vikal
A
PROJECT REPORT ON
STUDY AND FABRICATION
OF
FLEXIBLE ROAD DIVIDERSUBMITTED BY
------------
---------
----------------
---------------
---------------
PROJECT GUIDE
PROF. --------------------
H.O.D.
PRINCIPAL
PROF.------------
SHRI.------------------
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.-----------------
-----------200----200---
---------------------------------
200----200---
C E R T I F I C A T E
Certified that this Report submitted by Shri/Kum
-------------------- Roll/Seat No. ----------------------------a
student of FINAL YEAR of the course in ---- IN MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING as a part of Seminar / Project work as prescribed by
the Board of Technical Examination for the subject
-------------------------------- And that I have instructed/guided
him for the said work from time to time and I found him to be
satisfactorily progressive; And that following students were
associated with him for his work. However his Contribution was
proportionate :1. --------------------------------
4.-------------------------
2.---------------------------------
5.-------------------------
3.---------------------------------
And that the said work has been assessed by me and I am
satisfied that the same is upto the standard envisaged for the
level of the course. And that the said work may be promoted to the
External Examiner.
[NAME OF GUIDE & SIGN] [NAME OF H.O.D & SIGN] [NAME OF
PRINCIPAL & SIGN]
DATE----------------- DATE--------------------
DATE------------------------------ --------------------------- ( --
)
200-----200--------
S U B M I S S I O N
I, ( Full Name) Shri /Kum -----------------------Roll/ Seat
No.-------------------- a student of FINAL YEAR of the course in
DIPLOMA IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING humbly submit that I have
completed from the Seminar / Project work as described in this
Report from time to time by using my own skill and study between
the period From AUGUST 200 TO APRIL 200 as per the instruction /
guidance of (Name of Teacher)----------------------------------
And that, following students were associated with me for this
work. However, the teacher has approved quantum of my contribution.
And that, I have not copied the Report or its an appreciable part
from any other Literature in contravention of the academic
ethics.
1. --------------------------------
4.-------------------------------------
2.---------------------------------
5.-------------------------------------
3.---------------------------------
Date:----------------------
( Signature of the Student)
------DEFINATION OF PROJECT------
P => Planning before carrying out the work R => Raw
material required for the work O => Organization of the work J
=> Joint effort put in to the work.
E => Estimation of material required in the work.
C => Costing of the work.
T => Techniques used in performing.Acknowledgement
We express esteemed gratitude and sincere thanks to our worthy
lecturer guide PROF. -------------- our vocabulary do not have
suitable words benefiting to high standard at knowledge and extreme
sincerity, deviation and affection with they have regularly
encouraged us to put heart and soul in this work.
We are also thankful to our H.O.D. PROF. ----------- whose
advices and kind co-operation wrought out through discussion
provide for completion of this project and also thanks to our
workshop superintendent and all the Assistants, who helped a lot,
for completion of this project.
We also convey great thanks to our Honorable Principal
---------------- who helped a lot for completion of this
project.
Our parents and relatives who always bear with us in very
critical situation have contributed a great deal in making this for
us. As we give expression to our love and appreciation for them our
heart infill.
Thanking.
INDEX
Sr.No Name the topicsPage
1ABSTRACT
2NEED FOR PROJECT
3SELECTION OF PROJECT
4INTRODUCTION OF NON-CONVENTIONAL ENERGY
5SOURCES OF ENERGY
6WORKING OF PROJECT
7METHODOLOGY
8LITERATURE SURVEY
9MACHINE DESIGN
10MANUFACTURING
11ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES
12GENERAL GUIDELINE
13MAINTENANCE
14COST ESTIMATION
15PRECAUTIONS & SAFETY
16BIBLIOGRAPHY
FIGURES
SR NO.DESCRIPTIONPAGE NO
1Set up flow diagram
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
CHAPTER-01
ABSTRACT
A road is an identifiable route, way or path between places.
Roads are typically smoothed, paved, or otherwise prepared to allow
easy travel; though they need not be, and historically many roads
were simply recognizable routes without any formal construction or
maintenance. Traffic flows on the right or on the left side of the
road depending on the country. In countries where traffic flows on
the right, traffic signs are mostly on the right side of the road,
roundabouts and traffic circles go counter-clockwise, and
pedestrians crossing a two-way road should watch out for traffic
from the left first. In countries where traffic flows on the left,
the reverse is true.
