glucose in a dissimilar manner to ordinary sucrose which
has a 50:50 fructose to glucose ratio (39). SSBs have received major attention in the public
health field, not only due to their high calorie to nutrient ratio, but also as they have been
positively associated with obesity (39). The SFT recommend lunchtime SSB consumption be
at 0ml (19).
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Chapter 3: Methodology
3.1 Study design
The present study is secondary analysis of a cross sectional study entitled the “Cork
Children’s lifestyle study” (CCLaS). Details of this study have been published elsewhere
(40). Briefly CCLaS recruited a sample of children aged between 8-11 years old living in
county Cork, Ireland.
3.1.1 Population samplesThe population was from DEIS and non-DEIS primary schools based in urban and rural
Cork, Ireland. Information on primary schools located in both Cork city and Mitchelstown
was attained from the Department of Education and Skills website, which provided
information such as the school name, location, size, assigned gender and disadvantaged
(DEIS) status (7).
Primary schools were classified as DEIS based on their familial socio-demographic and
socioeconomic profile. In Cork city, 40% of primary school children attend a DEIS school.
However, on a national level, 20% of primary schools are classified as DEIS (7).
A list of all primary schools based in Cork city and Mitchelstown were found on the
Department of Education and Skills website (7). Schools that catered towards children with
special needs and schools without age eligible children were excluded. At the time of
sampling there were 51 primary schools (n= 13,230 children) in Cork City which met the
sampling frame criteria (7). All 5 primary schools in Mitchelstown (n= 800 children) met the
sampling frame criteria (7).
3.1.2 Recruitment MethodsSchools were recruited in the following process. Principals of the selected primary schools
were sent a letter of invitation, an information sheet and a presentation outlining the study
details. The Principal was then contacted by telephone to arrange a meeting with an available
research assistant to discuss the study in further detail. With the Principals’ permission, the
research team introduced the study to the 3rd and 4th class children of each participating
school, and a parent/guardian information letter and consent form was given to each child to
bring home. The children were directed to discuss the study with their parents/guardians, and
to return the consent form to the school.
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3.2 Data collection in the Cork Children’s Lifestyle Study
3.3.1 Dietary assessmentAn estimated 3-day food diary, which noted the time, location, brand, the estimated portion
size and cooking method (where applicable) was completed by the children to assess dietary
intake. The children wrote down what they ate and drank on each of the three days, under six
pre-assigned meal titles. Potion sizes were estimated by a photographic food atlas (41),
manufacturer information and standard household measures. Where food weight was
unavailable in a food diary, medium portions from either the Irish food portion size database
(42), for ages 9-12 or the photographic food atlas (41) were used. The children were
recommended to seek assistance from their parents and teachers if necessary. After the 3-day
period, completion was checked through a detailed debriefing session by researchers with the
children using both a prompt sheet and the photographic food atlas (41).
The food diary data were entered into and analysed using the software ‘netWISP’ version 4
(Tinuviel Software, Anglesey, UK). WISP allocated the nutritional value to the food items
using McCance and Widdowson’s 7th edition (43) and the Irish Food Composition databases
(44). The nutritional information of foods unavailable in WISP was added manually by
research assistants.
The present paper assessed the nutritional and dietary quality of school lunch consumed by 8-
11 year old children attending DEIS and non-DEIS schools. The nutritional quality of school
lunch was assessed by comparing mean energy, protein, total fat (TF), saturated fat (SF),
carbohydrate, total sugar (TS), added sugar (AS), dietary fibre (DF) and sodium intakes to
one-third of the Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), a guideline set by the UKs School
Food Trust (SFT) (19). Where the SFT did not outline the RDA for TS intake at school, mean
intakes were compared to one third of the recommended allowance set by the European Food
Safety Authority (20). The dietary quality of school lunch was assessed by comparing median
intakes of fruit, vegetables and sugar sweetened beverages (SSB) to the same guidelines (19).
3.2.2 Primary exposureThe database for the present study was stratified in two different categories, DEIS and non-
DEIS schools and the analyses investigated whether there were any significant differences
between school/community level socioeconomic status and school lunch quality. School
lunches and macronutrients were examined within DEIS and non-DEIS schools.
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3.2.3 Co-variants
GenderThe gender of each participant was recorded by trained researchers prior to analysis.
AgeThe exact age of the participant was calculated by trained researchers by subtracting the
child’s date of birth from the date of examination. For the present report the age was
considered in a categorical form rather than continuous.
BMIThe BMI of each child was calculated by dividing their weight (kg) by their height (m) 2. The
devices used to calculate the height and weight of the children was a Leicester portable height
stick and the Tanita WB100MA mechanic scales respectively. One measurement only was
taken. The height of the children was measured to the nearest millimetre (mm) without
wearing any shoes while weight was measured to the nearest 0.1 kg without any shoes and
wearing light clothing. The children were then classified as underweight, normal weight,
overweight or obese using age and gender specific International Obesity Taskforce cut off
points (45). However for the present report BMI categories were collapsed to normal weight
and overweight/obese. The BMI of the children’s parents was attained via self-report from
the parent/guardian questionnaire and was categorised as underweight/ normal weight, and
overweight/obese using the WHO classification (46).
Parental education and family typeFamily type and parental education were reported by their parent/guardian in their assigned
questionnaire. The parent/guardian questionnaire was developed using questions from a
number of different sources (40).
Physical ActivityModerate to Vigorous Physical Activity (MVPA) was defined as whether each child met the
World Health Organisation’s (WHO) recommendations for physical activity (PA) of 60
minutes per day, throughout the testing period (40). A validated tri-axial GENEActiv
accelerometer (47) was used to measure PA over a consecutive 7 day period. Thresholds
were applied to categorise number of minutes of moderate to vigorous physical activity
(MVPA) per day. Children with valid data were those who wore the accelerometer for ≥600
minutes per day or for at least 3 days (n=969). Children who engaged in ≥60 minutes of
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MVPA on each of the 7 days were categorised as meeting World Health Organisation MVPA
recommendations.
Underreporting of food intake in the Cork Children’s Lifestyle StudyThe children considered to be underreporting energy were excluded from the analysis.
Plausible and under-reporters for energy were identified by calculating an energy intake to
basal metabolic rate (BMR) ratio for each child using methods outlined by Schofield, 1985
(48). Cut off values for energy intake to BMR were defined by an equation developed by
Goldberg et al (49), with updated cut off points for children defined by Black (50)
3.3 Data ManagementData analysis was completed using the statistical software Stata 13. In order to complete such
analyses many different tasks were completed using Stata.
