Robert B. Heimann Marino Maggetti Ancient and Historical

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Ancient and Historical CeramicsMaterials, Technology,

Art, and Culinary Traditions

Schweizerbart Science Publishers

Robert B. Heimann Marino Maggetti

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sMaterials, Technology,

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sMaterials, Technology,

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sArt, and Culinary Traditions

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sArt, and Culinary TraditionsArt, and Culinary Traditions

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sArt, and Culinary Traditions

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Ancient and Historical Ceramics:Materials, Technology,

Art, and Culinary Traditions

Robert B. Heimann and Marino Maggetti

With contributions by Gabriele Heimann and Jasmin Maggetti

With 303 fi gures and 47 tables

Schweizerbart Science Publishers Stuttgart 2014

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sRobert B. Heimann and Marino Maggetti

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sRobert B. Heimann and Marino Maggetti

With contributions by Gabriele Heimann

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sWith contributions by Gabriele Heimann

and Jasmin Maggettipage

sand Jasmin Maggetti

With 303 fi gures and 47 tablespa

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eschweizerbart_xxx

R. B. Heimann and M. Maggetti: Ancient and Historical Ceramics: Materials, Technology, Art, and Culinary Traditions

Authors: Prof. Dr. Robert B. Heimann, Am Stadtpark 2A, 02826 Goerlitz, Germany. E-mail: [email protected]. Dr. Marino Maggetti, University of Fribourg, Dept. of Geosciences, Earth Sciences, Chemin du Musée 6, CH-1700 Fribourg, Switzerland. E-mail: [email protected]

We would be pleased to receive your comments on the content of this book:[email protected]

Front cover: See this volume, page 406: Figure 18.4. White pottery bu with carved geometric pattern emulating cast bronze. Shang dynasty, Anyang. 16th–11th centuries BCE. Height 25 cm. © Collection of the Imperial Palace Museum, Beijing, China. The use of this image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license (www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)and attributed to user Rosemania (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China_shang_white_pottery_pot.jpg; accessed Jan 21, 2012).

ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907

© 2014 by E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller), Stuttgart, Germany

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart

Publisher: E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller) Johannesstr. 3A, 70176 Stuttgart, Germany [email protected] www.schweizerbart.de

∞ Printed on permanent paper conforming to ISO 9706-1994

Typesetting: Satzpunkt Ursula Ewert GmbH, BayreuthPrinted in Germany by DZA Druckerei zu Altenburg GmbH, Germany

This publication has been supported by CERAMICA-STIFTUNG BASEL

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ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7

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ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907

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Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907

© 2014 by E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller), Stuttgart,

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© 2014 by E. Schweizerbart’sche Verlagsbuchhandlung (Nägele u. Obermiller), Stuttgart,

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Germany

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Germany

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval Sample

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, Sam

ple

system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of E. Schweizerbart’sche Sam

ple

recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of E. Schweizerbart’sche Sample

Verlagsbuchhandlung, StuttgartSample

Verlagsbuchhandlung, Stuttgart

This publication has been supported by

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This publication has been supported by CERAMICA-STIFTUNG BASEL

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CERAMICA-STIFTUNG BASEL

page

s with carved geometric

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s with carved geometric centuries BCE. Height 25 cm.

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s centuries BCE. Height 25 cm.

© Collection of the Imperial Palace Museum, Beijing, China. The use of this image is licensed

page

s© Collection of the Imperial Palace Museum, Beijing, China. The use of this image is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license (www.creativecommons.org/

page

sunder the Creative Commons Attribution 2.0 Generic license (www.creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0)and attributed to user Rosemania (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China_shang_

page

slicenses/by/2.0)and attributed to user Rosemania (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:China_shang_

eschweizerbart_xxx

Preface

Ceramics play a major role in the understanding of ancient societies, both because they were the first man-made material and because, if only in the form of pottery shards, they have a very high survival rate in archaeological contexts. A starting point for the study of ancient ceramics is the reconstruction of their life cycle from the procurement and process-ing of the raw materials, through their forming, decoration and firing, to their distribution, use and reuse. Reconstruction of the life cycle is then followed by its interpretation in order to obtain a better understanding of the people associated with the ceramics. Such a study requires a holistic approach, taking account of the fact that production, distribution and use are firmly embedded within the wider environmental, technological, economic, social, political and ideological context. Thus, close collaboration among archaeologists, histori-ans and physical scientists is essential for success in such studies.

The present book, because of the very wide range of topics, both scientific and cultural, that are covered, represents an extremely valuable contribution to our understanding of the role that ceramics have played in ancient societies. The book starts with a comprehensive intro-duction to the basic science and technology associated with ceramic production. Of par-ticular importance are the inclusion of a brief description of ceramic phase diagrams and their role in interpreting the mineralogical changes occurring during the firing of ceramics, together with a discussion of the mechanical and thermal properties of ceramics particu-larly when in use as cooking pots. The reader is then taken through the historical develop-ments, production technologies, physical properties, and stylistic attributes associated with individual groups of ceramics used in preparation, serving and storage of food. Although, as the authors admit, the coverage cannot be exhaustive, it is unusually wide ranging both geographically, covering much of Europe, the Near East, the Far East and the Americas, and chronologically, spanning the period from more than 10,000 years ago up to the 18th cen-tury AD. In considering production technology, the authors include information provided by contemporary treatises such as those by Abu ‘l Qasim at the beginning of 14th century AD and Cipriano Piccolpasso in 16th century AD, reports by contemporary travellers such as Marco Polo in 13th century AD and Père d’Entrecolles in 18th century AD, and in the case of the production of European porcelains, surviving contemporary documentation. In addi-tion, full use is made of phase diagrams in explaining the mineralogical changes occurring during firing of the different types of porcelain. Finally, a unique feature of the book is that the last section of each of the thirteen chapters on specific ceramic types provides a descrip-tion of the culinary traditions associated with the region and period. A selection of ancient recipes is included for some of which modern versions are provided and tested, with the finished product being photographed and presumably consumed.

In terms of readership, I believe that this book will be valued and enjoyed by both the gen-eral reader with at least some scientific knowledge, and by students of archaeology, art history and archaeometry working at all levels. For the former, by including information on production technology and the potential culinary uses of the ceramics, the book will sup-plement the standard histories of ceramics, such as World Ceramics edited by Robert

Sample

that ceramics have played in ancient societies. The book starts with a comprehensive intro-

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that ceramics have played in ancient societies. The book starts with a comprehensive intro-duction to the basic science and technology associated with ceramic production. Of par-

Sample

duction to the basic science and technology associated with ceramic production. Of par-ticular importance are the inclusion of a brief description of ceramic phase diagrams and

Sample

ticular importance are the inclusion of a brief description of ceramic phase diagrams and their role in interpreting the mineralogical changes occurring during the firing of ceramics,

Sample

their role in interpreting the mineralogical changes occurring during the firing of ceramics, together with a discussion of the mechanical and thermal properties of ceramics particu-

Sample

together with a discussion of the mechanical and thermal properties of ceramics particu-larly when in use as cooking pots. The reader is then taken through the historical develop-

Sample

larly when in use as cooking pots. The reader is then taken through the historical develop-

Sample

ments, production technologies, physical properties, and stylistic attributes associated with

Sample

ments, production technologies, physical properties, and stylistic attributes associated with individual groups of ceramics used in preparation, serving and storage of food. Although, as

Sample

individual groups of ceramics used in preparation, serving and storage of food. Although, as the authors admit, the coverage cannot be exhaustive, it is unusually wide ranging both

Sample

the authors admit, the coverage cannot be exhaustive, it is unusually wide ranging both geographically, covering much of Europe, the Near East, the Far East and the Americas, and

Sample

geographically, covering much of Europe, the Near East, the Far East and the Americas, and chronologically, spanning the period from more than 10,000 years ago up to the 18

Sample

chronologically, spanning the period from more than 10,000 years ago up to the 18tury AD. In considering production technology, the authors include information provided

Sample

tury AD. In considering production technology, the authors include information provided by contemporary treatises such as those by Abu ‘l Qasim at the beginning of 14

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by contemporary treatises such as those by Abu ‘l Qasim at the beginning of 14AD and Cipriano Piccolpasso in 16

Sample

AD and Cipriano Piccolpasso in 16

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as Marco Polo in 13Sample

as Marco Polo in 13thSample

th century AD and Père d’Entrecolles in 18Sample

century AD and Père d’Entrecolles in 18of the production of European porcelains, surviving contemporary documentation. In addi-Sam

ple

of the production of European porcelains, surviving contemporary documentation. In addi-Sample

tion, full use is made of phase diagrams in explaining the mineralogical changes occurring Sample

tion, full use is made of phase diagrams in explaining the mineralogical changes occurring during firing of the different types of porcelain. Finally, a unique feature of the book is that Sam

ple

during firing of the different types of porcelain. Finally, a unique feature of the book is that the last section of each of the thirteen chapters on specific ceramic types provides a descrip-

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the last section of each of the thirteen chapters on specific ceramic types provides a descrip-

page

sancient ceramics is the reconstruction of their life cycle from the procurement and process-

page

sancient ceramics is the reconstruction of their life cycle from the procurement and process-ing of the raw materials, through their forming, decoration and firing, to their distribution,

page

sing of the raw materials, through their forming, decoration and firing, to their distribution, use and reuse. Reconstruction of the life cycle is then followed by its interpretation in order

page

suse and reuse. Reconstruction of the life cycle is then followed by its interpretation in order to obtain a better understanding of the people associated with the ceramics. Such a study

page

sto obtain a better understanding of the people associated with the ceramics. Such a study requires a holistic approach, taking account of the fact that production, distribution and use

page

srequires a holistic approach, taking account of the fact that production, distribution and use are firmly embedded within the wider environmental, technological, economic, social,

page

sare firmly embedded within the wider environmental, technological, economic, social, political and ideological context. Thus, close collaboration among archaeologists, histori-

page

spolitical and ideological context. Thus, close collaboration among archaeologists, histori-ans and physical scientists is essential for success in such studies.

page

sans and physical scientists is essential for success in such studies.

The present book, because of the very wide range of topics, both scientific and cultural, that

page

sThe present book, because of the very wide range of topics, both scientific and cultural, that are covered, represents an extremely valuable contribution to our understanding of the role pa

ges

are covered, represents an extremely valuable contribution to our understanding of the role that ceramics have played in ancient societies. The book starts with a comprehensive intro-pa

ges

that ceramics have played in ancient societies. The book starts with a comprehensive intro-duction to the basic science and technology associated with ceramic production. Of par-pa

ges

duction to the basic science and technology associated with ceramic production. Of par-ticular importance are the inclusion of a brief description of ceramic phase diagrams and pa

ges

ticular importance are the inclusion of a brief description of ceramic phase diagrams and their role in interpreting the mineralogical changes occurring during the firing of ceramics,

page

s

their role in interpreting the mineralogical changes occurring during the firing of ceramics,

eschweizerbart_xxx

VI Preface

Charleston (1981). For the latter, it will be invaluable because its range goes far beyond that of the, in some ways, comparable volume on Ceramic Masterpieces by David Kingery and Pamela Vandiver (1986). Furthermore the range and depth of information provided is such that many chapters will be read with interest by scientists who themselves have researched extensively into the production technology of ancient ceramics.

On a personal note, three chapters that I found particularly interesting are those on Roman earthenware (Chapter 10), Medieval and early German stoneware (Chapter 11), and Prehis-toric New World pottery (Chapter 17). The Roman earthenware chapter concentrates on the production of the high class Roman tableware, Terra Sigillata, and provides valuable discus-sions on the properties of the moulds into which the vessels were thrown, the factors deter-mining the reflectivity of the high gloss surfaces, the operation of the kilns in which the vessels were fired, and the logistics and scale of production and distribution. The German stoneware chapter describes both the products of the Rhineland region from their begin-nings with unglazed stoneware in 8th century AD through to the salt-glazed wares starting in the 13th century AD and reaching their peak during the second half of the 16th century AD, as well as stonewares from Saxony and Silesia in the east of Germany. A highlight for me of the New World chapter is the section on Mississippian culture pottery, tempered with mussel shells, that was produced along the Mississippi valley from about 800-1500 AD. In view of the potential problem of the destructive power of lime blowing that occurs with shell tempered pottery as a result of volume expansion during the post-firing reformation of calcium carbonate, the reasons for the use of shell temper in terms of the resulting improved workability of the clay and mechanical properties of the pottery are first discussed. The mechanism by which lime blowing can be avoided through the addition of common salt (NaCl) to the clay is then fully explained, and whether or not the problem of lime blowing was avoided in the case of Mississippian pottery by the intentional addition of small quanti-ties of salt is considered.

Both authors are mineralogists by training. One (RBH) has researched into both ancient and modern ceramics, with his interest in and understanding of ancient ceramics undoubtedly gaining significantly as a result of his long-time collaboration with the Canadian guru of technological studies of ancient materials, Ursula Martius Franklin. In contrast, the other (MM) has spent a major part of his career undertaking research and supervising PhD stu-dents in the field of ancient ceramic technology and provenance. Thus, the authors are very well qualified to produce a book that makes an extremely valuable and, through its inclu-sion of history, technology and culinary practice, a unique addition to the currently availa-ble literature on ancient ceramics.

Michael TiteOxford, UK

References

Charleston, R.J. (ed.) (1981). World Ceramics – An illustrated history from earliest times. London: Hamlyn. ISBN 0-600-34261-1.

Kingery, W.D. and Vandiver, P.B. (1986). Ceramic Masterpieces – Art, Structure, and Technology. New York: The Free Press. ISBN 0-02-91848-0-0.

Sample

shell tempered pottery as a result of volume expansion during the post-firing reformation of

Sample

shell tempered pottery as a result of volume expansion during the post-firing reformation of calcium carbonate, the reasons for the use of shell temper in terms of the resulting improved

Sample

calcium carbonate, the reasons for the use of shell temper in terms of the resulting improved workability of the clay and mechanical properties of the pottery are first discussed. The

Sample

workability of the clay and mechanical properties of the pottery are first discussed. The mechanism by which lime blowing can be avoided through the addition of common salt

Sample

mechanism by which lime blowing can be avoided through the addition of common salt

Sample

(NaCl) to the clay is then fully explained, and whether or not the problem of lime blowing

Sample

(NaCl) to the clay is then fully explained, and whether or not the problem of lime blowing was avoided in the case of Mississippian pottery by the intentional addition of small quanti-

Sample

was avoided in the case of Mississippian pottery by the intentional addition of small quanti-ties of salt is considered.

Sample

ties of salt is considered.

Both authors are mineralogists by training. One (RBH) has researched into both ancient and

Sample

Both authors are mineralogists by training. One (RBH) has researched into both ancient and modern ceramics, with his interest in and understanding of ancient ceramics undoubtedly

Sample

modern ceramics, with his interest in and understanding of ancient ceramics undoubtedly gaining significantly as a result of his long-time collaboration with the Canadian guru of

Sample

gaining significantly as a result of his long-time collaboration with the Canadian guru of technological studies of ancient materials, Ursula Martius Franklin. In contrast, the other

Sample

technological studies of ancient materials, Ursula Martius Franklin. In contrast, the other (MM) has spent a major part of his career undertaking research and supervising PhD stu-

Sample

(MM) has spent a major part of his career undertaking research and supervising PhD stu-

Sample

dents in the field of ancient ceramic technology and provenance. Thus, the authors are very Sample

dents in the field of ancient ceramic technology and provenance. Thus, the authors are very well qualified to produce a book that makes an extremely valuable and, through its inclu-Sam

ple

well qualified to produce a book that makes an extremely valuable and, through its inclu-sion of history, technology and culinary practice, a unique addition to the currently availa-Sam

ple

sion of history, technology and culinary practice, a unique addition to the currently availa-ble literature on ancient ceramics.Sam

ple

ble literature on ancient ceramics.

page

storic New World pottery (Chapter 17). The Roman earthenware chapter concentrates on the

page

storic New World pottery (Chapter 17). The Roman earthenware chapter concentrates on the

, and provides valuable discus-

page

s, and provides valuable discus-sions on the properties of the moulds into which the vessels were thrown, the factors deter-

page

ssions on the properties of the moulds into which the vessels were thrown, the factors deter-mining the reflectivity of the high gloss surfaces, the operation of the kilns in which the

page

smining the reflectivity of the high gloss surfaces, the operation of the kilns in which the vessels were fired, and the logistics and scale of production and distribution. The German

page

svessels were fired, and the logistics and scale of production and distribution. The German stoneware chapter describes both the products of the Rhineland region from their begin-

page

sstoneware chapter describes both the products of the Rhineland region from their begin-

century AD through to the salt-glazed wares starting

page

s century AD through to the salt-glazed wares starting

century AD and reaching their peak during the second half of the 16

page

s century AD and reaching their peak during the second half of the 16

AD, as well as stonewares from Saxony and Silesia in the east of Germany. A highlight for

page

sAD, as well as stonewares from Saxony and Silesia in the east of Germany. A highlight for me of the New World chapter is the section on Mississippian culture pottery, tempered with

page

sme of the New World chapter is the section on Mississippian culture pottery, tempered with mussel shells, that was produced along the Mississippi valley from about 800-1500 AD. In pa

ges

mussel shells, that was produced along the Mississippi valley from about 800-1500 AD. In view of the potential problem of the destructive power of lime blowing that occurs with pa

ges

view of the potential problem of the destructive power of lime blowing that occurs with shell tempered pottery as a result of volume expansion during the post-firing reformation of pa

ges

shell tempered pottery as a result of volume expansion during the post-firing reformation of calcium carbonate, the reasons for the use of shell temper in terms of the resulting improved pa

ges

calcium carbonate, the reasons for the use of shell temper in terms of the resulting improved workability of the clay and mechanical properties of the pottery are first discussed. The

page

s

workability of the clay and mechanical properties of the pottery are first discussed. The

eschweizerbart_xxx

Acknowledgments

Many colleagues, research organisations and museums generously provided information and expertise, digital images, SEM micrographs, graphics, analytical data, and advice on ancient and historical pottery. We are gratefully acknowledging this invaluable support. We are also most thankful for the time many colleagues devoted to critically reviewing indi-vidual chapters of this volume.

We would like to acknowledge able assistance by Dr Barbara Helwing, Deutsches Archäo-logisches Institut, Berlin (Arismān pottery); Dr Lutz Martin, Vorderasiatisches Museum Ber-lin (Tell Halaf pottery); Prof. Dr Pieter ter Keurs, Rijkmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden, The Netherlands (Tepe Sialk pottery); Prof. Dr Walter Noll †, Leverkusen, Germany (Mesopota-mian and Minoan pottery); Prof. Dr Herbert Kroll and Dr Martin Görres, Westfälische Wil-helms-Universität Münster, Germany (Grey Minyan pottery); Dr Alexandra Christopoulou, National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece (Sesklo and Dimini pottery); Dr Yannis Maniatis, N.C.S.R. Democritos, Athens, Greece (Neolithic Greek pottery); Dr Michael Lind-blom, Uppsala University, Sweden (Helladic pottery); Prof. Eleni Hasaki, University of Ari-zona, Tucson, AZ, USA (Greek pottery kilns); Dr Rüdiger Schmidt, Landesarchäologie Rheinland-Pfalz, Speyer, Germany (Roman Terra sigillata mould); Ms Martine Beck-Coppo-la, Réunion des Musées Nationaux Sèvres, France (White earthenware), Dr Thorsten Schifer, Reiss-Engelhorn Museum, Mannheim, Germany (Saxon stoneware); Dr Sally Schöne, Hetjens-Museum, Düsseldorf, Germany (Rhenish stoneware); Prof. Dr Ulrich Pietsch, Cora Würmell and Annette Loesch, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Dresden, Germany (Meissen and Chinese porcelains); Dr Bernd Ullrich, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany (Böttger stoneware and Meissen porcelain); Prof. J. Victor Owen, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada (phosphatic stoneware); Prof. Ian Freestone, Uni-versity College, London, UK (bone ash porcelain); Mr Sam Richardson, The Potteries Mu-seum & Art Gallery, Stoke-on-Trent, UK (Spode bone china); Dr Alpagut Kara, Anadolu University, Turkey (modern bone china); Dr Daniela Triadan, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA (White Mountain red ware); Mr William R. Iseminger, Collinsville, IL, USA (Mis-sissippian effigy bowls); Ms Heather A. Shannon, National Museum of the American Indian, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA (Mississippian engraved pottery); Prof. Pru-dence M. Rice, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA (Maya pottery); Prof. Thilo Rehren, University College, London, UK (Chinese proto-porcelain); Prof. Michael Tite, Ox-ford, UK (Longquan celadon ware); Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis, MN, USA (Song Longquan celadon ware); Mr John C. Shaw, Chiang Mai, Thailand (Sukhothai, Si Satchanalai and Northern Thai pottery); Freer Gallery of Art and Arthur M. Sackler Gallery, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA (Northern Thai pottery); Prof. Yoshihiro Ku-sano, Kurashiki University, Okayama, Japan (Bizen stoneware); The Trustees of the British Museum, London, UK (Jōmōn, Egyptian, Anatolian, Near East, Mycenaean, Attic, Corinth-ian and Roman pottery; German stoneware, bone china); The Victoria and Albert Museum, London, UK (Italian maiolica, French soft-paste porcelain, Japanese pottery, stoneware and porcelain); Tokyo National Museum, Japan (Imari porcelain); Ms Anne-Claire Schumacher,

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blom, Uppsala University, Sweden (Helladic pottery); Prof. Eleni Hasaki, University of Ari-

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blom, Uppsala University, Sweden (Helladic pottery); Prof. Eleni Hasaki, University of Ari-zona, Tucson, AZ, USA (Greek pottery kilns); Dr Rüdiger Schmidt, Landesarchäologie

Sample

zona, Tucson, AZ, USA (Greek pottery kilns); Dr Rüdiger Schmidt, Landesarchäologie Rheinland-Pfalz, Speyer, Germany (Roman Terra sigillata mould); Ms Martine Beck-Coppo-

Sample

Rheinland-Pfalz, Speyer, Germany (Roman Terra sigillata mould); Ms Martine Beck-Coppo-la, Réunion des Musées Nationaux Sèvres, France (White earthenware), Dr Thorsten Schifer,

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la, Réunion des Musées Nationaux Sèvres, France (White earthenware), Dr Thorsten Schifer, Reiss-Engelhorn Museum, Mannheim, Germany (Saxon stoneware); Dr Sally Schöne,

Sample

Reiss-Engelhorn Museum, Mannheim, Germany (Saxon stoneware); Dr Sally Schöne, Hetjens-Museum, Düsseldorf, Germany (Rhenish stoneware); Prof. Dr Ulrich Pietsch, Cora

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Hetjens-Museum, Düsseldorf, Germany (Rhenish stoneware); Prof. Dr Ulrich Pietsch, Cora Würmell and Annette Loesch, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Dresden, Germany

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Würmell and Annette Loesch, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Dresden, Germany

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(Meissen and Chinese porcelains); Dr Bernd Ullrich, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg,

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(Meissen and Chinese porcelains); Dr Bernd Ullrich, TU Bergakademie Freiberg, Freiberg, Germany (Böttger stoneware and Meissen porcelain); Prof. J. Victor Owen, Saint Mary’s

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Germany (Böttger stoneware and Meissen porcelain); Prof. J. Victor Owen, Saint Mary’s University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada (phosphatic stoneware); Prof. Ian Freestone, Uni-

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University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada (phosphatic stoneware); Prof. Ian Freestone, Uni-versity College, London, UK (bone ash porcelain); Mr Sam Richardson, The Potteries Mu-

Sample

versity College, London, UK (bone ash porcelain); Mr Sam Richardson, The Potteries Mu-seum & Art Gallery, Stoke-on-Trent, UK (Spode bone china); Dr Alpagut Kara, Anadolu

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seum & Art Gallery, Stoke-on-Trent, UK (Spode bone china); Dr Alpagut Kara, Anadolu University, Turkey (modern bone china); Dr Daniela Triadan, University of Arizona, Tucson,

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University, Turkey (modern bone china); Dr Daniela Triadan, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA (White Mountain red ware); Mr William R. Iseminger, Collinsville, IL, USA (Mis-

Sample

AZ, USA (White Mountain red ware); Mr William R. Iseminger, Collinsville, IL, USA (Mis-sissippian effigy bowls); Ms Heather A. Shannon, National Museum of the American Indian, Sam

ple

sissippian effigy bowls); Ms Heather A. Shannon, National Museum of the American Indian, Sample

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA (Mississippian engraved pottery); Prof. Pru-Sample

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C., USA (Mississippian engraved pottery); Prof. Pru-dence M. Rice, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA (Maya pottery); Prof. Thilo Sam

ple

dence M. Rice, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL, USA (Maya pottery); Prof. Thilo Rehren, University College, London, UK (Chinese proto-porcelain); Prof. Michael Tite, Ox-Sam

ple

Rehren, University College, London, UK (Chinese proto-porcelain); Prof. Michael Tite, Ox-ford, UK (Longquan celadon ware); Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis, MN, USA

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ford, UK (Longquan celadon ware); Minneapolis Institute of Arts, Minneapolis, MN, USA

page

sare also most thankful for the time many colleagues devoted to critically reviewing indi-

page

sare also most thankful for the time many colleagues devoted to critically reviewing indi-

We would like to acknowledge able assistance by Dr Barbara Helwing, Deutsches Archäo-

page

sWe would like to acknowledge able assistance by Dr Barbara Helwing, Deutsches Archäo-n pottery); Dr Lutz Martin, Vorderasiatisches Museum Ber-

page

sn pottery); Dr Lutz Martin, Vorderasiatisches Museum Ber-lin (Tell Halaf pottery); Prof. Dr Pieter ter Keurs, Rijkmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden, The

page

slin (Tell Halaf pottery); Prof. Dr Pieter ter Keurs, Rijkmuseum van Oudheden, Leiden, The Netherlands (Tepe Sialk pottery); Prof. Dr Walter Noll †, Leverkusen, Germany (Mesopota-

page

sNetherlands (Tepe Sialk pottery); Prof. Dr Walter Noll †, Leverkusen, Germany (Mesopota-mian and Minoan pottery); Prof. Dr Herbert Kroll and Dr Martin Görres, Westfälische Wil-

page

smian and Minoan pottery); Prof. Dr Herbert Kroll and Dr Martin Görres, Westfälische Wil-helms-Universität Münster, Germany (Grey Minyan pottery); Dr Alexandra Christopoulou,

page

shelms-Universität Münster, Germany (Grey Minyan pottery); Dr Alexandra Christopoulou, National Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece (Sesklo and Dimini pottery); Dr Yannis

page

sNational Archaeological Museum, Athens, Greece (Sesklo and Dimini pottery); Dr Yannis Maniatis, N.C.S.R. Democritos, Athens, Greece (Neolithic Greek pottery); Dr Michael Lind-pa

ges

Maniatis, N.C.S.R. Democritos, Athens, Greece (Neolithic Greek pottery); Dr Michael Lind-blom, Uppsala University, Sweden (Helladic pottery); Prof. Eleni Hasaki, University of Ari-pa

ges

blom, Uppsala University, Sweden (Helladic pottery); Prof. Eleni Hasaki, University of Ari-zona, Tucson, AZ, USA (Greek pottery kilns); Dr Rüdiger Schmidt, Landesarchäologie pa

ges

zona, Tucson, AZ, USA (Greek pottery kilns); Dr Rüdiger Schmidt, Landesarchäologie Rheinland-Pfalz, Speyer, Germany (Roman Terra sigillata mould); Ms Martine Beck-Coppo-pa

ges

Rheinland-Pfalz, Speyer, Germany (Roman Terra sigillata mould); Ms Martine Beck-Coppo-la, Réunion des Musées Nationaux Sèvres, France (White earthenware), Dr Thorsten Schifer,

page

s

la, Réunion des Musées Nationaux Sèvres, France (White earthenware), Dr Thorsten Schifer,

eschweizerbart_xxx

VIII Acknowledgments

Musée Ariana, Geneva, Switzerland (Queen’s ware, Mesopotamian tin-glazed ware, Italian maiolica, French soft-paste porcelain); The American School of Classic Studies at Athens (Greek mainland polychrome ware); The Gardiner Museum of Ceramic Art, Toronto, ON, Canada (steatitic English porcelain); Citylife Magazine, Chiang Mai, Thailand; Japanese Photo Library (Tokyo); and Bibliotheca Gastronomica, SLUB, Dresden, Germany.

Special thanks for critically reviewing individual chapters of this treatise are due to Prof. Andrew Shortland (Cranfield, UK; Chapter 8), Prof. Hans Mommsen (Bonn, Germany; Chapter 9), Dr Gerwulf Schneider (Berlin, Germany; Chapter 10), Prof. David Gaimster (Glasgow, UK; Chapter 11), Prof. Trinitat Pradell (Castelldefels, Spain; Chapter 13), Dr An-toine d’Albis (Sèvres, France; Chapter 14); Prof. Victor Owen (Halifax, Canada; Chapter 16), Prof. James Feathers (Seattle, USA; Chapter 17), Prof. Nigel Wood (London, UK; Chapter 18), Mr John Shaw (Chiang Mai, Thailand; Chapter 19), and Prof. Yoshihiko Kusano and Dr Minoru Fukuhara (Okayama, Japan; Chapter 20). Ms Nicole Bruegger, Fribourg, Switzer-land deserves a special Thank You for drawing the maps of the archaeological sites men-tioned in the individual chapters. While we considered the valuable comments and sugges-tions for improvement freely given by the reviewers, remaining factual errors, misconceptions, ambiguities and omissions are entirely ours.

The culinary part of the book owes everything to the dedication of our spouses Gabriele and Jasmin who diligently searched ancient culinary texts, selected appropriate and manage-able recipes, experimented with numerous ingredients, tried, tasted, dismissed, retried and finally approved the fruits of their labour of love.

Publication of this work would not have been possible without generous financial assis-tance by CERAMICA-STIFTUNG BASEL, Switzerland, represented by its president, Dr Thomas Staehelin. We are very grateful for this much needed support.

Dr Andreas Nägele and Ms Angela Pfeifer of Schweizerbart Science Publishers, Stuttgart, Germany are acknowledged for their expert advice, and constant encouragement and tech-nical support during preparation of this text.

Sample

Jasmin who diligently searched ancient culinary texts, selected appropriate and manage-

Sample

Jasmin who diligently searched ancient culinary texts, selected appropriate and manage-able recipes, experimented with numerous ingredients, tried, tasted, dismissed, retried and

Sample

able recipes, experimented with numerous ingredients, tried, tasted, dismissed, retried and finally approved the fruits of their labour of love.

Sample

finally approved the fruits of their labour of love.

Publication of this work would not have been possible without generous financial assis-

Sample

Publication of this work would not have been possible without generous financial assis-tance by CERAMICA-STIFTUNG BASEL, Switzerland, represented by its president, Dr

Sample

tance by CERAMICA-STIFTUNG BASEL, Switzerland, represented by its president, Dr Thomas Staehelin. We are very grateful for this much needed support.

Sample

Thomas Staehelin. We are very grateful for this much needed support.

Sample

Dr Andreas Nägele and Ms Angela Pfeifer of Schweizerbart Science Publishers, Stuttgart,

Sample

Dr Andreas Nägele and Ms Angela Pfeifer of Schweizerbart Science Publishers, Stuttgart, Germany are acknowledged for their expert advice, and constant encouragement and tech-

Sample

Germany are acknowledged for their expert advice, and constant encouragement and tech-

Sample

nical support during preparation of this text.

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nical support during preparation of this text.

page

sChapter 9), Dr Gerwulf Schneider (Berlin, Germany; Chapter 10), Prof. David Gaimster

page

sChapter 9), Dr Gerwulf Schneider (Berlin, Germany; Chapter 10), Prof. David Gaimster (Glasgow, UK; Chapter 11), Prof. Trinitat Pradell (Castelldefels, Spain; Chapter 13), Dr An-

page

s(Glasgow, UK; Chapter 11), Prof. Trinitat Pradell (Castelldefels, Spain; Chapter 13), Dr An-toine d’Albis (Sèvres, France; Chapter 14); Prof. Victor Owen (Halifax, Canada; Chapter 16),

page

stoine d’Albis (Sèvres, France; Chapter 14); Prof. Victor Owen (Halifax, Canada; Chapter 16), Prof. James Feathers (Seattle, USA; Chapter 17), Prof. Nigel Wood (London, UK; Chapter

page

sProf. James Feathers (Seattle, USA; Chapter 17), Prof. Nigel Wood (London, UK; Chapter 18), Mr John Shaw (Chiang Mai, Thailand; Chapter 19), and Prof. Yoshihiko Kusano and Dr

page

s18), Mr John Shaw (Chiang Mai, Thailand; Chapter 19), and Prof. Yoshihiko Kusano and Dr Minoru Fukuhara (Okayama, Japan; Chapter 20). Ms Nicole Bruegger, Fribourg, Switzer-

page

sMinoru Fukuhara (Okayama, Japan; Chapter 20). Ms Nicole Bruegger, Fribourg, Switzer-land deserves a special Thank You for drawing the maps of the archaeological sites men-

page

sland deserves a special Thank You for drawing the maps of the archaeological sites men-tioned in the individual chapters. While we considered the valuable comments and sugges-

page

stioned in the individual chapters. While we considered the valuable comments and sugges-tions for improvement freely given by the reviewers, remaining factual errors, misconceptions,

page

stions for improvement freely given by the reviewers, remaining factual errors, misconceptions,

The culinary part of the book owes everything to the dedication of our spouses Gabriele and page

sThe culinary part of the book owes everything to the dedication of our spouses Gabriele and Jasmin who diligently searched ancient culinary texts, selected appropriate and manage-pa

ges

Jasmin who diligently searched ancient culinary texts, selected appropriate and manage-able recipes, experimented with numerous ingredients, tried, tasted, dismissed, retried and pa

ges

able recipes, experimented with numerous ingredients, tried, tasted, dismissed, retried and

eschweizerbart_xxx

Table of Contents

Preface V

Acknowledgements VII

Table of Contents IX

Exordium XV

Part I Fundamentals

1 The nature of ceramics 1

1.1 Materials and technological evolution of societies 11.2 Ancient roots 41.3 Holistic and prescriptive technologies 51.4 Ceramics and their production environment 81.5 Ceramics and cooking 101.6 Ceramics as subject of archaeometry 11

2 Classification and properties of ceramics 12

2.1 Classification and types of ceramics 122.2 Definitions of common ceramic types 132.3 Properties and functions of ceramic cooking pots 18

3 Clay raw materials: origin, composition, and properties 22

3.1 Types of raw materials 223.2 The formation of clay minerals 233.3 Nomenclature and structure of clay minerals 253.4 Mineralogy of clay minerals relevant for pottery 283.5 Clay-water interactions 31

4 Processing of clay, and forming and finishing of pottery 37

4.1 The operational sequence of making ceramics 374.2 Preparation of clay 374.3 Forming of ceramic green bodies 394.4 Drying of green pottery 474.5 Glazes and glazing 484.6 Post-firing painting 55

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1.6 Ceramics as subject of archaeometry 11

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1.6 Ceramics as subject of archaeometry 11

2 Classification and properties of ceramics

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2 Classification and properties of ceramics

2.1 Classification and types of ceramics 12

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2.1 Classification and types of ceramics 122.2 Definitions of common ceramic types 13

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2.2 Definitions of common ceramic types 132.3 Properties and functions of ceramic cooking pots 18

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2.3 Properties and functions of ceramic cooking pots 18

3 Clay raw materials: origin, composition, and properties

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3.1 Types of raw materials 22

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3.1 Types of raw materials 223.2 The formation of clay minerals 23Sam

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3.2 The formation of clay minerals 233.3 Nomenclature and structure of clay minerals 25Sam

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3.3 Nomenclature and structure of clay minerals 253.4 Mineralogy of clay minerals relevant for pottery 28Sam

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3.4 Mineralogy of clay minerals relevant for pottery 28Sample

3.5 Clay-water interactions 31Sample

3.5 Clay-water interactions 31

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s1.1 Materials and technological evolution of societies 1

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s1.1 Materials and technological evolution of societies 1

1.4 Ceramics and their production environment 8page

s1.4 Ceramics and their production environment 8

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X Table of Contents

5 Ceramic phase diagrams 59

5.1 Introduction 595.2 Anatomy of three-component (ternary) phase diagrams 605.3 Selected model ceramic phase diagrams 65

6 Materials science of ceramics 70

6.1 Ceramics as man-made ‘rocks’ 706.2 Firing temperature vs. state of sintering 716.3 Thermal transformations in kaolinitic clays 736.4 Thermal transformations in illitic clays 766.5 Thermal transformations in phosphatic ceramics 956.6 Densification during firing 976.7 Determination of firing temperatures 99

7 Pottery kilns and firing technology 103

7.1 Pottery firing structures and devices 1037.2 Fuel consumption and production economy 126

Part II Selected ceramics and culinary traditions

8 Ancient Near Eastern wares 129

8.1 Neolithic cultures in the Near East 1298.2 Mesopotamia 1318.3 Anatolia 1358.4 Egypt 1378.5 Iran 1448.6 Hidden messages from Neolithic cooking pots 149

9 Aegean Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Age pottery 157

9.1 Setting the stage 1579.2 Neolithic to Bronze Age Thessalian pottery 1599.3 Cretan pottery 1649.4 Bronze Age (Helladic) pottery 1709.5 Iron Age Greek wares 1769.6 Culinary traditions: Greek delicacies revealed 184

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7.1 Pottery firing structures and devices 103

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7.1 Pottery firing structures and devices 1037.2 Fuel consumption and production economy 126

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7.2 Fuel consumption and production economy 126


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8 Ancient Near Eastern wares

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8 Ancient Near Eastern wares 129

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129

8.1 Neolithic cultures in the Near East 129

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8.1 Neolithic cultures in the Near East 1298.2 Mesopotamia 131

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8.2 Mesopotamia 131

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8.3 Anatolia 135

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8.3 Anatolia 1358.4 Egypt 137

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8.4 Egypt 1378.5 Iran 144Sam

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8.5 Iran 1448.6 Hidden messages from Neolithic cooking pots 149Sam

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8.6 Hidden messages from Neolithic cooking pots 149

9 Aegean Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Age potterySam

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9 Aegean Neolithic, Bronze and Iron Age pottery

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7.2 Fuel consumption and production economy 126pa

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7.2 Fuel consumption and production economy 126

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10 Roman earthenware 192

10.1 Historical development 19210.2 Italian and Provincial Roman Terra Sigillata 19410.3 Manufacturing technique 19810.4 Materials science of Terra Sigillata 20310.5 A Roman Terra Sigillata workshop in Tabernae, 2nd century CE 20610.6 What distinguishes a mould from the Terra Sigillata pottery? 20910.7 The Roman gourmet Apicius and his legacy 213

11 Medieval and early modern German stoneware 227

11.1 Unglazed Carolingian earthenware: Badorf, Mayen, Pingsdorf 22711.2 Rhenish stoneware: Siegburg, Frechen, Cologne, Westerwald, Raeren 22911.3 Saxon stoneware 23611.4 Bunzlau stoneware 24411.5 Of late medieval broth and mush 245

12 English and French white earthenware (creamware, faïence fine) 255

12.1 French Renaissance precursors 25512.2 English white earthenware (creamware) 25912.3 French white earthenware (faïence fine) 26512.4 Scientific analyses of English and French white earthenware 27012.5 Fast food and sweet cake 275

13 Tin-glazed ceramics from the Near East and Italy 279

13.1 Technological background 27913.2 The beginnings of the tin-glaze technique 28213.3 The spreading of tin-glaze technology in Europe 28813.4 Italian maiolica 28913.5 Renaissance gastronomy 300

14 French soft-paste porcelain 309

14.1 A short history of selected French manufactures 30914.2 Technology of French soft-paste porcelain 31814.3 Conclusion 32614.4 The ‘plaisirs de table’ of Louis XV and his favourite, Marquise de Pompadour 326

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12 English and French white earthenware (creamware, faïence fine)

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12 English and French white earthenware (creamware, faïence fine)

12.1 French Renaissance precursors 255

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12.1 French Renaissance precursors 25512.2 English white earthenware (creamware) 259

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12.2 English white earthenware (creamware) 25912.3 French white earthenware (faïence fine) 265

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12.3 French white earthenware (faïence fine) 26512.4 Scientific analyses of English and French white earthenware 270

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12.4 Scientific analyses of English and French white earthenware 27012.5 Fast food and sweet cake 275

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12.5 Fast food and sweet cake 275

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13 Tin-glazed ceramics from the Near East and Italy

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13 Tin-glazed ceramics from the Near East and Italy

13.1 Technological background 279

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13.1 Technological background 27913.2 The beginnings of the tin-glaze technique 282Sam

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13.2 The beginnings of the tin-glaze technique 28213.3 The spreading of tin-glaze technology in Europe 288Sam

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13.3 The spreading of tin-glaze technology in Europe 288Sample

13.4 Italian maiolica 289Sample

13.4 Italian maiolica 28913.5 Renaissance gastronomy 300Sam

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13.5 Renaissance gastronomy 300

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s11.1 Unglazed Carolingian earthenware: Badorf, Mayen, Pingsdorf 227

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s11.1 Unglazed Carolingian earthenware: Badorf, Mayen, Pingsdorf 22711.2 Rhenish stoneware: Siegburg, Frechen, Cologne, Westerwald, Raeren 229

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s11.2 Rhenish stoneware: Siegburg, Frechen, Cologne, Westerwald, Raeren 229

12 English and French white earthenware (creamware, faïence fine)page

s12 English and French white earthenware (creamware, faïence fine)

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XII Table of Contents

15 The first European hard-paste porcelain: Meissen 333

15.1 Historical beginnings 33315.2 The invention of European porcelain at Meissen 33615.3 Material basis and technology of Böttger stoneware 34115.4 Development of porcelain microstructure 34815.5 From the royal table of Augustus the Strong 351

16 English bone china 354

16.1 Early developments 35416.2 Forerunners of bone china 35716.3 The invention of bone china 35916.4 Microstructure of bone china 36216.5 Staffordshire potter’s favourite dishes 365

17 Prehistoric New World pottery 371

17.1 South American pottery 37117.2 Central American pottery 37417.3 South-western United States 37717.4 Mississippian culture 37917.5 Native cuisine of the Americas 393

18 Chinese pottery: From earthenware to stoneware to porcelain 395

18.1 The European perspective 39518.2 Chinese history and pottery 39818.3 Neolithic earthenware ceramics 40118.4 Earthenware and stoneware of the Xia and Shang dynasties 40318.5 Chinese proto-porcelain 40718.6 True Chinese porcelain 41118.7 Ancient Chinese cookery: a feast of plenty, perfectly balanced 433

19 Thai ceramics 439

19.1 Historical account 44019.2 Neolithic pottery 44119.3 High-fired glazed stoneware 44219.4 Northern Thai (Lan Na) kilns 44919.5 Ancient Thai cuisine 452

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17.2 Central American pottery 374

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17.2 Central American pottery 37417.3 South-western United States 377

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17.3 South-western United States 37717.4 Mississippian culture 379

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17.4 Mississippian culture 37917.5 Native cuisine of the Americas 393

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17.5 Native cuisine of the Americas 393

18 Chinese pottery: From earthenware to stoneware to porcelain

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18 Chinese pottery: From earthenware to stoneware to porcelain

18.1 The European perspective 395

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18.1 The European perspective 39518.2 Chinese history and pottery 398

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18.2 Chinese history and pottery 39818.3 Neolithic earthenware ceramics 401

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18.3 Neolithic earthenware ceramics 401

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18.4 Earthenware and stoneware of the Xia and Shang dynasties 403Sample

18.4 Earthenware and stoneware of the Xia and Shang dynasties 40318.5 Chinese proto-porcelain 407Sam

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18.5 Chinese proto-porcelain 40718.6 True Chinese porcelain 411Sam

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18.6 True Chinese porcelain 41118.7 Ancient Chinese cookery: a feast of plenty, perfectly balanced 433Sam

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18.7 Ancient Chinese cookery: a feast of plenty, perfectly balanced 433

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XIIITable of Contents

20 Japanese ceramics 457

20.1 A philosophy of natural aesthetics 45720.2 Jōmōn, Yayoi and Kofun (Yamato) pottery 46020.3 Asuka, Nara and Heian periods 46320.4 Kamakura and Muromachi period 46420.5 Momoyama wares 46620.6 Edo period 46820.7 Ancient Japanese cooking: what Samurai and Sumōtori enjoyed 475

References 481

Ceramic index 537

Location index 542

Names index 547

Recipe index 550

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eschweizerbart_xxx

Part I FundamentalsChapter 1

The nature of ceramics

Synopsis

Ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials shaped at room temperature from various naturally occurring silicate-based minerals (clays) that obtain their typical physical and chemical properties by sintering at high temperature. Making of ceramics is a prime exam-ple of a generally observed trend that in all human societies with increasing control over the technological production environment a transition from holistic to prescriptive technolo-gies occurs. Whereas at the formative stage of a society all technology is holistic by neces-sity, after accumulation of extensive practical knowledge and theoretical understanding generalisation and abstraction can take place. Only then can a prescriptive process emerge that in time achieves standardisation and organisation. In this regard the making of Roman Terra Sigillata or Chinese Ding wares were turning points in ceramic development as the holistic process of making pottery was replaced by a novel prescriptive technology that re-lied on process-determined division of labour, using the combined skills of many individu-als as well as transfer of information by sets of self-normalizing ‘memes’, that is, ideas that appear to drive cultural including technological evolution. The chapter provides basic infor-mation on the development of materials technology and, in particular the commanding role pottery has played during evolution of ancient societies as well as the mutual interaction of the ceramic product and its production environment.