About 34% of the world by population drive on the left, and 66%
keep right. By roadway distances, about 28% drive on the left, and
72% on the right, even though originally most traffic drove on the
left worldwide.Road construction requires the creation of a
continuous right-of-way, overcoming geographic obstacles and having
grades low enough to permit vehicle or foot travel. and may be
required to meet standards set by law or official guidelines. The
process is often begun with the removal of earth and rock by
digging or blasting, construction of embankments, bridges and
tunnels, and removal of vegetation (this may involve deforestation)
and followed by the laying of pavement material. A variety of road
building equipment is employed in road building.
After design, approval, planning, legal and environmental
considerations have been addressed alignment of the road is set out
by a surveyor The Radii and gradient are designed and staked out to
best suit the natural ground levels and minimize the amount of cut
and fill. Great care is taken to preserve reference Benchmarks
Roadways are designed and built for primary use by vehicular and
pedestrian traffic. Storm drainage and environmental considerations
are a major concern. Erosion and sediment controls are constructed
to prevent detrimental effects. Drainage lines are laid with sealed
joints in the road easement with runoff coefficients and
characteristics adequate for the land zoning and storm water
system. Drainage systems must be capable of carrying the ultimate
design flow from the upstream catchment with approval for the
outfall from the appropriate authority to a watercourse, creek,
river or the sea for drainage discharge.
A Borrow pit (source for obtaining fill, gravel, and rock) and a
water source should be located near or in reasonable distance to
the road construction site. Approval from local authorities may be
required to draw water or for working (crushing and screening) of
materials for construction needs. The top soil and vegetation is
removed from the borrow pit and stockpiled for subsequent
rehabilitation of the extraction area. Side slopes in the
excavation area not steeper than one vertical to two horizontal for
safety reasons.
Old road surfaces, fences, and buildings may need to be removed
before construction can begin. Trees in the road construction area
may be marked for retention. These protected trees should not have
the topsoil within the area of the tree's drip line removed and the
area should be kept clear of construction material and equipment.
Compensation or replacement may be required if a protected tree is
damaged. Much of the vegetation may be mulched and put aside for
use during reinstatement. The topsoil is usually stripped and
stockpiled nearby for rehabilitation of newly constructed
embankments along the road. Stumps and roots are removed and holes
filled as required before the earthwork begins. Final
rehabilitation after road construction is completed will include
seeding, planting, watering and other activities to reinstate the
area to be consistent with the untouched surrounding areas.
Processes during earthwork include excavation, removal of material
to spoil, filling, compacting, construction and trimming. If rock
or other unsuitable material is discovered it is removed, moisture
content is managed and replaced with standard fill compacted to 90%
relative compaction. Generally blasting of rock is discouraged in
the road bed. When a depression must be filled to come up to the
road grade the native bed is compacted after the topsoil has been
removed. The fill is made by the "compacted layer method" where a
layer of fill is spread then compacted to specifications, the
process is repeated until the desired grade is reached.
CHAPTER-02
NEED FOR PROJECT
In our country due to increased paying capacity, advanced
lifestyle and rapidly growing industrialization, the need &
demand of transportation is increasing day- by- day. The number of
vehicles rolling on the road is increasing daily. Hence chances of
accidents are increasing while crossing the road especially by the
children and old persons. So it became necessary to install the
road divider which is flexible in nature. The basic road divider
are those which is fixed and divide road in equal part but the need
of traffic is that in the pick hour one side of road is jam and
other side of road is free out of traffic which causes
uncomfortable to driver on both side. So we are going to decide to
design and develop such a traffic control system in which divider
it self make movable during pick hour divider is sifted portion of
road to make relief to drive vehicles.
We know insulation of our system is coastally and difficult but
once this system is install problem of road traffic is solved.
CHAPTER-03TYPES OF ROADVarious types of road are in use around
the world. Roads range in size from private driveways, to the
stereotypical two-lane highway, to high capacity dual carriageway
routes, such as freeways, motorways and high-quality dual
carriageways. The names associated with a particular type of road
vary around the world, and many names are partially equivalent but
not exactly equivalent to each other. As a result, the name given
to a road in one country could apply to a different type of road in
another country. Details for each road type are covered in the
specific articles about each type of road.
Road materialsRoads are constructed from many materials. The
material used depends on local conditions and other factors such as
the amount of traffic the road is designed for and the weight of
the vehicles allowed to use the road. Some of the materials used to
build roads includes:
Asphalt concrete
Brick
Cobblestone
Concrete
Gravel road
Ice road
Descriptive road termsSome terms used to describe roads cover
characteristics of the road and can be used on many types of roads.