A brief synopsis on the data management skills used in the analysis is presented in appendix
1, however this is fully highlighted in the stata do-file (appendix 5). Furthermore, variables
were created in order to assess the mean percentage energy (%E) of lunchtime macronutrient
intake (protein, carbohydrate, SF, TS, and AS) relative to the full school day. New variables
were also created to define whether the individual child was a food group consumer or not.
The SFT set upper limit recommendations for lunchtime fat, SF, sugar, AS and sodium intake
as well as lower limit recommendations for lunchtime protein, carbohydrate, DF, fruit and
vegetable intake. Lunchtime energy intake was given a range of +/-5%, stating that children
should consume between 503 and 557kcal. Binary variables were created for each variable
defining nutrient and food group intake, transforming it from a continuous to a categorical
form. The categorical variable defined whether lunchtime standards met the recommended
guidelines or not. Such variables allowed for the analysis of logistic regression. As the SFT
neither recommended that 0ml of SSBs be consumed at lunchtime, a new binary variable
defining whether the children were consumers or non-consumers was generated via the
creation of a variable with quantile categories and recoding. Various other variables were also
generated from old variables by recoding.
3.4 Statistical ProceduresStatistical tests were run on Stata 13 Descriptive statistics were calculated to summarise mean
and median intakes of nutrients and food groups. Significant differences between school type
and nutrient intakes were assessed. Prior analysis, assumptions for undergoing an
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independent sample t tests were tested for using the generated continuous variables. Similar
to the various data management procedures, a broad description on how each statistical test
was run is given in appendix 1, while the stata do-file in appendix 5 describes the process
fully. As the distribution of intakes for all nutrients and food groups differed considerably
from a normal distribution and were not normalised by log or square root transformation for
this study, differences in school lunch between school types were evaluated using a non-
parametric Wilcoxon signed rank test. Such test was used to assess differences in school
lunch nutritional quality according to school category. A P-value of <= 0.05 was used to
define statistical significance (see appendix 1 pg. 48).
A χ2 test was used to assess the association between those who met the recommended
standards for nutrient and food group intakes and those who did not based on school type (see
appendix 1). Similar to the Wilcoxon signed rank test, a P value of <= 0.05 was used to
define statistical significance. The association between children who met the desired
lunchtime standards and those who did not were analysed by logistic regression analysis (see
appendix 1).
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Chapter 4: Results
4.2 Response RateFifty-six primary schools, 51 urban and 5 rural, were asked to participate in the CCLaS study
in the hope of recruiting 1,000 participants. Of the 56 primary schools requested 46 (n=1643)
responded positively with an interest in participating in the study. The prepilot study recruited
2 city schools, with 55 children (52.88%) agreeing to participate. For the pilot study, 3 city
schools were selected using a probability proportionate to size (PPS) sampling strategy to
select urban primary schools in a random fashion. These three urban schools from the PPS
sample agreed to participate, which received a child level response rate of 85 out of 151
Below average 10 (27.78%) 26 (72.22%) 36 (100.00%)
Average 208 (35.08%) 385 (64.92%) 593 (100.00%)
Above average 6 (23.08%) 20 (76.92%) 26 (100.00%)
Current Health status
Excellent 135 (30.54%) 307 (69.46%) 442 (100.00%)
Good 96 (39.67%) 146 (60.33%) 242 (100.00%)
Fair/ poor 6 (50.00%) 6 (50.00%) 12 (100.00%)
Total sample, 724 (68.3%) participants were analysed as they were considered plausible energy reporters. 336 (31.7%) were excluded due to underreporting their energy intake.DEIS group, 253 (66.75%) participants were analysed as they were considered plausible energy reporters. 126 (33.25%) were excluded due to underreporting.Non-DEIS group 471 (69.2%) participants were analysed as they were considered plausible reporters. 210 (30.8%) were excluded due to underreporting.
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Table 2, the demographic family/ parental characteristics stratified by school level of
deprivation
Participants
Demographic characteristics DEIS (%)N=253, 34.94%
Non-DEIS (%)N=471, 65.06%
Total (%)N=724, 100%
N (%)
Family type
One Parent 70 (54.69%) 58 (45.31%) 128 (100.00%)
Two Parent 158 (28.73%) 392 (71.27%) 550 (100.00%)
Ethnicity
Irish 196 (33.79%) 384 (66.21%) 580 (100.00%)
Non-Irish 23 (31.51%) 50 (68.49%) 73 (100.00%)
Parental BMI
Underweight/ normal weight 93 (25.14%) 227 (74.86%) 370 (100.00%)
Third level 37 (17.05%) 180 (82.95%) 217 (100.00%)
Post second 75 (34.88%) 140 (65.12%) 215 (100.00%)
Higher second 64 (43.24%) 84 (56.76%) 148 (100.00%)
Lower secondary or less 47 (52.81%) 42 (47.19%) 89 (100.00%)
Parental Current health status
Excellent 157 (31.03%) 349 (68.97%) 506 (100.00%)
Good 63 (42.00%) 87 (58.00%) 150 (100.00%)
Fair/ poor 17 (45.95%) 20 (54.05 %) 37 (100.00%)
Total sample, 724 (68.3%) of the participant’s parent/guardian were analysed as they were considered plausible reporters. 336 (31.7%) of the participant’s parent/guardian were excluded due to underreporting.DEIS, 253 (66.75%) of the participant’s parent/guardian were analysed as they were considered plausible reporters. 126 (33.25%) of the participant’s parent/guardian were excluded due to underreporting.Non-DEIS, 471 (69.2%) of the participant’s parent/guardian were analysed as they were considered plausible reporters. 210 (30.8%) of the participant’s parent/guardian were excluded due to underreporting.Ethnicity, non-Irish ethnicities were specified as British-African, British Caribbean, East European, English, English mother and an Irish father, European, father is Bulgarian, Filipino, Georgian, Hungarian, Indian, Irish Gypsy, Irish/Dutch, Irish/Indian, Irish/Swiss, Italian, Kolokoli, Lithuanian, Polish, Romanian, Scottish.
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4.3 Analysis of School Lunches
4.3.1 Differences in nutrient intake
The mean lunchtime energy intake relative to the Mean Daily Intake (MDI) of the total
sample (n=724) was 536.21 (305.52) kcal. School energy was found to be higher in non-
DEIS schools (n=471) that consumed 544kcal compared to DEIS schools (n=253) that
consumed 543.93 (279.97) kcal at lunchtime. These results were deemed statistically
significant (table 3).