1.1 Materials and technological evolution of societiesOf all man-made material things we depend on in our daily life ceramics are the most an-cient ones. All material things possess either metallic, polymeric (plastic) or ceramic prop-erties, distinguished by the nature of their chemical bonds. The particular bonding type imposes on them typical physical properties, for example high thermal and electric conduc-tivities as well as ductility in metals, thermal stability, hardness and brittleness in ceramics including glasses, and low melting point and high elasticity in polymers. Information on bonding-property-application relationships of materials can be found in modern textbooks on materials science (see for example Smith 1996) and ceramics (see for example Kingery et al. 1976).

Exploitation of existing, and development and use of novel materials are closely related to social development and technological progress of humankind. Ceramics are a case in point. Utilisation of natural ceramic materials such as rocks, flint and obsidian defined the earliest development stages of human societies. Fired clay products were to follow. In modern par-

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that in time achieves standardisation and organisation. In this regard the making of Roman

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that in time achieves standardisation and organisation. In this regard the making of Roman Terra Sigillata or Chinese Ding wares were turning points in ceramic development as the

Sample

Terra Sigillata or Chinese Ding wares were turning points in ceramic development as the holistic process of making pottery was replaced by a novel prescriptive technology that re-

Sample

holistic process of making pottery was replaced by a novel prescriptive technology that re-lied on process-determined division of labour, using the combined skills of many individu-

Sample

lied on process-determined division of labour, using the combined skills of many individu-als as well as transfer of information by sets of self-normalizing ‘memes’, that is, ideas that

Sample

als as well as transfer of information by sets of self-normalizing ‘memes’, that is, ideas that appear to drive cultural including technological evolution. The chapter provides basic infor-

Sample

appear to drive cultural including technological evolution. The chapter provides basic infor-mation on the development of materials technology and, in particular the commanding role

Sample

mation on the development of materials technology and, in particular the commanding role pottery has played during evolution of ancient societies as well as the mutual interaction of

Sample

pottery has played during evolution of ancient societies as well as the mutual interaction of

Sample

the ceramic product and its production environment.

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the ceramic product and its production environment.

1.1 Materials and technological evolution of societies

Sample

1.1 Materials and technological evolution of societiesOf all man-made material things we depend on in our daily life ceramics are the most an-Sam

ple

Of all man-made material things we depend on in our daily life ceramics are the most an-cient ones. All material things possess either metallic, polymeric (plastic) or ceramic prop-Sam

ple

cient ones. All material things possess either metallic, polymeric (plastic) or ceramic prop-Sample

erties, distinguished by the nature of their chemical bonds. The particular bonding type Sample

erties, distinguished by the nature of their chemical bonds. The particular bonding type imposes on them typical physical properties, for example high thermal and electric conduc-Sam

ple

imposes on them typical physical properties, for example high thermal and electric conduc-tivities as well as ductility in metals, thermal stability, hardness and brittleness in ceramics

Sample

tivities as well as ductility in metals, thermal stability, hardness and brittleness in ceramics

page

sCeramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials shaped at room temperature from various

page

sCeramics are inorganic, non-metallic materials shaped at room temperature from various naturally occurring silicate-based minerals (clays) that obtain their typical physical and

page

snaturally occurring silicate-based minerals (clays) that obtain their typical physical and chemical properties by sintering at high temperature. Making of ceramics is a prime exam-

page

schemical properties by sintering at high temperature. Making of ceramics is a prime exam-ple of a generally observed trend that in all human societies with increasing control over the

page

sple of a generally observed trend that in all human societies with increasing control over the technological production environment a transition from holistic to prescriptive technolo-

page

stechnological production environment a transition from holistic to prescriptive technolo-gies occurs. Whereas at the formative stage of a society all technology is holistic by neces-

page

sgies occurs. Whereas at the formative stage of a society all technology is holistic by neces-sity, after accumulation of extensive practical knowledge and theoretical understanding

page

ssity, after accumulation of extensive practical knowledge and theoretical understanding generalisation and abstraction can take place. Only then can a prescriptive process emerge pa

ges

generalisation and abstraction can take place. Only then can a prescriptive process emerge that in time achieves standardisation and organisation. In this regard the making of Roman pa

ges

that in time achieves standardisation and organisation. In this regard the making of Roman Terra Sigillata or Chinese Ding wares were turning points in ceramic development as the pa

ges

Terra Sigillata or Chinese Ding wares were turning points in ceramic development as the holistic process of making pottery was replaced by a novel prescriptive technology that re-pa

ges

holistic process of making pottery was replaced by a novel prescriptive technology that re-lied on process-determined division of labour, using the combined skills of many individu-

page

s

lied on process-determined division of labour, using the combined skills of many individu-

eschweizerbart_xxx

2 Part I

lance, traditional (classic) ceramics are inorganic, non-metallic and predominantly poly-crystalline materials shaped at room temperature from various silicate-based raw materials. They obtain their typical properties by sintering at high temperatures and display an over-whelmingly wide variability in terms of origin, history, utilisation, and mechanical, thermal, and optical properties (Heimann 2010). Making traditional ceramics may be considered the result of an attempt to turn clays, the weathered remnants of natural rock, back into an ar-tificial rock-like product by the action of heat (Heimann & Franklin 1979, Maggetti 2001).

As indicated in Fig. 1.1 ceramics played a very important role during the early technologi-cal development period of mankind. The knowledge acquired during making of ceramics vastly exceeded that necessary to fashion simple tools from stone, wood or bone (Hench 1988). This knowledge, in particular mastering high temperature technology required to fire ceramic objects was the precondition of transforming ore into metals such as copper and iron, and its purification, alloying to form bronze or steel, and subsequent forging or casting (Heimann 2004). Fig. 1.2 shows the main differences in selection and processing among the material classes of stone, pottery and metals in a general schematic.

From an archaeological perspective class I materials are naturally available ones such as rock, flint, obsidian or jade that were carefully chosen, separated from unwanted by-prod-ucts, and fashioned by removing excess material. For class II materials, that is, ceramics per se the preparation of raw materials is more elaborate. By mixing with water and organic or

Figure 1.1. Historical timeline of development of materials (modified after Froes 1990, Heimann 2010). For discussion of Anthropocene see text.

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the preparation of raw materials is more elaborate. By mixing with water and organic or

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sAs indicated in Fig. 1.1 ceramics played a very important role during the early technologi-

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sAs indicated in Fig. 1.1 ceramics played a very important role during the early technologi-cal development period of mankind. The knowledge acquired during making of ceramics

page

scal development period of mankind. The knowledge acquired during making of ceramics vastly exceeded that necessary to fashion simple tools from stone, wood or bone (Hench

page

svastly exceeded that necessary to fashion simple tools from stone, wood or bone (Hench 1988). This knowledge, in particular mastering high temperature technology required to fire

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s1988). This knowledge, in particular mastering high temperature technology required to fire ceramic objects was the precondition of transforming ore into metals such as copper and

page

sceramic objects was the precondition of transforming ore into metals such as copper and iron, and its purification, alloying to form bronze or steel, and subsequent forging or casting

page

siron, and its purification, alloying to form bronze or steel, and subsequent forging or casting (Heimann 2004). Fig. 1.2 shows the main differences in selection and processing among

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s(Heimann 2004). Fig. 1.2 shows the main differences in selection and processing among the material classes of stone, pottery and metals in a general schematic.

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sthe material classes of stone, pottery and metals in a general schematic.

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sFrom an archaeological perspective class I materials are naturally available ones such as

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sFrom an archaeological perspective class I materials are naturally available ones such as rock, flint, obsidian or jade that were carefully chosen, separated from unwanted by-prod-pa

ges

rock, flint, obsidian or jade that were carefully chosen, separated from unwanted by-prod-ucts, and fashioned by removing excess material. For class II materials, that is, ceramics pa

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ucts, and fashioned by removing excess material. For class II materials, that is, ceramics the preparation of raw materials is more elaborate. By mixing with water and organic or pa

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eschweizerbart_xxx

31 The nature of ceramics

inorganic temper, natural clays are transformed into new composite materials, usually by addition rather than removal of material. Heating generates a new rock-like material, not existing in nature, as well as a new object. Class III materials such as metals require much more complex and sophisticated selection and processing steps. It is not sufficient anymore to select and mix the starting materials. Instead, as the raw material preparations are not longer directly related to the finished object they become a separate and separable produc-tion activity, involving mixing (alloying), heating, quenching and other steps, and finally casting, hammering or forging. Hence in contrast to stone or pottery most metals are de-rived materials that are produced from a suitable ore by a smelting process (Franklin 1983b, see also Tylecote 1992).

As a result of these hierarchical technological development steps, around 1500 CE ceramics technology was quantitatively overtaken by metals technology. Then the large-scale produc-tion of cast iron and steel replaced bronze as base material to cast gun barrels, and thus gave rise to so-called ‘gunpowder empires’ such as Ottoman Turkey, Mughal India, Persia and Ming China, the territorial expansion of which depended on guns (Hodgson 1975, Pacey 1991). The predominance of metals as a choice construction material lasted until the 1970th when ubiquitous application of engineering polymers (‘plastics’ and elastomers) and their composites reduced the economic impact of metals. Moreover, in parallel a second ‘ceramic age’ emerged highlighted by the development and practical use of tough engi-neering, functional and other advanced ceramics (Heimann 2010).

Recently the term Anthropocene (Fig. 1.1) has been popularised by the Nobelist Paul Crutzen (2002) to mark both the evidence and the lasting effect that human technological activities have on the state of the Earth. Human activities triggered those processes that are significantly and irreversibly changing many global ecosystems, including the biosphere,

Figure 1.2. General schematic classification of materials selection and processing from an ar-chaeological perspective (adapted from Franklin 1983b).

Identify

+ Select

Separate

+

Reduce in size

Mix

+

Prepare

Heat

Mix + Heat + Cast

Fini

shed

Obj

ect

Class I: stone/flint/obsidian

Class II: pottery

Class III: metalRaw metal Alloyed metal

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inorganic temper, natural clays are transformed into new composite materials, usually by

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inorganic temper, natural clays are transformed into new composite materials, usually by addition rather than removal of material. Heating generates a new rock-like material, not

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addition rather than removal of material. Heating generates a new rock-like material, not existing in nature, as well as a new object. Class III materials such as metals require much

Sample

existing in nature, as well as a new object. Class III materials such as metals require much more complex and sophisticated selection and processing steps. It is not sufficient anymore

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more complex and sophisticated selection and processing steps. It is not sufficient anymore to select and mix the starting materials. Instead, as the raw material preparations are not

Sample

to select and mix the starting materials. Instead, as the raw material preparations are not longer directly related to the finished object they become a separate and separable produc-

Sample

longer directly related to the finished object they become a separate and separable produc-tion activity, involving mixing (alloying), heating, quenching and other steps, and finally

Sample

tion activity, involving mixing (alloying), heating, quenching and other steps, and finally casting, hammering or forging. Hence in contrast to stone or pottery most metals are de-

Sample

casting, hammering or forging. Hence in contrast to stone or pottery most metals are de-rived materials that are produced from a suitable ore by a smelting process (Franklin 1983b,

Sample

rived materials that are produced from a suitable ore by a smelting process (Franklin 1983b, see also Tylecote 1992).

Sample

see also Tylecote 1992).

As a result of these hierarchical technological development steps, around 1500 CE ceramics

Sample

As a result of these hierarchical technological development steps, around 1500 CE ceramics technology was quantitatively overtaken by metals technology. Then the large-scale produc-Sam

ple

technology was quantitatively overtaken by metals technology. Then the large-scale produc-tion of cast iron and steel replaced bronze as base material to cast gun barrels, and thus Sam

ple

tion of cast iron and steel replaced bronze as base material to cast gun barrels, and thus gave rise to so-called ‘gunpowder empires’ such as Ottoman Turkey, Mughal India, Persia Sam

ple

gave rise to so-called ‘gunpowder empires’ such as Ottoman Turkey, Mughal India, Persia and Ming China, the territorial expansion of which depended on guns (Hodgson 1975, Sam

ple

and Ming China, the territorial expansion of which depended on guns (Hodgson 1975, Pacey 1991). The predominance of metals as a choice construction material lasted until the

Sample

Pacey 1991). The predominance of metals as a choice construction material lasted until the

page

spa

ges

page

s

inorganic temper, natural clays are transformed into new composite materials, usually by pa

ges

inorganic temper, natural clays are transformed into new composite materials, usually by

General schematic classification of materials selection and processing from an ar-

page

s General schematic classification of materials selection and processing from an ar-

chaeological perspective (adapted from Franklin 1983b). page

schaeological perspective (adapted from Franklin 1983b).

Mix + Heat +

page

sMix + Heat + Cast

page

s Cast

Fini

shed

Obj

ect

page

sFini

shed

Obj

ect

Class III: metal

page

sClass III: metal

Raw metal Alloyed metal

page

sRaw metal Alloyed metal

page

spa

ges

eschweizerbart_xxx

4 Part I

pedosphere, hydrosphere, and atmosphere. Among those who subscribe to this new con-cept of extending the geological timescale beyond the Holocene there is disagreement on the start of the Anthropocene. Whereas Crutzen (2002) takes the onset of the Industrial Revolution around 1800 CE as the starting point, others maintain that the acme of the Ro-man Empire is a plausible begin (Certini & Scalenghe 2011) as marked by the discovery of large-scale lead pollution by Roman industrial activities (Hong et al. 1994), or even much earlier by the transition from hunter-gatherer to sedentary agricultural societies during the later stages of the Neolithic Revolution (Ruddiman 2003) that led eventually to the extinc-tion of large mammals and land birds, and alteration of the composition of soils (Amundson & Jenny 1991).

1.2 Ancient rootsThe quest of discovering, defining and explaining the nature of our material world has deep historic roots. According to the teachings of the Greek natural philosopher Empedocles (495–435 BCE), laid down in his text ‘On Nature’ ( , Peri phýseōs), all matter is thought to be composed of only four immutable elements he referred to as ‘roots’: earth, water, fire, and air5. Based on the different proportions in which these four eternal, non-created, indestructible and unchangeable ‘roots’ are combined with each other, structural differences of matter are generated. It is in this interplay between aggregation and segrega-tion that Empedocles, like the more or less contemporaneous Greek atomists Leukippos and Democritos (460–390 BCE), saw the real process which corresponds to what we call growth, increase or decrease of things and actions. Nothing new can ever come into being; the only changes that can occur are variations in the juxtaposition of one root with the other roots, and their relative proportions. This hypothesis commanded remarkable power and longevity as it became the standard dogma for the next two thousand years until the Irish natural scientist Robert Boyle (1627–1692), called the ‘Father of Chemistry’, consid-ered the Empedoclesian view nonsensical.

However, in a leap of imagination, ceramics may be seen as the material embodiment of this Empedoclesian paradigm, being made by artfully combining the four ‘roots’ or ‘ele-ments’: earth-like clay soaked in water to gain workability is subsequently exposed to fire in either oxidising or reducing atmosphere, that is, air. Hence the product of this creative process aggregates synergistically all four ancient ‘elements’ and thus is a powerful symbol of the eternal harmony of all things and beings in the antique world view. In modern scien-tific parlance we are indeed dealing with a juxtaposition of the two universal empowering forces, energy and entropy (information). To quote the quantum physicist Seth Lloyd: ‘Earth, air, fire, and water …are all made of energy, but the different forms they take are determined by information. To do anything requires energy. To specify what is done requires informa-

5 (Sext.10,315). Translation: At first hear the four

roots of all things: Zeus the Radiant [the etheral fire], and Hera, the Life giving [earth] as well as Aidoneus [the invisible air] and Nestis [the water], who lets flow through her tears the earthly springs (Sextus Empiricus 1997).

Sample

. Based on the different proportions in which these four eternal, non-

Sample

. Based on the different proportions in which these four eternal, non-created, indestructible and unchangeable ‘roots’ are combined with each other, structural

Sample

created, indestructible and unchangeable ‘roots’ are combined with each other, structural differences of matter are generated. It is in this interplay between aggregation and segrega-

Sample

differences of matter are generated. It is in this interplay between aggregation and segrega-tion that Empedocles, like the more or less contemporaneous Greek atomists Leukippos and

Sample

tion that Empedocles, like the more or less contemporaneous Greek atomists Leukippos and Democritos (460–390 BCE), saw the real process which corresponds to what we call

Sample

Democritos (460–390 BCE), saw the real process which corresponds to what we call growth, increase or decrease of things and actions. Nothing new can ever come into being;

Sample

growth, increase or decrease of things and actions. Nothing new can ever come into being; the only changes that can occur are variations in the juxtaposition of one root with the

Sample

the only changes that can occur are variations in the juxtaposition of one root with the other roots, and their relative proportions. This hypothesis commanded remarkable power

Sample

other roots, and their relative proportions. This hypothesis commanded remarkable power and longevity as it became the standard dogma for the next two thousand years until the

Sample

and longevity as it became the standard dogma for the next two thousand years until the Irish natural scientist Robert Boyle (1627–1692), called the ‘Father of Chemistry’, consid-

Sample

Irish natural scientist Robert Boyle (1627–1692), called the ‘Father of Chemistry’, consid-ered the Empedoclesian view nonsensical.

Sample

ered the Empedoclesian view nonsensical.

However, in a leap of imagination,

Sample

However, in a leap of imagination, this Empedoclesian paradigm, being made by artfully combining the four ‘roots’ or ‘ele-

Sample

this Empedoclesian paradigm, being made by artfully combining the four ‘roots’ or ‘ele-ments’: Sam

ple

ments’: Sample

earthSample

earth-like clay soaked in Sample

-like clay soaked in in either oxidising or reducing atmosphere, that is, Sam

ple

in either oxidising or reducing atmosphere, that is, process aggregates synergistically all four ancient ‘elements’ and thus is a powerful symbol Sam

ple

process aggregates synergistically all four ancient ‘elements’ and thus is a powerful symbol Sample

of the eternal harmony of all things and beings in the antique world view. In modern scien-Sample

of the eternal harmony of all things and beings in the antique world view. In modern scien-tific parlance we are indeed dealing with a juxtaposition of the two universal empowering

Sample

tific parlance we are indeed dealing with a juxtaposition of the two universal empowering

page

stion of large mammals and land birds, and alteration of the composition of soils (Amundson

page

stion of large mammals and land birds, and alteration of the composition of soils (Amundson

The quest of discovering, defining and explaining the nature of our material world has deep

page

sThe quest of discovering, defining and explaining the nature of our material world has deep historic roots. According to the teachings of the Greek natural philosopher Empedocles

page

shistoric roots. According to the teachings of the Greek natural philosopher Empedocles

page

spa

ges

page

s, Peri phýsepage

s, Peri phýse

thought to be composed of only four immutable elements he referred to as ‘roots’: earth, page

sthought to be composed of only four immutable elements he referred to as ‘roots’: earth,

. Based on the different proportions in which these four eternal, non-page

s. Based on the different proportions in which these four eternal, non-

created, indestructible and unchangeable ‘roots’ are combined with each other, structural page

screated, indestructible and unchangeable ‘roots’ are combined with each other, structural differences of matter are generated. It is in this interplay between aggregation and segrega-pa

ges

differences of matter are generated. It is in this interplay between aggregation and segrega-tion that Empedocles, like the more or less contemporaneous Greek atomists Leukippos and

page

s

tion that Empedocles, like the more or less contemporaneous Greek atomists Leukippos and

eschweizerbart_xxx

51 The nature of ceramics

tion’ (Lloyd 2006). Thus the art and craft of the potter involve not only energy and, respec-tively its equivalent mass, but also information, knowledge, experience and judgement. In terms of modern physics this boils down to the universal interplay between energy and entropy.

Since times immemorial people transformed matter – in metallurgy, in preparing of medi-cines, potions and cosmetics, in dyeing fabrics, in cooking and, yes, in making ceramics. Some of these transformation processes were shrouded in mystery: alchemists searched for the Philosopher’s Stone able to transmute humble lead or mercury in shiny gold. At the outset of the 18th century European effort to recreate Chinese porcelain was initially based on alchemy. Johann Friedrich Böttger was pressed by his king, Augustus the Strong, to make gold by way of alchemy but what he found instead was the ‘white gold’, porcelain. Porce-lain as the product of a very special kind of transformation process appeals to all human senses as succinctly and lovingly expressed by Roald Hoffmann, winner of the 1981 Nobel Prize in chemistry, in his essay on ‘Meissen chymistry’ (Hoffmann 2004): ‘Alchemy [was] a unique cultural experiment, which adopted chemical change (as we now know it) as a symbol, a kind of logo, for its philosophy of transformation. ... So the philosophy of change took on a chemical face. And then, I imagine, was co-opted by it. Alchemists became chemists.... One could make stoneware and glass, use them in everyday life. But anyone who has held a fine Song or Koryo vessel in one’s hands, rotated it, followed the fine crack-le, I think feels that porcelain is something more. It is sublime. To aspire to transform mere clay into that refined essence that catches light and begs to be held as no other ceramic does—that vision takes more than laboratory skill. The synthesis … of porcelain demands faith in the possibility of transformation and a conviction that nature can be improved’.

1.3 Holistic and prescriptive technologiesThroughout this book, our main task will be to analyse technological processes leading to pottery in a historical perspective. For this it is helpful to classify any technological development process by two terms elaborated on by the eminent Canadian scholar of ancient materials, Ursula Martius Franklin (1977, 1983a, 1999): holistic and prescriptive. Holistic processes may be associated with crafts and artistry, prescriptive ones with industry. During much of its history the process of making household pottery was, with a few notable exceptions, a typical holistic process involving a single, step-wise approximation towards the final object whereby the potter, starting with a conscious selection of appropriate raw materials, must master the whole succession of steps required to produce the pot (Fig. 1.2). The salient questions of who chooses and why such choices need to be made have been addressed recently in a series of papers presented to the World Archaeological Congress 4 (1999) that attempted to put the process of making pottery into a socio-cultural context, linking the producer to the consumer of pottery (Sillar & Tite 2000, Livingstone Smith 2000, Sillar 2000, Pool 2000). A lively discussion around these papers has added much additional background and compelling insights into the paradigm of technological choices in ceramic production and dispersion (for example Cumberpatch 2001, Griffiths 2001, Kolb 2001). As it turns out the holistic process is a sequential, linear development as each small step depends on, and is determined by the successful outcome of the preceding step. The potter

Sample

le, I think feels that porcelain is something more. It is sublime. To aspire to transform mere

Sample

le, I think feels that porcelain is something more. It is sublime. To aspire to transform mere clay into that refined essence that catches light and begs to be held as no other ceramic

Sample

clay into that refined essence that catches light and begs to be held as no other ceramic does—that vision takes more than laboratory skill. The synthesis … of porcelain demands

Sample

does—that vision takes more than laboratory skill. The synthesis … of porcelain demands

Sample

faith in the possibility of transformation and a conviction that nature can be improved’.

Sample

faith in the possibility of transformation and a conviction that nature can be improved’.

1.3 Holistic and prescriptive technologies

Sample

1.3 Holistic and prescriptive technologiesThroughout this book, our main task will be to analyse technological processes leading to

Sample

Throughout this book, our main task will be to analyse technological processes leading to pottery in a historical perspective. For this it is helpful to classify any technological

Sample

pottery in a historical perspective. For this it is helpful to classify any technological development process by two terms elaborated on by the eminent Canadian scholar of

Sample

development process by two terms elaborated on by the eminent Canadian scholar of ancient materials, Ursula Martius Franklin (1977, 1983a, 1999):

Sample

ancient materials, Ursula Martius Franklin (1977, 1983a, 1999): Holistic processes may be associated with crafts and artistry, prescriptive ones with industry. Sam

ple

Holistic processes may be associated with crafts and artistry, prescriptive ones with industry. During much of its history the process of making household pottery was, with a few notable Sam

ple

During much of its history the process of making household pottery was, with a few notable Sample

exceptions, a typical holistic process involving a single, step-wise approximation towards Sample

exceptions, a typical holistic process involving a single, step-wise approximation towards the final object whereby the potter, starting with a conscious selection of appropriate raw Sam

ple

the final object whereby the potter, starting with a conscious selection of appropriate raw materials, must master the whole succession of steps required to produce the pot (Fig. 1.2).

Sample

materials, must master the whole succession of steps required to produce the pot (Fig. 1.2).

page

sthe Philosopher’s Stone able to transmute humble lead or mercury in shiny gold. At the

page

sthe Philosopher’s Stone able to transmute humble lead or mercury in shiny gold. At the

century European effort to recreate Chinese porcelain was initially based

page

s century European effort to recreate Chinese porcelain was initially based on alchemy. Johann Friedrich Böttger was pressed by his king, Augustus the Strong, to make

page

son alchemy. Johann Friedrich Böttger was pressed by his king, Augustus the Strong, to make gold by way of alchemy but what he found instead was the ‘white gold’, porcelain. Porce-

page

sgold by way of alchemy but what he found instead was the ‘white gold’, porcelain. Porce-lain as the product of a very special kind of transformation process appeals to all human

page

slain as the product of a very special kind of transformation process appeals to all human senses as succinctly and lovingly expressed by Roald Hoffmann, winner of the 1981 Nobel

page

ssenses as succinctly and lovingly expressed by Roald Hoffmann, winner of the 1981 Nobel Prize in chemistry, in his essay on ‘Meissen chymistry’ (Hoffmann 2004):

page

sPrize in chemistry, in his essay on ‘Meissen chymistry’ (Hoffmann 2004): ‘Alchemy [was] a

page

s‘Alchemy [was] a

unique cultural experiment, which adopted chemical change (as we now know it) as a

page

sunique cultural experiment, which adopted chemical change (as we now know it) as a symbol, a kind of logo, for its philosophy of transformation. ... So the philosophy of change

page

ssymbol, a kind of logo, for its philosophy of transformation. ... So the philosophy of change took on a chemical face. And then, I imagine, was co-opted by it. Alchemists became

page

stook on a chemical face. And then, I imagine, was co-opted by it. Alchemists became chemists.... One could make stoneware and glass, use them in everyday life. But anyone pa

ges

chemists.... One could make stoneware and glass, use them in everyday life. But anyone who has held a fine Song or Koryo vessel in one’s hands, rotated it, followed the fine crack-pa

ges

who has held a fine Song or Koryo vessel in one’s hands, rotated it, followed the fine crack-le, I think feels that porcelain is something more. It is sublime. To aspire to transform mere pa

ges

le, I think feels that porcelain is something more. It is sublime. To aspire to transform mere clay into that refined essence that catches light and begs to be held as no other ceramic pa

ges

clay into that refined essence that catches light and begs to be held as no other ceramic does—that vision takes more than laboratory skill. The synthesis … of porcelain demands

page

s

does—that vision takes more than laboratory skill. The synthesis … of porcelain demands

eschweizerbart_xxx

6 Part I

is always in control, and his or her knowledge, experience and judgement determine the sequence of the process as well as its end (Franklin 1980).

This actually comes with a penalty. Owing to the nature of ceramics, the raw materials used in their production have a much larger impact on their final properties than is the case of metals and also polymers. This is because, beyond the initial basic cleaning and aging treat-ment of clays, there are no intermediate refinement/purification steps for ceramics as there are for metals that may include melting, solidification, refining and plastic deformation designed to improve the properties of the end product. Not so in the case of ceramics. All imperfections inherent in the ceramic paste and the resulting green body propagate into magnified imperfections of the fired product. This has been dubbed the ‘domino effect’ that emphasises the dependence of the final properties of the ceramic product on the character-istics, and error and failure range of every processing step, and in particular on the charac-teristics of the raw materials such as clay, quartz, and feldspars. None of these minerals used in processing traditional ceramics can be treated as well-defined compositions. This means that they do not have the compositions given by their (idealised) chemical formulae and consequently impart a large variability on the pottery produced therewith. Adding the vari-ability inherent in the technological process such as type of forming, extent of drying, firing time, firing temperature, firing atmosphere and several other factors including applying decorations by painting and glazing it is evident that the end product of this chain of pro-duction steps is uniquely dependent on a myriad of factors and their interactions.

On the other hand, prescriptive technologies involve what anthropologists call the division of labour: the total work process is subdivided into rather simple unit processes that repre-sent autonomous skills and thus draws on different groups of workers. Hence a considera-ble degree of abstraction and a solid technical understanding are necessary to integrate the individual unit processes by appropriate measures of work organisation. Often special skills became exclusive prerogative domains of specific clans, groups or families to arrive at spe-cialisation according to the type of product, for example one potter may produce utilitarian vessels such as pots, jars and pans for everyday use while others may produce exclusively pottery for religious rites such as vessels and figurines for divination (Herskovits 1952). There is also a notion that in some instances geologically similar clays from individual sedimentary strata of a common deposit were utilised to produce different ceramic wares with different functional characteristics caused by variable chemistries and grain size distri-butions (Michelaki & Hancock 2011). However, despite these specialisations the produc-tion process of pottery in essence was still holistic.

The development of ceramics technology from holistic towards prescriptive may be recast in terms of the modern concept of ‘strange attractors’ (Ruelle 1980) that was introduced to describe the complex, in fact chaotic and thus non-deterministic interaction of technology and society (Kafka 1994). Changes in societal structures, technologies, and also materials utilisation require a paradigm shift (Kuhn 1996) that corresponds to a jump from one attrac-tor to the next probable one, that is, a neighbouring attractor6. This next-nearest attractor

6 An attractor is a pattern in some sub-space of possibilities that interacts (attracts) with the develop-ment path of a neighbouring subsystem. ‘We actually might call it the “idea” of this pattern. An attractor that has proven its viability is likely to be used as a building block in the evolution of still

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duction steps is uniquely dependent on a myriad of factors and their interactions.

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prescriptive technologies

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prescriptive technologies involve what anthropologists call the division

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involve what anthropologists call the division prescriptive technologies involve what anthropologists call the division prescriptive technologies

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prescriptive technologies involve what anthropologists call the division prescriptive technologiesof labour: the total work process is subdivided into rather simple unit processes that repre-

Sample

of labour: the total work process is subdivided into rather simple unit processes that repre-

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sent autonomous skills and thus draws on different groups of workers. Hence a considera-

Sample

sent autonomous skills and thus draws on different groups of workers. Hence a considera-ble degree of abstraction and a solid technical understanding are necessary to integrate the

Sample

ble degree of abstraction and a solid technical understanding are necessary to integrate the individual unit processes by appropriate measures of work organisation. Often special skills

Sample

individual unit processes by appropriate measures of work organisation. Often special skills became exclusive prerogative domains of specific clans, groups or families to arrive at spe-

Sample

became exclusive prerogative domains of specific clans, groups or families to arrive at spe-cialisation according to the type of product, for example one potter may produce utilitarian

Sample

cialisation according to the type of product, for example one potter may produce utilitarian vessels such as pots, jars and pans for everyday use while others may produce exclusively

Sample

vessels such as pots, jars and pans for everyday use while others may produce exclusively pottery for religious rites such as vessels and figurines for divination (Herskovits 1952).

Sample

pottery for religious rites such as vessels and figurines for divination (Herskovits 1952). There is also a notion that in some instances geologically similar clays from individual

Sample

There is also a notion that in some instances geologically similar clays from individual

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sedimentary strata of a common deposit were utilised to produce different ceramic wares

Sample

sedimentary strata of a common deposit were utilised to produce different ceramic wares with different functional characteristics caused by variable chemistries and grain size distri-Sam

ple

with different functional characteristics caused by variable chemistries and grain size distri-butions (Michelaki & Hancock 2011). However, despite these specialisations the produc-Sam

ple

butions (Michelaki & Hancock 2011). However, despite these specialisations the produc-tion process of pottery in essence was still holistic.Sam

ple

tion process of pottery in essence was still holistic.Sample

The development of ceramics technology from holistic towards prescriptive may be recast Sample

The development of ceramics technology from holistic towards prescriptive may be recast in terms of the modern concept of ‘strange attractors’ (Ruelle 1980) that was introduced to

Sample

in terms of the modern concept of ‘strange attractors’ (Ruelle 1980) that was introduced to

page

sdesigned to improve the properties of the end product. Not so in the case of ceramics. All

page

sdesigned to improve the properties of the end product. Not so in the case of ceramics. All imperfections inherent in the ceramic paste and the resulting green body propagate into

page

simperfections inherent in the ceramic paste and the resulting green body propagate into magnified imperfections of the fired product. This has been dubbed the ‘domino effect’ that

page

smagnified imperfections of the fired product. This has been dubbed the ‘domino effect’ that emphasises the dependence of the final properties of the ceramic product on the character-

page

semphasises the dependence of the final properties of the ceramic product on the character-istics, and error and failure range of every processing step, and in particular on the charac-

page

sistics, and error and failure range of every processing step, and in particular on the charac-teristics of the raw materials such as clay, quartz, and feldspars. None of these minerals used

page

steristics of the raw materials such as clay, quartz, and feldspars. None of these minerals used in processing traditional ceramics can be treated as well-defined compositions. This means

page

sin processing traditional ceramics can be treated as well-defined compositions. This means that they do not have the compositions given by their (idealised) chemical formulae and

page

sthat they do not have the compositions given by their (idealised) chemical formulae and consequently impart a large variability on the pottery produced therewith. Adding the vari-

page

sconsequently impart a large variability on the pottery produced therewith. Adding the vari-ability inherent in the technological process such as type of forming, extent of drying, firing

page

sability inherent in the technological process such as type of forming, extent of drying, firing time, firing temperature, firing atmosphere and several other factors including applying pa

ges

time, firing temperature, firing atmosphere and several other factors including applying decorations by painting and glazing it is evident that the end product of this chain of pro-pa

ges

decorations by painting and glazing it is evident that the end product of this chain of pro-duction steps is uniquely dependent on a myriad of factors and their interactions.pa

ges


involve what anthropologists call the division page

s involve what anthropologists call the division

eschweizerbart_xxx


surround the formation and transformation of this most abundant clay mineral, mostly re-lated to its widely varying chemical composition, small crystal size, degree of crystallinity or lack thereof, as well as complexity of transformation sequences in the geologic environ-ment over time.

3.3 Nomenclature and structure of clay mineralsThe importance of clays as raw materials for traditional ceramics, their widespread occur-rence, chemical and structural variability, and the dependence of processing and firing properties on the phase composition of the precursor materials of ceramic products has led, among much research into their physico-chemical properties, to several attempts to devel-op a comprehensive system of clay nomenclature. More recently, utilisation of clays as sealing and ion-exchange and sorption components in geological barriers of disposal fa-cilities for domestic and nuclear wastes has added much to this quest (see for example Serne & Muller 1987, Ricci 1999).

Brindley (1951) reported the earliest efforts to obtain international collaboration on nomen-clature and classification of clay minerals. Since then, national clay groups were formed, and they proposed various changes in nomenclature at group meetings of the International Clay Conferences. Most national clay groups have representation on the Nomenclature Committee of the Association Internationale pour l’Etude des Argiles (AIPEA, International Association for the Study of Clays) established in 1966. It has worked closely with other international groups, including the Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names (CN-MMN) of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA), which is responsible for the formal recognition of new minerals and mineral names, and the International Union of Crystallography (IUCr). In contrast to the other national clay groups, however, The Clay Minerals Society (CMS) Nomenclature Committee, established in 1963, remains in exist-ence and occasionally produces recommendations. The precursor to this committee was the Nomenclature Subcommittee, which was organized in 1961 by the (US) National Re-search Council. From time to time AIPEA issues recommendations in close contact with the national organisations (Guggenheim et al. 2006).

The structure of all silicates including clay minerals is best understood in terms of the geo-metric arrangement of atoms within each unit cell. The wide variety of silicate minerals in nature is essentially caused by the variety of geometrical combination of the basic elements of the constituting SiO4 tetrahedra. Since the changes that occur during the firing of pottery are essentially related to the rearrangement of the silicate into different structures, an under-standing of the basic structures of clay minerals is essential for the understanding of the firing process.

Clay minerals consist basically of hexagonal networks of SiO4 tetrahedra. The planes of all tetrahedra are in the plane of the network, and the tips of the tetrahedra point in the same direction. The oxygen atoms at these tetrahedra tips are bound to Al or Mg atoms; residual valencies are saturated through OH– ions. This means that the cations AI3+ or Mg2+ are in a six-fold coordinated (octahedral) position (Grim 1953).

Sample

and they proposed various changes in nomenclature at group meetings of the International

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and they proposed various changes in nomenclature at group meetings of the International Clay Conferences. Most national clay groups have representation on the Nomenclature

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Clay Conferences. Most national clay groups have representation on the Nomenclature Committee of the Association Internationale pour l’Etude des Argiles (AIPEA, International

Sample

Committee of the Association Internationale pour l’Etude des Argiles (AIPEA, International Association for the Study of Clays) established in 1966. It has worked closely with other

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Association for the Study of Clays) established in 1966. It has worked closely with other international groups, including the Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names (CN-

Sample

international groups, including the Commission on New Minerals and Mineral Names (CN-MMN) of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA), which is responsible for the

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MMN) of the International Mineralogical Association (IMA), which is responsible for the formal recognition of new minerals and mineral names, and the International Union of

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formal recognition of new minerals and mineral names, and the International Union of

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Crystallography (IUCr). In contrast to the other national clay groups, however, The Clay

Sample

Crystallography (IUCr). In contrast to the other national clay groups, however, The Clay Minerals Society (CMS) Nomenclature Committee, established in 1963, remains in exist-

Sample

Minerals Society (CMS) Nomenclature Committee, established in 1963, remains in exist-ence and occasionally produces recommendations. The precursor to this committee was

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ence and occasionally produces recommendations. The precursor to this committee was the Nomenclature Subcommittee, which was organized in 1961 by the (US) National Re-

Sample

the Nomenclature Subcommittee, which was organized in 1961 by the (US) National Re-search Council. From time to time AIPEA issues recommendations in close contact with the

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search Council. From time to time AIPEA issues recommendations in close contact with the national organisations (Guggenheim et al. 2006).

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national organisations (Guggenheim et al. 2006).

The structure of all silicates including clay minerals is best understood in terms of the geo-Sample

The structure of all silicates including clay minerals is best understood in terms of the geo-metric arrangement of atoms within each unit cell. The wide variety of silicate minerals in Sam

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metric arrangement of atoms within each unit cell. The wide variety of silicate minerals in Sample

nature is essentially caused by the variety of geometrical combination of the basic elements Sample

nature is essentially caused by the variety of geometrical combination of the basic elements of the constituting SiOSam

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of the constituting SiOare essentially related to the rearrangement of the silicate into different structures, an under-

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are essentially related to the rearrangement of the silicate into different structures, an under-

page

sThe importance of clays as raw materials for traditional ceramics, their widespread occur-

page

sThe importance of clays as raw materials for traditional ceramics, their widespread occur-rence, chemical and structural variability, and the dependence of processing and firing

page

srence, chemical and structural variability, and the dependence of processing and firing properties on the phase composition of the precursor materials of ceramic products has led,

page

sproperties on the phase composition of the precursor materials of ceramic products has led, among much research into their physico-chemical properties, to several attempts to devel-

page

samong much research into their physico-chemical properties, to several attempts to devel-op a comprehensive system of clay nomenclature. More recently, utilisation of clays as

page

sop a comprehensive system of clay nomenclature. More recently, utilisation of clays as sealing and ion-exchange and sorption components in geological barriers of disposal fa-

page

ssealing and ion-exchange and sorption components in geological barriers of disposal fa-cilities for domestic and nuclear wastes has added much to this quest (see for example

page

scilities for domestic and nuclear wastes has added much to this quest (see for example

Brindley (1951) reported the earliest efforts to obtain international collaboration on nomen-page

sBrindley (1951) reported the earliest efforts to obtain international collaboration on nomen-clature and classification of clay minerals. Since then, national clay groups were formed, pa

ges

clature and classification of clay minerals. Since then, national clay groups were formed, and they proposed various changes in nomenclature at group meetings of the International pa

ges

and they proposed various changes in nomenclature at group meetings of the International Clay Conferences. Most national clay groups have representation on the Nomenclature pa

ges

Clay Conferences. Most national clay groups have representation on the Nomenclature Committee of the Association Internationale pour l’Etude des Argiles (AIPEA, International

page

s

Committee of the Association Internationale pour l’Etude des Argiles (AIPEA, International

eschweizerbart_xxx

26 Part I

Such minerals consist, then, essentially of two layers. One is the basal plane of the SiO4 tetrahedra, the other the octahedral layer of the Al or Mg hydroxide which is normally called the gibbsite (with Al) or brucite (with Mg) layer. In the gibbsite layer there are always two aluminium atoms for each group of 6(OH)– ions (dioctahedral layer) while in the bru-cite layer three Mg cations combine with 6(OH)– ions (trioctahedral layer). Kaolinite, with the basic formula Al4[(OH)8/Si4O10], is typical of two-layer dioctahedral sheet silicates (Fig. 3.1, left).

In that same structural category one also finds three-layer minerals in which the octahedral Al or Mg layer is sandwiched between two SiO4 tetrahedral layers (Fig. 3.1, right). Talc, with the formula Mg3[(OH)2/Si4O10], is one example of this type of trioctahedral three-layer min-eral. Pyrophyllite is the dioctahedral three-layer equivalent of kaolinite with the formula Al2[(OH)2/Si4O10l. If, in the three-layer minerals, part of the Si is substituted by Al, negative surface charges occur. These are compensated for by alkali cations that are bound between the layers. In that way the basic group of mica is formed. Table 3.1 summarizes some more common di- and trioctahedral sheet silicates with mica-like structure. The sudoite-chlorite family can be described as mica-like 2:1 mixed-layer structures alternating with ordered

Figure 3.1. Schematic structures of clay minerals. Left: Two-layer clay minerals (kaolinite) and tetrahedral SiO4 and octahedral AlO6 building units. Right: Three-layer clay minerals (talc, py-rophyllite). The arrangement of atoms refers to the six-rings of SiO4 tetrahedra typical for sheet silicates.

Table 3.1. Systematic of sheet silicates with mica-like structure.