These terms include:
Dual carriageway (also known as a divided highway)
Toll road
Low capacityLow capacity roads are generally low speed local
roads serving a particular village, town, neighborhood, or city.
They provide access to and from roads designed with higher
capacities and for higher speeds. They often also serve the
broadest variety of road users such as pedestrians, automobiles,
motorcycles, trucks, animals, wagons, and carriages. This category
includes:
Alley
Arterial road
Court
Cul-de-sac
Driveway
Frontage road
Lane
Road
Street
High speed roadsMost countries have major roads of medium
capacity that connect cities, places, other routes, or other
significant points of interest. They may have multiple lanes of
traffic, a median or central reservation between lanes of opposing
traffic, and partial access control (ramps and grade separation).
Often they are restricted to motorized vehicles that can maintain
high speeds. However, they can also be as simple as a two-lane
shoulderless road.
These roads go by names like:
2+1 road
2+2 road
High-quality dual carriageway
Expressway
Farm to Market Road
Highway
Parkway
Super two
High speed restricted access roadsMost high capacity roads are
built to a higher standard than general purpose roads. In order to
provide for higher traffic volumes, access is restricted to certain
categories of motorized vehicles and limited to a certain number of
access points where grade separations and ramps enable through
traffic to proceed without interruption. These high capacity routes
are almost always divided.
Multi ModalMulti-modal roads are a newer concept in which a
dedicated HOV or carpool lane is also set with light rail tracks.
This single lane serves dual purpose of providing priority to
Buses, Lightrail, as well as carpools.
Mathematical theoriesSome traffic engineers have attempted to
apply the rules of fluid dynamics to traffic flow, likening it to
the flow of a fluid in a pipe. Congestion simulations and real-time
observations have shown that in heavy but free flowing traffic,
jams can arise spontaneously, triggered by minor events ("butterfly
effects"), such as an abrupt steering maneuver by a single
motorist. Traffic scientists liken such a situation to the sudden
freezing of supercooled fluid.[3] However, unlike a fluid, traffic
flow is often affected by signals or other events at junctions that
periodically affect the smooth flow of traffic. Alternative
mathematical theories exist, such as Boris Kerner's three phase
traffic theory.
Because of the poor correlation of theoretical models to actual
observed traffic flows, transportation planners and highway
engineers attempt to forecast traffic flow using empirical models.
Their working traffic models typically use a combination of macro-,
micro- and mesoscopic features, and may add matrix entropy effects,
by "platooning" groups of vehicles and by randomising the flow
patterns within individual segments of the network. These models
are then typically calibrated by measuring actual traffic flows on
the links in the network, and the baseline flows are adjusted
accordingly.
Economic theoriesIndia's economic surge has resulted in a
massive increase in the number of private vehicles on its roads
overwhelming the transport infrastructure. Shown here is a traffic
jam in Delhi.
Congested roads can be seen as an example of the tragedy of the
commons. Because roads in most places are free at the point of
usage, there is little financial incentive for drivers not to
over-utilize them, up to the point where traffic collapses into a
jam, when demand becomes limited by opportunity cost. Privatization
of highways and road pricing have both been proposed as measures
that may reduce congestion through economic incentives and
disincentives. Congestion can also happen due to non-recurring
highway incidents, such as a crash or roadworks, which may reduce
the road's capacity below normal levels.
Economist Anthony Downs, in his books Stuck in Traffic (1992)
and Still Stuck in Traffic (2004), argues that rush hour traffic
congestion is inevitable because of the benefits of having a
relatively standard work day. In a capitalist economy, goods can be
allocated either by pricing (ability to pay) or by queueing
(first-come first-serve); congestion is an example of the latter.
Instead of the traditional solution of making the "pipe" large
enough to accommodate the total demand for peak-hour vehicle travel
(a supply-side solution), either by widening roadways or increasing
"flow pressure" via automated highway systems, Downs advocates
greater use of road pricing to reduce congestion (a demand-side
solution, effectively rationing demand), in turn plowing the
revenues generated therefrom into public transportation projects.
Road pricing itself is controversial, more information is available
in the dedicated article.
ClassificationQualitative classification of traffic is often
done in the form of a six letter A-F level of service (LOS) scale
defined in the Highway Capacity Manual, a US document used (or used
as a basis for national guidelines) worldwide. These levels are
used by transportation engineers as a shorthand and to describe
traffic levels to the lay public. While this system generally uses
delay as the basis for its measurements, the particular
measurements and statistical methods vary depending on the facility
being described. For instance, while the percent time spent
following a slower-moving vehicle figures into the LOS for a rural
two-lane road, the LOS at an urban intersection incorporates such
measurements as the number of drivers forced to wait through more
than one signal cycle.[4]Negative impactsTraffic congestion
detector in Germany.