Nutrient intakes varied between DEIS and non-DEIS schools. Lunchtime intakes of protein,
total fat (TF), saturated fat (SF), carbohydrate, total sugar (TS), dietary fibre (DF) and sodium
were higher in non-DEIS schools. Statistical associations were found between lunchtime, TF,
carbohydrate, TS and DF intakes and school category (table 3). Added sugars (AS) were the
only nutrient group found to be higher in DEIS schools, however the association (p=0.09)
was insignificant (table 3).
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Table 3; the mean lunchtime nutritional quality consumed by 8-11 year old children stratified by DEIS status
Total sample(n=724)
DEIS (n=253) Non-DEIS (n =471)
Guideline School intake Total daily intake School intake % School intake‡ Total daily intake School intake % School intake‡
Total sample, the data was analysed from 724(68.3%) plausible energy reporters. 336 (31.7%) participants were excluded due to underreporting their energy intake to their food diary.DEIS, the data was analysed from 253 (66.75%) plausible reporters.Non-DEIS, the data was analysed from 471 (69.2%) plausible non-DEIS reporters.‡ Percentage school intake relative to the whole dayP-value: this represents the differences in mean lunchtime nutrient intake in DEIS and non-DEIS schools. Differences were assessed using a Wilcoxon signed rank test.Lunchtime standards were unavailable for TS and were therefore attained from the European Food Safety Authority (20)TF, total fat; SF, saturated fat; Carb, carbohydrate; TS, total sugar; AS, added sugar; DF, dietary fibre
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4.3.2 Difference in dietary qualityThe dietary quality of school lunches was assessed by adherence to recommendations for
both sugar-sweetened beverages (SSB) and fruit and vegetables (F&V). Of the above food
groups, the most consumed was fruit for the whole sample however, this differed slightly in
DEIS populations where SSB had the highest proportion of consumers (table 4). The food
group that had the lowest proportion of consumers was vegetables, similar results were
attained when DEIS and non-DEIS were analysed individually (table 4).
Those categorised as fruit consumers had median lunchtime fruit intakes of 91.7 and 102g for
DEIS and non-DEIS groups respectively (table 4). This met the standards set by the SFT
(table 5). A high amount of fruit was consumed at school lunch relative to the daily intake
and this was similar in DEIS and non-DEIS schools. Median lunchtime vegetable intakes for
vegetable consumers were 23.7 and 22.5g in DEIS and non-DEIS schools (table 4). Such
intakes were lower than that of fruit however, they were still deemed acceptable by the SFT
(table 5), however the majority of the sample were categorised as non-consumer (76%).
There were significant differences in the proportion of DEIS and non-DEIS schools
categorised as a lunchtime fruit (p<0.0001) and vegetable consumer (p=0.002) (appendix
table 2.1). The total median lunchtime intake of SSB was 226.5ml for non-consumers. Non-
DEIS populations had a higher median lunchtime intakes (242ml) compared to DEIS
populations who consumed a median of 200ml (table 4). However, DEIS schools had a
higher proportion of SSB consumers (47.83%) compared to non-DEIS schools (44.37%) thus,
less DEIS children are meeting the SFT guidelines (table 5). There was no statistical
association (p=0.374) between school type and being lunchtime SSB consumer. Appendix
table 2.1 highlights the proportions and the association of lunchtime consumers and non-
consumers for fruit, vegetables and SSBs.
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Table 4; the median (IQR) lunchtime fruit, vegetable and SSB intakes of food group consumers stratified by DEIS status
Total sample (n=724) DEIS (n=253) Non-DEIS (n=471)
Consumers Non-consumers Daily intake School intake Daily intake School intake % School intake Daily intake School intake % School intake
Consumers only were analysed, see appendix table 2.1 for the association between the proportions of non-consumers compared to consumersFruit; 113 (44.66%) DEIS and 303 (64.33%) non-DEIS attenders were included in the above analysis as they were both plausible energy reporters and lunchtime fruit consumersVegetables, 44 (17.39%) DEIS and 130 (27.6%) non-DEIS attenders were included in the above analysis as they were both plausible reporters and lunchtime vegetable consumers.SSB, 121 (47.83%) and 209 (44.37%) of the non-DEIS attenders were included in the above analysis as they were both plausible reporters and lunchtime SSB consumers. P-value; this represents the association between median lunchtime dietary quality in DEIS and non-DEIS schools. Associations were assessed using the Wilcoxon signed rank test.SSB, Sugar Sweetened Beverages; IQR, Interquartile Range
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4.3 The lunchtime intakes of DEIS and non-DEIS 8-11 year olds compared to the SFT and EFSA standards
Lunchtime nutrient and food group intakes among DEIS and non-DEIS groups are noted and
compared to the school food trust (SFT) (19) and European Food Safety Authority (EFSA)
(20) standards and are highlighted in table 5.
Analysis revealed that nutrient standards were exceeded for SF, TS and sodium intakes while
on the other hand were met for protein, TF, carbohydrate, AS and DF intake. Mean lunchtime
energy intake exceeded such standards in non-DEIS schools but remained within the
recommended range for DEIS population groups (table 5).
The dietary quality of school lunch is additionally highlighted in table 5. Analyses only
conducted on consumers, lunchtime standards were met for mean fruit intake in both DEIS
and non-DEIS groups. However lunchtime standards were not met for mean vegetable intake.
A greater proportion of non-DEIS participants (n=262, 55.63%) were non-consumers of SSB
compared to DEIS participants (n=132, 52.17%) however when SSB consumers and non-
consumers were compared across DEIS and non-DEIS groups no statistical association was
found (p=0.374).