Dioctahedral with gibbsite layers Trioctahedral with brucite layers

Two-layer structures

Kaolinite Al4[(OH)8/Si4O10]Halloysite-10Å Al4[(OH)8/Si4O10]·2H2O

‘Serpentine’ (Antigorite) Mg6[(OH)8/Si4O10]

Three-layer structures

Pyrophyllite Al2[(OH)2/Si4O10]Beidellite Al2[(OH)2/

(Si,Al)4O10]·(Ca,Na)0.3(H2O)4

Muscovite KAl2[(OH)2/AlSi3O10]Margarite CaAl2[(OH)2/(Si,Al)4O10]

Sudoite (Al,Fe)2[(OH)2/AlSi3O10]·Mg2Al(OH)6

Talc Mg3[(OH)2/Si4O10]Vermiculite Mg3[(OH)2/(Si,Al)4O10]·Mg0.35(H2O)4

Phlogopite KMg3[(OH)2/AlSi3O10]Clintonite CaMg2[(OH)2/(Si,Al)4O10]

Clinochlore (Mg,Al,Fe)3[(OH)2/AlSi3O10]·(Mg,Fe,Al)3(OH)6

O,OHSiAI

O,OHSiAIMg, Fe

Sample

], is typical of two-layer dioctahedral sheet silicates (Fig.

Sample

], is typical of two-layer dioctahedral sheet silicates (Fig.

In that same structural category one also finds three-layer minerals in which the octahedral

Sample

In that same structural category one also finds three-layer minerals in which the octahedral Al or Mg layer is sandwiched between two SiO

Sample

Al or Mg layer is sandwiched between two SiO4

Sample

4 tetrahedral layers (Fig. 3.1, right). Talc, with

Sample

tetrahedral layers (Fig. 3.1, right). Talc, with

10

Sample

10], is one example of this type of trioctahedral three-layer min-

Sample

], is one example of this type of trioctahedral three-layer min-

eral. Pyrophyllite is the dioctahedral three-layer equivalent of kaolinite with the formula

Sample

eral. Pyrophyllite is the dioctahedral three-layer equivalent of kaolinite with the formula

l. If, in the three-layer minerals, part of the Si is substituted by Al, negative

Sample

l. If, in the three-layer minerals, part of the Si is substituted by Al, negative

surface charges occur. These are compensated for by alkali cations that are bound between

Sample

surface charges occur. These are compensated for by alkali cations that are bound between the layers. In that way the basic group of mica is formed. Table 3.1 summarizes some more

Sample

the layers. In that way the basic group of mica is formed. Table 3.1 summarizes some more common di- and trioctahedral sheet silicates with mica-like structure. The sudoite-chlorite

Sample

common di- and trioctahedral sheet silicates with mica-like structure. The sudoite-chlorite family can be described as mica-like 2:1 mixed-layer structures alternating with ordered

Sample

family can be described as mica-like 2:1 mixed-layer structures alternating with ordered

Table 3.1.Sample

Table 3.1. Systematic of sheet silicates with mica-like structure.Sample

Systematic of sheet silicates with mica-like structure.Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Dioctahedral with gibbsite layersSample

Dioctahedral with gibbsite layers

Kaolinite AlSample

Kaolinite AlHalloysite-10Å Al

Sample

Halloysite-10Å Al

page

sSuch minerals consist, then, essentially of two layers. One is the basal plane of the SiO

page

sSuch minerals consist, then, essentially of two layers. One is the basal plane of the SiOtetrahedra, the other the octahedral layer of the Al or Mg hydroxide which is normally

page

stetrahedra, the other the octahedral layer of the Al or Mg hydroxide which is normally called the gibbsite (with Al) or brucite (with Mg) layer. In the gibbsite layer there are always

page

scalled the gibbsite (with Al) or brucite (with Mg) layer. In the gibbsite layer there are always

ions (dioctahedral layer) while in the bru-page

s ions (dioctahedral layer) while in the bru-

ions (trioctahedral layer). Kaolinite, with page

s ions (trioctahedral layer). Kaolinite, with

], is typical of two-layer dioctahedral sheet silicates (Fig. page

s], is typical of two-layer dioctahedral sheet silicates (Fig.

In that same structural category one also finds three-layer minerals in which the octahedral pa

ges

In that same structural category one also finds three-layer minerals in which the octahedral

Schematic structures of clay minerals. Left: Two-layer clay minerals (kaolinite) and

page

s Schematic structures of clay minerals. Left: Two-layer clay minerals (kaolinite) and building units. Right: Three-layer clay minerals (talc, py-

page

s building units. Right: Three-layer clay minerals (talc, py- tetrahedra typical for sheet

page

s tetrahedra typical for sheet

page

s

eschweizerbart_xxx


gibbsite- (sudoite) or brucite (chlorite)-type interlayers. Margarite and clintonite belong to the brittle mica group.

On the other hand the relation of montmorillonite to pyrophyllite can be understood when one considers the partial substitution of Al by Mg in the octahedral layers of the latter. Like-wise the smectite group mineral beidellite is generated by partial substitution of Si by Al in the tetrahedral layer (Table 3.1). This again produces negative lattice charges (for determina-tion of the layer charge of 2:1 sheet silicates see Mermut & Lagaly 2001) which are com-pensated for by monovalent or divalent atoms such as Na+ or Ca2+. This can, in addition, cause the disintegration of the layered crystals and in that manner enables the entrance of water between the layers. It is on this basis that the ability of the smectite mineral group to absorb large amounts of water can be understood. Figure 3.2 summarizes the structure of smectitic clays minerals.

Figure 3.2. Structure of smectite. In montmorillonite some of the Al3+ in the octahedral layer is replaced by Mg2+, in beidellite some of the Si4+ in the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Al3+, and in nontronite some of the Si4+ in the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Al3+ and (all) Al3+ in the octahe-dral layer is replaced by Fe3+.

Sample

gibbsite- (sudoite) or brucite (chlorite)-type interlayers. Margarite and clintonite belong to

Sample

gibbsite- (sudoite) or brucite (chlorite)-type interlayers. Margarite and clintonite belong to the brittle mica group.

Sample

the brittle mica group.

On the other hand the relation of montmorillonite to pyrophyllite can be understood when

Sample

On the other hand the relation of montmorillonite to pyrophyllite can be understood when one considers the partial substitution of Al by Mg in the octahedral layers of the latter. Like-

Sample

one considers the partial substitution of Al by Mg in the octahedral layers of the latter. Like-wise the smectite group mineral beidellite is generated by partial substitution of Si by Al in

Sample

wise the smectite group mineral beidellite is generated by partial substitution of Si by Al in the tetrahedral layer (Table 3.1). This again produces negative lattice charges (for determina-Sam

ple

the tetrahedral layer (Table 3.1). This again produces negative lattice charges (for determina-tion of the layer charge of 2:1 sheet silicates see Mermut & Lagaly 2001) which are com-Sam

ple

tion of the layer charge of 2:1 sheet silicates see Mermut & Lagaly 2001) which are com-pensated for by monovalent or divalent atoms such as NaSam

ple

pensated for by monovalent or divalent atoms such as Nacause the disintegration of the layered crystals and in that manner enables the entrance of Sam

ple

cause the disintegration of the layered crystals and in that manner enables the entrance of water between the layers. It is on this basis that the ability of the smectite mineral group to

Sample

water between the layers. It is on this basis that the ability of the smectite mineral group to

Structure of smectite. In montmorillonite some of the Al

Sample

Structure of smectite. In montmorillonite some of the Al, in beidellite some of the Si

Sample

, in beidellite some of the Si4+

Sample

4+ in the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Al

Sample

in the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Alin the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Al

Sample

in the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Al

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

page

s Structure of smectite. In montmorillonite some of the Alpa

ges

Structure of smectite. In montmorillonite some of the Alin the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Al

page

s

in the tetrahedral layer is replaced by Alpa

ges

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spa

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eschweizerbart_xxx

28 Part I

3.4 Mineralogy of clay minerals relevant for pottery

3.4.1 IlliteIllite appears to be the most abundant clay mineral next to kaolinite. However, despite copi-ous research performed stubborn mysteries still surround the formation and transformation of this clay mineral, mostly related to its widely varying chemical composition, small crystal size, degree of crystallinity or lack thereof, as well as complexity of transformation se-quences in the geologic environment over time. It has been a long standing agreement that illite sensu lato can form basically by all three mechanisms discussed in section 3.2, in particular by inheritance, that is, through loss of potassium ions (degradation) during leach-ing of muscovite (dioctahedral illites) or biotite (trioctahedral illites), by transformation through addition of potassium ions (aggradation) to montmorillonite, and possibly also by neoformation involving precipitation from dilute colloidal weathering solutions.

The loss of easily soluble potassium ions from the trioctahedral mica biotite will be com-pensated for by ion exchange with H3O+ ions, by oxidation of Fe2+ ions, and by replacement of Al3+ in the octahedral layer by Si4+ ions. On the other hand, the dioctahedral mica mus-covite undergoes similar potassium loss by degradation and associated charge deficiency (Table 3.2). In the resulting dioctahedral illites the ideal Si/Al ratio of 3 in the tetrahedral layer of muscovite changes to between 5 and 40 (Hower & Mowatt 1966). In addition, some water is intercalated between the layer stacks.

Starting from an ideal muscovite lattice three possible reaction paths have been suggested as shown in Table 3.2. Path 1 assumes that K+ ions in the interlayer space will be replaced by H3O+ ions, path 2 considers that one K+ ion together with one OH– group of the octahe-dral layer will be replaced by two H2O molecules, and path 3 suggests that one Si4+ ion in the tetrahedral layer will be replaced by 4 protons. It should be emphasized that illite with increasing degradation approaches the chemical composition of kaolinite but the structural state of montmorillonite. Hence numerous interstratified ordered and disordered structure variants exist. However, the higher proportion of aluminium in the tetrahedral layer com-pared to montmorillonite requires more potassium as interlayer cation. As a result very little intracrystalline expansion occurs in illite.

Since the degree of crystallinity of illite in sediments increases with temperature it can be used as a marker to estimate the diagenetic-metamorphic zones (grades) of metasedimen-tary rocks of marine fine-clastic origin that are widespread in sedimentary basins and in the outer fold-and-thrust zones of the orogenic belts.

Table 3.2. Three feasible ways of illite formation from dioctahedral muscovites.

Interlayer Octahedral layer Tetrahedral layer

Muscovite K2 Al4(OH)4 Al2Si6 O20

Path 1 K(H3O) Al4(OH)4 Al2Si6 O20

Path 2 K(H2O) Al4(H2O)(OH)3 Al2Si6 O20

Path 3 K2 Al4(OH)4 Al2Si4H8O20

Sample

(Table 3.2). In the resulting dioctahedral illites the ideal Si/Al ratio of 3 in the tetrahedral

Sample

(Table 3.2). In the resulting dioctahedral illites the ideal Si/Al ratio of 3 in the tetrahedral layer of muscovite changes to between 5 and 40 (Hower & Mowatt 1966). In addition, some

Sample

layer of muscovite changes to between 5 and 40 (Hower & Mowatt 1966). In addition, some water is intercalated between the layer stacks.

Sample

water is intercalated between the layer stacks.

Starting from an ideal muscovite lattice three possible reaction paths have been suggested

Sample

Starting from an ideal muscovite lattice three possible reaction paths have been suggested as shown in Table 3.2. Path 1 assumes that K

Sample

as shown in Table 3.2. Path 1 assumes that K+

Sample

+ ions in the interlayer space will be replaced

Sample

ions in the interlayer space will be replaced

ions, path 2 considers that one K

Sample

ions, path 2 considers that one K+

Sample

+ ion together with one OH

Sample

ion together with one OH

dral layer will be replaced by two H

Sample

dral layer will be replaced by two H2

Sample

2O molecules, and path 3 suggests that one Si

Sample

O molecules, and path 3 suggests that one Si

the tetrahedral layer will be replaced by 4 protons. It should be emphasized that illite with

Sample

the tetrahedral layer will be replaced by 4 protons. It should be emphasized that illite with increasing degradation approaches the chemical composition of kaolinite but the structural

Sample

increasing degradation approaches the chemical composition of kaolinite but the structural state of montmorillonite. Hence numerous interstratified ordered and disordered structure

Sample

state of montmorillonite. Hence numerous interstratified ordered and disordered structure variants exist. However, the higher proportion of aluminium in the tetrahedral layer com-

Sample

variants exist. However, the higher proportion of aluminium in the tetrahedral layer com-pared to montmorillonite requires more potassium as interlayer cation. As a result very little

Sample

pared to montmorillonite requires more potassium as interlayer cation. As a result very little

Sample

intracrystalline expansion occurs in illite.

Sample

intracrystalline expansion occurs in illite.

Since the degree of crystallinity of illite in sediments increases with temperature it can be Sample

Since the degree of crystallinity of illite in sediments increases with temperature it can be used as a marker to estimate the diagenetic-metamorphic zones (grades) of metasedimen-Sam

ple

used as a marker to estimate the diagenetic-metamorphic zones (grades) of metasedimen-tary rocks of marine fine-clastic origin that are widespread in sedimentary basins and in the Sam

ple

tary rocks of marine fine-clastic origin that are widespread in sedimentary basins and in the Sample

outer fold-and-thrust zones of the orogenic belts. Sample

outer fold-and-thrust zones of the orogenic belts.

page

ssize, degree of crystallinity or lack thereof, as well as complexity of transformation se-

page

ssize, degree of crystallinity or lack thereof, as well as complexity of transformation se-quences in the geologic environment over time. It has been a long standing agreement that

page

squences in the geologic environment over time. It has been a long standing agreement that can form basically by all three mechanisms discussed in section 3.2, in

page

s can form basically by all three mechanisms discussed in section 3.2, in that is, through loss of potassium ions (degradation) during leach-

page

s that is, through loss of potassium ions (degradation) during leach-ing of muscovite (dioctahedral illites) or biotite (trioctahedral illites), by

page

sing of muscovite (dioctahedral illites) or biotite (trioctahedral illites), by transformation

page

stransformationthrough addition of potassium ions (aggradation) to montmorillonite, and possibly also by

page

sthrough addition of potassium ions (aggradation) to montmorillonite, and possibly also by

involving precipitation from dilute colloidal weathering solutions.

page

s involving precipitation from dilute colloidal weathering solutions.

The loss of easily soluble potassium ions from the trioctahedral mica biotite will be com-

page

sThe loss of easily soluble potassium ions from the trioctahedral mica biotite will be com-

ions, by oxidation of Fe

page

s ions, by oxidation of Fe2+

page

s2+ ions, and by replacement

page

s ions, and by replacement

ions. On the other hand, the dioctahedral mica mus-page

s ions. On the other hand, the dioctahedral mica mus-

covite undergoes similar potassium loss by degradation and associated charge deficiency page

scovite undergoes similar potassium loss by degradation and associated charge deficiency (Table 3.2). In the resulting dioctahedral illites the ideal Si/Al ratio of 3 in the tetrahedral pa

ges

(Table 3.2). In the resulting dioctahedral illites the ideal Si/Al ratio of 3 in the tetrahedral layer of muscovite changes to between 5 and 40 (Hower & Mowatt 1966). In addition, some pa

ges

layer of muscovite changes to between 5 and 40 (Hower & Mowatt 1966). In addition, some

eschweizerbart_xxx


3.4.2 KaoliniteKaolinite, Al4[(OH)8/Si4O10] is the typical weathering product of feldspar under temperate-humid climate conditions and in the presence of surplus water of slightly acidic pH that is sufficient to remove completely the alkali and alkali earth ions of the parent feldspars. In contrast to illite, most kaolinite minerals are formed in situ, that is, they remain where they were formed by weathering of granite or related rocks (autochthonous). Rocks rich in kao-linite are known as china clay, white clay, or kaolin.

The name kaolinite derives from Chinese: ; pinyin: kao-ling (‘High Hill’) near Jingdezhen, Jiangxi province, China (see Chapter 18).

The mineral exists in four main structural variants: triclinic kaolinite, monoclinic dickite, and monoclinic nacrite as well as b-axis distorted fireclay. While kaolinite is considered one of the products of deep weathering of feldspars occurring in granitic rocks, the mineral can also form by hydrothermal routes (Huertas et al. 1999) and as a product of diagenesis and low-grade metamorphosis in sandstones (Ruiz Cruz & Andreo 1996). There is also the notion that some kaolin deposits may have been formed under pneumatolytic conditions in the presence of fluorine ions that result in additional formation of fluorspar as found in Cornish stone. However, in this case the high temperature minerals dickite and/or nacrite should be present that, however, are absent in Cornish stone (Kerr 1952).

3.4.3 MontmorilloniteMontmorillonite, a member of the smectite family (Fig. 3.2), has only limited importance for making pottery. This is based on the fact that ceramic green bodies formed from clays rich in expandable three-layer smectitic clay minerals such as montmorillonite show during dry-ing a large degree of shrinkage and hence the appearance of many cracks in the leather-hard body. Indeed, clay containing montmorillonite in excess of 20 mass% shows reduced green body strength as well as reduced compressive strength of the fired ceramic object (Stegmüller 1956). Consequently such ‘fat’ clays must be rendered ‘lean’ by adding copious amounts of sand, rock, grog, bone or shell (see Chapter 17) temper. In the crystal structure of montmorillonite sensu strictu Al ions in the octahedral layer are partially replaced by Mg. For charge balance hydrated alkali ions such as Na+ or alkaline earth ions such as Ca2+ are fixed in the interlayer space. Intercalation of hydrated Ca2+ ions causes the crystallographic identity period in c-direction to swell from about 1 to 2 nm whereas Na+ ions, owing to their much lower crystal field strength and associated high zeta potential, lead to much larger c-axis values. Such Na-montmorillonites form gels due to lack of attractive forces within the electric double layer surrounding the clay mineral grains. On the other hand, addition of Ca2+ ions induce flocculation, limits the shrink-swell ratio and in general generate rheo-logical properties that are conducive to good workability and green body strength. Since K+ and ammonium (NH4

+) ions can also be intercalated smectites are important carriers of these fertilising ions. This may have been one of the reasons why in the past agricultural people settled preferentially in river valleys rich in such fertile clays. An example will be shown in Chapter 17 that describes American Indian pottery from the Mississippi valley.

Sample

should be present that, however, are absent in Cornish stone (Kerr 1952).

Sample


3.4.3 Montmorillonite

Sample

3.4.3 MontmorilloniteMontmorillonite, a member of the smectite family (Fig. 3.2), has only limited importance for

Sample

Montmorillonite, a member of the smectite family (Fig. 3.2), has only limited importance for making pottery. This is based on the fact that ceramic green bodies formed from clays rich

Sample

making pottery. This is based on the fact that ceramic green bodies formed from clays rich in expandable three-layer smectitic clay minerals such as montmorillonite show during dry-

Sample

in expandable three-layer smectitic clay minerals such as montmorillonite show during dry-ing a large degree of shrinkage and hence the appearance of many cracks in the leather-

Sample

ing a large degree of shrinkage and hence the appearance of many cracks in the leather-hard body. Indeed, clay containing montmorillonite in excess of 20 mass% shows reduced

Sample

hard body. Indeed, clay containing montmorillonite in excess of 20 mass% shows reduced

Sample

green body strength as well as reduced compressive strength of the fired ceramic object

Sample

green body strength as well as reduced compressive strength of the fired ceramic object (Stegmüller 1956). Consequently such ‘fat’ clays must be rendered ‘lean’ by adding copious

Sample

(Stegmüller 1956). Consequently such ‘fat’ clays must be rendered ‘lean’ by adding copious amounts of sand, rock, grog, bone or shell (see Chapter 17) temper. In the crystal structure

Sample

amounts of sand, rock, grog, bone or shell (see Chapter 17) temper. In the crystal structure of montmorillonite Sam

ple

of montmorillonite sensu strictuSample

sensu strictuFor charge balance hydrated alkali ions such as NaSam

ple

For charge balance hydrated alkali ions such as Nafixed in the interlayer space. Intercalation of hydrated CaSam

ple

fixed in the interlayer space. Intercalation of hydrated Caidentity period in c-direction to swell from about 1 to 2 nm whereas NaSam

ple

identity period in c-direction to swell from about 1 to 2 nm whereas Namuch lower crystal field strength and associated high zeta potential, lead to much larger

Sample

much lower crystal field strength and associated high zeta potential, lead to much larger

page

s; pinyin: kao-ling (‘High Hill’) near

page

s; pinyin: kao-ling (‘High Hill’) near

The mineral exists in four main structural variants: triclinic kaolinite, monoclinic dickite,

page

sThe mineral exists in four main structural variants: triclinic kaolinite, monoclinic dickite, and monoclinic nacrite as well as b-axis distorted fireclay. While kaolinite is considered

page

sand monoclinic nacrite as well as b-axis distorted fireclay. While kaolinite is considered one of the products of deep weathering of feldspars occurring in granitic rocks, the mineral

page

sone of the products of deep weathering of feldspars occurring in granitic rocks, the mineral can also form by hydrothermal routes (Huertas et al. 1999) and as a product of diagenesis

page

scan also form by hydrothermal routes (Huertas et al. 1999) and as a product of diagenesis and low-grade metamorphosis in sandstones (Ruiz Cruz & Andreo 1996). There is also the

page

sand low-grade metamorphosis in sandstones (Ruiz Cruz & Andreo 1996). There is also the notion that some kaolin deposits may have been formed under pneumatolytic conditions in

page

snotion that some kaolin deposits may have been formed under pneumatolytic conditions in the presence of fluorine ions that result in additional formation of fluorspar as found in pa

ges

the presence of fluorine ions that result in additional formation of fluorspar as found in Cornish stone. However, in this case the high temperature minerals dickite and/or nacrite pa

ges

Cornish stone. However, in this case the high temperature minerals dickite and/or nacrite should be present that, however, are absent in Cornish stone (Kerr 1952).pa

ges


eschweizerbart_xxx

30 Part I

Smectites such as montmorillonite intercalate not just hydrated ions but also polar organic molecules such as fatty acids. This is why montmorillonite-rich clays, so-called bentonites were used since ancient times in the process of tanning animal hides to take up oils and fat. Also, they were used in fulling of felt and cloth, hence the old name Fuller’s Earth for ben-tonite rocks. For details the reader is referred to Heimann (2010).

3.4.4 OthersAnother mineral frequently associated with bentonite deposits is the clay-type mineral pa-lygorskite (a.k.a. attapulgite), a magnesium aluminum phyllosilicate with the formula (Mg,Al)2[OH/Si4O10]·4H2O. The structure consists of sheets of six-membered rings of SiO4 tetrahedra parallel (100), linked by strips of edge-sharing MgO6 (and AlO6) octahedra aligned parallel to [001]. The four water molecules are accommodated in large channels parallel to the fibre axis [001]. These channels can also take up large organic molecule complexes such as indigo, a property exploited by the ancient Maya to synthesize the fa-mous Maya Blue (see below; also Chapter 17.2).

Palygorskite is presumed to have formed authigenically, either by conversion of detrital smectite or by direct precipitation in a dolomite-mixing environment. The Si, Mg, Al + Fe and Ca required for palygorskite formation were supplied in solution from ultrabasic rocks underneath such as ophiolitic rock series, smectitic clays and dolomitic carbonates (Kadir & Akbulut 2011).

Palygorskite is the key constituent of Maya Blue used by the pre-Columbian Maya civilisa-tion of Mesoamerica to colour ceramics, sculptures, murals and (most probably) textiles. It was produced by gentle heating of powdered palygorskite with the aqueous extract of añil leaves (Indigofera suffruticosa), with smaller amounts of other mineral additives. According to recent research (Chiari et al. 2003, Dejoie et al. 2010) the indigo molecule is partly accommodated internally in the structural channels of palygorskite thereby replacing wa-ter, and partly externally in grooves at the surface of the mineral fibres. In a remarkable development the ancient discovery of the pigment by the Maya was recently utilised to synthesise a modern environmentally stable blue pigment by incorporating the indigo mol-ecule into MFI zeolite (high-silica silicalite), a spectacular example of reverse engineering by ‘archaeomimetism’ (Dejoie et al. 2010).

Deposits of palygorskite in the Maya area were unknown for years, but archaeological re-search performed during the 1960s and more recently indicated two such sources at the cenote in the town of Sacalum and at a pre-Columbian mining site at Yo’ Sah Kab near Ticul, both in Yucatán (Arnold 2005).

The Maya Blue pigment was also manufactured and used in other Mesoamerican regions and cultures, for example by the Aztecs of central Mexico to colour their codices and early Colonial-era manuscripts and maps. Human sacrificial victims in post-Classic Mesoamerica were frequently daubed with this blue pigment (Haude 1997).

Sample

smectite or by direct precipitation in a dolomite-mixing environment. The Si, Mg, Al + Fe

Sample

smectite or by direct precipitation in a dolomite-mixing environment. The Si, Mg, Al + Fe and Ca required for palygorskite formation were supplied in solution from ultrabasic rocks

Sample

and Ca required for palygorskite formation were supplied in solution from ultrabasic rocks underneath such as ophiolitic rock series, smectitic clays and dolomitic carbonates (Kadir

Sample

underneath such as ophiolitic rock series, smectitic clays and dolomitic carbonates (Kadir

Palygorskite is the key constituent of Maya Blue used by the pre-Columbian Maya civilisa-

Sample

Palygorskite is the key constituent of Maya Blue used by the pre-Columbian Maya civilisa-

Sample

tion of Mesoamerica to colour ceramics, sculptures, murals and (most probably) textiles. It

Sample

tion of Mesoamerica to colour ceramics, sculptures, murals and (most probably) textiles. It was produced by gentle heating of powdered palygorskite with the aqueous extract of añil

Sample

was produced by gentle heating of powdered palygorskite with the aqueous extract of añil

Indigofera suffruticosa

Sample

Indigofera suffruticosa), with smaller amounts of other mineral additives. According

Sample

), with smaller amounts of other mineral additives. According

to recent research (Chiari et al. 2003, Dejoie et al. 2010) the indigo molecule is partly

Sample

to recent research (Chiari et al. 2003, Dejoie et al. 2010) the indigo molecule is partly accommodated internally in the structural channels of palygorskite thereby replacing wa-

Sample

accommodated internally in the structural channels of palygorskite thereby replacing wa-ter, and partly externally in grooves at the surface of the mineral fibres. In a remarkable

Sample

ter, and partly externally in grooves at the surface of the mineral fibres. In a remarkable development the ancient discovery of the pigment by the Maya was recently utilised to

Sample

development the ancient discovery of the pigment by the Maya was recently utilised to

Sample

synthesise a modern environmentally stable blue pigment by incorporating the indigo mol-

Sample

synthesise a modern environmentally stable blue pigment by incorporating the indigo mol-ecule into MFI zeolite (high-silica silicalite), a spectacular example of reverse engineering Sam

ple

ecule into MFI zeolite (high-silica silicalite), a spectacular example of reverse engineering by ‘archaeomimetism’ (Dejoie et al. 2010).Sam

ple

by ‘archaeomimetism’ (Dejoie et al. 2010).

Deposits of palygorskite in the Maya area were unknown for years, but archaeological re-Sample

Deposits of palygorskite in the Maya area were unknown for years, but archaeological re-Sample

search performed during the 1960s and more recently indicated two such sources at the Sample

search performed during the 1960s and more recently indicated two such sources at the

page

sAnother mineral frequently associated with bentonite deposits is the clay-type mineral pa-

page

sAnother mineral frequently associated with bentonite deposits is the clay-type mineral pa-lygorskite (a.k.a. attapulgite), a magnesium aluminum phyllosilicate with the formula

page

slygorskite (a.k.a. attapulgite), a magnesium aluminum phyllosilicate with the formula O. The structure consists of sheets of six-membered rings of SiO

page

sO. The structure consists of sheets of six-membered rings of SiOtetrahedra parallel (100), linked by strips of edge-sharing MgO

page

stetrahedra parallel (100), linked by strips of edge-sharing MgO6

page

s6 (and AlO

page

s (and AlO6

page

s6) octahedra

page

s) octahedra

aligned parallel to [001]. The four water molecules are accommodated in large channels

page

saligned parallel to [001]. The four water molecules are accommodated in large channels parallel to the fibre axis [001]. These channels can also take up large organic molecule

page

sparallel to the fibre axis [001]. These channels can also take up large organic molecule complexes such as indigo, a property exploited by the ancient Maya to synthesize the fa-

page

scomplexes such as indigo, a property exploited by the ancient Maya to synthesize the fa-

Palygorskite is presumed to have formed authigenically, either by conversion of detrital page

sPalygorskite is presumed to have formed authigenically, either by conversion of detrital smectite or by direct precipitation in a dolomite-mixing environment. The Si, Mg, Al + Fe pa

ges

smectite or by direct precipitation in a dolomite-mixing environment. The Si, Mg, Al + Fe and Ca required for palygorskite formation were supplied in solution from ultrabasic rocks pa

ges

and Ca required for palygorskite formation were supplied in solution from ultrabasic rocks underneath such as ophiolitic rock series, smectitic clays and dolomitic carbonates (Kadir

page

sunderneath such as ophiolitic rock series, smectitic clays and dolomitic carbonates (Kadir

eschweizerbart_xxx

Chapter 7

Pottery kilns and firing technology

Synopsis

Pottery firing structures can be classified into two main types: (1) the work is embedded into the fuel bed before its ignition (surface or bonfire firing); (2) work separated from fuel and the hot combustion gases are passed over the work (kiln firing). Pottery kilns with complete separation of fuel and work providing higher temperatures, better temperature control, and decreased fuel consumption were invented in the Near East during the middle of the 6th millennium BCE at Yarim Tepe in ancient Iraq. Of the countless type 2 firing structures in this chapter only a few will be addressed including simple domed structures, Attic and Corin-thian kilns, Roman Terra Sigillata kilns, Medieval stoneware kilns, Chinese and Japanese kilns (single-chambered, multi-chambered and hill-climbing), and early European porce-lain kilns (Meissen, Staffordshire). Calculation of the fuel consumption shows that ancient potters often sacrified technology for economy.

7.1 Pottery firing structures and devicesInformation on structure, development and functional principles of ancient pottery kilns as well as furnaces for melting glass, smelting ore and refining metals has been revealed by numerous archaeological excavations and ethnological studies. Some information is also available from the practical experiences collected by ancient ‘technical’ writers such as Theophilus49, Agricola50, Biringuccio (Fig. 7.1, left)51 and Ercker (Fig. 7.1, right)52. Whereas these ancient texts predominately concentrate on metallurgical issues such as smelting and refining of metals, accounts on pottery and pottery kilns are scant.

49 Theophilus Presbyter (Roger of Helmarshausen?, around 1122?) describes in the second book (‘The Art of the Worker in Glass’) of his work ‘De diversis artibus’ (On Divers Arts) in Chapters 1 (Building the furnace for working glass) and 22 (The kiln in which glass is fired) glass melting and annealing furnaces.

50 Georgius Agricola (1556). De Re Metallica Libri XII (On the Nature of Metals), Basel: Frobenius & Episcopius.

51 Vanoccio Biringuccio (1540). De La Pirotechnia (postumus). Venezia. Transl. H.S. Mudd, Am. Inst. Mining Metallurg., New York, 1943. Introduction by C.S. Smith and M.T. Gnudi. Book 9 (The Pro-cedure of Various Works of Fire) contains Chapter 14 (Discourse on the potter’s art, pp 392–394) and 15 (Concerning lime and bricks, pp 395–402) with illustrations of two forms of the potter’s wheel and a furnace for firing pottery (Fig. 76 therein) as well as brick and lime kilns (Fig. 77 therein).

52 Lazarus Ercker (1672). Aula Subterranea Domina Dominantium Subdita Subditorum, Frankfurt/Main: Johann David Zunner.

Sample

7.1 Pottery firing structures and devices

Sample

7.1 Pottery firing structures and devicesInformation on structure, development and functional principles of ancient pottery kilns as

Sample

Information on structure, development and functional principles of ancient pottery kilns as well as furnaces for melting glass, smelting ore and refining metals has been revealed by

Sample

well as furnaces for melting glass, smelting ore and refining metals has been revealed by numerous archaeological excavations and ethnological studies. Some information is also

Sample

numerous archaeological excavations and ethnological studies. Some information is also available from the practical experiences collected by ancient ‘technical’ writers such as

Sample

available from the practical experiences collected by ancient ‘technical’ writers such as

Sample

, Agricola

Sample

, Agricola50

Sample

50, Biringuccio (Fig. 7.1, left)

Sample

, Biringuccio (Fig. 7.1, left)

these ancient texts predominately concentrate on metallurgical issues such as smelting and

Sample

these ancient texts predominately concentrate on metallurgical issues such as smelting and refining of metals, accounts on pottery and pottery kilns are scant.

Sample

refining of metals, accounts on pottery and pottery kilns are scant.

Sample

49 Theophilus Presbyter (Roger of Helmarshausen?, around 1122?) describes in the second book Sample

49 Theophilus Presbyter (Roger of Helmarshausen?, around 1122?) describes in the second book (‘The Art of the Worker in Glass’) of his work ‘Sam

ple

(‘The Art of the Worker in Glass’) of his work ‘Sample

(Building the furnace for working glass) and 22 (The kiln in which glass is fired) glass melting and Sample

(Building the furnace for working glass) and 22 (The kiln in which glass is fired) glass melting and

page

sPottery firing structures can be classified into two main types: (1) the work is embedded into

page

sPottery firing structures can be classified into two main types: (1) the work is embedded into the fuel bed before its ignition (surface or bonfire firing); (2) work separated from fuel and

page

sthe fuel bed before its ignition (surface or bonfire firing); (2) work separated from fuel and the hot combustion gases are passed over the work (kiln firing). Pottery kilns with complete

page

sthe hot combustion gases are passed over the work (kiln firing). Pottery kilns with complete separation of fuel and work providing higher temperatures, better temperature control, and

page

sseparation of fuel and work providing higher temperatures, better temperature control, and decreased fuel consumption were invented in the Near East during the middle of the 6

page

sdecreased fuel consumption were invented in the Near East during the middle of the 6millennium BCE at Yarim Tepe in ancient Iraq. Of the countless type 2 firing structures in this

page

smillennium BCE at Yarim Tepe in ancient Iraq. Of the countless type 2 firing structures in this chapter only a few will be addressed including simple domed structures, Attic and Corin-

page

schapter only a few will be addressed including simple domed structures, Attic and Corin-thian kilns, Roman Terra Sigillata kilns, Medieval stoneware kilns, Chinese and Japanese

page

sthian kilns, Roman Terra Sigillata kilns, Medieval stoneware kilns, Chinese and Japanese kilns (single-chambered, multi-chambered and hill-climbing), and early European porce-

page

skilns (single-chambered, multi-chambered and hill-climbing), and early European porce-lain kilns (Meissen, Staffordshire). Calculation of the fuel consumption shows that ancient pa

ges

lain kilns (Meissen, Staffordshire). Calculation of the fuel consumption shows that ancient

eschweizerbart_xxx

104 Part I

In this chapter only structures and kilns used for firing of utilitarian and table ware will be discussed in some detail whereas special kilns to manufacture amphorae (for example Vitali 2005, Bogdani et al. 2010) and bricks will be consciously neglected.

Pottery kilns utilised in antiquity relied on natural draught provided by the heated air rising through the furnace structure53. Natural draught, as opposed to forced draught from bel-lows54, is rather weak but its force is sufficient to move amounts of air to burn fuel at a high enough rate to generate the temperatures required to fire pottery. To achieve these tempera-tures, the resistance to gas flow55 must be low, a factor that strongly influences kiln design

53 A furnace is considered a container made of heat-resistant material within which heat is generated and transferred to the objects to be heated. The function of the container is to reduce heat loss to the surrounding, to establish a controlled atmosphere within, and to control the geometry of its content. Specifically, a kiln is a furnace fired with biomass as fuel and operated with natural draught air supply (Rehder 2000).

54 The dynamics of bellows-powered furnaces and their role in metallurgical processes were ex-plored by Rehder (2000). In particular, the dynamic behaviour of bag and bowl bellows in indig-enous African metallurgy was reviewed by Chirikure et al. (2009).

55 In a vertical arrangement, the effective draught height H (in m) is the vertical distance between the bottom of the fuel bed and the top of the flue. Hence keeping the fuel bed as thin as possible and the escape route of gas with the temperature tS (in °C) long, the resistance to the gas flow, that is

the pressure drop in the fuel bed in Pa, PS = 12 · H ⎛⎝1–298 ⎞

⎠S + 273 can be minimized (Rehder

Figure 7.1. Left: Title page of Vanoccio Biringuccio’s ‘De la pirotechnia’ (1540). Right: Title page of Lazarus Ercker’s ‘Aula Subterranea’ (1672).

Sample

In this chapter only structures and kilns used for firing of utilitarian and table ware will be

Sample

In this chapter only structures and kilns used for firing of utilitarian and table ware will be discussed in some detail whereas special kilns to manufacture amphorae (for example Vitali

Sample

discussed in some detail whereas special kilns to manufacture amphorae (for example Vitali 2005, Bogdani et al. 2010) and bricks will be consciously neglected.

Sample

2005, Bogdani et al. 2010) and bricks will be consciously neglected.

Pottery kilns utilised in antiquity relied on natural draught provided by the heated air rising

Sample

Pottery kilns utilised in antiquity relied on natural draught provided by the heated air rising through the furnace structure

Sample

through the furnace structure53.

Sample

53. Natural draught, as opposed to forced draught from bel-

Sample

Natural draught, as opposed to forced draught from bel-

, is rather weak but its force is sufficient to move amounts of air to burn fuel at a high

Sample

, is rather weak but its force is sufficient to move amounts of air to burn fuel at a high

enough rate to generate the temperatures required to fire pottery. To achieve these tempera-

Sample

enough rate to generate the temperatures required to fire pottery. To achieve these tempera-tures, the resistance to gas flowSam

ple

tures, the resistance to gas flowSample

furnaceSample

furnace is considered a container made of heat-resistant material within which heat is generated Sample

is considered a container made of heat-resistant material within which heat is generated furnace is considered a container made of heat-resistant material within which heat is generated furnaceSample

furnace is considered a container made of heat-resistant material within which heat is generated furnaceand transferred to the objects to be heated. The function of the container is to reduce heat loss to Sam

ple

and transferred to the objects to be heated. The function of the container is to reduce heat loss to

Left: Title page of Vanoccio Biringuccio’s ‘De la pirotechnia’ (1540). Right: Title page

Sample

Left: Title page of Vanoccio Biringuccio’s ‘De la pirotechnia’ (1540). Right: Title page of Lazarus Ercker’s ‘Aula Subterranea’ (1672).

Sample

of Lazarus Ercker’s ‘Aula Subterranea’ (1672).

Sample

page

s Left: Title page of Vanoccio Biringuccio’s ‘De la pirotechnia’ (1540). Right: Title page pa

ges

Left: Title page of Vanoccio Biringuccio’s ‘De la pirotechnia’ (1540). Right: Title page page

s

eschweizerbart_xxx

1057 Pottery kilns and firing technology

and operation. The heat generated by combustion of biomass fuel must be efficiently trans-ferred to the ceramic objects (the ‘work’56) to be fired.

The way in which this heat transfer is achieved provides a general classification of kilns: either (i) the work is embedded into the fuel bed before its ignition (type 1) or (ii) the hot combustion gases are passed over the work (type 2) (Rehder 1987, 2000).

Early Neolithic pottery kilns, and medieval and modern blast furnaces in which fuel and ore are intimately mixed belong to the first type, advanced pottery kilns as well as reverbera-tory furnaces used to refine metals are of the second type. Accordingly, advanced pottery kilns are characterised by a fuel chamber or firebox, and a separate, but connected, work chamber or furnace proper. The work chamber may be placed above the firebox separated by a perforated floor as typical for so-called beehive kilns (Figs. 7.8, 7.9, 7.14), to one side of the firebox and usually sepa rated by a low wall (Fig. 7.10) or on an inclined floor adja-cent to the firebox (Fig. 7.18). The firebox may either con tain fuel in a simple heap on a floor over which combustion air is drawn, or the fuel may be supported on a grate. The lat-ter arrangement gives more uniform and controllable combus tion, and allows for more economical use of fuel. It is assumed that this type of pottery kiln became dominant in the Near East by about the 6th millennium BCE, not in the least triggered by the scarcity of fuel in this region. Air enters initially through openings behind or under the fuel, usually with a damper to control its flow rate. The combustion gases leave by a hole in the top of the (domed) work chamber (Fig. 7.17), by a vertical or horizontal (Fig. 7.10) flue in the kiln wall, or by a chimney of some kind (Fig. 7.13).

7.1.1 Work mixed with fuel (type 1 kilns)The most simple ‘kiln’ arrangement was a heap of wood with the ceramic work to be fired mixed in and lit to achieve a surface (bonfire) fire. Heat from the burning fuel is transferred to the ceramic work predominately by radiation and conduction. However, the tempera-tures attained were necessarily rather low owing to high heat loss of the uncontained sys-tem in the form of a flame as well as radiation to the surroundings. Consequently, fuel consumption was high. The uncontrolled manner by which access of air is provided results in an uneven distribution of temperature throughout the mixed fuel-work heap, leading to frequent cracking of pots by differential thermal expansion. Also, direct contact of the hot ceramic surfaces with fuel ash leads to discolouration and streaking commonly seen in early Neolithic pottery. Even today this type of surface firing can be found worldwide in rural environments where simple unassuming pottery for everyday use is being produced (Fig. 17.2).

Recent experimental work by Maggetti et al. (2011a) on pottery surface-fired using straw and wood (alder, hazel, beech) showed that, depending on the heating rate, within 12–22 minutes maximum temperatures of 800–900 °C could easily be reached, well in accord

2000). For a Neolithic pottery kiln operated at an average gas temperature of 800 °C the pressure drop through the fuel is 8.7·H Pa.

56 The term ‘work’ refers here to the dried ‘green’ ceramic ware prior to firing.

Sample

damper to control its flow rate. The combustion gases leave by a hole in the top of the

Sample

damper to control its flow rate. The combustion gases leave by a hole in the top of the (domed) work chamber (Fig. 7.17), by a vertical or horizontal (Fig. 7.10) flue in the kiln

Sample

(domed) work chamber (Fig. 7.17), by a vertical or horizontal (Fig. 7.10) flue in the kiln wall, or by a chimney of some kind (Fig. 7.13).

Sample

wall, or by a chimney of some kind (Fig. 7.13).

7.1.1 Work mixed with fuel (type 1 kilns)

Sample

7.1.1 Work mixed with fuel (type 1 kilns)

Sample

The most simple ‘kiln’ arrangement was a heap of wood with the ceramic work to be fired

Sample

The most simple ‘kiln’ arrangement was a heap of wood with the ceramic work to be fired mixed in and lit to achieve a surface (bonfire) fire. Heat from the burning fuel is transferred

Sample

mixed in and lit to achieve a surface (bonfire) fire. Heat from the burning fuel is transferred to the ceramic work predominately by radiation and conduction. However, the tempera-

Sample

to the ceramic work predominately by radiation and conduction. However, the tempera-tures attained were necessarily rather low owing to high heat loss of the uncontained sys-

Sample

tures attained were necessarily rather low owing to high heat loss of the uncontained sys-tem in the form of a flame as well as radiation to the surroundings. Consequently, fuel

Sample

tem in the form of a flame as well as radiation to the surroundings. Consequently, fuel consumption was high. The uncontrolled manner by which access of air is provided results

Sample

consumption was high. The uncontrolled manner by which access of air is provided results in an uneven distribution of temperature throughout the mixed fuel-work heap, leading to Sam

ple

in an uneven distribution of temperature throughout the mixed fuel-work heap, leading to frequent cracking of pots by differential thermal expansion. Also, direct contact of the hot Sam

ple

frequent cracking of pots by differential thermal expansion. Also, direct contact of the hot Sample

ceramic surfaces with fuel ash leads to discolouration and streaking commonly seen in Sample

ceramic surfaces with fuel ash leads to discolouration and streaking commonly seen in early Neolithic pottery. Even today this type of surface firing can be found worldwide in Sam

ple

early Neolithic pottery. Even today this type of surface firing can be found worldwide in rural environments where simple unassuming pottery for everyday use is being produced

Sample

rural environments where simple unassuming pottery for everyday use is being produced

page

story furnaces used to refine metals are of the second type. Accordingly, advanced pottery

page

story furnaces used to refine metals are of the second type. Accordingly, advanced pottery kilns are characterised by a fuel chamber or firebox, and a separate, but connected, work

page

skilns are characterised by a fuel chamber or firebox, and a separate, but connected, work chamber or furnace proper. The work chamber may be placed above the firebox separated

page

schamber or furnace proper. The work chamber may be placed above the firebox separated by a perforated floor as typical for so-called beehive kilns (Figs. 7.8, 7.9, 7.14), to one side

page

sby a perforated floor as typical for so-called beehive kilns (Figs. 7.8, 7.9, 7.14), to one side of the firebox and usually sepa rated by a low wall (Fig. 7.10) or on an inclined floor adja-

page

sof the firebox and usually sepa rated by a low wall (Fig. 7.10) or on an inclined floor adja-cent to the firebox (Fig. 7.18). The firebox may either con tain fuel in a simple heap on a

page

scent to the firebox (Fig. 7.18). The firebox may either con tain fuel in a simple heap on a floor over which combustion air is drawn, or the fuel may be supported on a grate. The lat-

page

sfloor over which combustion air is drawn, or the fuel may be supported on a grate. The lat-ter arrangement gives more uniform and controllable combus

page

ster arrangement gives more uniform and controllable combus tion, and allows for more

page

stion, and allows for more

economical use of fuel. It is assumed that this type of pottery kiln became dominant in the

page

seconomical use of fuel. It is assumed that this type of pottery kiln became dominant in the

millennium BCE, not in the least triggered by the scarcity of fuel page

s millennium BCE, not in the least triggered by the scarcity of fuel

in this region. Air enters initially through openings behind or under the fuel, usually with a page

sin this region. Air enters initially through openings behind or under the fuel, usually with a damper to control its flow rate. The combustion gases leave by a hole in the top of the pa

ges

damper to control its flow rate. The combustion gases leave by a hole in the top of the (domed) work chamber (Fig. 7.17), by a vertical or horizontal (Fig. 7.10) flue in the kiln pa

ges

(domed) work chamber (Fig. 7.17), by a vertical or horizontal (Fig. 7.10) flue in the kiln

eschweizerbart_xxx

106 Part I

Figure 7.2. Open pit firing of traditional cooking pottery in the village of Gökeyüp, Turkey (Colak et al. 2006). Photo: Maggetti. © The Geological Society of London.