CountermeasuresIt has been suggested by some commentators[who?]
that the level of congestion that society tolerates is a rational
(though not necessarily conscious) choice between the costs of
improving the transportation system (in infrastructure or
management) and the benefits of quicker travel. Others[who?] link
it largely to subjective lifestyle choices, differentiating between
car-owning and car-free households.
Road infrastructure Junction improvements
Grade separation, using bridges (or, less often, tunnels)
freeing movements from having to stop for other crossing
movements
Ramp signalling, 'drip-feeding' merging traffic via traffic
signals onto a congested motorway-type roadway
Reducing junctions
Local-express lanes, providing through lanes that bypass
junction on-ramp and off-ramp zones
Limited-access road, roads that limit the type and amounts of
driveways along their lengths
Reversible lanes, where certain sections of highway operate in
the opposite direction on different times of the day/ days of the
week, to match asymmetric demand. This may be controlled by
Variable-message signs or by movable physical separation
Separate lanes for specific user groups (usually with the goal
of higher people throughput with fewer vehicles)
Bus lanes as part of a busway system
HOV lanes, for vehicles with at least three (sometimes at least
two) riders, intended to encourage carpooling
Slugging, impromptu carpooling at HOV access points, on a
hitchhiking or payment basis
Market-based carpooling with pre-negotiated financial incentives
for the driver
[edit] Urban planning and designCity planning and urban design
practices can have a huge impact on levels of future traffic
congestion, though they are of limited relevance for short-term
change.
Grid plans including Fused Grid road network geometry, rather
than tree-like network topology which branches into cul-de-sacs
(which reduce local traffic, but increase total distances driven
and discourage walking by reducing connectivity). This avoids
concentration of traffic on a small number of arterial roads and
allows more trips to be made without a car.
Zoning laws that encourage mixed-use development, which reduces
distances between residential, commercial, retail, and recreational
destinations (and encourage cycling and walking).
Carfree cities, car-light cities, and eco-cities designed to
eliminate the need to travel by car for most inhabitants.[5]
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_congestion" \l
"cite_note-5#cite_note-5" \o "" [6]
Transit-oriented development are residential and commercial
areas designed to maximize access to public transport.
Supply and demandSee also: Transportation Demand Management
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Autoroute_M25.jpg" \o
"Enlarge"
INCLUDEPICTURE
"http://en.wikipedia.org/skins-1.5/common/images/magnify-clip.png"
\* MERGEFORMATINET
Widening works underway on the M25 motorway to increase the
number of lanes.
Congestion can be reduced by either increasing road capacity
(supply), or by reducing traffic (demand). Capacity can be
increased in a number of ways, but needs to take account of latent
demand otherwise it may be used more strongly than anticipated.
Critics of the approach of adding capacity have compared it to
"fighting obesity by letting out your belt" (inducing demand that
did not exist before).[7]
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_congestion" \l
"cite_note-7#cite_note-7" \o "" [8] Reducing road capacity has in
turn been attacked as removing free choice as well as increasing
travel costs and times.
Increased supply can include:
Adding more capacity at bottlenecks (such as by adding more
lanes at the expense of hard shoulders or safety zones, or by
removing local obstacles like bridge supports and widening
tunnels)
Adding more capacity over the whole of a route (generally by
adding more lanes)
Creating new routes
Traffic management improvements (see separate section below)
Reduction of demand can include:
Parking restrictions, making motor vehicle use less attractive
by increasing the monetary and non-monetary costs of parking,
introducing greater competition for limited city or road space.[9]
Most transport planning experts agree that free parking distorts
the market in favour of car travel, exacerbating
congestion.[10]
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_congestion" \l
"cite_note-10#cite_note-10" \o "" [11]
Park and ride facilities allowing parking at a distance and
allowing continuation by public transport or ride sharing.
Park-and-ride car parks are commonly found at metro stations,
freeway entrances in suburban areas, and at the edge of smaller
cities.
Reduction of road capacity to force traffic onto other travel
modes. Methods include traffic calming and the shared space
concept.