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Table 5; Lunchtime nutrient and food group intakes according to set standards1 for primary school childrenDEIS2 Non-DEIS3
Nutrient/ Food group Min/Max %4 Nutrient Standard Nutrient intake % Standard Met Nutrient intake % Standard Met
Nutrient5 Mean (SD) Mean (SD)Energy (kcal) EAR6 30% (±5%) 503-557kcal 543.93 (279.9) 28.8% Yes 599.49 (331.76) 32% NoProtein (g) Min 10-30%E7 7.5-47.25g 16.91(10.75) 12.56%E Yes 18.35 (11.4) 12.6%E YesTotal Fat (g) Max 25-35%E 2.53-20.6g 17.59(11.43) 28.9 %E Yes 20.44 (17.67) 29.2%E YesSaturated fat (g) Max <=10%E <=6.5g 7.79 (5.83) 12.8%E No 8.36 (6.25) 12.2%E NoCarbohydrate (g) Min 45-65%E 70.6-217.11g 83.86 (51.77) 63.7%E Yes 90.1(47.71) 61.24%E YesTotal sugar8(g) Max 18%E <=30g 35.33 (39.07) 25.2%E No 43.08 (30.73) 29.38%E NoAdded sugar (g) Max <=10%E <=15.5g 12.99 (31.8) 8.26%E Yes 9.87 (21.58) 6.03%E YesDietary Fibre (g) Min 30% >=4.2g 4.36 (2.5) 32.16% Yes 5.36 (3.93) 35% YesSodium (mg) Max 30% 0-499mg 827.28 (527.6) 31.27% No 828.55 34.5% No
Food group9 Median (IQR) Median (IQR)Fruit (g)10 No less than one portion a day 65g 91.7 (87.3) 1.4 portions Yes 101 (118.0) 1.6 portions YesVegetables11 (g) No less than one portion a day 65g 23.7 (27.0) 0.36
portionNo 22.5 (27.5) 0.35 portion No
SSB12 (ml) The School Food Trust strongly encourages schools not to provide drinks that are sweetened.
200 (283.5) No 242.7 (242) No
1 Other than for sugar, all lunchtime nutrient and dietary standards were set by 19. School Food Trust. A guide to introducing the Government’s food-based and nutrient-based standards for school lunches 2007 [cited 2015 21 April]. Available from: http://www.childrensfoodtrust.org.uk/assets/sft_nutrition_guide.pdf.2 Data was analysed from 253 (34.9%) DEIS children as they were plausible reporters3 Data was analysed from 471 (65.1%) non-DEIS children as they were plausible reporters4 %, The recommended food energy that should be consumed per each nutrient and dietary group at lunchtime as well as over the whole day 25. Flynn MA, O'Brien CM, Faulkner G, Flynn CA, Gajownik M, Burke SJ. Revision of food-based dietary guidelines for Ireland, Phase 1: evaluation of Ireland's food guide. Public health nutrition. 2012;15(03):518-26.5 The nutrient intake data was slightly smaller as not all DEIS children provided the necessary information in their food diary. The sample population was 1,057 children in total, 681 from the non-DEIS group and 376 from the DEIS population6 EAR, Estimated Average Requirement7 %E, the percentage energy of nutrient intake8 Sugar, standards were set by. 20. European Food Safety Authority. Review of labelling reference intake values: "Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies on a request from the Commission related to the review of labelling reference intake values for selected nutritional elements". The EFSA Journal. 2009(1008,):1-14.9 Median intakes of the consumers of each food group only were included in the analysis10 418 (57.7%) participants in total were included in the analysis as they were fruit consumers and plausible reporters, 113 (27.0%) were from the DEIS group whilst 305 (73.0%) were from the non-DEIS population. Non-consumers for fruit at lunchtime from the total sample was 306 (42.3 %), 140(45.8%) from DEIS schools and 166(54.2%) from non-DEIS schools. 11174 (24.0%) participants in total were included in the analysis as they were vegetable consumers and plausible reporters, 44 (11.6%) were from the DEIS group whilst 130 (19.1%) were from the non-DEIS population. Non-consumers for vegetables at lunchtime from the total sample was 550 (76%), 209(82.6%) from DEIS schools and 341(72.4%) from non-DEIS schools.12 SSB; Sugar Sweetened Beverages. 330 (31.12%) participants in total were included in the analysis as they were vegetable consumers and plausible reporters, 209 (30.7%) were from the DEIS group whilst 121 (31.9%) were from the non-DEIS population. In total 394 (54.4%) plausible reporters met the SSB recommendations by being non-consumers at lunchtime, 132 (52.2%) were from the DEIS group whilst 262 (55.6%) were from the non-DEIS population
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4.4 The contribution of lunchtime nutrient intake and dietary quality relative to energy
intake
The mean daily energy intakes on schooldays were 1908.66 and 1868.97 kcal for DEIS and
non-DEIS schools respectively, with energy intakes from foods eaten at school assessed as
543.93 kcal for DEIS populations and 599.49 kcal for non-DEIS populations (table 3).
Overall, mean lunchtime protein intakes were 12.6 percent energy (%E). Mean lunchtime fat
intakes were 29.09 %E for the total population. Similarly, those who attend DEIS schools
were found to be below the total average with mean lunchtime fat intakes of 28.9%E whereas
those who attend non-DEIS schools have higher lunchtime intakes (29.2%E, p=0.99). For
total carbohydrate, mean lunchtime intakes were 61.41 %E, with DEIS attenders having the
higher intakes of 63.7 %E and non-DEIS attenders having slightly lower intakes of 61.24 %E
(p=0.8). Lunchtime SF intakes for the total sample were 12.4%E, with DEIS and non-DEIS
populations consuming 12.8 and 12.2 %E of SF during school lunch respectively (p=0.79).
Mean lunchtime TS consumed among the total sample was 27.92 %E. Non-DEIS schools had
higher lunchtime sugar intakes than non-DEIS (29.38 vs. 25.27 %E). This was considered
significant between DEIS and non-DEIS groups (p=0.002). For the total sample, mean AS
consumed at school lunch was 6.8%E. Mean lunchtime AS consumption was higher for the
DEIS attenders (8.26%E) compared to the non-DEIS attenders (6.03%E, p=0.09). The mean
%E provided by the aforementioned nutrients over the full day as well as at lunchtime is
highlighted in figure 1. Figure 2 represents the %E contribution of protein, fat, SF,
carbohydrate, TS and AS towards the children’s mean daily intake as well as their mean
lunchtime intake. The resulting data is divided into DEIS and non-DEIS populations.
Similarly, figure 3 represents the breakdown of lunchtime %E between DEIS and non-DEIS
populations with respect to each nutrient.