Figure 7.3. Temperature distributions vs. firing time in an experimentally fired pot (Maggetti et al. 2011a).

45

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s Open pit firing of traditional cooking pottery in the village of Gökeyüp, Turkey (Colak

page

s Open pit firing of traditional cooking pottery in the village of Gökeyüp, Turkey (Colak

he Geological Society of London.

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eschweizerbart_xxx


with results obtained earlier by Shepard (1976), Gosselain (1992) and Livingstone Smith (2001). Large temperature gradients up to 300 °C across the walls of the fired pots were also commonly observed (Fig. 7.3).

Better firing conditions were attained when some kind of containment was provided to re-duce heat losses, to yield a more even temperature distribution, and to improve control of the firing atmosphere. The logical step was to move the firing operation below ground. This was the advent of pit furnaces, that is, holes in the ground lined with refractory clay, some kind of stoking channel at their bases, and openings at their upper rims to allow smoke to escape. This kind of furnace resembles even more primitive scove kilns used to fire bricks

Figure 7.4. Stacking of pottery on top of fuel in a primitive pit furnace (Heimann 1979). Photo: Heimann.

Figure 7.5. Improved early Iron Age pit furnace with separate firing (stoking) channel and four flues (air channels) constructed at a hillside of a clay pit (Limhamn, Skaane, Denmark) (Bjorn 1969).

Turf plaques

Stoking channel

Flue Clay pit

10

7

100 cm

Sample

with results obtained earlier by Shepard (1976), Gosselain (1992) and Livingstone Smith

Sample

with results obtained earlier by Shepard (1976), Gosselain (1992) and Livingstone Smith (2001). Large temperature gradients up to 300 °C across the walls of the fired pots were also

Sample

(2001). Large temperature gradients up to 300 °C across the walls of the fired pots were also

Better firing conditions were attained when some kind of containment was provided to re-

Sample

Better firing conditions were attained when some kind of containment was provided to re-duce heat losses, to yield a more even temperature distribution, and to improve control of

Sample

duce heat losses, to yield a more even temperature distribution, and to improve control of the firing atmosphere. The logical step was to move the firing operation below ground. This

Sample

the firing atmosphere. The logical step was to move the firing operation below ground. This

pit furnaces

Sample

pit furnaces, that is, holes in the ground lined with refractory clay, some

Sample

, that is, holes in the ground lined with refractory clay, some

kind of stoking channel at their bases, and openings at their upper rims to allow smoke to

Sample

kind of stoking channel at their bases, and openings at their upper rims to allow smoke to escape. This kind of furnace resembles even more primitive

Sample

escape. This kind of furnace resembles even more primitive

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

page

swith results obtained earlier by Shepard (1976), Gosselain (1992) and Livingstone Smith pa

ges

with results obtained earlier by Shepard (1976), Gosselain (1992) and Livingstone Smith (2001). Large temperature gradients up to 300 °C across the walls of the fired pots were also pa

ges

(2001). Large temperature gradients up to 300 °C across the walls of the fired pots were also

Stacking of pottery on top of fuel in a primitive pit furnace (Heimann 1979). Photo:

page

s Stacking of pottery on top of fuel in a primitive pit furnace (Heimann 1979). Photo:

page

s

eschweizerbart_xxx

108 Part I

in ancient Mesopotamia. The work was stacked on top of the fuel (Fig. 7.4), most com-monly solid wood, twigs, straw, chaff or peat, and covered with plaques of turf or larger potsherds to minimize heat losses (Fig. 7.5). Apart from the fact that the heat loss through the surrounding soil and the top is much reduced, access of air can be somewhat controlled by opening or plugging the smoke escape holes in the base of the cover.

The improved arrangement of the Limhamn-type kiln (Fig. 7.5) was the progenitor of the complete separation of fuel and work that is, to separate the loci of generation and applica-tion of heat. Experimental firings with a reconstructed Limhamn kiln were performed at the Archaeological Centre in Leijre, Denmark, and maximum temperatures of 700 °C were re-corded.

Despite progress achieved over time there was one basic conceptual flaw: pit kilns are up-side down! A proper kiln should have the fuel at the bottom and the insulation on top since pit kilns are losing heat primarily through their top portion. However, a pit kiln with its mix of fuel and pots had the fuel mostly on top. Early potters may have tried to reverse this situ-ation by putting the fuel at the bottom but realised that as the fire burned down the pots would follow gravity, descent and break. Hence they were forced to keep the fuel on top since their kilns lacked permanent supports to separate fuel and work.

7.1.2 Work separated from fuel (type 2 kilns)The invention of the pottery kiln in which complete separation of fuel and work provided higher temperatures, better temperature control, and decreased fuel consumption is thought to have taken place in the Near East during the middle of the 6th millennium BCE at Yarim Tepe in ancient Iraq (Merpert & Munchaev 1973, Hansen Streily 2000). In these kilns the work chamber was placed on top of the firebox separated by a perforated floor on which the work was stacked. A hole in the top of the upper (work) chamber generated natural draught that drew air through openings in the lower wall of the (fire) chamber underneath and subsequently the hot combustion gases through the holes in the perforated floor into the work chamber. Based on this principle a multitude of arrangements of fuel beds, work chambers, flues, stoking channels, and chimneys have been developed over time (Rhodes 1968). Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) was first to develop a typology of kilns dating to the Ro-man period in Italy and the Roman provinces based on shape (circular or rectangular) as well as number and position of pedestals, internal walls, and flues (Fig. 7.6, Table 7.1). A competing typology was later suggested by Davaras (1980) whose main criteria were the presence or absence of two different chambers, one for fuel and one for pottery, and the type of support for the perforated floor. Detailed information on kiln technology and or-ganisation of pottery workshops in ancient Greece, together with a comprehensive list of close to 500 kilns excavated and studied in mainland Greece and the Aegean islands can be found in the enormously readable Ph.D. dissertation of Hasaki (2002) who also amalga-mated the typologies of Cuomo di Caprio and Davaras to arrive at her own system to clas-sify Greek pottery kilns.

Even despite improved firing technology large temperature gradients within an updraught kiln are to be expected. For example, the temperature variation within a reconstructed me-

Sample

7.1.2 Work separated from fuel (type 2 kilns)

Sample

7.1.2 Work separated from fuel (type 2 kilns)The invention of the pottery kiln in which complete separation of fuel and work provided

Sample

The invention of the pottery kiln in which complete separation of fuel and work provided higher temperatures, better temperature control, and decreased fuel consumption is thought

Sample

higher temperatures, better temperature control, and decreased fuel consumption is thought to have taken place in the Near East during the middle of the 6

Sample

to have taken place in the Near East during the middle of the 6Tepe in ancient Iraq (Merpert & Munchaev 1973, Hansen Streily 2000). In these kilns the

Sample

Tepe in ancient Iraq (Merpert & Munchaev 1973, Hansen Streily 2000). In these kilns the work chamber was placed on top of the firebox separated by a perforated floor on which

Sample

work chamber was placed on top of the firebox separated by a perforated floor on which the work was stacked. A hole in the top of the upper (work) chamber generated natural

Sample

the work was stacked. A hole in the top of the upper (work) chamber generated natural

Sample

draught that drew air through openings in the lower wall of the (fire) chamber underneath

Sample

draught that drew air through openings in the lower wall of the (fire) chamber underneath and subsequently the hot combustion gases through the holes in the perforated floor into

Sample

and subsequently the hot combustion gases through the holes in the perforated floor into the work chamber. Based on this principle a multitude of arrangements of fuel beds, work

Sample

the work chamber. Based on this principle a multitude of arrangements of fuel beds, work chambers, flues, stoking channels, and chimneys have been developed over time (Rhodes

Sample

chambers, flues, stoking channels, and chimneys have been developed over time (Rhodes 1968). Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) was first to develop a typology of kilns dating to the Ro-Sam

ple

1968). Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) was first to develop a typology of kilns dating to the Ro-man period in Italy and the Roman provinces based on shape (circular or rectangular) as Sam

ple

man period in Italy and the Roman provinces based on shape (circular or rectangular) as well as number and position of pedestals, internal walls, and flues (Fig. 7.6, Table 7.1). A Sam

ple

well as number and position of pedestals, internal walls, and flues (Fig. 7.6, Table 7.1). A competing typology was later suggested by Davaras (1980) whose main criteria were the Sam

ple

competing typology was later suggested by Davaras (1980) whose main criteria were the presence or absence of two different chambers, one for fuel and one for pottery, and the

Sample

presence or absence of two different chambers, one for fuel and one for pottery, and the

page

stion of heat. Experimental firings with a reconstructed Limhamn kiln were performed at the

page

stion of heat. Experimental firings with a reconstructed Limhamn kiln were performed at the Archaeological Centre in Leijre, Denmark, and maximum temperatures of 700 °C were re-

page

sArchaeological Centre in Leijre, Denmark, and maximum temperatures of 700 °C were re-

Despite progress achieved over time there was one basic conceptual flaw: pit kilns are up-

page

sDespite progress achieved over time there was one basic conceptual flaw: pit kilns are up-side down! A proper kiln should have the fuel at the bottom and the insulation on top since

page

sside down! A proper kiln should have the fuel at the bottom and the insulation on top since pit kilns are losing heat primarily through their top portion. However, a pit kiln with its mix

page

spit kilns are losing heat primarily through their top portion. However, a pit kiln with its mix of fuel and pots had the fuel mostly on top. Early potters may have tried to reverse this situ-

page

sof fuel and pots had the fuel mostly on top. Early potters may have tried to reverse this situ-ation by putting the fuel at the bottom but realised that as the fire burned down the pots

page

sation by putting the fuel at the bottom but realised that as the fire burned down the pots would follow gravity, descent and break. Hence they were forced to keep the fuel on top

page

swould follow gravity, descent and break. Hence they were forced to keep the fuel on top since their kilns lacked permanent supports to separate fuel and work. pa

ges

since their kilns lacked permanent supports to separate fuel and work.

7.1.2 Work separated from fuel (type 2 kilns)page

s7.1.2 Work separated from fuel (type 2 kilns)

eschweizerbart_xxx


dieval brick kiln (Geck & Westphalen 1998) utilised in experiments to assess the technology of making the large bricks found at the Cistercian monastery St. Urban, Canton of Lucerne, Switzerland showed values around 200 °C, with excursions up to 600 °C at peak firing temperature (Wolf 2002). A very detailed account on construction and functioning of a simple Indian traditional updraught pottery kiln was given by Beaudry et al. (1987) in con-text with Smithsonian Institution’s exhibition ‘Aditi: The Living Arts of India. A Celebration of Life’, shown in 1985 in Washington, D.C.

Table 7.1. Features of pottery kilns shown in Fig. 7.6 according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72).

Circular or oval shape (type I) Rectangular shape (type II)

Ia Central pedestal IIa Central wall

Ib1, Ib2 Radial or tongue-shaped pilasters IIb Central corridor with cross-walls and cross-flues

Ic Arches IIc Double corridor with cross-walls and cross-flues

Id Central corridor with parallel walls and cross-flues

IId Double praefurnium and double corridor with cross-walls and

cross-flues

Figure 7.6. Typology of pottery kilns according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) (adapted from Hasaki 2002).

Sample

dieval brick kiln (Geck & Westphalen 1998) utilised in experiments to assess the technology

Sample

dieval brick kiln (Geck & Westphalen 1998) utilised in experiments to assess the technology of making the large bricks found at the Cistercian monastery St. Urban, Canton of Lucerne,

Sample

of making the large bricks found at the Cistercian monastery St. Urban, Canton of Lucerne, Switzerland showed values around 200 °C, with excursions up to 600 °C at peak firing

Sample

Switzerland showed values around 200 °C, with excursions up to 600 °C at peak firing temperature (Wolf 2002). A very detailed account on construction and functioning of a

Sample

temperature (Wolf 2002). A very detailed account on construction and functioning of a simple Indian traditional updraught pottery kiln was given by Beaudry et al. (1987) in con-

Sample

simple Indian traditional updraught pottery kiln was given by Beaudry et al. (1987) in con-text with Smithsonian Institution’s exhibition ‘Aditi: The Living Arts of India. A Celebration

Sample

text with Smithsonian Institution’s exhibition ‘Aditi: The Living Arts of India. A Celebration of Life’, shown in 1985 in Washington, D.C.

Sample

of Life’, shown in 1985 in Washington, D.C.

Table 7.1.Sample

Table 7.1. Features of pottery kilns shown in Fig. 7.6 according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72).Sample

Features of pottery kilns shown in Fig. 7.6 according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72).Sample

Sample

Circular or oval shape (type I)Sam

ple

Circular or oval shape (type I)

Typology of pottery kilns according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) (adapted from

Sample

Typology of pottery kilns according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) (adapted from

Sample

page

s Typology of pottery kilns according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) (adapted from

page

s Typology of pottery kilns according to Cuomo di Caprio (1971/72) (adapted from

page

s

eschweizerbart_xxx

110 Part I

Simple domed structures

Throughout history it was common to build a permanent firebox with a perforated roof onto which the work was stacked, and over which was constructed a domed cover with a vent on top. This resulted in so-called beehive kilns. After the firing process was completed the cover was demolished and rebuild for the next firing (Fig. 7.7). This was clearly a waste of resources, labour and time. Hence the development went towards completely permanent and increasingly larger structures.

Figure 7.8 shows the reconstruction of the mobile pottery kiln of a travelling potter during Roman Imperial time, excavated in Weddinghusen, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The ce-ramic work was separated from the fuel by a holey platform (Fig. 7.8, left) through which the hot combustion gases could rise to heat the pottery. The work to be fired was loaded onto the platform, and then covered by a moveable terracotta cupola and sealed more or less airtight by a soil backfill (Fig. 7.8, right). With this arrangement maximum firing tem-peratures of about 950 °C could be achieved during reducing firing. The reconstruction shown here and the re-enactment of the firing process took place during a symposium on ‘Firing technologies and their recovery through experimental archaeology’ held from March 29 to April 1, 1977 on the grounds of the Museum Village Berlin-Düppel, Germany.

Frequently the perforated roof of the firebox was supported by a central pillar (Cuomo di Caprio’s type Ia kiln) as shown in the cross-section of a Celtic late La Tène (1st century BCE) pottery kiln from Nimptsch, Lower Silesia (Fig. 7.9).

Figure 7.7. Ancient Egyptian pottery kilns (2nd millennium BCE) based on wall paintings in Tomb 2 of Beni Hasan, Egypt. On the top panel a potter is shown stoking the fire of a tall domed kiln. On the bottom panel a potter is unloading the fired pottery after the dome has been dismantled. © Rockefeller Archaeological Museum Jerusalem.

Sample

Frequently the perforated roof of the firebox was supported by a central pillar (Cuomo di

Sample

Frequently the perforated roof of the firebox was supported by a central pillar (Cuomo di Caprio’s type Ia kiln) as shown in the cross-section of a Celtic late La Tène (1

Sample

Caprio’s type Ia kiln) as shown in the cross-section of a Celtic late La Tène (1

Sample

pottery kiln from Nimptsch, Lower Silesia (Fig. 7.9).

Sample

pottery kiln from Nimptsch, Lower Silesia (Fig. 7.9).

Sample

page

sFigure 7.8 shows the reconstruction of the mobile pottery kiln of a travelling potter during

page

sFigure 7.8 shows the reconstruction of the mobile pottery kiln of a travelling potter during Roman Imperial time, excavated in Weddinghusen, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The ce-

page

sRoman Imperial time, excavated in Weddinghusen, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The ce-ramic work was separated from the fuel by a holey platform (Fig. 7.8, left) through which

page

sramic work was separated from the fuel by a holey platform (Fig. 7.8, left) through which the hot combustion gases could rise to heat the pottery. The work to be fired was loaded

page

sthe hot combustion gases could rise to heat the pottery. The work to be fired was loaded onto the platform, and then covered by a moveable terracotta cupola and sealed more or

page

sonto the platform, and then covered by a moveable terracotta cupola and sealed more or less airtight by a soil backfill (Fig. 7.8, right). With this arrangement maximum firing tem-

page

sless airtight by a soil backfill (Fig. 7.8, right). With this arrangement maximum firing tem-peratures of about 950 °C could be achieved during reducing firing. The reconstruction

page

speratures of about 950 °C could be achieved during reducing firing. The reconstruction shown here and the re-enactment of the firing process took place during a symposium on

page

sshown here and the re-enactment of the firing process took place during a symposium on

page

s‘Firing technologies and their recovery through experimental archaeology’ held from March

page

s‘Firing technologies and their recovery through experimental archaeology’ held from March 29 to April 1, 1977 on the grounds of the Museum Village Berlin-Düppel, Germany.pa

ges

29 to April 1, 1977 on the grounds of the Museum Village Berlin-Düppel, Germany.

Frequently the perforated roof of the firebox was supported by a central pillar (Cuomo di page

sFrequently the perforated roof of the firebox was supported by a central pillar (Cuomo di Caprio’s type Ia kiln) as shown in the cross-section of a Celtic late La Tène (1pa

ges

Caprio’s type Ia kiln) as shown in the cross-section of a Celtic late La Tène (1

eschweizerbart_xxx


quality, coated with a thick cream slip and decorated with red-brown, highly burnished geometric pattern resembling textile designs (Fig. 8.6, right). This development abated dur-ing the late Chalcolithic period that produced predominately monochrome pottery.

In the early Bronze Age (last quarter of the 3rd millennium BCE) the finds at Kültepe near Kayseri (Turkey) present hand-formed but also wheel-turned ware with dark red, light brown, dark brown and light yellow geometric pattern of the Alişar III period.

Before the onset of the Hittite Empire Assyrian merchants founded colonies in Anatolia between 1950 and 1750 BCE. Their ceramic wares were wheel-turned and either finely burnished monochrome or painted with geometric pattern in red and brown, and subse-quently coated with a buff slip.

The early burnished monochrome ware achieved its finest work in the technically excellent products of the early Hittite Empire of the 16th century BCE. The greater part by far of Hittite pottery used a highly burnished orange to red slip.

8.4 EgyptIn the context of this chapter only very general aspects of the Predynastic and Dynastic Egyptian pottery will be covered. Much specialized literature exists on the subject that can shed light on technological details (see for example Catling & Millett 1965b, Wilson 1976, Noll 1976a, Riederer 1976, Catling & Jones 1977, Michel et al. 1976, Allen at al. 1982, Tite et al. 1983, Noll 1991, Krishnan et al. 2005, Michelaki & Hancock 2013). Figure 8.7 shows typical forms of pottery from the earliest prehistoric times to the Persian rule of the 30th dynasty. In Fig. 8.8 some important archaeological sites are indicated.

During the last half of the 5th millennium BCE settlers at El-Badari (Fig. 8.8, site 4) and Deir Tasa in the central Nile valley made arguably one of the finest pottery ever produced in the prehistoric Near East. Their vessels excel with extreme thinness, and are well-fired and highly polished. A lustrous surface gloss emphasises the colours of black, brown and red, the latter being frequently used with a black upper body. This black colour was produced by ‘smoking’, that is, oriented deposition of carbon flakes on the highly burnished upper rim of the so-called ‘black-topped ware’ (C-black technique) (see Chapter 6.4.4). Fig. 8.9 shows typical examples of black-topped redware bowls from El-Badari. To add contrast a decorative palm-leaf pattern was polished onto the air-dried clay body prior to smoking that subsequently would stand out by virtue of its silver-grey gloss over the dull black, unpolished background (Fig. 8.9, left). This gave the vessels the appearance of high-priced and thus prestigious metal objects. To retain the red bottom part of the bowls, the vessels were partly buried in ash.

Similar ceramics decorated in C-black technique were produced in Early Minoan times (Vasiliki ware, see Chapter 9.2) but eventually replaced by pottery decorated in iron reduc-tion techniques. Decorations consisting of a light comb ripple were occasionally applied with a wooden or bone tool (Spencer 1997). It is acknowledged that the Egyptians potters never surpassed the technological and aesthetical standard of the Badarian ware (Boger 1971). Indeed, this type of pottery disappeared from the ceramic record in the Dynastic period (Bakr 1956).

Sample

In the context of this chapter only very general aspects of the Predynastic and Dynastic

Sample

In the context of this chapter only very general aspects of the Predynastic and Dynastic Egyptian pottery will be covered. Much specialized literature exists on the subject that can

Sample

Egyptian pottery will be covered. Much specialized literature exists on the subject that can shed light on technological details (see for example Catling & Millett 1965b, Wilson 1976,

Sample

shed light on technological details (see for example Catling & Millett 1965b, Wilson 1976, Noll 1976a, Riederer 1976, Catling & Jones 1977, Michel et al. 1976, Allen at al. 1982, Tite

Sample

Noll 1976a, Riederer 1976, Catling & Jones 1977, Michel et al. 1976, Allen at al. 1982, Tite et al. 1983, Noll 1991, Krishnan et al. 2005, Michelaki & Hancock 2013). Figure 8.7 shows

Sample

et al. 1983, Noll 1991, Krishnan et al. 2005, Michelaki & Hancock 2013). Figure 8.7 shows typical forms of pottery from the earliest prehistoric times to the Persian rule of the 30

Sample

typical forms of pottery from the earliest prehistoric times to the Persian rule of the 30dynasty. In Fig. 8.8 some important archaeological sites are indicated.

Sample

dynasty. In Fig. 8.8 some important archaeological sites are indicated.

During the last half of the 5

Sample

During the last half of the 5th

Sample

th millennium BCE settlers at El-Badari (Fig. 8.8, site 4) and Deir

Sample

millennium BCE settlers at El-Badari (Fig. 8.8, site 4) and Deir

Tasa in the central Nile valley made arguably one of the finest pottery ever produced in the

Sample

Tasa in the central Nile valley made arguably one of the finest pottery ever produced in the prehistoric Near East. Their vessels excel with extreme thinness, and are well-fired and highly

Sample

prehistoric Near East. Their vessels excel with extreme thinness, and are well-fired and highly

Sample

polished. A lustrous surface gloss emphasises the colours of black, brown and red, the latter

Sample

polished. A lustrous surface gloss emphasises the colours of black, brown and red, the latter being frequently used with a black upper body. This black colour was produced by ‘smoking’,

Sample

being frequently used with a black upper body. This black colour was produced by ‘smoking’, that is, oriented deposition of carbon flakes on the highly burnished upper rim of the so-called

Sample

that is, oriented deposition of carbon flakes on the highly burnished upper rim of the so-called ‘black-topped ware’ (C-black technique) (see Chapter 6.4.4). Fig. 8.9 shows typical examples Sam

ple

‘black-topped ware’ (C-black technique) (see Chapter 6.4.4). Fig. 8.9 shows typical examples of black-topped redware bowls from El-Badari. To add contrast a decorative palm-leaf pattern Sam

ple

of black-topped redware bowls from El-Badari. To add contrast a decorative palm-leaf pattern was polished onto the air-dried clay body prior to smoking that subsequently would stand out Sam

ple

was polished onto the air-dried clay body prior to smoking that subsequently would stand out by virtue of its silver-grey gloss over the dull black, unpolished background (Fig. 8.9, left). This Sam

ple

by virtue of its silver-grey gloss over the dull black, unpolished background (Fig. 8.9, left). This gave the vessels the appearance of high-priced and thus prestigious metal objects. To retain

Sample

gave the vessels the appearance of high-priced and thus prestigious metal objects. To retain

page

sbetween 1950 and 1750 BCE. Their ceramic wares were wheel-turned and either finely

page

sbetween 1950 and 1750 BCE. Their ceramic wares were wheel-turned and either finely burnished monochrome or painted with geometric pattern in red and brown, and subse-

page

sburnished monochrome or painted with geometric pattern in red and brown, and subse-

The early burnished monochrome ware achieved its finest work in the technically excellent

page

sThe early burnished monochrome ware achieved its finest work in the technically excellent century BCE. The greater part by far of Hittite

page

s century BCE. The greater part by far of Hittite

In the context of this chapter only very general aspects of the Predynastic and Dynastic page

sIn the context of this chapter only very general aspects of the Predynastic and Dynastic Egyptian pottery will be covered. Much specialized literature exists on the subject that can pa

ges

Egyptian pottery will be covered. Much specialized literature exists on the subject that can shed light on technological details (see for example Catling & Millett 1965b, Wilson 1976,

page

s

shed light on technological details (see for example Catling & Millett 1965b, Wilson 1976,

eschweizerbart_xxx

138 Part II

Figure 8.7. Typical forms of Egyptian pottery of different periods. A Prehistoric (Badarian), c.4400–4000 BCE; B Predynastic (Naqada I–III), c. 4000–3000 BCE; C Early dynastic (1st – 2nd dynasties), c. 3040–2650 BCE; D Old Kingdom (3rd – 6th dynasties), 2649–2150 BCE; E First In-termediate Period (7th – 10th dynasties), 2150–1986? BCE; F Middle Kingdom (11th – 13th dynas-ties), 2000–1640 BCE); G Second Intermediate Period (14th – 17th dynasties), 1633–1593 BCE; H New Kingdom (18th – 20th dynasties), 1550–1070 BCE; I Late Egyptian (22nd – 25th dynasties), 945–656 BCE; J Persian (26th – 30th dynasties), < 664 BCE) (adapted from Bakr, 1956).

During the Predynastic Naqada (Fig. 8.8, site 10) period earthenware pottery was produced from marly clays, slip-painted with geometric pattern as well as animal, plant and boat decorations (Fig. 8.10, left). The Naqada I period somewhat overlapped the Badari era and eventually succeeded it with red-grounded pottery made from Nile mud, sometimes cold-painted white with gypsum (Noll 1991). During the Naqada II stage of Predynastic Egypt additional colours and colour combination appeared, often disguising the red-grounded ceramic body with a light-coloured slip that served as a painting ground for geometric orna-ments and images of human figures and animals executed in red-brown and even black colours by using iron and manganese oxide pigments instead of smoking that became a less frequently applied decoration technique (Fig. 8.10, left). Table 8.2 shows the chemical com-

Table 8.2. Chemical composition in mass% of highly calcareous Naqada pottery (c. 3200 BCE) from El-Tarif (Noll 1991).

SiO2 TiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O LOI

42.8 0.8 10.4 6.8 27.7 3.9 0.8 1.6 5.6

Sample

ypical forms of Egyptian pottery of different periods.

Sample

ypical forms of Egyptian pottery of different periods. c.4400–4000 BCE; B Predynastic (Naqada I–III), c. 4000–3000 BCE; C Early dynastic (1

Sample

c.4400–4000 BCE; B Predynastic (Naqada I–III), c. 4000–3000 BCE; C Early dynastic (1dynasties), c. 3040–2650 BCE; D Old Kingdom (3

Sample

dynasties), c. 3040–2650 BCE; D Old Kingdom (3rd

Sample

rd – 6

Sample

– 6th

Sample

th dynasties), 2649–2150 BCE; E First In-

Sample

dynasties), 2649–2150 BCE; E First In-

dynasties), 2150–1986? BCE; F Middle Kingdom (11

Sample

dynasties), 2150–1986? BCE; F Middle Kingdom (11

ties), 2000–1640 BCE); G Second Intermediate Period (14

Sample

ties), 2000–1640 BCE); G Second Intermediate Period (14

– 20

Sample

– 20th

Sample

th dynasties), 1550–1070 BCE; I Late Egyptian (22

Sample

dynasties), 1550–1070 BCE; I Late Egyptian (22

945–656 BCE; J Persian (26

Sample

945–656 BCE; J Persian (26th

Sample

th – 30

Sample

– 30th

Sample

th

Sample

dynasties), < 664 BCE) (adapted from Bakr, 1956).

Sample

dynasties), < 664 BCE) (adapted from Bakr, 1956).

Sample

During the Predynastic Naqada (Fig. 8.8, site 10) period earthenware pottery was produced

Sample

During the Predynastic Naqada (Fig. 8.8, site 10) period earthenware pottery was produced from marly clays, slip-painted with geometric pattern as well as animal, plant and boat

Sample

from marly clays, slip-painted with geometric pattern as well as animal, plant and boat decorations (Fig. 8.10, left). The Naqada I period somewhat overlapped the Badari era and

Sample

decorations (Fig. 8.10, left). The Naqada I period somewhat overlapped the Badari era and eventually succeeded it with red-grounded pottery made from Nile mud, sometimes cold-Sam

ple

eventually succeeded it with red-grounded pottery made from Nile mud, sometimes cold-painted white with gypsum (Noll 1991). During the Naqada II stage of Predynastic Egypt Sam

ple

painted white with gypsum (Noll 1991). During the Naqada II stage of Predynastic Egypt additional colours and colour combination appeared, often disguising the red-grounded Sam

ple

additional colours and colour combination appeared, often disguising the red-grounded Sample

ceramic body with a light-coloured slip that served as a painting ground for geometric orna-Sample

ceramic body with a light-coloured slip that served as a painting ground for geometric orna-ments and images of human figures and animals executed in red-brown and even black

Sample

ments and images of human figures and animals executed in red-brown and even black

page

sypical forms of Egyptian pottery of different periods. pa

ges

ypical forms of Egyptian pottery of different periods. c.4400–4000 BCE; B Predynastic (Naqada I–III), c. 4000–3000 BCE; C Early dynastic (1

page

s

c.4400–4000 BCE; B Predynastic (Naqada I–III), c. 4000–3000 BCE; C Early dynastic (1pa

ges

eschweizerbart_xxx


Figure 8.8. Map of important archaeological sites in Egypt. 1 Aswan, 2 El-Amarna, 3 Edfu, 4 El-Badari, 5 El-Ballas, 6 El-Fustat, 7 El-Kharga, 8 Fayyum, 9 Luxor, 10 Naqada, 11 Qena, 12 Saqqara, 13 Sinai, 14 Wadi El-Natrun, 15 Asyut.

EasternDesert

DesertWestern

Nile R

iver

13

11

7

5109

3

1

15 4

2

8

12

146

Mediterranean Sea

Red Sea

300 km

Figure 8.9. Left: Polished black-topped redware bowl with burnished palm-leaf design within. Badari tradition (c.4400–4000 BCE). Excavated at El-Badari. Repaired. Height 7 cm, diameter 17 cm. Reg.no. 1929,1106.10. © The Trustees of the British Museum. Right: Polished black-topped brownware with rippled surface produced by a comb-like tool. Badari tradition (c.4400–4000 BCE). Excavated at El-Badari. Repaired. Height 7 cm, diameter 23.8 cm. Reg.no. 1929,1106.1. © The Trustees of the British Museum. See Friedmann (1999).

Sample

Map of important archaeological sites in Egypt. 1 Aswan, 2 El-Amarna, 3 Edfu, 4 El-

Sample

Map of important archaeological sites in Egypt. 1 Aswan, 2 El-Amarna, 3 Edfu, 4 El-

Badari, 5 El-Ballas, 6 El-Fustat, 7 El-Kharga, 8 F

Sample

Badari, 5 El-Ballas, 6 El-Fustat, 7 El-Kharga, 8 Fa

Sample

ayyum, 9 Luxor, 10 Naqada, 11 Qena, 12 Saqqara,

Sample

yyum, 9 Luxor, 10 Naqada, 11 Qena, 12 Saqqara,

13 Sinai, 14 Wadi El-Natrun, 15 Asyut.

Sample

13 Sinai, 14 Wadi El-Natrun, 15 Asyut.

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

300 km

Sample

300 km

Sample

page

spa

ges

Nile R

iverpage

sN

ile River

3page

s33pa

ges

3

1page

s1

eschweizerbart_xxx

140 Part II

position of highly calcareous Naqada II pottery from the Eastern mastaba in El Tarif, Egypt (c. 3200 BCE, Noll 1991, Arnold 1976).

During Early Dynastic times, utilitarian vessels such as the conical bowl shown in Fig. 8.10, right were made, here with its exterior surface painted with red oval spots and a polished black interior.

Production of fine pottery in the Badarian tradition continued during the 3rd to 6th dynasties of the Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). The red-slipped bowl of ‘Meidum’ type (Petrie et al. 1910) shown in Fig. 8.11 (see also Fig. 8.7, D) was produced from marl or silty Nile clay with a thick red slip on the interior and exterior surfaces. Such ‘Meidum’ bowls are highly polished and elegantly executed, with a rather large diameter, rounded bottom, and flared rim. The grooved rim was presumably used for effective attachment of a rope or strap for carrying food, liquid, or other materials (Sterling 2001).

Apart from clay-based traditional earthenware pottery the Egyptian artisans developed something entirely new, a hard and durable ceramic material known somewhat euphemis-tically as Egyptian ‘faience’ (see for example Bakr 1956, Vandiver 1982) and even dubbed the ‘first high-tech ceramics’ (Vandiver & Kingery 1987). It was already invented in Predy-nastic time and reached its artistic summit in the 18th Dynasty (1550–1292 BCE). It is not clay-based at all but consists of a glazed quartz sinter ceramic with > 90 mass% silica content. Typical analyses of the ceramic body show 94.0–94.2 mass% SiO2, 0.6–1.8 mass% Al2O3, 0.9–1.6 mass% Fe2O3, 1.7–2.0 mass% CaO, 1.1–1.8 mass% MgO, and traces of al-kalies (Bakr 1956). Owing to its lack of clay-based constituents the name ‘faience’ is com-

Figure 8.10. Egyptian pottery of the Naqada II (left) and Early Dynastic (right) periods. Left: Two-handled earthenware jar, slip-painted in red with dancing figures, ostriches and many-oared boats. Naqada II, c. 3300 BCE. Height 29.5 cm, diameter 22.5 cm. Reg. no. 1901,1012.2. © The Trustees of the British Museum. Right: Conical bowl painted with red oval spots on the exterior and black polished interior. Early Dynastic period (1st and 2nd dynasties), c. 3000 BCE. Faras, Nubia, Egypt. Height 15.4 cm, diameter 21.5 cm (rim). Reg. no. 1912,1109.16. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

Sample

and black polished interior. Early Dynastic period (1

Sample

and black polished interior. Early Dynastic period (1

Sample

position of highly calcareous Naqada II pottery from the Eastern

Sample

position of highly calcareous Naqada II pottery from the Eastern (c. 3200 BCE, Noll 1991, Arnold 1976).

Sample

(c. 3200 BCE, Noll 1991, Arnold 1976).

During Early Dynastic times, utilitarian vessels such as the conical bowl shown in Fig. 8.10,

Sample

During Early Dynastic times, utilitarian vessels such as the conical bowl shown in Fig. 8.10, right were made, here with its exterior surface painted with red oval spots and a polished

Sample

right were made, here with its exterior surface painted with red oval spots and a polished

Production of fine pottery in the Badarian tradition continued during the 3

Sample

Production of fine pottery in the Badarian tradition continued during the 3of the Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). The red-slipped bowl of ‘Meidum’ type (Petrie et al.

Sample

of the Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). The red-slipped bowl of ‘Meidum’ type (Petrie et al. 1910) shown in Fig. 8.11 (see also Fig. 8.7, D) was produced from marl or silty Nile clay

Sample

1910) shown in Fig. 8.11 (see also Fig. 8.7, D) was produced from marl or silty Nile clay with a thick red slip on the interior and exterior surfaces. Such ‘Meidum’ bowls are highly Sam

ple

with a thick red slip on the interior and exterior surfaces. Such ‘Meidum’ bowls are highly polished and elegantly executed, with a rather large diameter, rounded bottom, and flared Sam

ple

polished and elegantly executed, with a rather large diameter, rounded bottom, and flared rim. The grooved rim was presumably used for effective attachment of a rope or strap for Sam

ple

rim. The grooved rim was presumably used for effective attachment of a rope or strap for carrying food, liquid, or other materials (Sterling 2001).Sam

ple

carrying food, liquid, or other materials (Sterling 2001).

Apart from clay-based traditional earthenware pottery the Egyptian artisans developed Sam

ple

Apart from clay-based traditional earthenware pottery the Egyptian artisans developed

Nubia, Egypt. Height 15.4 cm, diameter 21.5 cm (rim). Reg. no. 1912,1109.16. © The Trustees

Sample

Nubia, Egypt. Height 15.4 cm, diameter 21.5 cm (rim). Reg. no. 1912,1109.16. © The Trustees page

s Egyptian pottery of the Naqada II (left) and Early Dynastic (right) periods. Left: Two-

page

s Egyptian pottery of the Naqada II (left) and Early Dynastic (right) periods. Left: Two-

handled earthenware jar, slip-painted in red with dancing figures, ostriches and many-oared

page

shandled earthenware jar, slip-painted in red with dancing figures, ostriches and many-oared boats. Naqada II, c. 3300 BCE. Height 29.5 cm, diameter 22.5 cm. Reg. no. 1901,1012.2. © The pa

ges

boats. Naqada II, c. 3300 BCE. Height 29.5 cm, diameter 22.5 cm. Reg. no. 1901,1012.2. © The Trustees of the British Museum. Right: Conical bowl painted with red oval spots on the exterior pa

ges

Trustees of the British Museum. Right: Conical bowl painted with red oval spots on the exterior and black polished interior. Early Dynastic period (1 pa

ges

and black polished interior. Early Dynastic period (1st page

sst and 2pa

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and 2ndpage

sndpa

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dynasties), c. 3000 BCE. Faras, page

s dynasties), c. 3000 BCE. Faras,

Nubia, Egypt. Height 15.4 cm, diameter 21.5 cm (rim). Reg. no. 1912,1109.16. © The Trustees page

sNubia, Egypt. Height 15.4 cm, diameter 21.5 cm (rim). Reg. no. 1912,1109.16. © The Trustees pa

ges

eschweizerbart_xxx


pletely misleading. This type of ‘pottery’ was produced from sand grains or crushed quartz pebbles that were mixed with a pre-melted alkali silicate glass frit and a few percent of re-fractory kaolinitic clay. The ceramic body was coated by a alkali-lime silicate glaze col-oured blue-green by copper that was arguably applied to simulate scarce and highly prized lapis lazuli and turquoise (Tite 1992). The first glazes of this kind have to be seen in context with the copper ore deposits in the Sinai peninsula, where in the Timna Valley ore was mined and processed from the Chalcolithic period (5th–4th millennium BCE) to the Egyptian New Kingdom (late 14th to mid-12th centuries BCE) (for example Conrad & Rothenberg 1980, Hauptmann 2000, Drenka 2003). Details on production technology and microstruc-ture of Egyptian ‘faience’ were provided by Kingery & Vandiver (1986), Vandiver & Kingery (1987), and more recently by Nicholson (2009).

In this context it should be mentioned that the ancient Egyptian artisans appear to have in-vented two synthetic ceramic colour pigments, Egyptian blue (cuprorivaite, CaCuSi4O10, Tite 1985) and cobalt blue (cobalt aluminate spinel, CoAl2O4) (see also Chapter 4.6). The former was almost exclusively used in wall painting as its low colour intensity, in particular in fine grained products, precluded its use as a pigment for cold-painted ceramic decora-tion (Noll 1991). It was arguably invented already during the 4th dynasty (c.2575–2467 BCE). In Roman time it was also widely used under the name of caeruleum (Gettens & Stout 1966) and its manufacture was (incorrectly) described by Vitruvius (1960). Knowledge of the existence of Egyptian blue disappeared in the 4th century CE (Chase 1971) and the mate-rial was only reinvestigated in the early 19th century CE by Sir Humphrey Davy (1815). For

Figure 8.11. Red-slipped pottery bowl of ‘Meidum’ type, showing a flaring body, drawn in be-neath the everted rim. El-Badari, Upper Egypt. Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). Diameter 21.6 cm. Reg. no. 1925,1012.11. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

Sample

Red-slipped pottery bowl of ‘Meidum’ type, showing a flaring body, drawn in be-

Sample

Red-slipped pottery bowl of ‘Meidum’ type, showing a flaring body, drawn in be-

Sample

pletely misleading. This type of ‘pottery’ was produced from sand grains or crushed quartz

Sample

pletely misleading. This type of ‘pottery’ was produced from sand grains or crushed quartz pebbles that were mixed with a pre-melted alkali silicate glass frit and a few percent of re-

Sample

pebbles that were mixed with a pre-melted alkali silicate glass frit and a few percent of re-fractory kaolinitic clay. The ceramic body was coated by a alkali-lime silicate glaze col-

Sample

fractory kaolinitic clay. The ceramic body was coated by a alkali-lime silicate glaze col-oured blue-green by copper that was arguably applied to simulate scarce and highly prized

Sample

oured blue-green by copper that was arguably applied to simulate scarce and highly prized lapis lazuli and turquoise (Tite 1992). The first glazes of this kind have to be seen in context

Sample

lapis lazuli and turquoise (Tite 1992). The first glazes of this kind have to be seen in context with the copper ore deposits in the Sinai peninsula, where in the Timna Valley ore was

Sample

with the copper ore deposits in the Sinai peninsula, where in the Timna Valley ore was mined and processed from the Chalcolithic period (5

Sample

mined and processed from the Chalcolithic period (5New Kingdom (late 14

Sample

New Kingdom (late 14th

Sample

th to mid-12

Sample

to mid-12

1980, Hauptmann 2000, Drenka 2003). Details on production technology and microstruc-Sample

1980, Hauptmann 2000, Drenka 2003). Details on production technology and microstruc-ture of Egyptian ‘faience’ were provided by Kingery & Vandiver (1986), Vandiver & Kingery Sam

ple

ture of Egyptian ‘faience’ were provided by Kingery & Vandiver (1986), Vandiver & Kingery (1987), and more recently by Nicholson (2009).Sam

ple

(1987), and more recently by Nicholson (2009).