Road pricing, charging money for access onto a road/specific
area at certain times, congestion levels or for certain road
users
"Cap and trade", in which only licensed cars are allowed on the
roads.[12] A limited quota of car licences are issued each year and
traded in a free market fashion. This guarantees that the number of
cars does not exceed road capacity while avoiding the negative
effects of shortages normally associated with quotas. However since
demand for cars tends to be inelastic, the result are exorbitant
purchase prices for the licenses, pricing out the lower levels of
society, as seen Singapore's Certificate of Entitlement
scheme.[13]
Congestion pricing, where a certain area, such as the inner part
of a congested city, is surrounded with a cordon into which entry
with a car requires payment. The cordon may be a physical boundary
(i.e., surrounded by toll stations) or it may be virtual, with
enforcement being via spot checks or cameras on the entry routes.
Major examples are Singapore's electronic road pricing, the London
congestion charge system, and the Stockholm congestion tax.
Road space rationing, where regulatory restrictions prevent
certain types of vehicles from driving under certain circumstances
or in certain areas.
Number plate restrictions based on days of the week, as
practiced in several large cities in the world, such as Athens,[14]
Mexico City and So Paulo.[15] In effect, such cities are banning a
different part of the automobile fleet from roads each day of the
week. Mainly introduced to combat smog, these measures also reduce
congestion. A weakness of this method is that richer drivers can
purchase a second or third car to circumvent the ban.[citation
needed]
Permits, where only certain types of vehicles (such as
residents) are permitted to enter a certain area, and other types
(such as through-traffic) are banned.[15] For example, Bertrand
Delanoe, the mayor of Paris, has proposed to impose a complete ban
on motor vehicles in the city's inner districts, with exemptions
only for residents, businesses, and the disabled.[16]
Policy approaches, which usually attempt to provide either
strategic alternatives or which encourage greater usage of existing
alternatives through promotion, subsidies or restrictions.
Incentives to use public transport, increasing modal shares.
This can be achieved through infrastructure investment, subsidies,
transport integration, pricing strategies that decrease the
marginal cost/fixed cost ratios[17]
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_congestion" \l
"cite_note-link-17#cite_note-link-17" \o "" [18], and improved
timetabling.[19]
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_congestion" \l
"cite_note-19#cite_note-19" \o "" [20]
Cycling promotion through legislation, cycle facilities,
subsidies, and awareness campaigns.[21] The Netherlands has been
pursuing cycle friendly policies for decades, and around a quarter
of their commuting is done by bicycle.[22]
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_congestion" \l
"cite_note-22#cite_note-22" \o "" [23]
Telecommuting encouraged through legislation and
subsidies.[24]
Online shopping promotion,[25]
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_congestion" \l
"cite_note-dft-25#cite_note-dft-25" \o "" [26] potentially with
automated delivery booths helping to solve the last mile problem
and reduce shopping trips made by car.[27]
Traffic managementUse of so-called Intelligent transportation
system, which guide traffic:
Traffic reporting, via radio or possibly mobile phones, to
advise road users
Variable message signs installed along the roadway, to advise
road users
Navigation systems, possibly linked up to automatic traffic
reporting
Traffic counters permanently installed, to provide real-time
traffic counts
Convergence indexing road traffic monitoring, to provide
information on the use of highway on-ramps
Automated highway systems, a future idea which could reduce the
safe interval between cars (required for braking in emergencies)
and increase highway capacity by as much as 100% while increasing
travel speeds[citation needed]
Parking guidance and information systems providing dynamic
advice to motorists about free parking
Other associated School opening times arranged to avoid peak
hour traffic (in some countries, private car school pickup and
drop-off traffic are substantial percentages of peak hour
traffic).[citation needed]
Considerate driving behaviour promotion and enforcement. Driving
practices such as tailgating and frequent lane changes can reduce a
road's capacity and exacerbate jams. In some countries signs are
placed on highways to raise awareness, while others have introduced
legislation against inconsiderate driving.
Visual barriers to prevent drivers from slowing down out of
curiosity (often called "rubbernecking" in the United States). This
often includes accidents, with traffic slowing down even on
roadsides physically separated from the crash location. This also
tends to occur at construction sites, which is why some countries
have introduced rules that motorway construction has to occur
behind visual barrier
Speed limit reductions, as practiced on the M25 motorway in
London. With lower speeds allowing cars to drive closer together,
this increases the capacity of a road. Note that this measure is
only effective if the interval between cars is reduced, not the
distance itself. Low intervals are generally only safe at low
speeds.