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Figure 1, the food energy13 attained from nutrients (protein14, total fat15, saturated fat16, carbohydrate17, total sugar18 and added sugar19) over the full school day vs. school lunch. Analysed from a sample of 8-11 year old children20 divided into DEIS and non-DEIS groups.21
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Figure 2, percent energy (%E) macronutrient intakes over the full school day by 8-11 year old children attending DEIS and non-DEIS schools, Co. Cork Ireland
Figure 3, percent energy (%E) lunchtime macronutrient intake by 8-11 year old children attending DEIS and non-DEIS schools, Co. Cork Ireland
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Whole day protein %E Whole day fat %EWhole day SF %E Whole day carbohydrate %EWhole day sugar %E Whole day AS %E
The 24 hour school day macronutrient intake by DEIS and non-DEIS populations
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Lunchtime protein %E Lunchtime fat %ELunchtime SF %E Lunchtime carbohydrate %ELunchtime sugar %E Lunchtime AS %E
The Lunchtime Macronutrient %E in DEIS and non-DEIS populations
Energy under-reporters (n=366, 31.7%) were excluded from the analysis, leaving a total sample of 724 (68.3%) stratified by DEIS (n=253, 34.94%) and non-DEIS (n=471, 65.06%) groups %E, the percentage energy of macronutrient intake; SF, saturated fat; AS, added sugar
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4.5 Univariate and multivariate analysis of nutrient intake and the dietary quality of
school lunch
A univariate analysis of nutrient intake is outlined in table 6. A higher number of DEIS
students consumed adequate amounts of TS compared to non-DEIS students. However, more
non-DEIS students consumed adequate amounts of, carbohydrate and DF compared to their
counterparts. There were no significant differences between school type and intake adequacy
for energy, protein, TF, SF, AS and sodium. In table 7, a univariate analysis of dietary quality
is outlined portraying the odds ratio (OR) and the 95 % Confidence Interval (CI) for the
lunchtime intake of fruit, vegetables and SSBs. The univariate model takes only the assessed
food group and DEIS status into consideration.
The lunchtime nutrient intake and dietary quality were compared to five important
demographic factors including gender, age, BMI, the BMI of the parent or guardian and the
family type of the children. The comparison of school lunch quality in accordance to the
aforementioned demographic factors for DEIS groups is displayed in table 8 and is followed
by the same comparison for non-DEIS groups in table 9.
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Table 6, a univariate analyses on the proportion of 8-11 year old children attending DEIS and non-DEIS primary schools consuming adequate lunchtime nutrient intake, CCLaS, Co. Cork.
Total (n=724) DEIS (n=471) Non-DEIS (n=253)
Nutrient n % n % n % P-Value
Energy (kcal) 67 9.25 % 19 7.51 % 48 10.19 % 0.235Protein (g) 623 86.05 % 207 81.82 % 416 88.32 % 0.016Total Fat (g) 448 61.88 % 166 65.61 % 282 59.87 % 0.129Saturated Fat (g) 356 49.17 % 131 51.78 % 225 47.77 % 0.304Carbohydrate (g) 429 59.25 % 130 51.38 % 229 63.48 % 0.002Total Sugar (g) 313 43.23 % 145 57.31 % 168 35.67 % <0.0001Added Sugar (g) 573 79.14 % 191 75.49 % 382 81.10 % 0.076Dietary Fibre (g) 374 51.66 % 106 41.90 % 268 56.90 % <0.0001Sodium (mg) 174 24.03 % 103 21.87 % 71 28.06 % 0.063The adequacy of each nutrient intake is defined by the SFT (19), this excludes total sugar which is defined by EFSA (20) as no known recommendation is given in the SFT reportNutrient intake, 724(68.3%) plausible energy reporters were included in the nutrient intake analysis. 336 (31.7%) were excluded due to energy under-reporting. 253(66.75%) plausible DEIS reporters and 471 (69.2%) plausible non-DEIS reporters were included in the lunchtime nutrient intake analysis.P-value, the differences between DEIS and non-DEIS populations meeting the recommended guidelines for lunchtime nutrient and food group intake. The differences were assessed using χ2 tests of association
Table 7, a univariate analyses on the dietary quality of school lunch by 8-11 year old children attending DEIS and non-DEIS primary schools, CCLaS, Co. Cork.Food Group 0R 95 % CIFruit (g) 0.45 0.33-0.61Vegetables (g) 0.55 0.38-0.81Sugar Sweetened Beverages (ml) 1.14 0.85-1.56The univariate model takes only the appropriate food group and DEIS status into accountFruit, consumers and plausible energy reporters only were analysed (n=416, 57.46%). This was further stratified by DEIS status (DEIS: n=113, 44.66%; non-DEIS: n=303, 64.5%) Vegetable, consumers and plausible energy reporters only were analysed (n=174, 24.03%). This was further stratified by DEIS status (DEIS: n=44, 17.39%; non-DEIS: n=130, 27.6%). SSB, consumers and plausible reporters only were included in the analysis (n=330, 45.58%). This was further stratified by DEIS status (DEIS: n=121, 47.83%; non-DEIS=209, 44.37%). SSB non-consumers (n=394, 54.42%) meet the SFT standard of 0ml per school lunch. This was further stratified by DEIS status, (DEIS: n=132, 52.17%; non-DEIS: n=262, 55.63%).
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Table 8, the mean and the median lunchtime nutrient and food group intake among DEIS groupsDEIS
Two Parents 158 (69.3%) 531 (277.9) 16.6 (10.9) 16.7 (11.3) 7.3 (5.5) 82.8 (53.6) 36.1 (43) 14.4 (34.9) 4.1 (2.24) 789.8 (496.4) 90 (80.7) 16.7 (19.5) 208.3 (236.7)Total DEIS group, it was only the children who were plausible energy reporters, which were included in the analysis (n=253, 67.29%)Food groups, the analysed sample included plausible reporters and food group consumers only; 113 (30.05%) participants, who provided a food diary, were included in the analysis as they were fruit consumers and plausible reporters, 44 (11.7%) participants, who provided a food diary, were included in the analysis as they were vegetable consumers and plausible reporters and 209 (55.6%) participants, who provided a food diary, were included in the analysis as they were SSB consumers and plausible reporters, 252 plausible DEIS children reported their gender and were included in the above analysis253 plausible DEIS children reported their age and were included in the above analysis251 plausible DEIS children reported their BMI and were included in the above analysis190 of the DEIS children’s parents reported their BMI and were included in the above analysis228 of the DEIS children’s parents reported their marital status and were included in the above analysisn; the number of DEIS participants where plausible information on nutrient intake was available, by each demographic factor
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Table 9, the Mean and median lunchtime nutrient and food group intake among non-DEIS groupsNon-DEIS
Figures in bold were statistically significant values for nutrient and food group intake between demographic factorChildren aged 10/11 consumed more fat than children aged 8/9 (22.24g vs. 18.93g)Children aged 8/9 consumed more SSBs than children aged 10/11 (138.95ml vs. 91.79ml)The analysed sample reporting mean lunchtime nutrient intake included only plausible reporters (n=471, 65.1%)The analysed sample reporting food group intakes included plausible reporters and food group consumers only. The population samples are as follows;o 303 (44.5%) participants, who provided a food diary, were included in the analysis as they were fruit consumers and plausible reporterso 130 (19.1%) participants, who provided a food diary, were included in the analysis as they were vegetable consumers and plausible reporters.o 209 (30.7%) participants, who provided a food diary, were included in the analysis as they were SSB consumers and plausible reporters.N; the number of non-DEIS participants where plausible information on nutrient intake was available, by each demographic factorIQR; the interquartile range of intakeThe median and IQR values were used to assess the dietary quality of school lunch against demographic characteristics, food group intakes were taken only from the consumers of each food471 plausible DEIS children reported their gender and were included in the above analysis471 plausible DEIS children reported their age and were included in the above analysis466 plausible DEIS children reported their BMI and were included in the above analysis415 of the DEIS children’s parents reported their BMI and were included in the above analysis450 of the DEIS children’s parents reported their marital status and were included in the above analysis
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A multivariate analysis of nutrient intake and dietary quality is outlined in table 10. The OR
calculated for lunchtime nutrient intake indicated that DEIS populations were less likely to
meet the SFT recommendations for lunchtime protein, carbohydrate and DF intakes, while in
contrast, non-DEIS populations were less likely to meet the SFT recommendations for
lunchtime fat, SF, TS and sodium intakes, when adjusted for gender, age parental education
and BMI. Insignificant results were found between school DEIS status and lunchtime energy,
and AS intake. However, when the model was further adjusted for physical activity (PA), the
odds of DEIS population groups meeting the SF lunchtime standards compared to non-DEIS
groups were no longer statistically significant (p=0.074), however other nutrients remained
significant (table10).