In this context it should be mentioned that the ancient Egyptian artisans appear to have in-Sample

In this context it should be mentioned that the ancient Egyptian artisans appear to have in-vented two synthetic ceramic colour pigments,

Sample

vented two synthetic ceramic colour pigments,

neath the everted rim. El-Badari, Upper Egypt. Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). Diameter

Sample

neath the everted rim. El-Badari, Upper Egypt. Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). Diameter 21.6 cm. Reg. no. 1925,1012.11. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

Sample

21.6 cm. Reg. no. 1925,1012.11. © The Trustees of the British Museum.pa

ges

Red-slipped pottery bowl of ‘Meidum’ type, showing a flaring body, drawn in be-page

s Red-slipped pottery bowl of ‘Meidum’ type, showing a flaring body, drawn in be-pa

ges

neath the everted rim. El-Badari, Upper Egypt. Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). Diameter page

sneath the everted rim. El-Badari, Upper Egypt. Old Kingdom (2650–2150 BCE). Diameter 21.6 cm. Reg. no. 1925,1012.11. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

page

s

21.6 cm. Reg. no. 1925,1012.11. © The Trustees of the British Museum.pa

ges

eschweizerbart_xxx

142 Part II

additional information see Noll 1982a, Ullrich 1987, Tite & Hatton 2007, Rehren 2008, and Hatton et al. 2008.

The second pigment, cobalt blue with superior quality and higher colour intensity com-pared to the classic Egyptian blue was copiously used from the 18th to the 20th dynasties (1550–1070 BCE) to decorate faiences (Tite & Shortland 2003) and was almost certainly derived from rare cobaltiferous alums found in the Western Oases of El–Kharga (Fig. 8.8, site 7) and Dakhla (Kaczmarczyk 1986, Shortland et al. 2006b). Prior to the 18th dynasty, the synthetic blue cobalt spinel pigment was rarely used to paint pottery surfaces, presum-ably owing to its scarcity and hence high cost. Interestingly, Noll (1991) tentatively related the sudden and massive appearance of this blue pigment as ceramic paint during the 18th dynasty to the sun cult of Pharaoh Akhenaten, the Heretic King. The vivid colour of cobalt aluminate was supposed to resemble the heavenly blue, a symbol of the god of the sun disc, Aten, but its use fell, like Akhenaten himself, into oblivion after reestablishment of the tra-ditional Amun cult by Tutankhamun in 1334 BCE. However, the continuing use of this pig-ment up to the 20th dynasty casts some doubt on this hypothesis. Still, it is rather mysterious why this better product did not conquer the antique market since it produced painted sur-faces with high abrasion strength and as the only thermally stable blue pigment may also have been used to colour the ceramic body during firing (Noll 1984, 1991). Alas, this mate-rial was forgotten for almost two millennia until it was rediscovered as a ceramic pigment during China’s Tang dynasty (Kerr & Wood 2004) and in overglaze-painted Iranian lustre ware of Mina’i and Lajvardina styles (Kleinmann 1991, Mason 2004; see 13.2.3). It was discovered a third time in 1799 by the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard (Thénard’s blue) and used as brilliantly blue pigment by the Sèvres and Vienna’s Augarten porcelain manufactures.

During the 18th dynasty Tell-el-Amarna (Fig. 8.8, site 2) period around 1300 BCE plaster-of-Paris moulds for slip casting of pottery were invented, the knowledge of which was, maybe for the same reason, rather quickly forgotten and reinvented only much later. In contrast to this, the Egyptian potters stuck to the ancient manganese-black pigment even though their trade relation with Minoan Crete certainly had made them aware of the technically supe-rior and more variable iron oxidation/reduction colour palette used there since at least the Early Minoan (EM II, 2500–2300 BCE) Vasiliki ware (Noll 1982).

The polychrome pottery of the 18th/19th dynasties was decorated lavishly with black, red, white and blue colours. As discussed above the blue pigment is cobalt aluminate spinel63; black is related to manganiferous iron oxide with haematite structure and varying Mn/(Mn+Fe) ratios; red colours are generated by haematite crystallites obtained by heating of Mn-free iron ochre; white impure decoration may be related to a mixture of gypsum, calcite and diopside (so-called ‘lime silicate white’, Noll 1982b).

Apart from the various ways the Egyptians decorated their pottery the ceramic bodies were chemically remarkably homogeneous, with clay raw materials closely associated with lime-

63 As discussed by Kerr & Wood (2004; p. 663) cobalt spinel could have been formed in situ during glazing rather than being introduced as a prefabricated pigment the production of which was complicated owing to a complex roasting and fritting process of sulphide and/or arsenide cobalt ores (Kleinmann 1991).

Sample

during China’s Tang dynasty (Kerr & Wood 2004) and in overglaze-painted Iranian lustre

Sample

during China’s Tang dynasty (Kerr & Wood 2004) and in overglaze-painted Iranian lustre styles (Kleinmann 1991, Mason 2004; see 13.2.3). It was

Sample

styles (Kleinmann 1991, Mason 2004; see 13.2.3). It was discovered a third time in 1799 by the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard (Thénard’s

Sample

discovered a third time in 1799 by the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard (Thénard’s blue) and used as brilliantly blue pigment by the Sèvres and Vienna’s Augarten porcelain

Sample

blue) and used as brilliantly blue pigment by the Sèvres and Vienna’s Augarten porcelain

Sample

dynasty Tell-el-Amarna (Fig. 8.8, site 2) period around 1300 BCE plaster-of-

Sample

dynasty Tell-el-Amarna (Fig. 8.8, site 2) period around 1300 BCE plaster-of-

Paris moulds for slip casting of pottery were invented, the knowledge of which was, maybe

Sample

Paris moulds for slip casting of pottery were invented, the knowledge of which was, maybe for the same reason, rather quickly forgotten and reinvented only much later. In contrast to

Sample

for the same reason, rather quickly forgotten and reinvented only much later. In contrast to this, the Egyptian potters stuck to the ancient manganese-black pigment even though their

Sample

this, the Egyptian potters stuck to the ancient manganese-black pigment even though their trade relation with Minoan Crete certainly had made them aware of the technically supe-

Sample

trade relation with Minoan Crete certainly had made them aware of the technically supe-rior and more variable iron oxidation/reduction colour palette used there since at least the

Sample

rior and more variable iron oxidation/reduction colour palette used there since at least the Early Minoan (EM II, 2500–2300 BCE) Vasiliki ware (Noll 1982).

Sample

Early Minoan (EM II, 2500–2300 BCE) Vasiliki ware (Noll 1982).

The polychrome pottery of the 18Sample

The polychrome pottery of the 18Sample

white and blue colours. As discussed above the blue pigment is cobalt aluminate spinelSample

white and blue colours. As discussed above the blue pigment is cobalt aluminate spinelblack is related to manganiferous iron oxide with haematite structure and varying Mn/Sam

ple

black is related to manganiferous iron oxide with haematite structure and varying Mn/(Mn+Fe) ratios; red colours are generated by haematite crystallites obtained by heating of Sam

ple

(Mn+Fe) ratios; red colours are generated by haematite crystallites obtained by heating of Mn-free iron ochre; white impure decoration may be related to a mixture of gypsum, calcite

Sample

Mn-free iron ochre; white impure decoration may be related to a mixture of gypsum, calcite

page

sthe synthetic blue cobalt spinel pigment was rarely used to paint pottery surfaces, presum-

page

sthe synthetic blue cobalt spinel pigment was rarely used to paint pottery surfaces, presum-ably owing to its scarcity and hence high cost. Interestingly, Noll (1991) tentatively related

page

sably owing to its scarcity and hence high cost. Interestingly, Noll (1991) tentatively related the sudden and massive appearance of this blue pigment as ceramic paint during the 18

page

sthe sudden and massive appearance of this blue pigment as ceramic paint during the 18, the Heretic King. The vivid colour of cobalt

page

s, the Heretic King. The vivid colour of cobalt aluminate was supposed to resemble the heavenly blue, a symbol of the god of the sun disc,

page

saluminate was supposed to resemble the heavenly blue, a symbol of the god of the sun disc, Aten, but its use fell, like Akhenaten himself, into oblivion after reestablishment of the tra-

page

sAten, but its use fell, like Akhenaten himself, into oblivion after reestablishment of the tra-ditional Amun cult by Tutankhamun in 1334 BCE. However, the continuing use of this pig-

page

sditional Amun cult by Tutankhamun in 1334 BCE. However, the continuing use of this pig-

dynasty casts some doubt on this hypothesis. Still, it is rather mysterious

page

s dynasty casts some doubt on this hypothesis. Still, it is rather mysterious

why this better product did not conquer the antique market since it produced painted sur-

page

swhy this better product did not conquer the antique market since it produced painted sur-faces with high abrasion strength and as the only thermally stable blue pigment may also

page

sfaces with high abrasion strength and as the only thermally stable blue pigment may also have been used to colour the ceramic body during firing (Noll 1984, 1991). Alas, this mate-pa

ges

have been used to colour the ceramic body during firing (Noll 1984, 1991). Alas, this mate-rial was forgotten for almost two millennia until it was rediscovered as a ceramic pigment pa

ges

rial was forgotten for almost two millennia until it was rediscovered as a ceramic pigment during China’s Tang dynasty (Kerr & Wood 2004) and in overglaze-painted Iranian lustre pa

ges

during China’s Tang dynasty (Kerr & Wood 2004) and in overglaze-painted Iranian lustre styles (Kleinmann 1991, Mason 2004; see 13.2.3). It was pa

ges

styles (Kleinmann 1991, Mason 2004; see 13.2.3). It was discovered a third time in 1799 by the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard (Thénard’s

page

s

discovered a third time in 1799 by the French chemist Louis Jacques Thénard (Thénard’s

eschweizerbart_xxx


poor Nile silt, the composition of which is nearly constant over long distances (Table 8.3). The clay has been deposited between the Upper Pleistocene and the present. As a conse-quence the deposits can be found well away from the present course of the Nile as well as within the modern flood plain (Bourriau et al. 2000, Michelaki & Hancock 2013). As shown in Fig. 8.12 the composition of Nile silt (normalised for loss on ignition, LOI) is approxi-mately 68 mass% SiO2, 24 mass% Al2O3 + Fe2O3, and 8 mass% CaO + MgO (see also Kemp 2000). Hence the ceramic compositions are straddling the cotectic line quartz-anorthite. A substantial number of pottery analyses are found in the cotectiv triangle quartz-anorthite-mullite. The fact that the Nile silt composition is lowest in SiO2 compared to the analyses of the Egyptian wares is certainly related to the fact that fine quartz sand was used as an inten-tionally added temper during production of the pottery64. It should be noted that in Fig. 8.12

64 A recent study (Michelaki & Hancock 2013) showed that sediment samples collected from the Nile River delta, potential raw materials of Egyptian ceramics, could be assigned by principal component analysis (PCA) to three groups: unaltered Nile alluvium, lime-diluted Nile alluvium, and silica (quartz sand)-diluted Nile alluvium. This finding underscores the complexity of the in-terpretation of archaeological data of ancient Egyptian ceramics (see also Hancock et al. 1987).

Figure 8.12. Position of Egyptian pottery in the ternary phase diagram (CaO+MgO)-Al2O3-SiO2 (Data from Noll 1984). The composition of Nile mud was obtained from Hangst (1979).

Late Egyptian

Anorthite

Gehlenite

CaO+MgO

DiopsideWollastonite

AI2O3

Mullite

Nile mud

SiO2/Quarz

90

80

70

60

50

40

30

20

10

908070605040302010

90

80

70

60

40

30

20

10

Marly clay (Qena)New kingdomMiddle kingdomOld kingdomPre-dynasticNile mud

Table 8.3. Chemical analyses in mass% oxide of Nile mud and marly clays from Qena and El-Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lucas & Harris 1962, Shortland 2000; see also Bourriau et al. 2000).

Origin Analyst SiO2 Al2O3 TiO2 Fe2O3 CaO MgO Na2O K2O LOI

Nile mud Bakr 43.1 14.8 15.7 3.3 3.2 2.3 1.1 15.5

Nile mud Hangst 57.2 13.4 2.1 10.4 5.2 3.2 1.5 1.5 5.0

Nile mud Shortland 59.7 14.2 2.8 12.0* 5.2 3.4 1.6 1.2


Qena marly clay Bakr 33.0 15.0 8.1 17.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 20.0

Ballas marly clay Lucas 34.8 20.6 6.1 17.7 0.4 1.3 1.0 21.4*Expressed as FeO

Sample

in Fig. 8.12 the composition of Nile silt (normalised for loss on ignition, LOI) is approxi-

Sample

in Fig. 8.12 the composition of Nile silt (normalised for loss on ignition, LOI) is approxi-O

Sample

O3

Sample

3 +

Sample

+ Fe

Sample

Fe2

Sample

2O

Sample

O3

Sample

3

2000). Hence the ceramic compositions are straddling the cotectic line quartz-anorthite. A

Sample

2000). Hence the ceramic compositions are straddling the cotectic line quartz-anorthite. A substantial number of pottery analyses are found in the cotectiv triangle quartz-anorthite-

Sample

substantial number of pottery analyses are found in the cotectiv triangle quartz-anorthite-mullite. The fact that the Nile silt composition is lowest in SiO

Sample

mullite. The fact that the Nile silt composition is lowest in SiOthe Egyptian wares is certainly related to the fact that fine quartz sand was used as an inten-

Sample

the Egyptian wares is certainly related to the fact that fine quartz sand was used as an inten-tionally added temper during production of the pottery

Sample

tionally added temper during production of the pottery

Chemical analyses in mass% oxide of Nile mud and marly clays from Qena and El-

Sample

Chemical analyses in mass% oxide of Nile mud and marly clays from Qena and El-

Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lucas & Harris 1962, Shortland 2000; see also Bourriau et al. 2000).

Sample

Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lucas & Harris 1962, Shortland 2000; see also Bourriau et al. 2000).

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Analyst SiO

Sample

Analyst SiOAnalyst SiO

Sample

Analyst SiO

Nile mud Bakr 43.1 14.8 15.7 3.3 3.2 2.3 1.1 15.5

Sample

Nile mud Bakr 43.1 14.8 15.7 3.3 3.2 2.3 1.1 15.5Nile mud Bakr 43.1 14.8 15.7 3.3 3.2 2.3 1.1 15.5

Sample

Nile mud Bakr 43.1 14.8 15.7 3.3 3.2 2.3 1.1 15.5

Nile mud Hangst 57.2 13.4 2.1 10.4 5.2 3.2 1.5 1.5 5.0Sample

Nile mud Hangst 57.2 13.4 2.1 10.4 5.2 3.2 1.5 1.5 5.0Nile mud Hangst 57.2 13.4 2.1 10.4 5.2 3.2 1.5 1.5 5.0Sample

Nile mud Hangst 57.2 13.4 2.1 10.4 5.2 3.2 1.5 1.5 5.0Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Sample

Nile mud Shortland 59.7 14.2 2.8 12.0* 5.2 3.4 1.6 1.2Sample

Nile mud Shortland 59.7 14.2 2.8 12.0* 5.2 3.4 1.6 1.2Nile mud Shortland 59.7 14.2 2.8 12.0* 5.2 3.4 1.6 1.2Sample


Nile mud Shortland 62.8 15.8 1.7 11.2* 3.3 3.1 1.1 1.0Sample

Nile mud Shortland 62.8 15.8 1.7 11.2* 3.3 3.1 1.1 1.0Nile mud Shortland 62.8 15.8 1.7 11.2* 3.3 3.1 1.1 1.0Sample


Qena marly clay Bakr 33.0 15.0 8.1 17.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 20.0Sam

ple

Qena marly clay Bakr 33.0 15.0 8.1 17.5 2.0 1.0 1.0 20.0

page

spoor Nile silt, the composition of which is nearly constant over long distances (Table 8.3).

page

spoor Nile silt, the composition of which is nearly constant over long distances (Table 8.3). The clay has been deposited between the Upper Pleistocene and the present. As a conse-

page

sThe clay has been deposited between the Upper Pleistocene and the present. As a conse-quence the deposits can be found well away from the present course of the Nile as well as pa

ges

quence the deposits can be found well away from the present course of the Nile as well as within the modern flood plain (Bourriau et al. 2000, Michelaki & Hancock 2013). As shown pa

ges

within the modern flood plain (Bourriau et al. 2000, Michelaki & Hancock 2013). As shown in Fig. 8.12 the composition of Nile silt (normalised for loss on ignition, LOI) is approxi-pa

ges

in Fig. 8.12 the composition of Nile silt (normalised for loss on ignition, LOI) is approxi-, and 8 mass% CaO + MgO (see also Kemp pa

ges

, and 8 mass% CaO + MgO (see also Kemp 2000). Hence the ceramic compositions are straddling the cotectic line quartz-anorthite. A

page

s2000). Hence the ceramic compositions are straddling the cotectic line quartz-anorthite. A

Position of Egyptian pottery in the ternary phase diagram (CaO+MgO)-Al

page

s Position of Egyptian pottery in the ternary phase diagram (CaO+MgO)-Al2

page

s2Opa

gesO3

page

s3-SiO

page

s-SiO(Data from Noll 1984). The composition of Nile mud was obtained from Hangst (1979).

page

s(Data from Noll 1984). The composition of Nile mud was obtained from Hangst (1979).

eschweizerbart_xxx

144 Part II

the compositional point of Nile silt is shifted towards the SiO2 apex since the high content of Fe2O3 (Table 8.3) has not been considered in the ternary diagram, that is, the composition of Nile silt and the ceramic bodies produced from it must be displayed correctly in the quinary phase diagram CaO-MgO-Al2O3-Fe2O3-SiO2.

The New Kingdom wares produced from very lime-rich marly clays of Qena (Dendara, Fig. 8.8, site 11)) and El-Ballas (Fig. 8.8, site 5) form a clearly separated group (Fig. 8.12) that extends from the cotectic triangle di-qz-an to the calcareous triangle di-an-ge. Table 8.3 shows analyses of silty Nile mud and marly clays from Qena and El-Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lu-cas & Harris 1962, Bourriau et al. 2000, Shortland 2000).

8.5 IranIran is home of one of the oldest civilisations on Earth, located at the eastern branch of the so-called ‘Fertile Crescent’, a region stretching from Egypt in the West to Anatolia and east-wards to the deserts of eastern Iran. To date in the mountainous regions of central Iran only few remains from the earliest periods are known. Notable exceptions are Tepe Ghabristan and Tepe Hissar in the North, Tepe Yahya and Tal-i-Iblis in the South, and, in particular Tepe Sialk and Arismān in the west-central part (Fig. 8.1; Schreiner et al. 2003). Since the Central Iranian Plateau is surrounded by natural barriers, its mountains have helped to shape and sustain the political, cultural and economic unity of the region for most of its history.

The oldest pottery-producing cultures go back to the Neolithic, in the Zagros Mountains as far back as the 7th millennium BCE (Wulff 1966). In this area arguably the oldest pottery painted with iron oxihydroxide (ochre) originated. It is interesting that these ancient potters did not use the readily available iron-rich clays to obtain a red surface decoration but in-stead resorted to painting the surfaces with (yellow) iron ochre that turned red during oxi-dising firing (see Chapter 4.6). This is known among potters as ‘intentional red’ (Hofmann 1966). Noll (1982a) suggested that this practice could have been a carry-over from the an-cient way of decorating cave walls and dead bodies with red iron ochre.

The Chalcolithic (c. 5500–3500 BCE) produced important production centres of painted pottery. In the North and central regions wheel-turned vessels were manufactured and dec-orated with an engobe technique at Tepe Sialk, Tepe Hissar and Tepe Guran since 3200 BCE (Figs. 8.15, 8.16). In the South at Tell-i-Bakun (Fig. 8.14, right), Bampur, Persepolis, and, most importantly, Susa potters produced their finest painted wares, developing a variety of jars, bowls (Fig. 8.13), chalice and goblet forms, some of which rivalled those of the earlier Mesopotamian Halaf culture (see above). These technological achievements must be seen in context with the widely varying clay compositions the early Iranian potters had to cope with, in contrast to the uniform compositions the Mesopotamian potters enjoyed. This dif-ference is also manifest in the firing temperatures applied: whereas the Mesopotamian Ubaid ware was fired around 1100 °C to attain a dense, partly vitrified body, wares of the Iranian Tepe Hissar and Tureng Tepe kilns were fired between 750 and 1000 °C as deter-mined by saturation magnetisation vs. magnetic coercive force plots by Coey et al. (1980) (see also Heimann 1978/79).

Sample

n in the west-central part (Fig. 8.1; Schreiner et al. 2003). Since the Central

Sample

n in the west-central part (Fig. 8.1; Schreiner et al. 2003). Since the Central Iranian Plateau is surrounded by natural barriers, its mountains have helped to shape and

Sample

Iranian Plateau is surrounded by natural barriers, its mountains have helped to shape and sustain the political, cultural and economic unity of the region for most of its history.

Sample

sustain the political, cultural and economic unity of the region for most of its history.

The oldest pottery-producing cultures go back to the Neolithic, in the Zagros Mountains as

Sample

The oldest pottery-producing cultures go back to the Neolithic, in the Zagros Mountains as

millennium BCE (Wulff 1966). In this area arguably the oldest pottery

Sample

millennium BCE (Wulff 1966). In this area arguably the oldest pottery

painted with iron oxihydroxide (ochre) originated. It is interesting that these ancient potters

Sample

painted with iron oxihydroxide (ochre) originated. It is interesting that these ancient potters did not use the readily available iron-rich clays to obtain a red surface decoration but in-

Sample

did not use the readily available iron-rich clays to obtain a red surface decoration but in-stead resorted to painting the surfaces with (yellow) iron ochre that turned red during oxi-

Sample

stead resorted to painting the surfaces with (yellow) iron ochre that turned red during oxi-dising firing (see Chapter 4.6). This is known among potters as ‘intentional red’ (Hofmann

Sample

dising firing (see Chapter 4.6). This is known among potters as ‘intentional red’ (Hofmann 1966). Noll (1982a) suggested that this practice could have been a carry-over from the an-

Sample

1966). Noll (1982a) suggested that this practice could have been a carry-over from the an-

Sample

cient way of decorating cave walls and dead bodies with red iron ochre.

Sample

cient way of decorating cave walls and dead bodies with red iron ochre.

The Chalcolithic (c. 5500–3500 BCE) produced important production centres of painted

Sample

The Chalcolithic (c. 5500–3500 BCE) produced important production centres of painted pottery. In the North and central regions wheel-turned vessels were manufactured and dec-Sam

ple

pottery. In the North and central regions wheel-turned vessels were manufactured and dec-orated with an engobe technique at Tepe Sialk, Tepe Hissar and Tepe Guran since 3200 BCE Sam

ple

orated with an engobe technique at Tepe Sialk, Tepe Hissar and Tepe Guran since 3200 BCE Sample

(Figs. 8.15, 8.16). In the South at Tell-i-Bakun (Fig. 8.14, right), Bampur, Persepolis, and, Sample

(Figs. 8.15, 8.16). In the South at Tell-i-Bakun (Fig. 8.14, right), Bampur, Persepolis, and, most importantly, Susa potters produced their finest painted wares, developing a variety of Sam

ple

most importantly, Susa potters produced their finest painted wares, developing a variety of jars, bowls (Fig. 8.13), chalice and goblet forms, some of which rivalled those of the earlier

Sample

jars, bowls (Fig. 8.13), chalice and goblet forms, some of which rivalled those of the earlier

page

sshows analyses of silty Nile mud and marly clays from Qena and El-Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lu-

page

sshows analyses of silty Nile mud and marly clays from Qena and El-Ballas (Bakr 1956, Lu-

Iran is home of one of the oldest civilisations on Earth, located at the eastern branch of the

page

sIran is home of one of the oldest civilisations on Earth, located at the eastern branch of the so-called ‘Fertile Crescent’, a region stretching from Egypt in the West to Anatolia and east-

page

sso-called ‘Fertile Crescent’, a region stretching from Egypt in the West to Anatolia and east-wards to the deserts of eastern Iran. To date in the mountainous regions of central Iran only

page

swards to the deserts of eastern Iran. To date in the mountainous regions of central Iran only few remains from the earliest periods are known. Notable exceptions are Tepe Ghabristan pa

ges

few remains from the earliest periods are known. Notable exceptions are Tepe Ghabristan and Tepe Hissar in the North, Tepe Yahya and Tal-i-Iblis in the South, and, in particular Tepe pa

ges

and Tepe Hissar in the North, Tepe Yahya and Tal-i-Iblis in the South, and, in particular Tepe n in the west-central part (Fig. 8.1; Schreiner et al. 2003). Since the Central pa

ges

n in the west-central part (Fig. 8.1; Schreiner et al. 2003). Since the Central Iranian Plateau is surrounded by natural barriers, its mountains have helped to shape and pa

ges

Iranian Plateau is surrounded by natural barriers, its mountains have helped to shape and sustain the political, cultural and economic unity of the region for most of its history.

page

s

sustain the political, cultural and economic unity of the region for most of its history.

eschweizerbart_xxx


Figure 8.13. Painted pottery bowl made from very calcareous clay. The interior is decorated with cross hatching and three roundels, each enclosing a large elliptic motif with multiple wavy lines parallel to its long axis. The exterior is plain apart from a band painted around the foot. Made in Susa, 4200–3800 BCE. Height: 8.9 cm, diameter: 20 cm (rim), diameter: 7.3 cm (at the base). Reg. no. 1924,0902.4. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

Figure 8.14. Left: Pottery fragment with human and equine figures. Sialk III (early 4th millennium BCE). Near Eastern Antiquities, Louvre, Paris. Object no. AO17865. Use of this image is licenced under the Creative Commons Attribution 2.5. Photo: Jastrow. Right: Thin-walled pottery bowl with dark brown matt painted decoration showing three dancing figures with stylised heads and raised hands as in adoration. Tell-i-Bakun, southern Iran. 5000–4000 BCE. Design typical of Tepe Sialk III. Height 16 cm, diameter 27 cm (rim), diameter 5.5 (base). Reg. No. 1936,0613.2. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

Sample

cross hatching and three roundels, each enclosing a large elliptic motif with multiple wavy lines

Sample

cross hatching and three roundels, each enclosing a large elliptic motif with multiple wavy lines parallel to its long axis. The exterior is plain apart from a band painted around the foot. Made in

Sample

parallel to its long axis. The exterior is plain apart from a band painted around the foot. Made in Susa, 4200–3800 BCE. Height: 8.9 cm, diameter: 20 cm (rim), diameter: 7.3 cm (at the base).

Sample

Susa, 4200–3800 BCE. Height: 8.9 cm, diameter: 20 cm (rim), diameter: 7.3 cm (at the base).

Sample

Reg. no. 1924,0902.4. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

Sample

Reg. no. 1924,0902.4. © The Trustees of the British Museum.

Sample

page

swl made from very calcareous clay. The interior is decorated with pa

ges

wl made from very calcareous clay. The interior is decorated with cross hatching and three roundels, each enclosing a large elliptic motif with multiple wavy lines pa

ges

cross hatching and three roundels, each enclosing a large elliptic motif with multiple wavy lines parallel to its long axis. The exterior is plain apart from a band painted around the foot. Made in pa

ges

parallel to its long axis. The exterior is plain apart from a band painted around the foot. Made in Susa, 4200–3800 BCE. Height: 8.9 cm, diameter: 20 cm (rim), diameter: 7.3 cm (at the base).

page

sSusa, 4200–3800 BCE. Height: 8.9 cm, diameter: 20 cm (rim), diameter: 7.3 cm (at the base).

page

s

eschweizerbart_xxx

146 Part II

During the reign of the Sassanide and Parther kings (500 BCE) the ceramic tradition artisti-cally declined somewhat but reached a new high level with the revival of the glazing tech-niques during Islamic time (see Chapter 13.2.1; Mason 2004).

One of the most important Iranian archaeological sites was excavated at Tepe Sialk starting in 1933 (Ghirshman 1938/39) and continuing at present time after the excavations resumed in 1999 (Shahmirzadi 2002). Tepe Sialk is situated at two neighbouring hills southwest of Kashan. While earlier research has identified four main phases of occupation (Majidzadeh 1981), today six phases are recognised between the first half of the 5th millennium BCE and the 8th century BCE (Sialk I to VI), spanning the four main epochs of the Chalcolithic (c. 5500–3500 BCE), Proto-Elamite (3500–2800 BCE), Bronze Age (3000–1350 BCE), and Iron Age I–II (1350–800 BCE). The Sialk III period saw the introduction of the potter’s wheel and the production of beautiful terracotta pottery adorned with animal and human figures (Fig. 8.14).

Important centres of pottery production were scattered throughout ancient Iran including Amlash, Rajj, Tepe Ghabristan and Tepe Hissar south of the Caspian Sea, Hasanlu in the Northwest, Tepe Giyan in the West, Susa in the Southwest as well as Nishapur in the far Northeast. However, among the large number of pottery traditions in ancient Iran (Reindell & Riederer 1983) one appears to be of particular importance and will therefore be dis-cussed in more detail: Arismān near Kashan in west-central Iran (Fig. 8.1). Here fine ceram-ics of the Sialk III/IV periods were discovered by a local hobby geologist in 1996. Subse-quently an archaeological excavation campaign brought to light a large industrial copper smelting complex, dubbed the ‘Ruhr of the Bronze Age’ (Zick & Bick 2001) and considered to be the oldest metallurgical centre in the world, and hence presumably the cradle of the raw materials basis of the contemporary high cultures in the Near East. This particular im-portant technological centre existed between the mid-4th and the early 3rd millennia BCE. The excavation of this vast prehistoric copper smelting and working centre of the Sialk III/IV periods led by Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) in cooperation with the Geo-logical Survey of Iran and the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organisation (ICHO) so far revealed the existence of no less than 34 smelting furnaces in which copper ores from distant depos-its such as Vesnoveh and Nakhlak were processed. Arguably Arismān was the main copper supplier of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian high cultures and may have traded copper in-gots and weapons, tools and jewellery made from copper with the Mohenjo-Daro culture of the Indus valley. Specific details of the origin of the Arismān culture and the work or-ganisation of their copper smelting, casting and trading systems are still obscure and need much additional research (Chegini et al. 2004).

Next to numerous artefacts related to metal working activities five circular pottery kilns were excavated with stoking channels attached and a central pillar supporting a holey firing platform, similar to the kiln-type shown in Fig. 7.9.

The yellow-brown Sialk III Arismān pottery shown in Figs. 8.15 and 8.16, right was appar-ently made from very calcareous clay covered by a light-coloured engobe (slip), and bur-nished prior to firing under oxidising atmosphere. This technique was widely applied throughout Neolithic cultures of the Fertile Crescent, Anatolia, Egypt and Iran as well as Minoan Crete and Cyprus. Even today potters in Crete polish their vessels in the leather-hard state with a wet smooth pebble (Hampe & Winter 1962, Noll 1982). This burnished

Sample

n near Kashan in west-central Iran (Fig. 8.1). Here fine ceram-

Sample

n near Kashan in west-central Iran (Fig. 8.1). Here fine ceram-ics of the Sialk III/IV periods were discovered by a local hobby geologist in 1996. Subse-

Sample

ics of the Sialk III/IV periods were discovered by a local hobby geologist in 1996. Subse-quently an archaeological excavation campaign brought to light a large industrial copper

Sample

quently an archaeological excavation campaign brought to light a large industrial copper smelting complex, dubbed the ‘Ruhr of the Bronze Age’ (Zick & Bick 2001) and considered

Sample

smelting complex, dubbed the ‘Ruhr of the Bronze Age’ (Zick & Bick 2001) and considered to be the oldest metallurgical centre in the world, and hence presumably the cradle of the

Sample

to be the oldest metallurgical centre in the world, and hence presumably the cradle of the raw materials basis of the contemporary high cultures in the Near East. This particular im-

Sample

raw materials basis of the contemporary high cultures in the Near East. This particular im-

Sample

portant technological centre existed between the mid-4

Sample

portant technological centre existed between the mid-4The excavation of this vast prehistoric copper smelting and working centre of the Sialk III/

Sample

The excavation of this vast prehistoric copper smelting and working centre of the Sialk III/IV periods led by Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) in cooperation with the Geo-

Sample

IV periods led by Deutsches Archäologisches Institut (DAI) in cooperation with the Geo-logical Survey of Iran and the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organisation (ICHO) so far revealed

Sample

logical Survey of Iran and the Iranian Cultural Heritage Organisation (ICHO) so far revealed the existence of no less than 34 smelting furnaces in which copper ores from distant depos-

Sample

the existence of no less than 34 smelting furnaces in which copper ores from distant depos-its such as Vesnoveh and Nakhlak were processed. Arguably Arism

Sample

its such as Vesnoveh and Nakhlak were processed. Arguably Arismsupplier of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian high cultures and may have traded copper in-

Sample

supplier of the Mesopotamian and Egyptian high cultures and may have traded copper in-gots and weapons, tools and jewellery made from copper with the Mohenjo-Daro culture Sam

ple

gots and weapons, tools and jewellery made from copper with the Mohenjo-Daro culture Sample

of the Indus valley. Specific details of the origin of the ArismSample

of the Indus valley. Specific details of the origin of the Arismganisation of their copper smelting, casting and trading systems are still obscure and need Sam

ple

ganisation of their copper smelting, casting and trading systems are still obscure and need much additional research (Chegini et al. 2004). Sam

ple

much additional research (Chegini et al. 2004).

Next to numerous artefacts related to metal working activities five circular pottery kilns Sam

ple

Next to numerous artefacts related to metal working activities five circular pottery kilns

page

s millennium BCE and

page

s millennium BCE and

century BCE (Sialk I to VI), spanning the four main epochs of the Chalcolithic (c.

page

s century BCE (Sialk I to VI), spanning the four main epochs of the Chalcolithic (c. 5500–3500 BCE), Proto-Elamite (3500–2800 BCE), Bronze Age (3000–1350 BCE), and Iron

page

s5500–3500 BCE), Proto-Elamite (3500–2800 BCE), Bronze Age (3000–1350 BCE), and Iron Age I–II (1350–800 BCE). The Sialk III period saw the introduction of the potter’s wheel and

page

sAge I–II (1350–800 BCE). The Sialk III period saw the introduction of the potter’s wheel and the production of beautiful terracotta pottery adorned with animal and human figures (Fig.

page

sthe production of beautiful terracotta pottery adorned with animal and human figures (Fig.

Important centres of pottery production were scattered throughout ancient Iran including

page

sImportant centres of pottery production were scattered throughout ancient Iran including Amlash, Rajj, Tepe Ghabristan and Tepe Hissar south of the Caspian Sea, Hasanlu in the

page

sAmlash, Rajj, Tepe Ghabristan and Tepe Hissar south of the Caspian Sea, Hasanlu in the Northwest, Tepe Giyan in the West, Susa in the Southwest as well as Nishapur in the far

page

sNorthwest, Tepe Giyan in the West, Susa in the Southwest as well as Nishapur in the far Northeast. However, among the large number of pottery traditions in ancient Iran (Reindell pa

ges

Northeast. However, among the large number of pottery traditions in ancient Iran (Reindell & Riederer 1983) one appears to be of particular importance and will therefore be dis-pa

ges

& Riederer 1983) one appears to be of particular importance and will therefore be dis-n near Kashan in west-central Iran (Fig. 8.1). Here fine ceram-pa

ges

n near Kashan in west-central Iran (Fig. 8.1). Here fine ceram-ics of the Sialk III/IV periods were discovered by a local hobby geologist in 1996. Subse-pa

ges

ics of the Sialk III/IV periods were discovered by a local hobby geologist in 1996. Subse-quently an archaeological excavation campaign brought to light a large industrial copper pa

ges

quently an archaeological excavation campaign brought to light a large industrial copper

eschweizerbart_xxx

47520 Japanese ceramics

20.7 Ancient Japanese cooking: what Samurai and Sumōtori enjoyed

20.7.1 History and characteristic of Japanese cuisineIn Japan preparation and presentation of food mirrors the origin, development and charac-teristics of culture more profoundly than most other styles of cuisine do. Central to food are the traditional ingredients of rice, fish, and soybeans.

Since remote antiquity, presumably since the Final Jōmōn period (1000–300 BCE) rice has occupied a highly revered, almost mythical position, and its seasonal cycle has dictated the character, rhythm and rituals of Japanese life. Rice was and is not just nourishment but a product with numerous cultural and historical nuances and aspects that are deeply woven into the fabric of Japanese culture. It is widely believed that the notion of wa (harmony), the desire for consensus, and the assessment of the context and result of actions, typical for Japanese social behaviour, originated from wet rice cultivation. This cultivation required collaboration on many tasks and levels, including sharing of scarce resources, organising and pooling of labour, and a general emphasis on group interest, synergistic collaboration, collective decision making, and efficient conflict control. Thus the historic commitment to group harmony, a hallmark of the original culture of rice, echoes today and continues to shape group consciousness and social cohesiveness of the Japanese nation. This worked even today in the aftermath of the triple catastrophe of earthquake, tsunami and nuclear disaster that challenged the country in March 2011.

As the language of any culture provides clues to important concepts and values this is par-ticularly true for Japan. The primacy of rice as a diet staple is deeply impressed into the Japanese language. Gohan in Japanese is both the word for ‘cooked rice’ as well as ‘meal’. The use of gohan in Japanese is extended with prefixes to asagohan (breakfast, lit. morning rice), hirugohan (lunch, lit. midday rice), and bangohan (dinner, lit. evening rice). These words signal that it was almost impossible for Japanese to think of a meal without rice. Another linguistic link is the early indigenous name of Japan, mizu ho no kuni (The land of the water stalk plant, i.e. rice). Early identification, then, encompassed the concept of rice growing.

Cultivation of rice in paddy field s is thought to have been started in northern Kyûshû during the Final Jōmōn period, presumably introduced by settlers from Korea and/or China, along with tools such as spade, hoe, mortar and pestle, and also agricultural dwellings such as raised granaries to protect the harvested goods from rain and pests. During the following Yayoi period, rice cultivation spread all over Japan. It is a remarkable coincidence that two and a half thousand years later from the same Kyûshû area, brought in by immigrating Ko-rean and Chinese artisans, porcelain technology had made its victorious move across Japan.

Combined with local vegetables and fruits, rice provides simple, but nourishing and ade-quate sustenance. For oil and proteins, the Japanese relied traditionally on the fruits of the sea. The influence of Chinese Buddhism, introduced to Japan during the 7th and 8th centuries CE, brought both the proscription to eat four-legged animals, and the cultivation of soy-beans, a high-protein substitute of meat. Indeed, the Japanese did not begin eating pork and

Sample

group harmony, a hallmark of the original culture of rice, echoes today and continues to

Sample

group harmony, a hallmark of the original culture of rice, echoes today and continues to shape group consciousness and social cohesiveness of the Japanese nation. This worked

Sample

shape group consciousness and social cohesiveness of the Japanese nation. This worked even today in the aftermath of the triple catastrophe of earthquake, tsunami and nuclear

Sample

even today in the aftermath of the triple catastrophe of earthquake, tsunami and nuclear disaster that challenged the country in March 2011.

Sample

disaster that challenged the country in March 2011.

As the language of any culture provides clues to important concepts and values this is par-

Sample

As the language of any culture provides clues to important concepts and values this is par-ticularly true for Japan. The primacy of rice as a diet staple is deeply impressed into the

Sample

ticularly true for Japan. The primacy of rice as a diet staple is deeply impressed into the

Gohan

Sample

Gohan in Japanese is both the word for ‘cooked rice’ as well as ‘meal’.

Sample

in Japanese is both the word for ‘cooked rice’ as well as ‘meal’.

in Japanese is extended with prefixes to

Sample

in Japanese is extended with prefixes to

hirugohan

Sample

hirugohan (lunch, lit. midday rice), and

Sample

(lunch, lit. midday rice), and

words signal that it was almost impossible for Japanese to think of a meal without rice.

Sample

words signal that it was almost impossible for Japanese to think of a meal without rice. Another linguistic link is the early indigenous name of Japan,

Sample

Another linguistic link is the early indigenous name of Japan, the water stalk plant, i.e. rice). Early identification, then, encompassed the concept of rice

Sample

the water stalk plant, i.e. rice). Early identification, then, encompassed the concept of rice growing.

Sample

growing.

Cultivation of rice in paddy field s is thought to have been started in northern Kyûshû during Sample

Cultivation of rice in paddy field s is thought to have been started in northern Kyûshû during the Final Sam

ple

the Final JōmōnSample

Jōmōn period, presumably introduced by settlers from Korea and/or China, along Sample

period, presumably introduced by settlers from Korea and/or China, along with tools such as spade, hoe, mortar and pestle, and also agricultural dwellings such as Sam

ple

with tools such as spade, hoe, mortar and pestle, and also agricultural dwellings such as raised granaries to protect the harvested goods from rain and pests. During the following

Sample

raised granaries to protect the harvested goods from rain and pests. During the following

page

s period (1000–300 BCE) rice has

page

s period (1000–300 BCE) rice has occupied a highly revered, almost mythical position, and its seasonal cycle has dictated the

page

soccupied a highly revered, almost mythical position, and its seasonal cycle has dictated the character, rhythm and rituals of Japanese life. Rice was and is not just nourishment but a

page

scharacter, rhythm and rituals of Japanese life. Rice was and is not just nourishment but a product with numerous cultural and historical nuances and aspects that are deeply

page

sproduct with numerous cultural and historical nuances and aspects that are deeply woven

page

swoven

into the fabric of Japanese culture. It is widely believed that the notion of wa (harmony), the

page

sinto the fabric of Japanese culture. It is widely believed that the notion of wa (harmony), the desire for consensus, and the assessment of the context and result of actions, typical for

page

sdesire for consensus, and the assessment of the context and result of actions, typical for Japanese social behaviour, originated from wet rice cultivation. This cultivation required

page

sJapanese social behaviour, originated from wet rice cultivation. This cultivation required collaboration on many tasks and levels, including sharing of scarce resources, organising

page

scollaboration on many tasks and levels, including sharing of scarce resources, organising and pooling of labour, and a general emphasis on group interest, synergistic collaboration, pa

ges

and pooling of labour, and a general emphasis on group interest, synergistic collaboration, collective decision making, and efficient conflict control. Thus the historic commitment to pa

ges

collective decision making, and efficient conflict control. Thus the historic commitment to group harmony, a hallmark of the original culture of rice, echoes today and continues to pa

ges

group harmony, a hallmark of the original culture of rice, echoes today and continues to shape group consciousness and social cohesiveness of the Japanese nation. This worked pa

ges

shape group consciousness and social cohesiveness of the Japanese nation. This worked even today in the aftermath of the triple catastrophe of earthquake, tsunami and nuclear

page

s

even today in the aftermath of the triple catastrophe of earthquake, tsunami and nuclear

eschweizerbart_xxx

476 Part II

beef until the late 19th century CE when after the Meiji Restoration the country opened up to the West again, emulating Western-style cuisine. However, soybeans are still an essential ingredient of Japanese cooking in the form of tōfu (bean curd), miso (bean paste used in soups), nattō (boiled, fermented soy beans) and shōyû (soy sauce). Beside this, Japan has always borrowed and assimilated ingredients and cooking styles from the outside world: noodles from China, tempura-style cooking from Portugal, and beef cooked sukiyaki-style from the West.

Two traits are hallmarks of Japanese culinary aesthetics: attention to season and emphasis on presentation. The first causes Japanese people to prefer fresh over frozen food by buying and serving whatever is in season. The second is manifest in a pleasing display of both com-plementary and contrasting shapes, colours, and textures of food. No cuisine in the world places more emphasis on visual appearance, variety of ingredients, and seasonal appropri-ateness (Furse 1991) that are furthered by utilisation of exquisite pottery. Indeed, in Japan, pottery is so much a part of daily life that it is difficult to imagine a meal without it. Because tableware is a necessary element of the cuisine, ceramic dishes are chosen to blend not only with the food that is put on or in them but with the occasion, the time of day, the at-mosphere of the room, and with the season (Sosnoski 2000). There are endless variations.