Similar to the univariate model (table 7), the OR calculated for lunchtime dietary quality
taking various confounders into consideration indicated that DEIS groups were less likely to
meet the SFT recommendations for F&V compared to non-DEIS groups (table 10) as non-
DEIS groups were less likely to meet the SFT recommendations for SSB intake compared to
their counterparts in DEIS schools. However, each association was insignificant in the
multivariate model (table 10).
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Table 10, a multivariate logistic regression model reporting the odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence interval (95% CI) for lunchtime nutrient and food group intake among 8-11 year old children attending DEIS22 and non-DEIS23 primary schools, Co. Cork. The test showed the likelihood24 of a particular group to meet the nutrient and food group recommendations25 in comparison to their counterparts.26
22 Data was analysed from 210 DEIS children out of the total sample of 389 as they were not under reporters23 Data was analysed from 471 non-DEIS children out of the total sample of 686 as they were not under reporters24 If OR>1, DEIS schools were more likely to meet the nutrient and food group recommendation compared to non-DEIS schools25 The recommendations used in the present report were taken from 19. School Food Trust. A guide to introducing the Government’s food-based and nutrient-based standards for school lunches 2007 [cited 2015 21 April]. Available from: http://www.childrensfoodtrust.org.uk/assets/sft_nutrition_guide.pdf. For each nutrient except TS, which was attained from 20. European Food Safety Authority. Review of labelling reference intake values: "Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies on a request from the Commission related to the review of labelling reference intake values for selected nutritional elements". The EFSA Journal. 2009(1008,):1-14. Upper limits were decided upon for protein and carbohydrate intakes. Lower limits were decided upon for fat and sodium intakes using the standard deviation of the mean.26 The results highlighted in bold were statistically significant (p<0.05)27 The recommended energy lunchtime intake was 503-557 kcal28 The recommended lunchtime protein intake was 7.5-47.25g 29 The recommended lunchtime fat intake was 2.53-20.6g30 The recommended lunchtime SF intake was <=6.5g31 The recommended lunchtime carbohydrate intake was 70.6-217.11g32 The recommended lunchtime TS intake was <=30g33 The recommended lunchtime AS intake was <=15.5g34 The recommended lunchtime DF intake was >=4.2g35 The recommended lunchtime intake was 0-499mg36 The recommended lunchtime F&V intake was 65g each37 413 (38.96%) participants in total were included in the analysis as they were fruit consumers and plausible reporters, 113 (29.8%) were from the DEIS group whilst 303 (44.5%) were from the non-DEIS population.38 174 (16.42%) participants in total were included in the analysis as they were vegetable consumers and plausible reporters, 44 (11.6%) were from the DEIS group whilst 130 (19.1%) were from the non-DEIS population.39 There is no set SSB recommendation, as they offer no nutritional benefit to the consumer. 40In total, 330 (31.12%) of the participants who provided a food diary were included in the analysis as they were vegetable consumers and plausible reporters, 209 (30.7%) were from the DEIS group whilst 121 (31.9%) were from the non-DEIS population. In total 394 (37.2%) plausible reporters who provided a food diary, met the SSB recommendations by being non-consumers at lunchtime, 132 (34.8%) were from the DEIS group whilst 262 (38.47%) were from the non-DEIS population41 Model 1 was adjusted for gender, age and parental education42 Model 2 was adjusted for gender, age, parental education and BMI43 Model 3 was adjusted for gender, age, parental education, BMI and whether physical activity recommendations were met
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Chapter 5: DiscussionUsing Irish representative data, the present study examined for the first time the nutrient
intake and the dietary quality of school lunch in 8-11 year old children attending DEIS and
non-DEIS primary schools in county Cork, Ireland.
One of the key findings from the study was that the school lunch quality in DEIS and non-
DEIS schools followed a similar pattern. Imbalances in nutrient intake were noted in both
groups for saturated fat (SF), total sugar (TS) and sodium (19, 20), however, lunchtime
intakes for protein, fat, carbohydrate, added sugar (AS) and dietary fibre (DF) were met in
both population groups (19). Mean lunchtime energy intakes were above the School Food
Trust (SFT) recommendations in non-DEIS schools (19) while DEIS groups had mean
intakes within the recommended range (19). Mean sodium were classified as poor in both
DEIS and non-DEIS schools. In fact, levels were so high that they also surpassed 733.3mg,
the tolerable upper intake level (51), which is the highest daily intake level identified as being
associated with no increased health risk (51). In similar motion, there were no major
differences in the dietary quality of school lunch between DEIS and non-DEIS primary
school children. Both groups consumed sufficient amount of fruit products however
imbalances in vegetable and SSB lunchtime according to the SFT guidelines (19). There were
no significant differences in the dietary intakes between DEIS and non-DEIS primary
schools.