Hence it comes to no surprise that the Japanese pottery designed to prepare and serve food also matches the quest for aesthetics, cleanliness and simple functionality. Plates, bowls, cups and dishes have different shapes depending on the kind of food they are meant to hold. They are made from a variety of materials, with earthenware ceramics and porcelain at the forefront but some also made of lacquer ware or wood. A rice bowl (gohan jawan, meshiwan) has just the right size to fit comfortably in the hand, the rectangular dish yaki-mono zara, meant to accommodate either whole grilled or sliced fish, comes in different sizes, with their shorter edges slightly curved upward, small china bowls (kobachi) used for sunomono (vinegared dishes) and nimono (stew), and larger china bowls with lids (donburi-bachi) are popular, designed to hold noodle dishes such as soba (buckwheat noodles), udon (thick wheat noodles), ramen (egg noodles) or donburimono (rice with toppings of chicken, beef, eggs, tempura etc.). Porcelain hashi oki (chopstick rest) are used to keep the tips of the (pointy) Japanese chopsticks from coming in contact with the table during pauses in eating, and yunomi jawan (yunomi, lit. cup for hot water) are cups used to hold green tea that are either small and delicate, or large and sturdy depending on the occasion and the type of tea served. A porcelain yunomi jawan for tea accompanying a dinner is very different from the ancient earthenware or stoneware Raku matchawan (tea bowl) used in the traditional Japa-nese tea ceremony (see Fig. 20.7).

Richly decorated chûzara (medium sized) and kozara (small sized) dishes are used for a variety of food including sashimi (raw fish slices) and yakimono (grilled food of any kind). To accompany more formal dinners, sake (rice wine) will be served warm or cold in tokkuri or choshi (sake bottle) and sipped from sakazuki or syohai (cone-shaped sake cup).

This rich variety of ceramic table ware with different shapes, sizes, colours, patterns and functions is evidence that the Japanese regard the presentation and appearance of food as being as important as its freshness, quality, fragrance and taste.

Sample

also matches the quest for aesthetics, cleanliness and simple functionality. Plates, bowls,

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also matches the quest for aesthetics, cleanliness and simple functionality. Plates, bowls, cups and dishes have different shapes depending on the kind of food they are meant to

Sample

cups and dishes have different shapes depending on the kind of food they are meant to hold. They are made from a variety of materials, with earthenware ceramics and porcelain

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hold. They are made from a variety of materials, with earthenware ceramics and porcelain at the forefront but some also made of lacquer ware or wood. A rice bowl (

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at the forefront but some also made of lacquer ware or wood. A rice bowl () has just the right size to fit comfortably in the hand, the rectangular dish

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) has just the right size to fit comfortably in the hand, the rectangular dish , meant to accommodate either whole grilled or sliced fish, comes in different

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, meant to accommodate either whole grilled or sliced fish, comes in different

sizes, with their shorter edges slightly curved upward, small china bowls (

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sizes, with their shorter edges slightly curved upward, small china bowls (

(vinegared dishes) and

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(vinegared dishes) and nimono

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nimono (stew), and larger china bowls with lids (

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(stew), and larger china bowls with lids (

) are popular, designed to hold noodle dishes such as

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) are popular, designed to hold noodle dishes such as

(thick wheat noodles),

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(thick wheat noodles), ramen

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ramen (egg noodles) or

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(egg noodles) or

tempura

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tempura etc.). Porcelain

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etc.). Porcelain hashi oki

Sample

hashi oki

(pointy) Japanese chopsticks from coming in contact with the table during pauses in eating,

Sample

(pointy) Japanese chopsticks from coming in contact with the table during pauses in eating,

yunomi jawan

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yunomi jawan (

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(yunomi

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yunomi

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, lit. cup for hot water) are cups used to hold green tea that are

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, lit. cup for hot water) are cups used to hold green tea that are yunomi, lit. cup for hot water) are cups used to hold green tea that are yunomi

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yunomi, lit. cup for hot water) are cups used to hold green tea that are yunomi

either small and delicate, or large and sturdy depending on the occasion and the type of tea Sample

either small and delicate, or large and sturdy depending on the occasion and the type of tea served. A porcelain Sam

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served. A porcelain yunomi jawan Sample

yunomi jawan Sample

ancient earthenware or stoneware Raku Sample

ancient earthenware or stoneware Raku nese tea ceremony (see Fig. 20.7).Sam

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nese tea ceremony (see Fig. 20.7).

Richly decorated Sam

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Richly decorated

page

sTwo traits are hallmarks of Japanese culinary aesthetics: attention to season and emphasis

page

sTwo traits are hallmarks of Japanese culinary aesthetics: attention to season and emphasis on presentation. The first causes Japanese people to prefer fresh over frozen food by buying

page

son presentation. The first causes Japanese people to prefer fresh over frozen food by buying and serving whatever is in season. The second is manifest in a pleasing display of both com-

page

sand serving whatever is in season. The second is manifest in a pleasing display of both com-plementary and contrasting shapes, colours, and textures of food. No cuisine in the world

page

splementary and contrasting shapes, colours, and textures of food. No cuisine in the world places more emphasis on visual appearance, variety of ingredients, and seasonal appropri-

page

splaces more emphasis on visual appearance, variety of ingredients, and seasonal appropri-ateness (Furse 1991) that are furthered by utilisation of exquisite pottery. Indeed, in Japan,

page

sateness (Furse 1991) that are furthered by utilisation of exquisite pottery. Indeed, in Japan, pottery is so much a part of daily life that it is difficult to imagine a meal without it. Because

page

spottery is so much a part of daily life that it is difficult to imagine a meal without it. Because tableware is a necessary element of the cuisine, ceramic dishes are chosen to blend not

page

stableware is a necessary element of the cuisine, ceramic dishes are chosen to blend not only with the food that is put on or in them but with the occasion, the time of day, the at-

page

sonly with the food that is put on or in them but with the occasion, the time of day, the at-mosphere of the room, and with the season (Sosnoski 2000). There are endless variations.

page

smosphere of the room, and with the season (Sosnoski 2000). There are endless variations.

Hence it comes to no surprise that the Japanese pottery designed to prepare and serve food page

sHence it comes to no surprise that the Japanese pottery designed to prepare and serve food also matches the quest for aesthetics, cleanliness and simple functionality. Plates, bowls, pa

ges

also matches the quest for aesthetics, cleanliness and simple functionality. Plates, bowls, cups and dishes have different shapes depending on the kind of food they are meant to pa

ges

cups and dishes have different shapes depending on the kind of food they are meant to hold. They are made from a variety of materials, with earthenware ceramics and porcelain pa

ges

hold. They are made from a variety of materials, with earthenware ceramics and porcelain

eschweizerbart_xxx


20.7.2 Kamo-nanban soba (Soba with duck and spring onions)An ancient Japanese tradition to celebrate the beginning of a New Year is to eat toshikoshi soba, the ‘crossing-over’ noodles that are enjoyed on New Year’s Eve while quietly listening to the temple bells ringing in the New Year. A popular, ancient dish served on this occasion is kamo-nanban soba, consisting of duck (kamo) and long (spring) onions (negi) in a rich broth, together with long, thin buckwheat noodles (soba) representing a wish for long life (Fig. 20.14). 191192

Ingredients (3 servings):

Half a boned duck breast with the skin and excess fat removed; 200 g dry soba noodles; 750 ml of kake-jiru191 (broth for hot noodles); 1 negi (Japa-nese long onion) or 2 thick spring onions; 1/8 cup (30 ml) of sake; 70 ml soy sauce; 45 ml mirin (sweet rice wine); 1 bunch mitsuba (trefoil), cut into 5 cm lengths, or watercress; shichimi togarashi192 (seven-spices powder); 1 sheet of kombu (seaweed), c. 5x10 cm; 10g katsuo bushi (dried bonito flakes) or dashi no moto.

Preparation:

1. To prepare kake-jiru: Soak kombu overnight in cold water. Remove kombu. Heat liquid. Add bonito flakes (or dashi no moto), bring quickly to a boil. Let soak without heating for 30 min and strain thoroughly until liquid is clear. Add 40 ml soy sauce and 45 ml mirin. Reheat quickly, set aside and let cool.

2. To prepare soba noodles: Add soba to 2 litres of boiling water without salt. Simmer gently without further boiling for 6 min. Remove from heat. Strain noodles and put immediately into cold water. Replace water several times and wash noodles under gentle rubbing to remove the starchy and slimy coat.

3. To prepare duck breast: Skin breast and cut skin into pieces. Heat skin in a large skillet over medium heat, and cook until oil covers completely the bottom of the skillet. Remove skin and surplus duck fat. Cut the duck breast diagonally into strips about 6 mm thick. Heat skillet and add meat strips. Stir

191 Kake-jiru will be prepared as follows: Heat dashi soup in a medium-sized saucepan until hot. Add shōyu (soy sauce), saké and mirin (sweet rice wine) and simmer for a while. Kake-jiru is for immediate consumption but is usable up to 2 days when refrigerated. Dashi soup or stock is prepared from kombu (kelp), soaked overnight in water. After removal of the kombu, katsuo bushi (bonito flakes) will be added into the water and boiled for 1 hour. After straining to remove the fish flakes the liquid can be used to make kake-jiru.

192 Japanese 7-spices powder. Ingredients: Red chilli, black sesame seed, orange peels, poppy seed, Szechuan pepper, seaweed, hempseed.

Sample

kombu

Sample

kombu overnight in cold water. Remove

Sample

overnight in cold water. Remove kombu overnight in cold water. Remove kombu

Sample

kombu overnight in cold water. Remove kombu. Heat liquid. Add bonito flakes (or

Sample

. Heat liquid. Add bonito flakes (or dashi no moto

Sample

dashi no motoboil. Let soak without heating for 30 min and strain thoroughly until liquid

Sample

boil. Let soak without heating for 30 min and strain thoroughly until liquid is clear. Add 40 ml soy sauce and 45 ml

Sample

is clear. Add 40 ml soy sauce and 45 ml mirin

Sample

mirin

Sample

Sample

Sample

2. To prepare soba noodles: Add

Sample

2. To prepare soba noodles: Add 2. To prepare soba noodles: Add

Sample

2. To prepare soba noodles: Add soba

Sample

soba to 2 litres of boiling water without salt.

Sample

to 2 litres of boiling water without salt.

Simmer gently without further boiling for 6 min. Remove from heat. Strain

Sample

Simmer gently without further boiling for 6 min. Remove from heat. Strain noodles and put immediately into cold water. Replace water several times

Sample

noodles and put immediately into cold water. Replace water several times and wash noodles under gentle rubbing to remove the starchy and slimy coat.

Sample

and wash noodles under gentle rubbing to remove the starchy and slimy coat.

3. To prepare duck breast: Skin breast and cut skin into pieces. Heat skin in

Sample

3. To prepare duck breast: Skin breast and cut skin into pieces. Heat skin in 3. To prepare duck breast: Skin breast and cut skin into pieces. Heat skin in

Sample

3. To prepare duck breast: Skin breast and cut skin into pieces. Heat skin in a large skillet over medium heat, and cook until oil covers completely the

Sample

a large skillet over medium heat, and cook until oil covers completely the bottom of the skillet. Remove skin and surplus duck fat. Cut the duck breast Sam

ple

bottom of the skillet. Remove skin and surplus duck fat. Cut the duck breast diagonally into strips about 6 mm thick. Heat skillet and add meat strips. StirSam

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diagonally into strips about 6 mm thick. Heat skillet and add meat strips. Stir

page

spa

gesHalf a boned duck breast with the skin and excess fat removed; 200 g dry

page

sHalf a boned duck breast with the skin and excess fat removed; 200 g dry (broth for hot noodles); 1 negi (Japa-

page

s (broth for hot noodles); 1 negi (Japa-

nese long onion) or 2 thick spring onions; 1/8 cup (30 ml) of sake; 70 ml soy

page

snese long onion) or 2 thick spring onions; 1/8 cup (30 ml) of sake; 70 ml soy sauce; 45 ml mirin (sweet rice wine); 1 bunch mitsuba (trefoil), cut into

page

ssauce; 45 ml mirin (sweet rice wine); 1 bunch mitsuba (trefoil), cut into

(seven-spices powder);

page

s (seven-spices powder);

1 sheet of kombu (seaweed), c. 5x10 cm; 10g katsuo bushi (dried bonito

page

s1 sheet of kombu (seaweed), c. 5x10 cm; 10g katsuo bushi (dried bonito

overnight in cold water. Remove page

s overnight in cold water. Remove

dashi no motopa

ges

dashi no moto

eschweizerbart_xxx

478 Part II

and fry strips quickly all around until just golden. Deglaze immediately with sake and the remaining soy sauce, stir, and add sliced spring onions. Cover and simmer for 2 min.

4. To serve: Heat kake-jiru. Divide the soba noodles among three bowls, add duck breast strips and spring onions. Pour hot kake-jiru over solids, sprinkle with shichimi togarashi and garnish with water cress.

20.7.3 Ishikari nabe (Salmon hot pot) 193

The river Ishikari, flowing through the centre of Hokkaido, is noted for the many salmon returning to it every year to spawn. Ishikari nabe is a mainstay in Hokkaido cuisine, made of saké (salmon), ikura (salmon roe), various vegetables and tōfu boiled in a karakuchi ko-mé-miso193, a light-brown salty bean paste broth. Originally the dish was called saké nabe

Figure 20.14. Japanese Kamo-nanban (soba noodles in kake-jiru broth with duck slices, spring onions and watercress).

193 Miso is generally made by crushing boiled soybeans and adding salt and kōji, either rice, wheat, barley or beans, acting as a fermenting aid. The type of kōji determines the taste of miso. Kara-kuchi komé-miso is made with rice as kōji.

Sample

Sample

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and fry strips quickly all around until just golden. Deglaze immediately with

Sample

and fry strips quickly all around until just golden. Deglaze immediately with

and the remaining soy sauce, stir, and add sliced spring onions. Cover

Sample

and the remaining soy sauce, stir, and add sliced spring onions. Cover

and simmer for 2 min.

Sample

and simmer for 2 min.

4. To serve: Heat

Sample

4. To serve: Heat kake-jiru

Sample

kake-jiru. Divide the soba noodles among three bowls,

Sample

. Divide the soba noodles among three bowls,

add duck breast strips and spring onions. Pour hot

Sample

add duck breast strips and spring onions. Pour hot sprinkle with

Sample

sprinkle with shichimi togarashi

Sample

shichimi togarashi

20.7.3 Ishikari nabe (Salmon hot pot)Sample

20.7.3 Ishikari nabe (Salmon hot pot)The river Ishikari, flowing through the centre of Hokkaido, is noted for the many salmon

Sample

The river Ishikari, flowing through the centre of Hokkaido, is noted for the many salmon

(soba noodles in

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(soba noodles in page

skake-jirupa

ges

kake-jiru broth with duck slices, spring page

s broth with duck slices, spring kake-jiru broth with duck slices, spring kake-jirupage

skake-jiru broth with duck slices, spring kake-jirupa

ges

eschweizerbart_xxx


and considered just simple fishermen’s food. When it was introduced to Tokyo as a Hok-kaido specialty by clever entrepreneurs it was given the name Ishikari nabe to distinguish it from the many other types of nabe available as something special (Fig. 20.15). It is indeed one of the very few Japanese dishes named after a geographical feature.

Ingredients (serves 4):

500 g salmon fillet, bite-size cubes; 50 g masago (capelin roe) or ikura (salmon roe), optional;1–2 tbls of shōyu (light soy sauce); 4 large leaves of hakusai (Chinese cabbage; bok choy), sliced; 2 chopped leeks (white portion only); 1/3 cup enoki (velvet foot) mushrooms; 4 shiitake mush-rooms; 2 medium potatoes; ½ carrot, sliced thinly; 250 g of firm tōfu; 8 cups (2 l) of dashi (see endnote 4) or vegetable stock ; 5–8 tbls of miso193 paste (dark and/or light); 2 tbls of sake; butter to taste; mirin (sweet sake) to taste; a dash of sansho (Japanese pepper, optional).

Preparation:

1. Slice salmon fillet into bite-sized cubes. Marinate salmon cubes with soy sauce and a dash of mirin. Leave to marinate for 20 minutes.

2. Bring the dashi or vegetable stock to a boil. Add in potatoes (sliced to your preference).

3. When the potatoes have softened, add in carrots. Simmer till carrots are cooked through.

4. Add miso paste in slowly, making sure it dissolves completely. Taste to ensure that it is not too salty.

5. Add a dash of mirin into the soup after stirring in the miso. 6. Add in butter to taste. 7. Place tōfu gently at one side and simmer for 2 minutes. 8. Simmer the salmon cubes, just slightly below the surface of the soup

until thoroughly cooked. 9. Once the salmon is cooked, add vegetables and mushrooms and reheat

for a few minutes. 10. Spoon an even portion of the soup, vegetables, mushrooms, tōfu and

salmon into individual bowls.11. (Optional step) Add a dash of sansho to the soup.

Ishikari nabe is usually served with a bowl of steamed white rice. An alternative would be to combine the dish with kuzukiri (arrowroot starch noodles) or udon (Japanese wheat noo-dles). After adding in the butter in step 6, throw in the noodles and boil until the noodles are almost cooked. Proceed with the following steps 7 to 10.

Frequently ishikari nabe is prepared as a hot pot and served tableside. In this case dashi and miso are combined in an appropriately sized pot and heated over high heat until the miso paste has completely dissolved. Taste and adjust the seasoning with shōyu, sake and mirin.

Sample

or vegetable stock to a boil. Add in potatoes (sliced to

Sample

or vegetable stock to a boil. Add in potatoes (sliced to

3. When the potatoes have softened, add in carrots. Simmer till carrots are

Sample


paste in slowly, making sure it dissolves completely. Taste to

Sample

paste in slowly, making sure it dissolves completely. Taste to

ensure that it is not too salty.

Sample

ensure that it is not too salty.

5. Add a dash of

Sample

5. Add a dash of mirin

Sample

mirin into the soup after stirring in the

Sample

into the soup after stirring in the

6. Add in butter to taste.

Sample

6. Add in butter to taste.

t

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tō

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ōtōt

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tōt fu

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fu gently at one side and simmer for 2 minutes.

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gently at one side and simmer for 2 minutes.fu gently at one side and simmer for 2 minutes.fu

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fu gently at one side and simmer for 2 minutes.fu

8. Simmer the salmon cubes, just slightly below the surface of the soup

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8. Simmer the salmon cubes, just slightly below the surface of the soup

Sample

until thoroughly cooked.

Sample

until thoroughly cooked.

9. Once the salmon is cooked, add vegetables and mushrooms and reheat

Sample

9. Once the salmon is cooked, add vegetables and mushrooms and reheat

for a few minutes.

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for a few minutes. 10. Spoon an even portion of the soup, vegetables, mushrooms, Sam

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10. Spoon an even portion of the soup, vegetables, mushrooms, Sample

Sample

salmon into individual bowls.Sample

salmon into individual bowls.11. (Optional step) Add a dash of Sam

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11. (Optional step) Add a dash of

page

s (light soy sauce); 4 large leaves of

page

s (light soy sauce); 4 large leaves of ), sliced; 2 chopped leeks (white

page

s), sliced; 2 chopped leeks (white (velvet foot) mushrooms; 4 shiitake mush-

page

s (velvet foot) mushrooms; 4 shiitake mush-rooms; 2 medium potatoes; ½ carrot, sliced thinly; 250 g of firm

page

srooms; 2 medium potatoes; ½ carrot, sliced thinly; 250 g of firm t

page

stō

page

sōtōt

page

stōt fu

page

sfu;

page

s; (see endnote 4) or vegetable stock ; 5–8 tbls of

page

s(see endnote 4) or vegetable stock ; 5–8 tbls of miso

page

smiso193

page

s193

mirin

page

smirin (sweet

page

s(sweet sake

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ssake) to

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s) to

1. Slice salmon fillet into bite-sized cubes. Marinate salmon cubes with page

s 1. Slice salmon fillet into bite-sized cubes. Marinate salmon cubes with

. Leave to marinate for 20 minutes.page

s. Leave to marinate for 20 minutes.

or vegetable stock to a boil. Add in potatoes (sliced to page

sor vegetable stock to a boil. Add in potatoes (sliced to

3. When the potatoes have softened, add in carrots. Simmer till carrots are pa

ges


eschweizerbart_xxx

480 Part II

Put the nabe pot on a portable burner and arrange the remaining ingredients around the pot on serving plates.

Steam the potatoes for about 30 minutes. Soak kuzukiri (arrowroot starch noodles) or udon (wheat noodles) in water until softened. Cut potatoes into about 2 cm thick slices, bok choy, mushrooms, and tōfu into large bite-sized pieces.

Arrange salmon, potatoes, vegetables, mushrooms, noodles and tōfu on serving plates. Put ikura and butter in separate bowls with serving spoons. Then diners can put ingredients ac-cording to their preference in the pot. When the food is cooked, the diners put it in their own bowls with some liquid, and add some butter and ikura on top according to taste.

Figure 20.15. Ishikari nabe, a traditional Hokkaido speciality.

Sample

pot on a portable burner and arrange the remaining ingredients around the pot

Sample

pot on a portable burner and arrange the remaining ingredients around the pot

Steam the potatoes for about 30 minutes. Soak

Sample

Steam the potatoes for about 30 minutes. Soak (wheat noodles) in water until softened. Cut potatoes into about 2 cm thick slices,

Sample

(wheat noodles) in water until softened. Cut potatoes into about 2 cm thick slices, mushrooms, and

Sample

mushrooms, and t

Sample

tō

Sample

ōtōt

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tōt fu

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fu into large bite-sized pieces.

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into large bite-sized pieces. fu into large bite-sized pieces. fu

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fu into large bite-sized pieces. fu

Arrange salmon, potatoes, vegetables, mushrooms, noodles and

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Arrange salmon, potatoes, vegetables, mushrooms, noodles and

and butter in separate bowls with serving spoons. Then diners can put ingredients ac-

Sample

and butter in separate bowls with serving spoons. Then diners can put ingredients ac-

cording to their preference in the pot. When the food is cooked, the diners put it in their

Sample

cording to their preference in the pot. When the food is cooked, the diners put it in their own bowls with some liquid, and add some butter and Sam

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own bowls with some liquid, and add some butter and

, a traditional Hokkaido speciality.

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, a traditional Hokkaido speciality.

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page

s, a traditional Hokkaido speciality.pa

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, a traditional Hokkaido speciality.page

s

eschweizerbart_xxx

Advanced ceramics XIX, 3, 9, 457, 458, 459

Alkaline glaze 49, 59Alkemade line 60, 62Alkemade theorem 62American Indian pottery 29Anagama kiln 118, 119, 468Anasazi pottery 377, 378Anatolian Grey ware 172Animal bones 95Anthropocene 2, 3, 4Anyang period 404, 405Apparent porosity 210, 211Apulian pottery 193Arettine ware 198Argolid pottery 174, 175Arismān culture 146Arita kiln 469, 471, 473Arita porcelain 473Arretine ware 193, 194, 196Ash glaze 50, 51, 119, 463,

466Assay kiln 124Asuka period 463Attic pottery 76, 133, 157, 177,

179, 180, 181Aztec ware 376

Badari ware 137, 139Badorf pottery 227, 228Ballas clay 143, 144Ban Chiang ceramics 441Barbotine technique 193, 200,

225, 226Basaltware 261, 355, 359Beehive kiln 105, 110, 111, 114Bellarmine jug 232, 233, 237Bending strength 14Bernoulli’s principle 118Bianco 292, 293Bilingual vases 180Biscuit XXI, 14, 16, 292, 321,

424, 470Bizen kiln 464, 465Bizen stoneware 464, 465, 471Black sigillata 193Black-figure technique 158, 176,

179, 180, 181, 192Black-topped ware 137

Blue-and-white porcelain 399, 427, 428

Bone ash 355, 357, 358, 359, 360

Bone china XIX, 95, 97, 262, 354, 355, 357, 359, 360, 361, 362, 363, 364, 398

Bonfire 105Böttger porcelain 344, 346Böttger red stoneware 333, 339,

341, 342, 343, 344, 345Boudouard equilibrium 84, 90,

91, 93, 113, 175Bourry diagram 47Bow porcelain 355, 356, 357,

358Bowmaker plasticity factor 40British porcelain 355Bunzlau stoneware 244, 245Burial rites 185

Cacai colour 429Caerlean ware 203Cailloutage 269Campanian ware 192, 193, 194,

195Caneware 261, 359Cardium ware 130, 159Carolingian earthenware 227Castor ware 196, 197Celadon glaze 51, 53, 54, 419,

422, 423, 439, 445, 451, 466Celadon ware 53, 282, 413,

418Ceramic ecology 8, 9Ceramic phase diagrams V, XXI,

59, 64Ceramic reference group 201,

202Chalcolithic 135, 137, 144Changsha kiln 413, 415Changsha stoneware 413, 414,

415, 416Channel-type kiln 111, 112Chantilly frit 319Chantilly ware 314, 318, 324,

326, 469Chavin culture 371Chelsea porcelain 357, 469

Chimu ware 371China clay 29, 71China stone 16, 359Chinese porcelain 5, 284, 312,

333, 360, 395, 396, 411Chymie 320Circular kiln 109Clammins 125Closed porosity 210, 211Cluster analysis 273Cobalt aluminate 58Cobalt blue 142Coiling XXI, 37, 39, 41, 42, 43,

371, 382, 460Coloured earthenware 13, 17Compressive strength 14Conode 60, 62, 63, 69, 335Contubernium 338, 339, 344Cookbook 246, 247, 251, 300,

301, 302, 327, 394, 435Cooking pots XVIII, 10, 18, 19,

20, 21, 89, 133, 150, 248, 381, 389, 405

Cooking vessels XVII, 12, 394Coperta 280, 297, 299Corded ware 130Corinthian kiln 136Corinthian pottery 76, 82, 133,

157, 177, 178, 180Cornish stone 16, 29, 95, 354,

359, 362Cotectic triangle 60, 323Crack mouth opening displace-

ment 386, 387Crack propagation 387, 388Craquelée 420, 452Creamware 12, 15, 255, 259,

260, 261, 264, 269, 272, 357, 359

Cross-draught kiln 119, 120Crusted ware 161Cuisine ancienne 326, 327Cuisine moderne 326, 327Cupisnique culture 371Cycladic culture 170

Delft porcelainDendrogram 272Density coefficient 210

Ceramics index

Sample

Attic pottery 76, 133, 157, 177,

Sample

Attic pottery 76, 133, 157, 177,

Badari ware 137, 139

Sample

Badari ware 137, 139Badorf pottery 227, 228

Sample

Badorf pottery 227, 228Ballas clay 143, 144

Sample

Ballas clay 143, 144Ban Chiang ceramics 441

Sample

Ban Chiang ceramics 441Barbotine technique 193, 200,

Sample

Barbotine technique 193, 200, 225, 226Sam

ple

225, 226Basaltware 261, 355, 359Sam

ple

Basaltware 261, 355, 359Beehive kiln 105, 110, 111, 114Sam

ple

Beehive kiln 105, 110, 111, 114Bellarmine jug 232, 233, 237Sam

ple

Bellarmine jug 232, 233, 237Bending strength 14Sam

ple

Bending strength 14Bernoulli’s principle 118

Sample

Bernoulli’s principle 118

British porcelain 355

Sample

British porcelain 355Bunzlau stoneware 244, 245

Sample

Bunzlau stoneware 244, 245Burial rites 185

Sample

Burial rites 185

Cacai colour 429

Sample

Cacai colour 429Caerlean ware 203

Sample

Caerlean ware 203Cailloutage 269

Sample

Cailloutage 269Campanian ware 192, 193, 194,

Sample

Campanian ware 192, 193, 194,

195

Sample

195

Caneware 261, 359

Sample

Caneware 261, 359Cardium ware 130, 159

Sample

Cardium ware 130, 159Carolingian earthenware 227

Sample

Carolingian earthenware 227Castor ware 196, 197

Sample

Castor ware 196, 197Celadon glaze 51, 53, 54, 419,

Sample

Celadon glaze 51, 53, 54, 419,

page

sBow porcelain 355, 356, 357,

page

sBow porcelain 355, 356, 357,

Bowmaker plasticity factor 40page

sBowmaker plasticity factor 40

Bunzlau stoneware 244, 245page

sBunzlau stoneware 244, 245

Chinese porcelain 5, 284, 312,

page

sChinese porcelain 5, 284, 312,

333, 360, 395, 396, 411

page

s333, 360, 395, 396, 411

Circular kiln 109

page

sCircular kiln 109Clammins 125

page

sClammins 125Closed porosity 210, 211

page

sClosed porosity 210, 211Cluster analysis 273

page

sCluster analysis 273Cobalt aluminate 58

page

sCobalt aluminate 58Cobalt blue 142

page

sCobalt blue 142Coiling XXI, 37, 39, 41, 42, 43,

page

sCoiling XXI, 37, 39, 41, 42, 43,

371, 382, 460

page

s371, 382, 460

Coloured earthenware 13, 17

page

sColoured earthenware 13, 17Compressive strength 14page

sCompressive strength 14Conode 60, 62, 63, 69, 335page

sConode 60, 62, 63, 69, 335Contubernium 338, 339, 344page

sContubernium 338, 339, 344Cookbook 246, 247, 251, 300, page

sCookbook 246, 247, 251, 300,

eschweizerbart_xxx

538 Ceramics index

Differential thermal analysis 73, 74, 78

Dilatancy 32Dilatometry 271Dimini culture 160Dimini ware 162, 163Ding kiln 395, 397, 412, 417Ding ware 1, 7, 417, 419Discriminant function 243Dornrandkanne 237Doucai ware 427Downdraught kiln 119Dragon-type kiln XVI, 119, 121,

122, 123, 124, 423, 468Drying 6, 37, 38, 47, 48Dynastic Egyptian pottery 137,

138, 140

Earthenware 12, 76, 80, 228, 248, 371, 395, 403, 458

Egyptian faience 140, 284Egyptian Blue 57, 58,141Electrical porcelain 126Enamel 16Engobe 133, 134, 193, 248,

283Ephyrean goblet 173Etruscan bucchero 199European earthenware 393

Faience 12, 38, 50, 267, 269, 309, 334, 339

Faience fine 255, 265, 272Falangcai colour 428, 432, 433Falke group stoneware 236, 241,

243Famille jaune 431Famille noire 431Famille rose 347, 431, 432Famille verte 347, 431Feldspar porcelain 362Feldspathic glaze 50, 52, 346,

359, 466Figurative stamps 200Firing atmosphere 12, 20, 71,

180, 203, 204, 383Firing temperature XXI, 6, 12,

14, 16, 17, 19, 20, 63, 69, 71, 87, 94, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 122, 133, 157, 180, 203, 204, 231, 234, 235, 240, 271, 282, 321, 333, 343, 346, 348, 365, 383, 385, 389, 390, 420, 460

Firnis d-ware 133

Fisher linear discriminant analysis 426

Five famous kilns 423Flexural strength 14, 19Floral style 169Forced draught 104Forming 6, 37, 39Fracture energy 388Fracture toughness 14, 20, 364,

386, 388, 389Fuel economy 122, 126Fujiwara period 463Functional ceramics 3Funk stoneware 343

Gaulish pottery 197, 205, 212Gaulish workshops 199Geometric style 158, 176, 176German stoneware VI, 227, 228Gibbs’ phase rule 61, 62, 68Glass 16Glaze 37, 48, 248, 265, 274,

279, 283, 296, 297, 321, 324, 415, 424, 425, 426, 452

Glaze formulation 54Glazed stoneware XIX, 395,

439, 442, 443Glazing 6, 14, 37, 48, 466Gournia ware 166Gouy layer 31, 34Grapen 248, 406Graphite 84, 90Grey Minyan ware 84Guan kiln 123, 419, 425

Haçilar ware 136Halaf culture 132, 133Halaf ware 148Hard-paste porcelain 13, 15, 16,

49, 52, 59, 71, 124, 313, 320, 321, 326, 333, 336, 339, 341, 345, 347, 351, 354, 358, 364, 411, 424, 469

Hassuna culture 132 , 133Hassuna ware 148HCM coral red 181Hedgehog jug 237Heian period 457, 463Helladic period 161, 163, 173,

174Helladic pottery 170, 171, 172,

185Hidasuki pattern 464, 465Hierarchical clustering 271Hispanic terra sigillata 205

Hittite culture 135Hittite pottery 137Hofmeister series 22, 34, 36Hohokam pottery 378Holistic technology V, , 1, 5, 6, 7Hovel 125Hui pigment 426Hui qing pigment 426

Imari porcelain 347, 469, 470, 473

Inca culture 373Intentional red 144, 180, 181Iranian pottery 144, 148Iridescence 281, 282Iro-e ceramic 472Ironstone china 262, 357, 362Istoriati plate 279, 289, 291Italian maiolica 289, 296, 298,

300, 470Italian sigillata 194, 195, 196Iznik ware 284

Jacoba jar 238Jagama kiln 119, 120, 468Japan Fine Ceramics Center 459Japanese stoneware 458Jasperware 261, 355, 359Jōmōn culture XVIIJōmōn pottery 458, 460, 461

Kakiemon porcelain 314, 347, 457, 458, 469, 470

Kakiemon style 356, 357Kalong ware 443, 450Kamakura period 464Kamares ware 64, 76, 157, 167,

168, 169Karatsu stoneware 457, 466,

467, 468Kiln XXI, 14, 45, 72, 91, 93,

100, 103, 128, 203, 206, 227, 234, 235, 339, 343, 360, 407, 442, 463

Kiln furniture 119, 122Kiyomizu porcelain 472Knossos ware 166, 168Kofun pottery 460, 461Ko-Imari porcelain 457, 474Kokutani porcelain 471Kottabos 186Kraak porcelain 399, 424

Ladjvardina ware 285Lan Na kiln 449

Sample

Faience 12, 38, 50, 267, 269,

Sample

Faience 12, 38, 50, 267, 269,

Faience fine 255, 265, 272

Sample

Faience fine 255, 265, 272Falangcai colour 428, 432, 433

Sample

Falangcai colour 428, 432, 433Falke group stoneware 236, 241,

Sample

Falke group stoneware 236, 241,

Famille jaune 431

Sample

Famille jaune 431Famille noire 431

Sample

Famille noire 431Famille rose 347, 431, 432

Sample

Famille rose 347, 431, 432Famille verte 347, 431Sam

ple

Famille verte 347, 431Feldspar porcelain 362Sam

ple

Feldspar porcelain 362Feldspathic glaze 50, 52, 346, Sam

ple

Feldspathic glaze 50, 52, 346, 359, 466Sam

ple

359, 466Figurative stamps 200Sam

ple

Figurative stamps 200Firing atmosphere 12, 20, 71,

Sample

Firing atmosphere 12, 20, 71,

324, 415, 424, 425, 426, 452

Sample

324, 415, 424, 425, 426, 452Glaze formulation 54

Sample

Glaze formulation 54Glazed stoneware XIX, 395,

Sample

Glazed stoneware XIX, 395, 439, 442, 443

Sample

439, 442, 443Glazing 6, 14, 37, 48, 466

Sample

Glazing 6, 14, 37, 48, 466Gournia ware 166

Sample

Gournia ware 166Gouy layer 31, 34

Sample

Gouy layer 31, 34Grapen 248, 406

Sample

Grapen 248, 406Graphite 84, 90

Sample

Graphite 84, 90Grey Minyan ware 84

Sample

Grey Minyan ware 84Guan kiln 123, 419, 425

Sample

Guan kiln 123, 419, 425

Haçilar ware 136

Sample

Haçilar ware 136Halaf culture 132, 133

Sample

Halaf culture 132, 133Halaf ware 148

Sample

Halaf ware 148

page

sImari porcelain 347, 469, 470,

page

sImari porcelain 347, 469, 470,

page

sGlaze 37, 48, 248, 265, 274, pa

ges

Glaze 37, 48, 248, 265, 274, 279, 283, 296, 297, 321, pa

ges

279, 283, 296, 297, 321, 324, 415, 424, 425, 426, 452pa

ges

324, 415, 424, 425, 426, 452

Inca culture 373

page

sInca culture 373Intentional red 144, 180, 181

page

sIntentional red 144, 180, 181Iranian pottery 144, 148

page

sIranian pottery 144, 148Iridescence 281, 282

page

sIridescence 281, 282Iro-e ceramic 472

page

sIro-e ceramic 472Ironstone china 262, 357, 362

page

sIronstone china 262, 357, 362Istoriati plate 279, 289, 291

page

sIstoriati plate 279, 289, 291Italian maiolica 289, 296, 298,

page

sItalian maiolica 289, 296, 298,

300, 470

page

s300, 470

Italian sigillata 194, 195, 196

page

sItalian sigillata 194, 195, 196Iznik ware 284page

sIznik ware 284

Jacoba jar 238page

sJacoba jar 238Jagama kiln 119, 120, 468page

sJagama kiln 119, 120, 468

eschweizerbart_xxx

539Ceramics index

Lan Na stoneware 452Langyao glaze 428, 430, 469LCM coral red 181Lead glaze 49, 50, 267, 272,

280, 282, 284, 286, 313, 334, 357, 399, 464, 468

Lead silicate glaze 359Lime blowing 371, 385, 386,

389, 391, 392Lime glaze 410, 414Longquan celadon 122, 395,

399, 401, 419, 420, 421, 422, 423

Longquan kiln 417, 423, 445Longquan stoneware 418, 420,

421, 446, 471Longshan culture 401, 402, 403Longshan ware 395Lost-wax technique 404Lustre 279, 284, 285, 287, 288,

288, 292, 293, 294, 295, 296Lustre effect 281, 282Lyon terra sigillata 202

Mahalanobis D-square test 211, 243

Maiolica 12, 38, 50, 290, 293, 295, 297, 334

Manganese-black technique 136, 142, 147

Man-tou kiln 121, 398Marine style 169Master stamp 209Mastico 318Maya Blue 30, 56Maya culture 374, 375Maya pottery 374, 376Mayen pottery 227Medici porcelain 334, 335Medieval life style 245Megarian bowl 182, 183, 198,

199Meidum ware 140, 141Meissen porcelain XIX, 336,

340, 341, 345, 346, 347, 348, 349, 352, 359, 469

Meme 8Mesolithic XVII, XVIII, 8, 460Microporosity 210, 211Middle Mississippian culture

380Mimbres ware 378Mina’i ware 281, 285, 287Ming dynasty 283, 399, 423,

424

Ming gap 443Ming ware 399, 426Minoan Crete XIX, 184Minoan pottery 88, 164, 169Minyan pottery 171, 172, 176Mississippian ceramic-ceramic

ware 393Mississippian culture 379, 380Mississippian pottery 371, 380,

382, 383, 388, 390Mochica (Moche) pottery 371,

372, 373Modulus of elasticity 101, 102Mogollon 56Mogollon pottery 378Mohammedan blue 425Momoyama ware 466Mortarium 216Mössbauer spectroscopy 78, 79Moundville ware 381, 384Mud glaze 244Muffle furnace 114Muromachi period 459, 464Mussel shells 382, 386, 391,

392, 460Mycenaean koine 173Mycenaean pottery 133, 172,

176

Nabeshima porcelain 457, 458, 472, 473

Nahrawan clay 132Nanshan-Qingling divide 122,

395, 404, 408Naqada ware 138, 140Nara period 463Narikawa pottery 463Natural draught 104, 119, 121,

122Nazca pottery 371, 372Nene River ware 196Neolithic XVII, XVIII, XXI, 4, 8,

10, 42, 65, 72, 76, 87, 88, 89, 92, 105, 129, 131, 135, 144, 148, 149, 157, 159, 160, 163, 166, 395, 401, 402, 405, 441, 457, 458

Nernst potential 36New Forest ware 203New Kingdom ware 144New world pottery 371Nile effect 134Nile silt 132, 143, 144Nishiki ware 474Nixtamalization 381

Noborigama kiln 119, 468Nodena culture 383

Octopus style 174Old Kingdom pottery 140Oneota culture 380Open pit firing 106Oribe ware 466, 466, 467Orientalising style 158, 176Overglaze colours 341, 359,

361, 474Overglaze decoration 264, 284,

285Overglaze enamel 321, 427,

430, 470, 473Overglaze painting 50, 472Oxford ware 203Oxidising firing 71, 72, 76, 77,

78, 80, 82, 91, 92, 94, 147, 157, 166, 177, 178, 180, 193, 320

Oxygen fugacity 71, 89, 90, 91

Paddle-and-anvil technique 382Painting 6, 55, 56Palaeolithic 8, XVII, XVIIIPalatial style 169Palissy ware 255, 257, 258, 270,

271, 272Paracas Cavernas culture 372Paracas Cavernas ware 371Pâte tendre 309, 320Peach bloom glaze 429Pearlware 262, 357, 359Peptisation 38Persian porcelain 311Petuntse 16, 341, 344, 354, 355,

359, 398, 408, 409, 411, 420, 422

Pfefferkorn plasticity number 40Phaistos ware 166Phan ware 443, 451Phayao ware 451, 452Phosphate glass equation 362,

364, 365Phosphatic porcelain 97, 354,

357Piatto di pompa 294Pictorial style 173, 174Pigment 16, 30, 37, 55, 56, 57,

58, 89, 92, 141, 147, 178, 262, 264, 280, 290, 348, 414, 424, 426

Pingsdorf pottery 227, 228, 229Pit furnace 107

Sample

Maya Blue 30, 56

Sample

Maya Blue 30, 56Maya culture 374, 375

Sample

Maya culture 374, 375Maya pottery 374, 376

Sample

Maya pottery 374, 376Mayen pottery 227

Sample

Mayen pottery 227Medici porcelain 334, 335

Sample

Medici porcelain 334, 335Medieval life style 245Sam

ple

Medieval life style 245Megarian bowl 182, 183, 198, Sam

ple

Megarian bowl 182, 183, 198, 199 Sam

ple

199Meidum ware 140, 141Sam

ple

Meidum ware 140, 141Meissen porcelain XIX, 336, Sam

ple

Meissen porcelain XIX, 336, 340, 341, 345, 346, 347, Sam

ple

340, 341, 345, 346, 347,

Mussel shells 382, 386, 391,

Sample

Mussel shells 382, 386, 391, 392, 460

Sample

392, 460Mycenaean koine 173

Sample

Mycenaean koine 173Mycenaean pottery 133, 172,

Sample

Mycenaean pottery 133, 172, 176

Sample

176

Nabeshima porcelain 457, 458,

Sample

Nabeshima porcelain 457, 458,

472, 473

Sample

472, 473

Nahrawan clay 132

Sample

Nahrawan clay 132Nanshan-Qingling divide 122,

Sample

Nanshan-Qingling divide 122,

395, 404, 408

Sample

395, 404, 408

Naqada ware 138, 140

Sample

Naqada ware 138, 140Nara period 463

Sample

Nara period 463Narikawa pottery 463

Sample

Narikawa pottery 463Natural draught 104, 119, 121,

Sample

Natural draught 104, 119, 121,

page

sOverglaze colours 341, 359,

page

sOverglaze colours 341, 359,

Overglaze decoration 264, 284,

page

sOverglaze decoration 264, 284,

Overglaze enamel 321, 427,

page

sOverglaze enamel 321, 427, 430, 470, 473

page

s430, 470, 473Overglaze painting 50, 472

page

sOverglaze painting 50, 472

page

sMuromachi period 459, 464pa

ges

Muromachi period 459, 464Mussel shells 382, 386, 391, pa

ges

Mussel shells 382, 386, 391,

Oxford ware 203

page

sOxford ware 203Oxidising firing 71, 72, 76, 77,

page

sOxidising firing 71, 72, 76, 77,

78, 80, 82, 91, 92, 94, 147,

page

s78, 80, 82, 91, 92, 94, 147, 157, 166, 177, 178, 180,

page

s157, 166, 177, 178, 180, 193, 320

page

s193, 320

Oxygen fugacity 71, 89, 90, 91page

sOxygen fugacity 71, 89, 90, 91

Paddle-and-anvil technique 382page

sPaddle-and-anvil technique 382Painting 6, 55, 56page

sPainting 6, 55, 56

eschweizerbart_xxx

540 Ceramics index

Porcelain V, XVI, XXI, 12, 16, 17, 68, 73, 121, 122, 126, 269, 282

Porcelain microstructure 348, 351

Pore size distribution 94Pores 97, 98Porosity 12, 14, 21, 48, 94Potbank 125Potter’s wheel 39, 43, 47, 157,

164, 295, 371, 463Predynastic Egyptian pottery

137, 138Prescriptive technology 1, 5, 6,

7Principal component analysis

418Proto-celadon 407, 412Protogeometric style 176Protomaiolica 289Proto-porcelain 52, 68, 121,

122, 395, 407, 409, 410, 411, 412

Proto-stoneware 227, 231, 235

Pyrgos style 166Pyrgos ware 167

Qena clay 143, 144Qi hong glaze 427, 428Qing dynasty 399Qing porcelain 430Qingbai porcelain 397, 423,

425Queen’s ware 255, 261, 262,

263, 264, 267, 357

Raeren stoneware 233Rain cloud-grey glaze 450Raku glaze 52, 53Raku kiln 119Raku ware 12, 466, 472R-curve behaviour 388, 389Réaumur porcelain 334Rectangular kiln 109Red earthenware 49Red stoneware 355Red-figure technique 158, 176,

179, 180, 181Reducing firing 71, 72, 77, 83,

91, 93, 94, 179, 180, 392, 465

Relative porosity parameter 210, 211

Residual stress 351, 391

Rhenish stoneware 229, 234, 235, 238, 336, 407, 448

Rietveld refinement 84, 86Ringelkrug 242Rosso di maiolica 293

Saggar 114, 119, 122, 125, 280, 320, 413

Saint-Cloud ware 311, 312, 313, 320, 324, 469

Saint-Porchaire ware 255, 256, 270, 271, 272, 274

Salt glaze 52, 234, 235, 240, 267

Salt-glazed stoneware 52, 230, 232, 260

Samarra culture 132, 133Samarra ware 148Samian ware 193San Kamphaeng ware 443, 450,

451, 452Sancai colour 428, 464Sancai ware 415, 416, 463Sang de boeuf glaze 428, 429Sangkhalok stoneware 442Sanitary porcelain 50Sawankhalok stoneware 232,

443Saxon stoneware 236Schnelle 230, 231Scove kiln 107, 131Seger formula 49, 50, 54, 55Seleucia clay 132Seljuk culture 135Sesklo culture 159Sesklo ware 162, 163Seto kiln 464, 465Seto ware 465, 466, 466, 467Shang bronze casting 404Shang dynasty 50, 51, 404, 406,

407Shang pottery 405, 410Shear modulus 101, 102Shell 19, 38Shell temper 380, 381, 381, 391Shell-tempered pottery 371,

381, 382, 387, 388, 389, 392Shi pigment 426Shino ware 466Shufu porcelain 425Si Satchanalai kiln 439, 444,

445Si Satchanalai stoneware 447,

448, 449Siebenlehn rock 345

Siegburg stoneware 230, 231, 232, 335

Silphium 216, 217Sintering 12, 16, 71, 73, 94, 98,

99, 100, 102, 211, 234Six Old Kilns 457, 464Slabbing XXISlip casting XXI, 142Smoking 90, 193Soft-paste porcelain XIX, 16,

309, 313, 314, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322, 323, 324, 326, 334, 341, 354, 357, 358, 411

Soft-paste porcelain glaze 325Solar furnace 338Song dynasty 122, 399, 401,

417, 446Staffordshire 125Staffordshire earthenware 360Stamp 209Stamped stoneware 407Standardisation 200Steatitic porcelain 356Stern layer 31, 34Stern potential 36Stone china 262, 357Stoneware 12, 14, 15, 17, 49,

50, 67, 121, 124, 247, 359, 362, 403

Stoneware glaze 55Stoneware kiln 117Strange attractor 6, 8Structural viscosity 32, 33Sturzbecher 230, 231Sue ware 462, 463, 463, 464Sui dynasty 395, 412Sukhothai kiln 439, 444, 445Sukhothai stoneware 232, 443,

445, 447Sumali pigment 426Sun furnace 337Symposion 184, 185

Tang dynasty 283, 395, 412, 413, 416, 463

Tang porcelain 283, 416Tao yao kiln 122, 398Tell-el-Amarna period 142Tenmuku glaze 53Tensile strength 14Tepe Hissar kiln 144Tepe Sialk ware 145, 146, 147Terra Helvetica 202Terra nigra 193

Sample

Qingbai porcelain 397, 423,

Sample

Qingbai porcelain 397, 423,

Queen’s ware 255, 261, 262,

Sample

Queen’s ware 255, 261, 262,

263, 264, 267, 357

Sample

263, 264, 267, 357

Raeren stoneware 233

Sample

Raeren stoneware 233Rain cloud-grey glaze 450

Sample

Rain cloud-grey glaze 450Raku glaze 52, 53Sam

ple

Raku glaze 52, 53Raku kiln 119Sam

ple

Raku kiln 119Raku ware 12, 466, 472Sam

ple

Raku ware 12, 466, 472R-curve behaviour 388, 389Sam

ple

R-curve behaviour 388, 389Réaumur porcelain 334Sam

ple

Réaumur porcelain 334Rectangular kiln 109

Sample

Rectangular kiln 109

Sang de boeuf glaze 428, 429

Sample

Sang de boeuf glaze 428, 429Sangkhalok stoneware 442

Sample

Sangkhalok stoneware 442Sanitary porcelain 50

Sample

Sanitary porcelain 50Sawankhalok stoneware 232,

Sample

Sawankhalok stoneware 232, 443

Sample

443

Saxon stoneware 236

Sample

Saxon stoneware 236Schnelle 230, 231

Sample

Schnelle 230, 231Scove kiln 107, 131

Sample

Scove kiln 107, 131Seger formula 49, 50, 54, 55

Sample

Seger formula 49, 50, 54, 55Seleucia clay 132

Sample

Seleucia clay 132Seljuk culture 135

Sample

Seljuk culture 135Sesklo culture 159

Sample

Sesklo culture 159Sesklo ware 162, 163

Sample

Sesklo ware 162, 163Seto kiln 464, 465

Sample

Seto kiln 464, 465Seto ware 465, 466, 466, 467

Sample

Seto ware 465, 466, 466, 467

page

sSoft-paste porcelain XIX, 16,

page

sSoft-paste porcelain XIX, 16,

309, 313, 314, 316, 317,

page

s309, 313, 314, 316, 317, 318, 319, 320, 321, 322,

page

s318, 319, 320, 321, 322,

page

sSan Kamphaeng ware 443, 450,

page

sSan Kamphaeng ware 443, 450,

Sancai ware 415, 416, 463page

sSancai ware 415, 416, 463Sang de boeuf glaze 428, 429pa

ges

Sang de boeuf glaze 428, 429Sangkhalok stoneware 442pa

ges

Sangkhalok stoneware 442

323, 324, 326, 334, 341,

page

s323, 324, 326, 334, 341, 354, 357, 358, 411

page

s354, 357, 358, 411Soft-paste porcelain glaze 325

page

sSoft-paste porcelain glaze 325Solar furnace 338

page

sSolar furnace 338Song dynasty 122, 399, 401,

page

sSong dynasty 122, 399, 401,

417, 446

page

s417, 446

Staffordshire 125

page

sStaffordshire 125Staffordshire earthenware 360

page

sStaffordshire earthenware 360Stamp 209

page

sStamp 209Stamped stoneware 407page

sStamped stoneware 407Standardisation 200page

sStandardisation 200Steatitic porcelain 356page

sSteatitic porcelain 356Stern layer 31, 34page

sStern layer 31, 34

eschweizerbart_xxx

541Ceramics index

Terra sigillata VI, XIX, 1, 7, 12, 14, 38, 45, 46, 64, 76, 77, 80, 99, 102, 126, 133, 180, 182, 192, 193, 194, 196, 203, 210, 222, 224, 225, 231, 259

Terra sigillata forms 199Terra sigillata kiln 114, 115,

116, 117, 127, 207, 208Terra sigillata mould 209, 210,

212Terra sigillata workshop 206Terracotta 12, 21, 56, 76, 295Terre de Lorraine 267Terre de pipe 259, 267, 268Thera eruption 169, 171Thermal conductivity 1, 18, 71,

386Thermal expansion coefficient

203, 326, 346, 425, 452Thermal shock 18, 20, 354, 357Thermal shock resistance 19,

354, 357, 381, 386Thermal transformation in

phosphatic ceramics 95Thermal transformation of illite

76Thermal transformation of

kaolinite 73Thessalian pottery 161Thixotropy 32Three-phase firing 177, 180Tiahuanaco pottery 371, 373Time-of-flight neutron diffraction

235, 236Tin glaze 50, 280, 283, 284,

286, 299, 300Tin-glazed pottery 279, 282,

284, 287, 288, 289, 292, 309Toploader kiln 115Tournai frit 319Transfer printing 262, 263, 264Triaxial porcelain 13, 16, 67,

344, 348, 350

Trichterbecher 232Troy pottery 175Tureng Tepe kiln 144Tzakol ware 374

Ubaid culture 133, 134Ubaid ware 144, 148Ultrasonic impulse 101Ultrasonic wave propagation

102Underglaze decoration 16, 264,

321, 346, 348, 414, 424, 427, 439, 446

Underglaze-blue porcelain 425, 427, 430, 470, 473

Updraught kiln 108, 109, 119, 133

Upward draught 125

Vasiliki ware 137, 166, 167Vauxhall ware 358Villanova culture 192Vincennes/Sèvres frit 319Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain 315,

318, 324Vitrification 98, 204, 205Vitrified stoneware 126

Waldenburg stoneware 236, 237, 238, 239, 241

Waritake kiln 119Warring States 50Water absorption capacity 12,

14, 210 , 211, 382Wellenfuß 238West Slope style 182Western Han dynasty 412Westerwald stoneware 230, 233Wheel turning XXIWhite earthenware XXI, 12, 13,

14, 15, 17, 49, 255, 259, 265, 266, 267, 268, 269, 270, 272, 273, 274, 334, 355, 357

White Mountain Red ware 379White-ground technique 181,

182, 183Whiteware 12Wicket 125Wood ash 51, 334, 410, 422,

452Wood ash glaze 234, 235, 240Woodland culture 379, 381,

393Work of fracture 387, 388, 389Wucai colour 428, 430

Xia dynasty 403Xing kiln 395, 397, 412Xing ware 282X-ray diffraction 84, 86, 100,

324, 470

Yale culinary tablets 149Yamato pottery 460, 461Yangshao culture 401, 402,

403Yangshao ware 92, 395, 403Yao-chou kiln XVIYayoi pottery 458, 460, 461,

462Yingcai colour 431Yingqing porcelain 397Yixing stoneware 260Yuan dynasty 283, 401, 423,

424Yuan porcelain 425Yuan stoneware 422, 426Yuancai colour 431Yue celadon 51, 409, 413, 416,

422Yue kiln 413

Zen principles 459Zeta potential 22, 35, 36, 386Zhou dynasty 405, 406Sam

ple

Three-phase firing 177, 180

Sample

Three-phase firing 177, 180Tiahuanaco pottery 371, 373

Sample

Tiahuanaco pottery 371, 373Time-of-flight neutron diffraction

Sample

Time-of-flight neutron diffraction

Tin glaze 50, 280, 283, 284,

Sample

Tin glaze 50, 280, 283, 284,

286, 299, 300

Sample

286, 299, 300

Tin-glazed pottery 279, 282,

Sample

Tin-glazed pottery 279, 282,

284, 287, 288, 289, 292, 309

Sample

284, 287, 288, 289, 292, 309Toploader kiln 115Sam

ple

Toploader kiln 115Tournai frit 319Sam

ple

Tournai frit 319Transfer printing 262, 263, 264Sam

ple

Transfer printing 262, 263, 264Triaxial porcelain 13, 16, 67, Sam

ple

Triaxial porcelain 13, 16, 67, 344, 348, 350Sam

ple

344, 348, 350

Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain 315,

Sample

Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain 315, 318, 324

Sample

318, 324Vitrification 98, 204, 205

Sample

Vitrification 98, 204, 205Vitrified stoneware 126

Sample

Vitrified stoneware 126

Waldenburg stoneware 236,

Sample

Waldenburg stoneware 236,

237, 238, 239, 241

Sample

237, 238, 239, 241

Waritake kiln 119

Sample

Waritake kiln 119Warring States 50

Sample

Warring States 50Water absorption capacity 12,

Sample

Water absorption capacity 12,

14, 210 , 211, 382

Sample

14, 210 , 211, 382

Wellenfuß 238

Sample

Wellenfuß 238West Slope style 182

Sample

West Slope style 182Western Han dynasty 412

Sample

Western Han dynasty 412Westerwald stoneware 230, 233

Sample

Westerwald stoneware 230, 233

page

sWork of fracture 387, 388, 389

page

sWork of fracture 387, 388, 389Wucai colour 428, 430

page

sWucai colour 428, 430

Xia dynasty 403

page

sXia dynasty 403Xing kiln 395, 397, 412

page

sXing kiln 395, 397, 412Xing ware 282

page

sXing ware 282

page

sVincennes/Sèvres frit 319 pa

ges

Vincennes/Sèvres frit 319Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain 315, pa

ges

Vincennes/Sèvres porcelain 315,

X-ray diffraction 84, 86, 100,

page

sX-ray diffraction 84, 86, 100,

324, 470

page

s324, 470

Yale culinary tablets 149

page

sYale culinary tablets 149Yamato pottery 460, 461

page

sYamato pottery 460, 461Yangshao culture 401, 402, page

sYangshao culture 401, 402,

403page

s403

Yangshao ware 92, 395, 403page

sYangshao ware 92, 395, 403Yao-chou kiln XVIpage

sYao-chou kiln XVI

eschweizerbart_xxx

Aachen 230, 232Achaia 174Aegean Sea 157, 193Aegina 172Agen 257Agios Syllas 167Albano 303Albrechtsburg 339Alicante 319Almeria 288Alsace-Lorraine 276Altranstädt 339Amarna 58American Bottom 19, 22, 380,

382, 389Amlash 146Anatolia XIXAngel 380, 383, 392Ankara 136Antiochia 193Anyang 405, 406, 407Ao 404Apple River 382Aquileja 301 , 303Aquitaine 257Arezzo 193, 195, 199, 202, 203Argenteuil 319Argolid 171, 174Argos 176, 185Arismān 144, 146, 147, 148,

150Arita 399, 457, 468, 469, 470,

472, 473Arkansas River 384Armstrong 380, 383Arretium 193, 197Asomatos 128Assisi 297Athens 159, 160, 176, 179, 181,

186Attica 157, 158, 172, 177, 179,

180, 183, 187Audun-le-Tiche 267Aue 342Augsburg 251Augusta Raurica 206Augusta Treverorum 225Avdat 80Aveyron 201

Avil 167Ayutthaya 441, 443Aztalan 380, 382, 385, 390, 392

Babel 131Badonviller 269Badorf 227, 228Baghdad 132, 279, 282, 283,

286Balkans 50, 92, 130, 147Balkh 80Bampur 144Ban Chiang 439, 441, 442Banassac 76, 196, 205Bangkok 441Banpo 402Basel 302Basra 279, 283, 284, 286, 287Bautzen 15, 227, 236, 242Beijing 402, 406Beizhouling 403Belize 375Beni Hasan 110Berlin 50, 110, 133, 134, 203,

338, 341Bicester 196Bizen 457, 464, 465Black Forest 52Black Sea 186Blickweiler 196, 199, 205, 213Bo 434Boeotia 172Bois d’Epense 273Boleslawiec 244Bologna 299Bonn 227, 230Bordeaux 257Bradwell 257Bunzlau 16, 227, 244, 245Burslem 255, 260, 261Byzantium 284

Cafaggiolo 290, 292, 293Cahokia 380, 381, 385, 390,

392Cales 193, 194Calleva Atrebatum 196Cambridgeshire 196Caminau 345

Campania 187Camulodunum 196Can Hasan 130Canton 283, 396Capua 195Casas Grandes 378Caspian Sea 146Castel Durante 289, 293, 295Castelli 298Çatal Höyük 130, 135Caucasus 187Caughley 357Ceri 56Ceylon 283Champigneulles 267Changan 416Changsha 413, 414, 415Chantilly 313, 314, 318, 322,

324, 325, 326, 469Chao Phraya River 440, 441Charleston 357Château de Choisy-le-Roi 329Châteaudun 267Chelsea 262, 354, 357, 469Chémery 196, 199, 205, 213Chemnitz 236Chiang Mai 443, 445, 452Chiang Rai 451, 452Chihuahua 378Cholula 374Cinque Ports 275Çiradere 135Clinch River 384Coalport 359Colchester 115, 196Colditz 342Cologne 15, 214, 229, 230,

231, 269Como 303Copenhagen 341Corinth 157, 158, 173, 176,

177, 178, 179Cornwall 264, 359Crambeck 196Cremona 302Crete XIXCrimean peninsula 206Cuipingshan 412Cumberland River 384

Location index

Sample

Arezzo 193, 195, 199, 202, 203

Sample

Arezzo 193, 195, 199, 202, 203

n 144, 146, 147, 148,

Sample

n 144, 146, 147, 148,

Arita 399, 457, 468, 469, 470,

Sample

Arita 399, 457, 468, 469, 470,

472, 473

Sample

472, 473Arkansas River 384Sam

ple

Arkansas River 384Armstrong 380, 383Sam

ple

Armstrong 380, 383Arretium 193, 197Sam

ple

Arretium 193, 197Asomatos 128Sam

ple

Asomatos 128

Athens 159, 160, 176, 179, 181, Sam

ple

Athens 159, 160, 176, 179, 181,

Basra 279, 283, 284, 286, 287

Sample

Basra 279, 283, 284, 286, 287Bautzen 15, 227, 236, 242

Sample

Bautzen 15, 227, 236, 242Beijing 402, 406

Sample

Beijing 402, 406Beizhouling 403

Sample

Beizhouling 403Belize 375

Sample

Belize 375Beni Hasan 110

Sample

Beni Hasan 110Berlin 50, 110, 133, 134, 203,

Sample

Berlin 50, 110, 133, 134, 203,

338, 341

Sample

338, 341

Bicester 196

Sample

Bicester 196Bizen 457, 464, 465

Sample

Bizen 457, 464, 465Black Forest 52

Sample

Black Forest 52Black Sea 186

Sample

Black Sea 186Blickweiler 196, 199, 205, 213

Sample

Blickweiler 196, 199, 205, 213Bo 434

Sample

Bo 434Boeotia 172

Sample

Boeotia 172

page

sBasra 279, 283, 284, 286, 287pa

ges

Basra 279, 283, 284, 286, 287Bautzen 15, 227, 236, 242pa

ges

Bautzen 15, 227, 236, 242

Casas Grandes 378

page

sCasas Grandes 378Caspian Sea 146

page

sCaspian Sea 146Castel Durante 289, 293, 295

page

sCastel Durante 289, 293, 295Castelli 298

page

sCastelli 298Çatal Höyük 130, 135

page

sÇatal Höyük 130, 135Caucasus 187

page

sCaucasus 187Caughley 357

page

sCaughley 357Ceri 56

page

sCeri 56Ceylon 283

page

sCeylon 283Champigneulles 267

page

sChampigneulles 267Changan 416page

sChangan 416Changsha 413, 414, 415page

sChangsha 413, 414, 415Chantilly 313, 314, 318, 322, page

sChantilly 313, 314, 318, 322,

eschweizerbart_xxx

543Location index

Cunetio 196Cyclades 171, 174Cyprus XIX, 92

Dakhla 142Dangstetten 195Danube River 130, 208Davenport 359Dayao 417, 418, 420, 421Deir el Bahari XVDeir Tasa 137Delft 344, 469, 473Deqing 123, 407, 409Derby 359Deruta 279, 284, 293, 296, 298,

299Dijon 267Dimini 157, 159, 160, 161, 163Dingzhou 419Dodecanese 172, 174Dolni Vĕstonice XVIIDomévre 267Dongshan 123Dreihausen 242Dresden 240, 300, 338, 339,

341Duck River 384Dümrek River 84Düren 117Durobrivae 196

Echizen 457Egypt XIXEl-Badari 90, 137, 139, 141El-Ballas 143, 144Elis 174El-Kharga 142El-Tarif 138Enkomi 173Ephyre 173Épinal 265Eridu 134Erlitou 403Erzgebirge 336, 342, 345, 348Eskişehir 363Essex 196Etruria 180, 193Euphrates River 82, 131

Faenza 291, 292, 293, 296, 296, 299, 334

Faras 140Fenghao 404Fenton 260Ferrara 299

Fertile Crescent 146Florence 290, 294, 295, 309,

334Forli 299Fort Ancient 380Fort Apache 379Franchthi Cave XVIII, 161Frankenthal 341Frechen 15, 227, 229, 230, 233,

235, 239Freiberg 124, 125, 227, 236,

336, 337, 338, 342, 344, 345Fribourg XXII, 203Frohnsdorf 239Fukien 283Fulda 214Fulham 259, 260Fürstenberg 341Fustat 283, 284, 286

Gaojitou 421Gaul 50, 76, 102, 192, 196,

203, 206, 225, 227, 369Gela 183Geneva 261Genova 296Gila Valley 377Gladstone 126Gökeyüp 106Gongxian 412Görlitz XXIIGöttingen Forest 52Gournia 166, 167Grasshopper Pueblo 379Grenzau 230Grenzhausen 230Guangxi 123Gubbio 279, 289, 293, 294,

296, 299

Haçilar 130, 135, 136Haghia Triada 88, 111, 112, 167Halaf 91, 129, 132, 133, 133,

134, 148Halsbrücke 342, 345Haltern 195Hamburg 230Hangzhou 123, 396, 420Hanley 260Harabebezikan 82Hasanlu 146Hassuna 129, 132, 133, 148Hawaii 276Heraklion 167, 168Hersonissos 167, 168

Heybridge 196Höchst 341Hofheim 195, 197Höhr 230Höhr-Grenzhausen 52Huangbu 416Huang-pan 121Huangye 416

Indus River 146Iran XIXIshikari River 478Izumiyama 468

Jbeil 129Jericho 129Jerusalem 110Jiaotanxia 123Jincun 417, 418Jingdezhen 29, 123, 341, 355,

397, 398, 409, 417, 423, 424, 425, 427, 469

Jockgrim 76, 77, 78, 83, 204

Kairouan 288Kaiseraugst 206Kalach 135Kalhu 135Kalong 439, 442, 443, 449,

450Kalymnos 172Kanto 461Karamenderes River 84Karatsu 466, 467Karkamış 82Karlsbad 345Kashan 146, 147, 148, 150,

284, 285, 287Katakolo 174Kaufungen Forest 52Kayseri 137Kemmlitz 345Kinsay 396Knossos 41, 42, 76, 164, 166,

167, 168, 174Koblenz 227, 230, 269Koh Khram 442, 444Köln 52Kommos 112Konstanz 200, 247, 248Kültepe 137Kutani 471Kyoto 119, 459, 466, 467,

472

Sample

El-Badari 90, 137, 139, 141

Sample

El-Badari 90, 137, 139, 141El-Ballas 143, 144

Sample

El-Ballas 143, 144

El-Kharga 142

Sample

El-Kharga 142El-Tarif 138

Sample

El-Tarif 138Enkomi 173

Sample

Enkomi 173Ephyre 173Sam

ple

Ephyre 173Épinal 265Sam

ple

Épinal 265Eridu 134 Sam

ple

Eridu 134Erlitou 403Sam

ple

Erlitou 403Erzgebirge 336, 342, 345, 348Sam

ple

Erzgebirge 336, 342, 345, 348

Geneva 261

Sample

Geneva 261Genova 296

Sample

Genova 296Gila Valley 377

Sample

Gila Valley 377Gladstone 126

Sample

Gladstone 126Gökeyüp 106

Sample

Gökeyüp 106Gongxian 412

Sample

Gongxian 412Görlitz XXII

Sample

Görlitz XXIIGöttingen Forest 52

Sample

Göttingen Forest 52Gournia 166, 167

Sample

Gournia 166, 167Grasshopper Pueblo 379

Sample

Grasshopper Pueblo 379Grenzau 230

Sample

Grenzau 230Grenzhausen 230

Sample

Grenzhausen 230Guangxi 123

Sample

Guangxi 123Gubbio 279, 289, 293, 294,

Sample

Gubbio 279, 289, 293, 294,

page

sGaul 50, 76, 102, 192, 196, pa

ges

Gaul 50, 76, 102, 192, 196, 203, 206, 225, 227, 369pa

ges

203, 206, 225, 227, 369

Ishikari River 478

page

sIshikari River 478Izumiyama 468

page

sIzumiyama 468

Jbeil 129

page

sJbeil 129Jericho 129

page

sJericho 129Jerusalem 110

page

sJerusalem 110Jiaotanxia 123

page

sJiaotanxia 123Jincun 417, 418

page

sJincun 417, 418Jingdezhen 29, 123, 341, 355,

page

sJingdezhen 29, 123, 341, 355,

397, 398, 409, 417, 423,

page

s397, 398, 409, 417, 423, 424, 425, 427, 469page

s424, 425, 427, 469

Jockgrim 76, 77, 78, 83, 204page

sJockgrim 76, 77, 78, 83, 204

Kairouan 288page

sKairouan 288

eschweizerbart_xxx

544 Location index

La Chapelle-Biron 257La Graufesenque 76, 116, 127,

196, 197, 199, 201, 205, 208, 213

La Madeleine 196La Péniche 80Langerwehe 117, 235Larnaka 173Laterza 296Lausanne 80Leiden 148Leijre 108Leipzig 236Leptis Magna 197Lerna 171, 185Les Martres de Veyre 196Levant 129, 130Lezoux 196, 197, 199Lianokladhi 160Limhamn 107, 108Limoges 317, 341Liverpool 264, 357, 359Londinium 196London 194, 196, 216, 245,

262, 276, 310, 354, 355, 356, 358, 365

Longquan 417, 421, 422, 423Longshan 402Longton 260Longuan 442Longwy 269Lorraine 247, 255, 265, 267,

269, 272, 273, 274, 275Lot-et-Garonne 257Lucerne 109Ludwigsburg 341Lunéville 265, 267, 268, 269,

272, 273Luoyang 416Luristan 148Lyon 196, 199, 202, 203, 215,

267, 302

Macedonia 171Mainz 116, 206, 246Makrychori 161Malaga 288, 289Mallorca 289Manises 288, 292Mannheim 240, 241Maroni 173Marseille 288Mayen 227Medinet Medi 156Mediterranean Sea 283

Meissen XIX, 103, 124, 125, 228, 313, 326, 333, 339, 340, 342, 343, 345, 346, 347, 411, 469

Mennecy 313, 322Mero 380, 385Mesara 112Mesopotamia XIX, XXMexico City 376Milano 301Milk River 384Mimbres Valley 377Mingkunglu 407Minton 359Mississippi River VI, 29, 371,

379, 384, 389Missouri River 384, 385Mochlos 167Mogontiacum 206Montans 196, 205Monte Albán 374Montelupo 296, 297, 298Montereau 265, 266, 267Montmartre 319Moret 265Moritzburg 338Moselle River 225Moundville 384Mount Olympus 187Moyen 267Mudaikou 421Münster 86Murcia 288Mycenae 171, 174, 175Myrtos 41

Nahrawan 132Nakhlak 146Nanyang 442Naples 58, 193, 194, 301Naqada 138Narmouthis 156Naumburg 237Negev 80Nene River 196Neuvy-sur-Allier 267Nevers 292New Forest 196Newcastle-under-Lyme 259, 260Niderviller 267, 273Nile River XVI, 132, 137, 143Nimptsch 110, 111Nimrud 135Ningpo 413Nippur 58

Nishapur 146, 289, 413Nordhausen 342North Africa 186, 192Nubia 140Nürnberg 250Nymphenburg 341

Oare 196Oaxaca 374, 376Ohio River 384, 385, 389Ōkawachi 472Okrilla 342Oristano 195Orléans 267Orvieto 289, 290, 293Osaka 466Otterbach Creek 76, 77, 78, 83,

97, 209Oxford VI, 112, 196

Padana 195Palaiokastro 166Panuco River 376Paracas Cavernas 371, 372Paris 113, 145, 182, 255, 258,

259, 265, 265, 266, 267, 271, 276, 295, 310, 311, 313, 315, 355

Passau 340Paterna-Manises 281, 288Pavia 299Peloponnese 161, 172, 174, 185Penig 236Persepolis 144Pesaro 289, 293, 297, 299Peterborough 196Petra 80Pexonne 267Phaistos 76, 166, 167, 168, 174Phan 439, 442, 443, 451Phayao 439, 442, 451, 452Phthiotis 160Piadena 302, 303Pingsdorf 227, 228Pisa 195Pitsidia 167, 168Plateia Magoula Zarkou 160,

161Platte River 384Plessis-Chenet 266Poitou 257Pompeii 197Pont Sainte Maxence 314Pseira 167Puducun 405

Sample

Lorraine 247, 255, 265, 267,

Sample

Lorraine 247, 255, 265, 267,

269, 272, 273, 274, 275

Sample

269, 272, 273, 274, 275

Ludwigsburg 341

Sample

Ludwigsburg 341Lunéville 265, 267, 268, 269,

Sample

Lunéville 265, 267, 268, 269,

272, 273

Sample

272, 273

Luoyang 416

Sample

Luoyang 416Luristan 148Sam

ple

Luristan 148Lyon 196, 199, 202, 203, 215, Sam

ple

Lyon 196, 199, 202, 203, 215, 267, 302Sam

ple

267, 302

Macedonia 171Sample

Macedonia 171Mainz 116, 206, 246

Sample

Mainz 116, 206, 246

Montmartre 319

Sample

Montmartre 319Moret 265

Sample

Moret 265Moritzburg 338

Sample

Moritzburg 338Moselle River 225

Sample

Moselle River 225Moundville 384

Sample

Moundville 384Mount Olympus 187

Sample

Mount Olympus 187Moyen 267

Sample

Moyen 267Mudaikou 421

Sample

Mudaikou 421Münster 86

Sample

Münster 86Murcia 288

Sample

Murcia 288Mycenae 171, 174, 175

Sample

Mycenae 171, 174, 175Myrtos 41

Sample

Myrtos 41

Nahrawan 132

Sample

Nahrawan 132Nakhlak 146

Sample

Nakhlak 146

page

sOhio River 384, 385, 389

page

sOhio River 384, 385, 389

Orléans 267

page

sOrléans 267Orvieto 289, 290, 293

page

sOrvieto 289, 290, 293

page

sMontelupo 296, 297, 298 pa

ges

Montelupo 296, 297, 298Montereau 265, 266, 267 pa

ges

Montereau 265, 266, 267

Osaka 466

page

sOsaka 466Otterbach Creek 76, 77, 78, 83,

page

sOtterbach Creek 76, 77, 78, 83,

97, 209

page

s97, 209

Oxford VI, 112, 196

page

sOxford VI, 112, 196

Padana 195

page

sPadana 195Palaiokastro 166page

sPalaiokastro 166Panuco River 376page

sPanuco River 376Paracas Cavernas 371, 372page

sParacas Cavernas 371, 372Paris 113, 145, 182, 255, 258, page

sParis 113, 145, 182, 255, 258,

eschweizerbart_xxx

545Location index

Puteoli 194Pyrgos 166, 167, 168

Qamsar 287Qena 143, 144Qijiaping 401

Raeren 52, 227, 229, 232, 233, 234, 235, 239

Rajj 146, 284, 288, 413Rambersviller 267Rapa 115Raqqa 413Ravenna 299Reading 367Rheinzabern 21, 76, 99, 100,

101, 102, 196, 198, 199, 200, 205, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 212, 213, 225, 226

Rhine River 43, 208, 209Rhineland VI, 117, 227, 230Rio Azul 375Rizhao 412Rodez 201Rome 56, 192, 193, 215, 289,

299, 302Rouen 267, 309, 311Royal Nanhai 442, 446

Sacalum 30Saint-Amand 322Saint-Avit 257Saint-Clément 265, 267, 268,

272, 273, 274Saint-Cloud 311, 313, 314, 318,

320, 322, 324, 325, 326, 334, 469

Saintes 257, 258, 259Saint-Germain en Laye 314Saint-Omer 267Saint-Porchaire 256, 257, 270,

271Saint-Vallier-sur Rhône 128Saint-Yrieix-La-Perche 317Sakai 466Salt Valley 377Samarra 91, 129, 133, 148, 279,

283, 287, 416Samos 193San Kamphaeng 439, 442, 443,

450, 451Sandwich 275Sandwich Islands 276Santorini 170Sardinia 195

Sarreguemines 269Sawankhalok XIX, 119, 439,

443, 444, 447Saxony VI, 227, 236, 337, 338,

340, 342, 345Sceaux 267, 313Schneeberg 345Schwabmünchen 115Scoppieto 194Sedan 258Seilitz-Löthain 345Seleucia 132Septfontaines 267Sesklo 88, 157, 159, 160, 161,

162, 163Seto 457, 465, 466Sevilla 288Sèvres 25, 142, 313, 315, 316,

317, 318, 319, 321, 322, 324, 326, 340, 341, 357, 411, 430

Shaoxing 413Shigaraki 457Si Satchanalai 119, 439, 441,

442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449

Siam XIXSicily 127, 183, 186, 187,

193Siebenlehn 345Siegburg 15, 52, 227, 229, 230,

231, 232, 232, 233, 235, 236, 236, 238, 239, 243

Siena 296, 298Silchester 196Silesia VI, 227, 247Sinai 141Siraf 415Skaane 107Skinias 167Skopi 167Soufli 161Sparta 187St. Albans 216St. Petersburg 261, 341St. Urban 109Staffordshire 15, 103, 125, 126,

255, 259, 260, 261, 272, 274, 355, 360, 366

Stare Nakonowo XVIIIStockholm 341Stoke-on-Trent 126, 260, 355,

360, 361, 362Strasbourg 267, 341Sudan XVI

Sukhothai XIX, 199, 439, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447

Sumer 43Susa 130, 134, 144, 145, 146,

148Sybaris 187, 188Syria 133

Tabernae 99, 100, 102, 198, 206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212

Tabriz 285Tak 442Talas 282Talavera-Puente 288Tal-il-Iblis 144Tamba 457Taras 193Tell el-Amarna 128, 142Tell Qaramel 129Tell-i-Bakun 144, 148Tennessee River 384Tenochtitlan 376Teotihuacan 374, 376Tepe Ghabristan 144, 146Tepe Giyan 130, 146, 148Tepe Guran 144Tepe Hissar 144, 146Tepe Sialk 144, 145, 146, 148Tepe Sohz 134Tepe Yahya 144Testar del Moli 281Tharros 195Thebes 80, 155Thera 169, 170Thessaly 88, 92, 130, 157, 161,

163, 169, 171Thonburi 441Ticul 30Tigris River 131, 282, 416Tihuanaco 371Timna 141Tingui 396Tingziqiao 123Tiryns 174, 175Tokoname 457Tokyo 479Toronto 356Torrita di Siena 194Toul-Bellevue 267Tournai 313, 319, 322, 325Tours 267Trier 196, 201, 225Troy 77, 84, 85, 86, 171, 172,

175, 176Tübingen 84

Sample

Saint-Clément 265, 267, 268,

Sample

Saint-Clément 265, 267, 268,

Saint-Cloud 311, 313, 314, 318,

Sample

Saint-Cloud 311, 313, 314, 318,

320, 322, 324, 325, 326,

Sample

320, 322, 324, 325, 326, 334, 469

Sample

334, 469

Saintes 257, 258, 259

Sample

Saintes 257, 258, 259Saint-Germain en Laye 314

Sample

Saint-Germain en Laye 314Saint-Omer 267Sam

ple

Saint-Omer 267Saint-Porchaire 256, 257, 270, Sam

ple

Saint-Porchaire 256, 257, 270, 271 Sam

ple

271Saint-Vallier-sur Rhône 128Sam

ple

Saint-Vallier-sur Rhône 128Saint-Yrieix-La-Perche 317Sam

ple

Saint-Yrieix-La-Perche 317

Si Satchanalai 119, 439, 441,

Sample

Si Satchanalai 119, 439, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446,

Sample

442, 443, 444, 445, 446, 447, 448, 449

Sample

447, 448, 449Siam XIX

Sample

Siam XIXSicily 127, 183, 186, 187,

Sample

Sicily 127, 183, 186, 187,

193

Sample

193

Siebenlehn 345

Sample

Siebenlehn 345Siegburg 15, 52, 227, 229, 230,

Sample

Siegburg 15, 52, 227, 229, 230,

231, 232, 232, 233, 235,

Sample

231, 232, 232, 233, 235, 236, 236, 238, 239, 243

Sample

236, 236, 238, 239, 243

Siena 296, 298

Sample

Siena 296, 298Silchester 196

Sample

Silchester 196Silesia VI, 227, 247

Sample

Silesia VI, 227, 247Sinai 141

Sample

Sinai 141Siraf 415

Sample

Siraf 415

page

sSi Satchanalai 119, 439, 441, pa

ges

Si Satchanalai 119, 439, 441, 442, 443, 444, 445, 446, pa

ges

442, 443, 444, 445, 446,

206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212

page

s206, 207, 208, 210, 211, 212

Talavera-Puente 288

page

sTalavera-Puente 288Tal-il-Iblis 144

page

sTal-il-Iblis 144Tamba 457

page

sTamba 457Taras 193

page

sTaras 193Tell el-Amarna 128, 142

page

sTell el-Amarna 128, 142Tell Qaramel 129

page

sTell Qaramel 129Tell-i-Bakun 144, 148

page

sTell-i-Bakun 144, 148Tennessee River 384

page

sTennessee River 384Tenochtitlan 376page

sTenochtitlan 376Teotihuacan 374, 376page

sTeotihuacan 374, 376Tepe Ghabristan 144, 146page

sTepe Ghabristan 144, 146Tepe Giyan 130, 146, 148page

sTepe Giyan 130, 146, 148

eschweizerbart_xxx

546 Location index

Tucson 114, 378Tula 376Tunstall 260Tureng Tepe 144Turiang 442Turin 263Tuscany 193, 195Tyunju 396

Ubaid 129, 132, 133, 148Urbino 279, 289, 291, 293,

297Uruk 132

Valencia 292, 293Vasanello 194Vasiliki 166, 167Vathypetro 167, 168Vauxhall 357Venice 289, 341, 396Versailles 31, 309, 315, 317Verulanium 216Vesnoveh 146Viannos 167, 168Vichy 196

Vidy 80Vienna 142, 341, 411, 3340Vincennes 265, 313, 314, 315,

316, 318, 319, 319, 321, 322, 324, 325, 326, 341

Vistula River XVIIIViterbo 293Volos 159Vulci 180, 182

Wabash River 384Waldenburg 15, 227, 236, 237,

238, 239Washington 109, 380Water Newton 196Weddinghusen 110, 111Westerwald 52, 100, 227, 229,

230, 233, 269Wiltshire 196Wloclawek XVIIIWolica Nowa XVIIIWorcester 356, 357, 359, 469

Xialongjing 412Xian 402, 416

Xikou 417, 418Xuande 442

Yangshao 92, 401Yao-chou XVI, 121Yao-tian-ling 123Yaozhou 423Yarim Tepe 103, 108Yellowstone River 384Yo’ Sah Kab 30Yuandi 421Yuanjunmiao 403Yucatán 30, 389

Zagros Mountains 129, 144, 148Zaitun 396Zaros 168Zayton 396Zeitz 236Zhangzhou 396Zittau 227, 236, 242Zongzhou 404Zürich 215Zwickau 236

Sample

Xialongjing 412

Sample

Xialongjing 412Xian 402, 416

Sample

Xian 402, 416 page

sWorcester 356, 357, 359, 469pa

ges

Worcester 356, 357, 359, 469

Yuanjunmiao 403

page

sYuanjunmiao 403Yucatán 30, 389

page

sYucatán 30, 389

Zagros Mountains 129, 144, 148

page

sZagros Mountains 129, 144, 148Zaitun 396

page

sZaitun 396Zaros 168

page

sZaros 168Zayton 396

page

sZayton 396Zeitz 236

page

sZeitz 236Zhangzhou 396

page

sZhangzhou 396Zittau 227, 236, 242

page

sZittau 227, 236, 242Zongzhou 404page

sZongzhou 404Zürich 215page

sZürich 215Zwickau 236page

sZwickau 236

eschweizerbart_xxx

Abu’l Qasim V, 285, 287Achilles 181, 182Actaeon 201Agathon 215Agricola 103Aidoneus 4Akhenaten 58, 142Alcinous 184al-Jowhar 285Allah XVal-Mansur 282al-Mu’tasim 416al-Neyshâpuri 285Amenhotep II 58Amenhotep III 58Amenhotep IV 58Amun 58, 142Andersson 401Andreoli 294, 296Apicius 189, 213, 214, 215,

216, 217, 218, 220, 223, 300, 302, 369

Archestratos 186Aristophanes 187ar-Rashid 283Astbury 260Ateius 195Athena XVAthenaios 188, 190, 213Augustus II 336Augustus the Strong 5, 333, 336,

338, 339, 351Austrus 199Ayrton 365, 369

Bassus 199, 200Beaufils 267Belli 304Benson 260Bentley 267Biringuccio 103Birouni 285Booth 260Böttger 5, 124, 333, 338, 339,

340, 342, 343, 344, 398, 399Boucher 328Boyle 4Braccioli 214Breughel 232

Brongniart 317Brühl 348Buddha 459Butler 186Butrio 199Buturrus 199

Caillat 318Calamelli 293Carter 156Catherine de Médici 258Catherine II the Great 261Caussy 318Céladon 424Cerialis 199Chambrette I 267Chambrette II 255, 267, 269Chardin 310, 311Chaucer 248, 365, 366Cheng Tang 434Chenghua 426, 427Chicaneau 311Chnum XVChojiro 459, 467Chollo XVIChrysippos 190, 213Cincelli 199Cinnamus 199Cirou 318Cnaeus Ateius 194, 199Coelus 199, 200Columbus 305Comitialis 199, 206, 207, 208,

210, 211Conrade 292Cook 276Craft 356Cyfflé 269, 272, 273

d’Entrecolles V, 318, 355, 397, 398

d’Etiolles 315d’Urfé 424da Forli 302Damonus 199Dandolo 396Darwin 8de Châteauroux 315de Choiseul 315

de la Varenne 327de Montmorency 256, 257, 258de Pompadour 315, 326, 327,

328, 329de Rossi 301, 303de Soubise 326, 328de Tournon 296Defoe 365della Robbia 293, 294, 295,

299, 300della Rovere 302Demeter 187Democritos 4Dentes 290Dickens 365Dionysos 187D gen Zenji 466Dragendorff 209, 219, 224, 225du Barry 315du Paquier 340Dubois 265, 314, 318Duplessis 261Dwight 259, 260, 309

Eberlin 348Elers 259Empedokles 4Enki XV, 150Eos 182Ercker 103Evans 164, 165Exekias 179

Francesco de Medici 309, 334Francesco Sforza 301François I 295Frederic Augustus I 336, 351Frederic the Great 340Friedrich I 338Frye 355Funk 343, 344

Galen 214Gellius 199, 202George III 261Gérin 255, 265, 266, 267, 314,

315, 318Geshtu-e XVGlauber 339

Names index

Sample

Athenaios 188, 190, 213

Sample

Athenaios 188, 190, 213Augustus II 336

Sample

Augustus II 336Augustus the Strong 5, 333, 336,

Sample

Augustus the Strong 5, 333, 336,

338, 339, 351

Sample

338, 339, 351

Austrus 199

Sample

Austrus 199Ayrton 365, 369Sam

ple

Ayrton 365, 369

Bassus 199, 200Sample

Bassus 199, 200Beaufils 267Sam

ple

Beaufils 267

Chardin 310, 311

Sample

Chardin 310, 311Chaucer 248, 365, 366

Sample

Chaucer 248, 365, 366Cheng Tang 434

Sample

Cheng Tang 434Chenghua 426, 427

Sample

Chenghua 426, 427Chicaneau 311

Sample

Chicaneau 311Chnum XV

Sample

Chnum XVChojiro 459, 467

Sample

Chojiro 459, 467Chollo XVI

Sample

Chollo XVIChrysippos 190, 213

Sample

Chrysippos 190, 213Cincelli 199

Sample

Cincelli 199Cinnamus 199

Sample

Cinnamus 199Cirou 318

Sample

Cirou 318Cnaeus Ateius 194, 199

Sample

Cnaeus Ateius 194, 199Coelus 199, 200

Sample

Coelus 199, 200Columbus 305

Sample

Columbus 305

page

sChambrette II 255, 267, 269pa

ges

Chambrette II 255, 267, 269

de Soubise 326, 328

page

sde Soubise 326, 328de Tournon 296

page

sde Tournon 296Defoe 365

page

sDefoe 365della Robbia 293, 294, 295,

page

sdella Robbia 293, 294, 295, 299, 300

page

s299, 300

della Rovere 302

page

sdella Rovere 302Demeter 187

page

sDemeter 187Democritos 4

page

sDemocritos 4Dentes 290

page

sDentes 290Dickens 365

page

sDickens 365Dionysos 187page

sDionysos 187Dpage

sDpage

spa

ges

gen Zenji 466page

sgen Zenji 466

Dragendorff 209, 219, 224, 225page

sDragendorff 209, 219, 224, 225du Barry 315page

sdu Barry 315

eschweizerbart_xxx

548 Names index

Gravant 314, 315, 318, 320Green 263, 264Gryphius 215Guyon 328

Hades 183Hancock 356Harpestraeng 249Hatshepsut XVHeath 260Heket XVHellot 265, 315, 318, 320,