Univariate analysis between nutrient intake and DEIS status confirmed that lunchtime
standards for TS (20) were met by less children from non-DEIS primary schools compared to
DEIS primary schools. Alternatively, the lunchtime standards for DF (19) were met by a
smaller proportion of DEIS participants compared to non-DEIS participants. As for the
dietary quality of school lunch, univariate analysis established that 8-11 year old children
attending DEIS were less likely to meet the SFT recommendations for lunchtime fruit
(p<0.0001) and vegetables (p=0.002) intake (19) compared to non-DEIS children of the same
age group. Conversely, those from non-DEIS groups were less likely to adequately consume
SSB compared to DEIS groups (19) however this was statistically insignificant (p=0.374).
Multivariate logistic regression analysis identified the impact confounding had on lunchtime
nutrient intake by 8-11 year old primary school children in DEIS and non-DEIS schools.
When adjusted for confounders such as gender, age, parental education and BMI, non-DEIS
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attenders were less likely to meet the recommended lunchtime standards for SF and sodium
(19). However when physical activity (PA) was taken into account, there were no longer any
statistical differences between the adequacy of SF intake and school level of deprivation, i.e.
DEIS vs. non-DEIS schools (p=0.074), whereas other lunchtime nutrient intakes remained
significant. Multivariate analysis additionally proved that when confounding was taken into
consideration no significant differences were found for F&V intake between DEIS and non-
DEIS schools. Thus, confounding had a strong influence on the F&V consumption in the
sample of DEIS and non-DEIS primary schools.
In agreement with previously published studies (8, 52), the present study found that the
nutritional intake and dietary quality of school lunch could be improved in primary school
children. Children attending non-DEIS schools, who consumed a packed lunch, had
considerably higher lunchtime intakes for energy, fat, carbohydrate, TS and DF. Similarly,
Gatenby et al, (52) noted that children who consumed a packed lunch had significantly
greater energy and fat lunchtime intakes compared to those consuming a school meal.
Gatenby also found that lunchtime sodium intakes were much lower for those who consumed
school meals in primary schools in areas of high and low affluence compared to those who
consumed a packed lunch in the same schools (52). This differed to the present study where
both DEIS schools, consuming a provided meal, and non-DEIS schools, consuming a packed
lunch had lunchtime sodium intakes much higher than what is recommended by the SFT. See
appendix table 3.1 for a broader representation of the results attained from the research
conducted by Gatenby. Relative to energy intake, lunchtime nutrient intake in both DEIS and
non-DEIS schools failed to comply with the recommended food energy standards for SF and
TS both over the full school day and at lunch. This inadequacy was mirrored by Walton et al,
(8) where a sample of primary level children were found to have exceeded 10 and 18%E for
SF and TS intake. However, this sample of primary school children had adequate intakes for
AS whereas research by Walton (8) did not. This could be due to Walton’s utilisation of a 7-
day food dairy rather than a 3-day representation similar to this report. Generally, 3-day food
diaries give a more accurate representation of food intake as reported intakes tend to decrease
with a broader recording period (53). See appendix table 3.2 for an in depth representation of
the results attained from the research conducted by Walton.
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Strengths & Limitations of the studyThe strengths and limitations of the present study merit consideration. One limitation is that
in involved the self-reporting of food intake by the children themselves, which may have led
to the high proportion of under-reporting. As energy under-reporting prevents the accuracy of
habitual food intake, under-reporters were excluded from the analysis. Therefore, there was a
reduction in sample size, thus less statistical power. Additionally, the data used to define
nutrient and food group intake was quite skewed, making the results difficult to interpret. One
of the strengths to the present study worth noting is that it is one of the first European studies
designed to collect in depth data on lifestyle, diet, and PA. This study collected objectively
measured physical activity data in free-living conditions over a 7-day period. Additionally,
the debriefed 3-day estimated food diaries used to provide comprehensive data on dietary
intake patterns and behaviours within the sample of 8-11 year old children.
Chapter 6: ConclusionIn conclusion, the key finding of the present study is that there are no substantial differences
in the nutrient intakes and dietary quality of school lunch between DEIS and non-DEIS, 8-11
year old children. Examination of nutrient intake at lunchtime has highlighted nutritional
imbalances for intakes of saturated fat (SF), total sugar (TS) and sodium in both school
categories (19, 20). Furthermore, mean lunchtime energy intakes exceeded the standard
school lunch guidelines in non-DEIS however DEIS schools met these standards (19).
Univariate analysis of lunchtime nutrition intakes for protein, carbohydrate and dietary fibre
(DF) found that non-DEIS schools had significantly higher proportions of adequate
consumers compared to DEIS attenders. On the other hand, those in the DEIS group had
significantly more adequate consumers for TS compared to their counterparts. Multivariate
analysis explained that the influence of various confounders including age, gender, parental
education and BMI impacted the nutrient intakes of the children. Lunchtime intakes for fat,
SF and sodium were found to have significantly more adequate consumers from DEIS
schools then it did for non-DEIS schools. Additionally, the inclusion of physical activity (PA)
attenuated results for meeting recommendation specifically the association between SF
intakes between school-types, was no longer deeming it as significant.
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Dietary quality analysis at lunchtime highlighted that in total, just over half the children
between 8 and 11 years old are consuming fruit (n=416, 57.46%44). Approximately one-
quarter were consuming vegetables (n=174, 24.03%) and just under half the population
consumed SSBs (n=330, 45.58%) at school lunch. From these food group consumers, there
were no statistical differences between the intakes of SSBs in DEIS and non-DEIS primary
schools. Children attending both DEIS and non-DEIS schools, categorised as fruit and
vegetable consumers, the majority of them met the recommendations for fruit (DEIS: n=113,
100%; non-DEIS: n=293, 96.7%) and vegetables (DEIS: n=34, 77.27%; non-DEIS=103,
79.23%) intake (19), though the recommendation was 65g for a portion at school. There were
no significant associations between the median adequacy intakes between school types.
However, when the influence of confounding was taken into account, 8-11 year old children
attending non-DEIS schools were found to have a higher likelihood of consuming adequate
amounts of fruit compared to those attending DEIS schools. The confounders that influenced
this association were gender, age, parental education, BMI and PA.
RecommendationsThe main recommendations are as follows; that the study is repeated using a larger sample
population from various areas in Ireland, not only county Cork. This is necessary to gain a
broader understanding of children’s school consumption in Ireland. Additionally, due to the
time constraints of the present study, it was not possible to analyse every nutrient consumed
by the children during their school lunch hours. As a result, just one micronutrient (sodium)
was analysed. Other micronutrients should be given attention and therefore further studies
should investigate intakes of vitamin C, B12, iron and vitamin D in the analysis.