321Henckel 347Henri II 256, 257, 259Hera 4Hesiod 187Heuchler 124, 337Heylyn 355Hideyoshi Toyotomi 466, 467Hill 266Hofmann 420Homer 184, 186, 187Hongwu 426Hongxi 426, 443Höroldt 341, 347Hu Szu-hui 435Hummelberg 215Hunger 340, 341

Ibn Batuta 396ibn-Isa 282Intef VII 80

Jacoba 238Jiajing 426, 428Jingjian 417John Paul II 305Juok XVI

Kagemasa 466Kakiemon I 469Kakiemon XIV 470Kändler 347, 348Kangxi 428, 430, 431, 433, 469,

474Karl IX 258Karl XII 339Keats 365Kitchen god 435, 436, 437Köhler 346, 347Korfmann 84Kublai Khan 396, 440Kunckel 339

la Chapelle 326, 328Lamarck 8Laozi 434le Quieu 311le Vau 309Leszczynska 328Leszczynski 267, 275, 276Leukippos 4Libernus 199Libertus 199Liebig 339Lin Hong 435Lister 312Livia 56Louis XIV 309, 311, 313, 327,

441Louis XV 276, 314, 315, 317,

326, 327, 328, 329, 341Louis-Henri de Bourbon 314

Maestro Cencio 296Maestro Jacopo 290, 292Maestro Martino 301, 302,

303Mahalanobis 211, 243, 272Marcolini 340, 346, 347Marin 327Martino da Como 301Massaliot 327Mazois 266Mei Cheng 434Mengrai 439, 449Menna 155Mennicken 233Menon 327Mercato 199Mignon 265, 266Minyas 171Montagu 275Montanus 199Montereau 267Morin 312

Nabeshima Naoshige 472Nammu XVNarai 441Naresuan 441Needham 399Nestis 4Nicolà di Urbino 290, 291Nikander 188Nikias 186Nobunaga Oda 466Nonomura Ninsei 472

Ogata Kenzan 472Okuda Eisen 472Oribe 466, 467Orry 355Orry de Fulvy 314, 315

P. Cornelius 199Pabst von Ohain 338Palissy 255, 257, 258, 259, 270,

271Pan 187Pan Geng 404Paternus 199Paulus Aegineta 214Paxamos 213Peleus 181, 182Pellipario 290Pepys 365Persephone 183Pfefferkorn 40Phraya Chakri 441Phraya Taksin 441Piccolpasso V, 51, 208, 279,

295, 296, 299Pierfrancesco Medici 290Pintoricchio 294Platina 214, 300, 302, 303Pliny 214, 216Poisson 315, 329Polo V, 333, 395, 396, 397Poterat 309, 311, 318Prince de Condé 314Prometheus XVPutz 300

Qianlong 430, 431Qin Shi Huang 56Queen Charlotte 261

Rama I 441Rasinius Pisanus 199Rekh-mi-Re 155Respectus 199Révérend 311Ri Sam-p’young 468Ri Sampei 468Riario 302Richard II 248, 366Robinson 360Roger of Helmarshausen 103Rumpolt 246

Sacchi 302, 303Sadler 263, 264Sakaida 469

Sample

Jiajing 426, 428

Sample

Jiajing 426, 428Jingjian 417

Sample

Jingjian 417John Paul II 305

Sample

John Paul II 305Juok XVI

Sample

Juok XVI

Kagemasa 466Sample

Kagemasa 466Kakiemon I 469Sam

ple

Kakiemon I 469Kakiemon XIV 470Sam

ple

Kakiemon XIV 470Kändler 347, 348Sam

ple

Kändler 347, 348Kangxi 428, 430, 431, 433, 469,

Sample

Kangxi 428, 430, 431, 433, 469,

Mahalanobis 211, 243, 272

Sample

Mahalanobis 211, 243, 272Marcolini 340, 346, 347

Sample

Marcolini 340, 346, 347Marin 327

Sample

Marin 327Martino da Como 301

Sample

Martino da Como 301Massaliot 327

Sample

Massaliot 327Mazois 266

Sample

Mazois 266Mei Cheng 434

Sample

Mei Cheng 434Mengrai 439, 449

Sample

Mengrai 439, 449Menna 155

Sample

Menna 155Mennicken 233

Sample

Mennicken 233Menon 327

Sample

Menon 327Mercato 199

Sample

Mercato 199Mignon 265, 266

Sample

Mignon 265, 266Minyas 171

Sample

Minyas 171

page

sMaestro Jacopo 290, 292 pa

ges

Maestro Jacopo 290, 292Maestro Martino 301, 302, pa

ges

Maestro Martino 301, 302,

Mahalanobis 211, 243, 272page

sMahalanobis 211, 243, 272

Paulus Aegineta 214

page

sPaulus Aegineta 214Paxamos 213

page

sPaxamos 213Peleus 181, 182

page

sPeleus 181, 182Pellipario 290

page

sPellipario 290Pepys 365

page

sPepys 365Persephone 183

page

sPersephone 183Pfefferkorn 40

page

sPfefferkorn 40Phraya Chakri 441

page

sPhraya Chakri 441Phraya Taksin 441page

sPhraya Taksin 441Piccolpasso V, 51, 208, 279, page

sPiccolpasso V, 51, 208, 279,

295, 296, 299page

s295, 296, 299

Pierfrancesco Medici 290page

sPierfrancesco Medici 290

eschweizerbart_xxx

549Names index

Satto 199Saturninus 199Schliemann 171Schönburg-Waldenburg 236Schuberth 344Secundinus Aviti 99, 100Seneca 214Sen-no Riky 459, 465, 466Serrurier 265Shakespeare 368Shamshi-Adad 152, 153Shibuemon 469Shilluk XVISima Qian 434Sixtus IV 302Soderini 290Sollus 216Sonyu 459, 467Spode I 264, 355, 359Spode II 264, 359, 362Stöltzel 340, 341, 344Suleiman 397

Thackeray 365Thénard 142Theophilus Presbyter 103Thetis 181, 182

Thutmose III 58Thutmose IV 58Tiberius 195, 214Tigranus 194, 199Tithonus 181Titus 56Tōshirō 466Trevisan 301Trimalchio 215Trivulzio 302Tutankhamun 142Tydeus 178

Ulgi 150Ulysses 184

Vermeer 232Villette 337Vitalis 199Voltaire 267von Falke 242von Oppenheim 133, 134von Schönberg 338von Tschirnhaus 124, 312, 320,

333, 337, 338, 339, 342von Virmont 340

Wanli 426, 427, 428, 430, 473Wedgwood 15, 267Wedgwood I 255, 260, 261,

262, 264, 359Wedgwood II 360Whieldon 260, 261

Xanthus 199Xuande 426, 427, 428

Yi Yin 434Yongle 425Yongzheng 431, 474Yu Huang 436Yung Lo 425

Zaojun 435, 436Zeus XV, 4Zhang Lang 435Zheng He 443Zhengde 426, 427Zhengtong 426Zhou Wu Wang 404

Sample

von Tschirnhaus 124, 312, 320,

Sample

von Tschirnhaus 124, 312, 320, 333, 337, 338, 339, 342

Sample

333, 337, 338, 339, 342von Virmont

Sample

von Virmont 340

Sample

340 page

svon Oppenheim 133, 134 pa

ges

von Oppenheim 133, 134

von Tschirnhaus 124, 312, 320, page

svon Tschirnhaus 124, 312, 320,

333, 337, 338, 339, 342page

s333, 337, 338, 339, 342

Yongzheng 431, 474

page

sYongzheng 431, 474Yu Huang 436

page

sYu Huang 436Yung Lo 425

page

sYung Lo 425

Zaojun 435, 436

page

sZaojun 435, 436Zeus XV, 4

page

sZeus XV, 4Zhang Lang 435

page

sZhang Lang 435Zheng He 443

page

sZheng He 443Zhengde 426, 427

page

sZhengde 426, 427Zhengtong 426page

sZhengtong 426Zhou Wu Wang 404page

sZhou Wu Wang 404

eschweizerbart_xxx

A fine supper at the Château de Choisy-le-Roi 329

Aepffel-Kräpfflein 353Ain Bubenpfulben 252Amursânu (Wild pigeon in broth)

151Aper in furno coctum (Wild boar

ancient Roman style) 218Ashshuriâtum shirum (Boiled

lamb ‘Shamshi-Adad’) 152Ashshuriâtum shirum (Meat

Assyrian style) 151Asparagus à la Pompadour 330

Blamensir 251Blancmange 248

Ein gůt salse (Swallenberg’s salse) 254

Elgi (Egyptian sweet based on beer and flour) 156

Fennel soup 305Filets of lamb in puff pastry 307

Gastris (Greek honey-nut-poppy squares) 190

Greek ‘fig leaf’ 188Greek kid goat, lamb or chicken

in broth 188Greek stuffed kid or lamb 189

Hoy Lai Prig Phao (Stir-fried clams in roasted chilli paste) 455

Ishikari nabe (Salmon hot pot) 478

Kamo-nanban soba (Soba with duck and spring onions) 477

Melon salad with shrimps 306Mirsu (Traditional cake) 150

Oxtail in parsley sauce 351

Pineapple with caramel sauce and vanilla ice cream 308

Pla Chorn Yang Sep (North-east-ern roasted serpent head fish) 454

Pollo all’agresto 304Pompadour-style sole fillets 331

Porcellum oenococtum (Suckling pig ancient Roman style) 223

Pullum frontonianum (Chicken ancient Roman style) 220

Quails with grapes 369

Rum Baba 278

Shepherd’s pie 368Soufflé Pompadour 332

Tarru (Fowl stew) 154The classic sandwich 277To bake a buttock piece of beef

367To stew a rump of beef 367To stew mutton or veal in broth

368

White cabbage with grapes 308

Recipe index

Sample

Filets of lamb in puff pastry 307

Sample

Filets of lamb in puff pastry 307

Gastris (Greek honey-nut-poppy

Sample

Gastris (Greek honey-nut-poppy


Sample


Pineapple with caramel sauce

Sample

Pineapple with caramel sauce and vanilla ice cream 308

Sample

and vanilla ice cream 308

Pla Chorn Yang Sep (North-east-

Sample

Pla Chorn Yang Sep (North-east-

ern roasted serpent head fish)

Sample

ern roasted serpent head fish) 454

Sample

454

Pollo all’agresto 304

Sample

Pollo all’agresto 304Pompadour-style sole fillets 331

Sample

Pompadour-style sole fillets 331

page

sancient Roman style) 220

page

sancient Roman style) 220

Quails with grapes 369

page

sQuails with grapes 369

Rum Baba 278

page

sRum Baba 278

page

sduck and spring onions) 477

page

sduck and spring onions) 477

Melon salad with shrimps 306page

sMelon salad with shrimps 306Mirsu (Traditional cake) 150pa

ges

Mirsu (Traditional cake) 150

Oxtail in parsley sauce 351page

sOxtail in parsley sauce 351

Shepherd’s pie 368

page

sShepherd’s pie 368Soufflé Pompadour 332

page

sSoufflé Pompadour 332

Tarru (Fowl stew) 154

page

sTarru (Fowl stew) 154The classic sandwich 277

page

sThe classic sandwich 277To bake a buttock piece of beef

page

sTo bake a buttock piece of beef

367page

s367

To stew a rump of beef 367page

sTo stew a rump of beef 367To stew mutton or veal in broth page

sTo stew mutton or veal in broth

eschweizerbart_xxx

Robert B. Heimann • Marino Maggetti

Ancient and Historical CeramicsMaterials, Technology, Art, and Culinary Traditions

ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7www.schweizerbart.de

By stressing the congruence between cooking ceramics and tableware, and food and its consumption, this book offers a completely new view on ceramic science. It provides an interdisciplinary approach by linking ceramic science and engineering, archaeology, art history, and lifestyle. The selection of cera-mic objects by the authors has been guided by historical signi� cance, techno-logical interest, aesthetic appeal, and mastery of craftsmanship.

Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their techno-logy, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned by ancient mas-ter potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from Near Eastern pottery to the Meissen porcelain wonders, from the Greek black-on-red and the Minoan Crete masterpieces to British bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to the celadon stoneware and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and ancient Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups are juxtaposed with food preparations that likely may have been cooked in and served on these ceramic objects in the distant past. As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a unique cook-book.

This generously illustrated book with hundreds of colour photographs and � gu-res not only addresses professionals and students of archaeology, art history, and archaeometry working at all levels but anybody fascinated by historical ceramics, ceramic materials and production techniques of ancient ceramics.

9 783510 652907

Sample

logical interest, aesthetic appeal, and mastery of craftsmanship.

Sample


Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their techno-

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Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their techno-logy, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned by ancient mas-

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logy, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned by ancient mas-ter potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from Near Eastern pottery to

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ter potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from Near Eastern pottery to the Meissen porcelain wonders, from the Greek black-on-red and the Minoan

Sample

the Meissen porcelain wonders, from the Greek black-on-red and the Minoan Crete masterpieces to British bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to

Sample

Crete masterpieces to British bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to the celadon stoneware and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and

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the celadon stoneware and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and ancient Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups

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ancient Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups are juxtaposed with food preparations that likely may have been cooked in and

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are juxtaposed with food preparations that likely may have been cooked in and

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served on these ceramic objects in the distant past.

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served on these ceramic objects in the distant past. As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a unique cook-

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As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a unique cook-book. Sam

ple

book.

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This generously illustrated book with hundreds of colour photographs and � gu-Sample

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and archaeometry working at all levels but anybody fascinated by historical

page

sBy stressing the congruence between cooking ceramics and tableware, and

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sfood and its consumption, this book offers a completely new view on ceramic science. It provides an interdisciplinary approach by linking ceramic science

page

sscience. It provides an interdisciplinary approach by linking ceramic science and engineering, archaeology, art history, and lifestyle. The selection of cera-

page

sand engineering, archaeology, art history, and lifestyle. The selection of cera-mic objects by the authors has been guided by historical signi� cance, techno-pa

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mic objects by the authors has been guided by historical signi� cance, techno-logical interest, aesthetic appeal, and mastery of craftsmanship. pa

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Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their techno-page

sReaders are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their techno-pa

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eschweizerbart_xxx

Schweizerbart Science Publishers Johannesstr. 3A, 70176 Stuttgart, Germany., Tel. +49 (0)711 351456-0, Fax: +49 (0)711 351456-99, [email protected], www.schweizerbart.deE

Robert B. Heimann & Marino Maggetti

Ancient and Historical CeramicsMaterials, Technology, Art, and Culinary Traditions

2014. XXII, 550 pp., 303 mostly coloured figures, 47 tables, paperback, 24 x 17 cm.

ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7 € 79,–Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907

By stressing the congruence between cooking ceramics and tableware, and food and its consumption, this book offers a completely new view on ceramic science. It provides an interdisciplinary approach by linking ceramic science and engineering, archaeology, art history, and lifestyle. The selection of ceramic objects by the authors has been guided by historical significance, technological interest, aesthetic appeal, and mastery of craftsmanship.

Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their technology, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned by ancient master potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from Near Eastern pottery to the Meissen porcelain wonders, from the Greek black-on-red and the Minoan Crete masterpieces to British bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to the celadon stonewa-re and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and ancient Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups are juxtaposed with food preparations that likely may have been cooked in and served on these ceramic objects in the distant past. As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a unique cook book.

This generously illustrated book with hundreds of colour photographs and figures not only addresses professionals and students of archaeology, art history, and archaeometry working at all levels but anybody fascinated by historical ceramics, ceramic materials and production techniques of ancient ceramics.

E Ceramics, Archeology

sample pages

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Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their

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Readers are being acquainted with the science of ceramics and their technology, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned

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technology, and with the artistry of ceramic masterpieces fashioned by ancient master potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from

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by ancient master potters. Ceramics treated in this book range from Near Eastern pottery to the Meissen porcelain wonders, from the

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Near Eastern pottery to the Meissen porcelain wonders, from the Greek black-on-red and the Minoan Crete masterpieces to British

Sample

Greek black-on-red and the Minoan Crete masterpieces to British bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to the celadon stonewa-

Sample

bone china, and from Roman Terra Sigillata to the celadon stonewa-re and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and ancient

Sample

re and porcelain produced in the kilns of China, Japan and ancient Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups

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Siam. Ancient and historical ceramic plates, pots, beakers and cups are juxtaposed with food preparations that likely may have been Sam

ple

are juxtaposed with food preparations that likely may have been cooked in and served on these ceramic objects in the distant past. Sam

ple

cooked in and served on these ceramic objects in the distant past. As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a Sam

ple

As it also presents ancient recipes, this book will also serve as a Sample

Sample

page

s2014. XXII, 550 pp., 303 mostly coloured figures, 47 tables,

page

s2014. XXII, 550 pp., 303 mostly coloured figures, 47 tables,

ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7 € 79,–

page

sISBN 978-3-510-65290-7 € 79,–Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907

page

sInformation on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652907

page

spa

ges

page

s

eschweizerbart_xxx

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VAcknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . VIITable of Contents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IXExordium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . XV

Part I Fundamentals1 The nature of ceramics . . . . . . . . 11.1 Materials and technological evolution

of societies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Ancient roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.3 Holistic and prescriptive technologies . . 51.4 Ceramics and their production environ-

ment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81.5 Ceramics and cooking . . . . . . . . . . 101.6 Ceramics as subject of archaeometry . . 112 Classification and properties of ce-

ramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122.1 Classification and types of ceramics . . . 122.2 Definitions of common ceramic types . . 132.3 Properties and functions of ceramic

cooking pots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 Clay raw materials: origin, composi-

tion, and properties . . . . . . . . . . 223.1 Types of raw materials . . . . . . . . . . 223.2 The formation of clay minerals . . . . . . 233.3 Nomenclature and structure of clay mi-

nerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253.4 Mineralogy of clay minerals relevant for

pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283.5 Clay-water interactions . . . . . . . . . 314 Processing of clay, and forming and

finishing of pottery . . . . . . . . . . . 374.1 The operational sequence of making

ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374.2 Preparation of clay . . . . . . . . . . . . 374.3 Forming of ceramic green bodies . . . . 394.4 Drying of green pottery . . . . . . . . . 474.5 Glazes and glazing . . . . . . . . . . . 484.6 Post-firing painting . . . . . . . . . . . . 555 Ceramic phase diagrams . . . . . . . 595.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595.2 Anatomy of three-component (ternary)

phase diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . 605.3 Selected model ceramic phase diagrams 656 Materials science of ceramics . . . . . 706.1 Ceramics as man-made ‘rocks’ . . . . . 706.2 Firing temperature vs. state of sintering . 716.3 Thermal transformations in kaolinitic

clays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736.4 Thermal transformations in illitic clays . . 766.5 Thermal transformations in phosphatic

ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956.6 Densification during firing . . . . . . . . 976.7 Determination of firing temperatures . . . 997 Pottery kilns and firing technology 1037.1 Pottery firing structures and devices . . 1037.2 Fuel consumption and production eco-

nomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126


8 Ancient Near Eastern wares . . . . . 1298.1 Neolithic cultures in the Near East . . . 1298.2 Mesopotamia . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1318.3 Anatolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1358.4 Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1378.5 Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1448.6 Hidden messages from Neolithic coo-

king pots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1499 Aegean Neolithic, Bronze and Iron

Age pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1579.1 Setting the stage . . . . . . . . . . . . 1579.2 Neolithic to Bronze Age Thessalian pot-

tery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1599.3 Cretan pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1649.4 Bronze Age (Helladic) pottery . . . . . 1709.5 Iron Age Greek wares . . . . . . . . . 1769.6 Culinary traditions: Greek delicacies

revealed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18410 Roman earthenware . . . . . . . . . 19210.1 Historical development . . . . . . . . . 19210.2 Italian and Provincial Roman Terra Si-

gillata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19410.3 Manufacturing technique . . . . . . . . 19810.4 Materials science of Terra Sigillata . . . 20310.5 A Roman Terra Sigillata workshop in

Tabernae, 2nd century CE . . . . . . . 20610.6 What distinguishes a mould from the

Terra Sigillata pottery? . . . . . . . . . 20910.7 The Roman gourmet Apicius and his

legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21311 Medieval and early modern German

stoneware . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22711.1 Unglazed Carolingian earthenware:

Badorf, Mayen, Pingsdorf . . . . . . . 22711.2 Rhenish stoneware: Siegburg, Fre-

chen, Cologne, Westerwald, Raeren . 22911.3 Saxon stoneware . . . . . . . . . . . 23611.4 Bunzlau stoneware . . . . . . . . . . 24411.5 Of late medieval broth and mush . . . 24512 English and French white earthen-

ware (creamware, faïence fine) . . . 25512.1 French Renaissance precursors . . . . 25512.2 English white earthenware (creamware) 25912.3 French white earthenware (faïence fine) 26512.4 Scientific analyses of English and

French white earthenware . . . . . . . 27012.5 Fast food and sweet cake . . . . . . . 27513 Tin-glazed ceramics from the Near

East and Italy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27913.1 Technological background . . . . . . . 27913.2 The beginnings of the tin-glaze tech-

nique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28213.3 The spreading of tin-glaze technology

in Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28813.4 Italian maiolica . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28913.5 Renaissance gastronomy . . . . . . . 300

14 French soft-paste porcelain . . . . . 30914.1 A short history of selected French ma-

nufactures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30914.2 Technology of French soft-paste porce-

lain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31814.3 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32614.4 The ‘plaisirs de table’ of Louis XV and

his favourite, Marquise de Pompadour 32615 The first European hard-paste por-

celain: Meissen . . . . . . . . . . . . 33315.1 Historical beginnings . . . . . . . . .

33315.2 The invention of European porcelain at

Meissen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33615.3 Material basis and technology of Bött-

ger stoneware . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34115.4 Development of porcelain microstruc-

ture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34815.5 From the royal table of Augustus the

Strong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35116 English bone china . . . . . . . . . . 35416.1 Early developments . . . . . . . . . . 35416.2 Forerunners of bone china . . . . . . . 35716.3 The invention of bone china . . . . . . 35916.4 Microstructure of bone china . . . . . . 36216.5 Staffordshire potter’s favourite dishes . 36517 Prehistoric New World pottery . . . 37117.1 South American pottery . . . . . . . . 37117.2 Central American pottery . . . . . . . 37417.3 South-western United States . . . . . 37717.4 Mississippian culture . . . . . . . . . . 37917.5 Native cuisine of the Americas . . . . . 39318 Chinese pottery: From earthenware

to stoneware to porcelain . . . . . . 39518.1 The European perspective . . . . . . . 39518.2 Chinese history and pottery . . . . . . 39818.3 Neolithic earthenware ceramics . . . . 40118.4 Earthenware and stoneware of the Xia

and Shang dynasties . . . . . . . . . 40318.5 Chinese proto-porcelain . . . . . . . . 40718.6 True Chinese porcelain . . . . . . . . 41118.7 Ancient Chinese cookery: a feast of

plenty, perfectly balanced . . . . . . . 43319 Thai ceramics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43919.1 Historical account . . . . . . . . . . . 44019.2 Neolithic pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . 44119.3 High-fired glazed stoneware . . . . . . 44219.4 Northern Thai (Lan Na) kilns . . . . . . 44919.5 Ancient Thai cuisine . . . . . . . . . . 45220 Japanese ceramics . . . . . . . . . . 45720.1 A philosophy of natural aesthetics . . . 45720.2 Jōmōn, Yayoi and Kofun (Yamato) pot-

tery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46020.3 Asuka, Nara and Heian periods . . . . 46320.4 Kamakura and Muromachi period . . . 46420.5 Momoyama wares . . . . . . . . . . . 46620.6 Edo period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46820.7 Ancient Japanese cooking: what Sa-

murai and Sumōtori enjoyed . . . . . . 475

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 481Ceramic index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537Location index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542Names index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547Recipe index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550

Table of Contents

R.B. Heimann & M. Maggetti: Ancient and Historical Ceramics

Sample

nerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

Sample

nerals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Sample

pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

3.5 Clay-water interactions . . . . . . . . . 31

Sample

3.5 Clay-water interactions . . . . . . . . . 314 Processing of clay, and forming and

Sample

4 Processing of clay, and forming and

. . . . . . . . . . .

Sample

. . . . . . . . . . . 37

Sample

37

4.1 The operational sequence of making

Sample

4.1 The operational sequence of making

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .Sample

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Sample

374.2 Preparation of clay . . . . . . . . . . . . 37Sam

ple

4.2 Preparation of clay . . . . . . . . . . . . 374.3 Forming of ceramic green bodies . . . . 39Sam

ple

4.3 Forming of ceramic green bodies . . . . 394.4 Drying of green pottery . . . . . . . . . 47Sam

ple

4.4 Drying of green pottery . . . . . . . . . 474.5 Glazes and glazing . . . . . . . . . . . 48Sam

ple

4.5 Glazes and glazing . . . . . . . . . . . 484.6 Post-firing painting . . . . . . . . . . . . 55Sam

ple

4.6 Post-firing painting . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

9.6 Culinary traditions: Greek delicacies

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9.6 Culinary traditions: Greek delicacies revealed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184

Sample

revealed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18410 Roman earthenware . . . . . . . . . 192

Sample

10 Roman earthenware . . . . . . . . . 19210.1 Historical development . . . . . . . . . 192

Sample

10.1 Historical development . . . . . . . . . 192Italian and Provincial Roman Terra Si-

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Italian and Provincial Roman Terra Si-gillata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

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gillata . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194

10.3 Manufacturing technique . . . . . . . . 198

Sample

10.3 Manufacturing technique . . . . . . . . 19810.4 Materials science of Terra Sigillata . . . 203

Sample

10.4 Materials science of Terra Sigillata . . . 20310.5 A Roman Terra Sigillata workshop in

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10.5 A Roman Terra Sigillata workshop in

Tabernae, 2

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Tabernae, 2nd

Sample

nd century CE . . . . . . . 206

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century CE . . . . . . . 206

10.6 What distinguishes a mould from the

Sample

10.6 What distinguishes a mould from the

Terra Sigillata pottery? . . . . . . . . . 209

Sample

Terra Sigillata pottery? . . . . . . . . . 209

10.7 The Roman gourmet Apicius and his

Sample

10.7 The Roman gourmet Apicius and his

legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

Sample

legacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213

11 Medieval and early modern German

Sample

11 Medieval and early modern German

11.1 Unglazed Carolingian earthenware: Sample

11.1 Unglazed Carolingian earthenware:

page

s 157

page

s 157

Setting the stage . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

page

sSetting the stage . . . . . . . . . . . . 157Neolithic to Bronze Age Thessalian pot-

page

sNeolithic to Bronze Age Thessalian pot-tery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

page

stery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

9.3 Cretan pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164

page

s9.3 Cretan pottery . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1649.4 Bronze Age (Helladic) pottery . . . . . 170pa

ges

9.4 Bronze Age (Helladic) pottery . . . . . 1709.5 Iron Age Greek wares . . . . . . . . . 176pa

ges

9.5 Iron Age Greek wares . . . . . . . . . 1769.6 Culinary traditions: Greek delicacies pa

ges

9.6 Culinary traditions: Greek delicacies revealed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184pa

ges

revealed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18410 Roman earthenware . . . . . . . . . 192pa

ges

10 Roman earthenware . . . . . . . . . 192

The invention of European porcelain at

page

s The invention of European porcelain at Meissen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336

page

sMeissen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33615.3 Material basis and technology of Bött-

page

s15.3 Material basis and technology of Bött-ger stoneware . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341

page

sger stoneware . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34115.4 Development of porcelain microstruc-

page

s15.4 Development of porcelain microstruc-ture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

page

sture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348

15.5 From the royal table of Augustus the

page

s15.5 From the royal table of Augustus the

Strong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

page

sStrong . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351

16 English bone china . . . . . . . . . . 354

page

s16 English bone china . . . . . . . . . . 35416.1 Early developments . . . . . . . . . . 354

page

s16.1 Early developments . . . . . . . . . . 35416.2

page

s16.2 Forerunners of bone china

page

sForerunners of bone china

16.3 The invention of bone china . . . . . . 359page

s16.3 The invention of bone china . . . . . . 35916.4 Microstructure of bone china . . . . . . 362page

s16.4 Microstructure of bone china . . . . . . 362

eschweizerbart_xxx

Selected titles on Archeology (in German language)

Walter Noll

Alte Keramiken und ihre Pigmente Studien zu Material und Technologie

1991. VI, 334 Seiten, 88 Abbildungen, 26 Tabellen, broschiert, 17 x 24 cm.

ISBN 978-3-510-65145-0 € 39.80Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510651450Mit modernsten Methoden hat der Autor W. Noll die Herstellungsverfahren alter Keramiken untersucht. Er benutzte dazu die zerstörungsfreie chemische und mineralogische Analyse mit Hilfe der Röntgenfluoreszenz und des Rasterelekt-ronenmikroskops.Der Verfasser verstand es, seine reichen beruflichen Erfahrungen und seine Neigungen zu kultur- und kunstgeschichtlichen Betrachtungen erfolgreich zu verknüpfen. Seine Aktivitäten in den letzen Jahrzehnten galten bevorzugt den

keramischen Objekten der alten Kulturzentren Ägyptens, Griechenlands, der Inselwelt des Mittelmeeres sowie der heutigen Türkei und des Irans.Die konsequente Anwendung der neuen Analyseverfahren erbrachte eine Fülle neuer, gesicherter Daten zur histo-rischen Entwicklung der Herstellungsverfahren, der Herkunft der Rohmaterialien und insbesondere auch über die Farbgebung dieser Scherben.Walter Noll hat die keramischen Objekte als technikgeschichtliches Dokument betrachtet und für die Historiker viele interessante Zusammenhänge aufgezeigt. Dieses einzigartige Buch ist von großer Bedeutung für die Zusammenar-beit zwischen Archäologen und Naturwissenschaftlern, eine junge, als Archäometrie bezeichnete Forschungsrich-tung. Walter Noll hatte das Manuskript zu seinem Buch kurz vor seinem Tod im Herbst 1987 fast abgeschlossen. Freunde und Kollegen gaben dem Text den letzten Schliff.Interessenten: Chemiker, Mineralogen, Physiker, Materialkundler, Archäologen, Historiker, Völkerkundler, Wissen-schaftliche und Allgemeine Bibliotheken

Karl Hans Wedepohl

Glas in Antike und MittelalterGeschichte eines Werkstoffes

2003. X, 227 Seiten, 45 Abbildungen, 29 Tabellen, 32 Farbbilder, broschiert, 17 x 24 cm.

ISBN 978-3-510-65207-5 € 39.80Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652075Dieses Buch bietet den Archäologen, Historikern und einschlägig interessierten Naturwissenschaftlern eine ausführliche Zusammenfassung über die Rohstoffe, Zusammensetzung, Herstellung und Nutzung von Gläsern, die für viele Kulturen und Regionen von der Antike bis zum Mittelalter charakteristisch sind.Glas wurde erstmals vor rund 3500 Jahren in der Bronzezeit hergestellt und war zunächst ein kostbares Gut. In Ägypten wurde es für Schmuck zur Imitation von Edelsteinen und für bunte Gefäße verwendet. Die Römer schufen daraus Vorrats- und Tafelgeschirr, aber auch prächtige Behälter. Im Mittelalter waren die meist farbigen Kirchen-fenster Teile der Architektur. Gut erhaltene zeittypische Gefäße und Fenster werden in beispielhaften Farbabbildun-gen gezeigt.In jeder Epoche, im antiken Mesopotamien und Ägypten, in Persien, dem römischen Reich und Byzanz, in der Zeit der Karolinger und im hohen wie späten Mittelalter wurden langzeitig tradierte Methoden und zeittypische Aus-gangsstoffe wie Quarzsand, Soda und Pflanzenasche für die Glasherstellung benutzt; auch darüber gibt das Buch einen guten Überblick.Der Autor hat in 28, teils mehrseitigen Tabellen Analysen alter Gläser aus der Literatur und eigenen Untersuchun-gen zusammengetragen, die heute fast zerstörungsfrei erstellt werden können. Aus der chemischen Zusammenset-zung eines Glasbruchstücks, das meist aus archäologischen Grabungen stammt, kann bei günstigen Bedingungen die Region und die Epoche abgelesen werden, in der dieses Glas entstand. So kann der Kulturgeschichtler daraus oft erstaunliche Handelswege ableiten.

Sample

tung. Walter Noll hatte das Manuskript zu seinem Buch kurz vor seinem Tod im Herbst 1987 fast abgeschlossen.

Sample

tung. Walter Noll hatte das Manuskript zu seinem Buch kurz vor seinem Tod im Herbst 1987 fast abgeschlossen. Freunde und Kollegen gaben dem Text den letzten Schliff.

Sample

Freunde und Kollegen gaben dem Text den letzten Schliff.Interessenten: Chemiker, Mineralogen, Physiker, Materialkundler, Archäologen, Historiker, Völkerkundler, Wissen-

Sample

Interessenten: Chemiker, Mineralogen, Physiker, Materialkundler, Archäologen, Historiker, Völkerkundler, Wissen-

Sample

Glas in Antike und Mittelalter

Sample

Glas in Antike und Mittelalter

Sample

Geschichte eines Werkstoffes

Sample

Geschichte eines Werkstoffes


Sample


ISBN 978-3-510-65207-5 Sample

ISBN 978-3-510-65207-5 € 39.80Sample

€ 39.80Sample

Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652075Sample

Information on this title: www.schweizerbart.com/9783510652075Dieses Buch bietet den Archäologen, Historikern und einschlägig interessierten Sam

ple

Dieses Buch bietet den Archäologen, Historikern und einschlägig interessierten Naturwissenschaftlern eine ausführliche Zusammenfassung über die Rohstoffe,

Sample

Naturwissenschaftlern eine ausführliche Zusammenfassung über die Rohstoffe,

page

sDer Verfasser verstand es, seine reichen beruflichen Erfahrungen und seine

page

sDer Verfasser verstand es, seine reichen beruflichen Erfahrungen und seine Neigungen zu kultur- und kunstgeschichtlichen Betrachtungen erfolgreich zu

page

sNeigungen zu kultur- und kunstgeschichtlichen Betrachtungen erfolgreich zu verknüpfen. Seine Aktivitäten in den letzen Jahrzehnten galten bevorzugt den

page

sverknüpfen. Seine Aktivitäten in den letzen Jahrzehnten galten bevorzugt den keramischen Objekten der alten Kulturzentren Ägyptens, Griechenlands, der Inselwelt des Mittelmeeres sowie der

page

skeramischen Objekten der alten Kulturzentren Ägyptens, Griechenlands, der Inselwelt des Mittelmeeres sowie der

Die konsequente Anwendung der neuen Analyseverfahren erbrachte eine Fülle neuer, gesicherter Daten zur histo-

page

sDie konsequente Anwendung der neuen Analyseverfahren erbrachte eine Fülle neuer, gesicherter Daten zur histo-rischen Entwicklung der Herstellungsverfahren, der Herkunft der Rohmaterialien und insbesondere auch über die

page

srischen Entwicklung der Herstellungsverfahren, der Herkunft der Rohmaterialien und insbesondere auch über die

Walter Noll hat die keramischen Objekte als technikgeschichtliches Dokument betrachtet und für die Historiker viele

page

sWalter Noll hat die keramischen Objekte als technikgeschichtliches Dokument betrachtet und für die Historiker viele interessante Zusammenhänge aufgezeigt. Dieses einzigartige Buch ist von großer Bedeutung für die Zusammenar-pa

ges

interessante Zusammenhänge aufgezeigt. Dieses einzigartige Buch ist von großer Bedeutung für die Zusammenar-beit zwischen Archäologen und Naturwissenschaftlern, eine junge, als Archäometrie bezeichnete Forschungsrich-pa

ges

beit zwischen Archäologen und Naturwissenschaftlern, eine junge, als Archäometrie bezeichnete Forschungsrich-tung. Walter Noll hatte das Manuskript zu seinem Buch kurz vor seinem Tod im Herbst 1987 fast abgeschlossen. pa

ges

tung. Walter Noll hatte das Manuskript zu seinem Buch kurz vor seinem Tod im Herbst 1987 fast abgeschlossen.

Interessenten: Chemiker, Mineralogen, Physiker, Materialkundler, Archäologen, Historiker, Völkerkundler, Wissen-pa

ges

Interessenten: Chemiker, Mineralogen, Physiker, Materialkundler, Archäologen, Historiker, Völkerkundler, Wissen-

eschweizerbart_xxx

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____ Ex. R.B. Heimann & M. Maggetti, Ancient and Historical Ceramics, ISBN 978-3-510-65290-7____ Ex. W. Noll, Alte Keramiken und ihre Pigmente, ISBN 978-3-510-65145-0____ Ex. K.H. Wedepohl, Glas in Antike und Mittelalter, ISBN 978-3-510-65207-5____ Ex. A. Hauptmann, Archäometrie, ISBN 978-3-510-65232-7Name: Address:

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Selected titles on Archeology (in German language)

Andreas Hauptmann, Volker Pingel (Hrsg.)

ArchäometrieMethoden und Anwendungsbeispiele naturwissenschaftlicher Verfahren in der Archäologie

2008. 264 Seiten, 138 Abbildungen, 7 Tabellen, 16 Farbtafeln, gebunden, 18 x 25 cm.

ISBN 978-3-510-65232-7 € 49.80Weitere Informationen zu diesem Titel: www.schweizerbart.de/9783510652327

Die moderne Archäologie hat sich in ihrem methodischen Ansatz rasant weiterentwickelt und bedient sich heute in zunehmendem Maße naturwissenschaftlicher Methoden, um kulturhistorische Fragestellungen und Probleme zu lösen. Es gibt heute kaum noch archäologische Grabungen, an denen keine Naturwissenschaftler anderer Diszip-linen mitarbeiten.In 13 Beiträgen beschreiben Fachleute der verschiedensten naturwissenschaftlichen Fachrichtungen, auf welche Weise Methoden und Konzepte (z.B. der Anthropologie, Biologie, Chemie, der Geowissenschaften und der Physik) Beiträge zur Beantwortung archäologischer und historischer Fragen leisten können. Es werden Verfahren zur Un-tersuchung archäologischer Funde organischer und anorganischer Zusammensetzung vorgestellt. Antiken Land-schaftsveränderungen durch den Menschen wird z.B. mit Methoden der Geoarchäologie nachgespürt.Mehrere Beiträge befassen sich mit der Bedeutung und Anwendung radiometrischer Datierungsverfahren in der Altertumsforschung. Auch Prospektionsmethoden, die in der Archäologie besondere Bedeutung erlangt haben, werden besprochen. Anwendungsbeispiele, u.a. aus der Luftbildarchäologie und der Geophysik illustrieren den praktischen Einsatz der vorgestellten Methoden.Dieses Buch soll Forschern und Studierenden sowie allen an der archäologischen Forschung Interessierten die notwendigen Grundlagen der Archäometrie nahe bringen.

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zunehmendem Maße naturwissenschaftlicher Methoden, um kulturhistorische Fragestellungen und Probleme zu

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zunehmendem Maße naturwissenschaftlicher Methoden, um kulturhistorische Fragestellungen und Probleme zu lösen. Es gibt heute kaum noch archäologische Grabungen, an denen keine Naturwissenschaftler anderer Diszip-

Sample

lösen. Es gibt heute kaum noch archäologische Grabungen, an denen keine Naturwissenschaftler anderer Diszip-

In 13 Beiträgen beschreiben Fachleute der verschiedensten naturwissenschaftlichen Fachrichtungen, auf welche

Sample

In 13 Beiträgen beschreiben Fachleute der verschiedensten naturwissenschaftlichen Fachrichtungen, auf welche Weise Methoden und Konzepte (z.B. der Anthropologie, Biologie, Chemie, der Geowissenschaften und der Physik)

Sample

Weise Methoden und Konzepte (z.B. der Anthropologie, Biologie, Chemie, der Geowissenschaften und der Physik) Beiträge zur Beantwortung archäologischer und historischer Fragen leisten können. Es werden Verfahren zur Un-

Sample

Beiträge zur Beantwortung archäologischer und historischer Fragen leisten können. Es werden Verfahren zur Un-tersuchung archäologischer Funde organischer und anorganischer Zusammensetzung vorgestellt. Antiken Land-

Sample

tersuchung archäologischer Funde organischer und anorganischer Zusammensetzung vorgestellt. Antiken Land-schaftsveränderungen durch den Menschen wird z.B. mit Methoden der Geoarchäologie nachgespürt.

Sample

schaftsveränderungen durch den Menschen wird z.B. mit Methoden der Geoarchäologie nachgespürt.Mehrere Beiträge befassen sich mit der Bedeutung und Anwendung radiometrischer Datierungsverfahren in der

Sample

Mehrere Beiträge befassen sich mit der Bedeutung und Anwendung radiometrischer Datierungsverfahren in der

Sample

Altertumsforschung. Auch Prospektionsmethoden, die in der Archäologie besondere Bedeutung erlangt haben,

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Altertumsforschung. Auch Prospektionsmethoden, die in der Archäologie besondere Bedeutung erlangt haben, werden besprochen. Anwendungsbeispiele, u.a. aus der Luftbildarchäologie und der Geophysik illustrieren den

Sample

werden besprochen. Anwendungsbeispiele, u.a. aus der Luftbildarchäologie und der Geophysik illustrieren den praktischen Einsatz der vorgestellten Methoden.

Sample

praktischen Einsatz der vorgestellten Methoden.Dieses Buch soll Forschern und Studierenden sowie allen an der archäologischen Forschung Interessierten die

Sample

Dieses Buch soll Forschern und Studierenden sowie allen an der archäologischen Forschung Interessierten die

Sample

Sample

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notwendigen Grundlagen der Archäometrie nahe bringen.

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notwendigen Grundlagen der Archäometrie nahe bringen.

page

s2008. 264 Seiten, 138 Abbildungen, 7 Tabellen, 16 Farbtafeln, gebunden, 18 x 25 cm.

page

s2008. 264 Seiten, 138 Abbildungen, 7 Tabellen, 16 Farbtafeln, gebunden, 18 x 25 cm.

€ 49.80

page

s€ 49.80Weitere Informationen zu diesem Titel: www.schweizerbart.de/9783510652327

page

sWeitere Informationen zu diesem Titel: www.schweizerbart.de/9783510652327

Die moderne Archäologie hat sich in ihrem methodischen Ansatz rasant weiterentwickelt und bedient sich heute in page

sDie moderne Archäologie hat sich in ihrem methodischen Ansatz rasant weiterentwickelt und bedient sich heute in zunehmendem Maße naturwissenschaftlicher Methoden, um kulturhistorische Fragestellungen und Probleme zu pa

ges

zunehmendem Maße naturwissenschaftlicher Methoden, um kulturhistorische Fragestellungen und Probleme zu lösen. Es gibt heute kaum noch archäologische Grabungen, an denen keine Naturwissenschaftler anderer Diszip-pa

ges

lösen. Es gibt heute kaum noch archäologische Grabungen, an denen keine Naturwissenschaftler anderer Diszip-

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Robert B. Heimann Marino Maggetti Ancient and Historical

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