Additionally, similar to this study, there is a need for the inclusion of confounders in dietary
analysis as many factors have to tendency to vary the quality of food intake.
Total word count for the full report: 7,705
44 The % of food group consumers (fruit, vegetables and SSBs) weans attained by finding the proportion of food group consumers in relation to the total sample of plausible energy reporters (n=724).
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References
1. Harrington J, Fitzgerald AP, Layte R, Lutomski J, Molcho M, Perry IJ.
Sociodemographic, health and lifestyle predictors of poor diets. Public health nutrition.
2011;14(12):2166-75.
2. Andrieu E, Darmon N, Drewnowski A. Low-cost diets: more energy, fewer nutrients.
European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 2006;60(3):434-6.
3. Wilkinson RG, Marmot MG. Social determinants of health: the solid facts: World
Health Organization; 2003.
4. Townsend P. Poverty in the United Kingdom: a survey of household resources and
standards of living: Univ of California Press; 1979.
5. Healthy Food for All. A Good Practice Guide for School Food Initiatives. Dublin:
2009.
6. Friel S. Food poverty and policy: Combat Poverty Agency; 2004.
7. Department of Education and Skills. DEIS: Delivering Equality of Opportunity in
Schools 2005 [cited 2014 11-12-2014]. Available from: http://www.education.ie/en/Schools-
Plausible energy reporters only were included in the above analysisP-value, this represents the differences in the proportions of consumers and non-consumers of food-group intake between DEIS and non-DEIS status. The differences were assessed using a Wilcoxon rank signed test.
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The similarities and dissimilarities of the present study to previous studies of similar principal
Table 3.1, the comparison between the lunchtime nutrient intakes46 found in the present report and the lunchtime nutrient content of school
meals and packed lunches in schools in areas of high and low affluence in a similar study by Gatenby et al, 2011 (52) compared to the school
food trust (SFT) guidelines (19)
McGann, 2015 Gatenby et al, 2011 Guideline of intake47
46 Results are presented as the mean (SD) of intake47 The guidelines used to compare the above lunchtime intakes were taken from the School Food Trust 19. School Food Trust. A guide to introducing the Government’s food-based and nutrient-based standards for school lunches 2007 [cited 2015 21 April]. Available from: http://www.childrensfoodtrust.org.uk/assets/sft_nutrition_guide.pdf.*Mean intakes were outside the SFT guidelinesǂ A statistical comparison between the nutrient intake from school meals and packed lunches in areas of high and low affluence (Gatenby) and between DEIS and non-DEIS primary schools analysed in the present study (p<=0.05).
Table 3.2, the comparison between the percentage energy (%E) for nutrient intake over the full school day and at school lunch found in the
present report and from a similar study by Walton et al, (8) compared to the Irish food-based dietary guidelines (19)
McGann, 2015 Walton et al, 2014 Guideline of intake48
Total DEIS Non-DEISNutrient Full day Lunchtime Full day Lunchtime Full day Lunchtime Full day LunchtimeTF49 (%E) 33.14 29.09 33.25 28.87 33.08 29.2 33.2 31.9 25-35SF50 (%E) 13.82* 12.41* 13.91* 12.77* 13.77* 12.2* 14.2* 13.7* <=10Carb51(%E) 58.81 61.41 59.17 61.73 58.62 61.24 52.6 55.6 45-65TS52 (%E) 25.41*ǂ 27.92*ǂ 24.58*ǂ 25.2*ǂ 25.86*ǂ 29.38*ǂ 24.1*ǂ 27.5*ǂ <=18AS53 (%E) 8.94 6.81 9.72 8.26 8.52 6.03 14* 16.6* <=10
48 There were no guidelines suggesting lunchtime sugar intake in the SFT report and therefore the 30g standard was taken from an EFSA report 20. European Food Safety Authority. Review of labelling reference intake values: "Scientific Opinion of the Panel on Dietetic Products, Nutrition and Allergies on a request from the Commission related to the review of labelling reference intake values for selected nutritional elements". The EFSA Journal. 2009(1008,):1-14. , by dividing the total day sugar recommendation by 3 to get approximately one-third of the recommended intake49 TF, total fat50 SF, saturated fat51 Carb, carbohydrate52 TS, total sugar53 AS, total sugar
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Appendix 4:The instruments used to measure the intake of saturated fat
Prior commencement of this report, the author was working on a systematic literature review
(SLR) which focused on the instruments used to accurately assess the intake of saturated fat
(SF) As a result, the consumption of SF was specially considered in the present report. The
SLR was one of many work packages included in the Determinants of Diet and Physical
activity (DEDIPAC) study. This work package was entitled “what are the assessment
methods used to determine dietary intakes of saturated fats in adults (>18 years) and children
in European countries, according to pan-European studies involving two or more European
countries”.
As previously mentioned in the introduction, ‘dietary fat’ can provide some benefit in the diet
and should be consumed within a certain range. Similar to protein and carbohydrate, it is an
essential macronutrient needed by the human body for optimum growth and nutrition.
However, as stated, large amounts of fat are believed to have toxic effects, leading to weight
gain and development of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). As a result, it is necessary to
adequately assess the dietary intakes of fat, draw conclusions regarding its consumption and
determine the upper limit of its allowance.
Dietary fat is attainable exogenously in two forms, saturated and unsaturated. The European
Food Safety Authority (EFSA) refers to the different dietary fat subgroups, saturated and
unsaturated fat, as non-essential (NEFA) and essential fatty acids (EFA) respectively.
European studies completed by the World Health Organization (WHO) have defined
‘saturated fat’ (SF) as dense sources of energy, which is one of the major causes of obesity in
the European region. It is known that excess intakes of such fats can greatly contribute to the
development of NCDs, i.e. diabetes, cancer and many respiratory diseases. Moreover,
consumption of saturated fats can increase the concentration of LDL cholesterol in the body,
high levels of which can increase the likelihood of developing cardiovascular disease Due to
the widespread increase in obesity rates among Europe and the adverse effects associated
with high levels of saturated fat consumption, it is imperative that the intake of fat can be
accurately assessed using appropriate methodology.
Data sources and study selectionA systematic literature search for pan-European studies assessing the intake of SF was
conducted. Other than SF, broad terms were used to define its consumption in the literature
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search, for example, “dietary fat(s)”, “dietary fatty acid(s)”, “saturated fatty acid(s)”, “volatile