Lane splitting/filtering, where space-efficient vehicles,
usually motorcycles and scooters, ride or drive in the space
between cars, buses, and trucks. This is however illegal in many
countries, being perceived as a safety risk.[28]
By countryAustraliaTraffic during peak hours in major Australian
cities, such as Brisbane, Sydney, and Melbourne, is usually very
congested and can cause considerable delay for motorists.
Australians rely mainly on radio and television to obtain current
traffic information. GPS, webcams, and online resources are
increasingly being used to monitor and relay traffic conditions to
motorists.[29] Measures put in place by the federal and state
government to combat traffic congestion include construction of new
road infrastructure and increased investment in public transport.
In Brisbane, ongoing road works projects on many major roads have
caused ongoing congestion throughout the city and increased
commutes considerably.[citation needed]Typical traffic jam in So
Paulo downtown, despite road space rationing by plate number. Rua
da Consolao, So Paulo, Brasil.
In Brazil the recent records of traffic jams over the major big
cities are recognized by public authorities as one of the main
challenges for So Paulo, Rio de Janeiro, Belo Horizonte, Brasilia,
Curitiba and Porto Alegre, where due to the country's economic
bonanza, the automobile fleets have almost doubled in several of
these cities from 2000 to 2008.
According to Time Magazine, So Paulo has the world's worst
traffic jams.[30] In 2008, the accumulated tailbacks have reached
in average more than 120 miles (190km) during rush hours, and on
May 9, 2008, the historical record was set with 166 miles (266km)
of accumulated queues out of 522 mi (835km) being monitored.[31]
Despite implementation since 1997 of road space rationing by the
last digit of the plate number during rush hours every weekday,
traffic in this 20 million city still experiences severe
congestion. According to experts, this is due to the accelerated
rate of motorization occurring since 2003, in So Paulo the fleet is
growing at a rate of 7.5% per year, with almost 1,000 new cars
bought in the city every day, and the limited capacity of public
transport. The subway has only 38miles (61km) of lines, though 22
further miles are under construction or planned by 2010. Every day,
many citizens spend between three up to four hours behind the
wheel. In order to mitigate the aggravating congestion problem,
since June 30, 2008 the road space rationing program was expanded
to include and restrict trucks and light commercial
vehicles.[32]
HYPERLINK "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_congestion" \l
"cite_note-32#cite_note-32" \o "" [33][edit] New ZealandNew Zealand
has followed strongly car-oriented transport policies since after
World War II (especially in the Auckland area, where about one
third of the country's population lives),[34] and currently has one
of the highest car-ownership rates per capita in the world, after
the United States.[35] Because of the negative results, congestion
in the big centres is a major problem. Current measures include
both the construction of new road infrastructure as well as
increased investment in public transport, which had strongly
declined in all cities of the country except Wellington.
United KingdomIn the United Kingdom the inevitability of
congestion in some urban road networks has been officially
recognised since the Department for Transport set down policies
based on the report Traffic in Towns in 1963:
Even when everything that it is possibly to do by way of
building new roads and expanding public transport has been done,
there would still be, in the absence of deliberate limitation, more
cars trying to move into, or within our cities than could possibly
be accommodated.[36].
The Department for Transport sees growing congestion as one of
the most serious transport problems facing the UK.[37] On 1
December 2006, Rod Eddington published a UK government-sponsored
report into the future of Britain's transport infrastructure. The
Eddington Transport Study set out the case for action to improve
road and rail networks, as a "crucial enabler of sustained
productivity and competitiveness". Eddington has estimated that
congestion may cost the economy of England 22 bn a year in lost
time by 2025. He warned that roads were in serious danger of
becoming so congested that the economy would suffer.[38] At the
launch of the report Eddington told journalists and transport
industry representatives introducing road pricing to encourage
drivers to drive less was an "economic no-brainer". There was, he
said "no attractive alternative". It would allegedly cut congestion
by half by 2025, and bring benefits to the British economy
totalling 28 bn a year.[39]
On Fridays in California, Interstate 5 is often congested as Los
Angeles residents travel north for the weekend.
United StatesThe Texas Transportation Institute estimated that,
in 2000, the 75 largest metropolitan areas experienced 3.6 billion
vehicle-hours of delay, resulting in 5.7 billion U.S. gallons (21.6
billion liters) in wasted fuel and $67.5 billion in lost
productivity, or about 0.7% of the nation's GDP. It also estimated
that the annual cost of congestion for each driver was
approximately $1,000 in very large cities and $200 in small cities.
Traffic congestion is increasing in major cities and delays are
becoming more frequent in smaller cities and rural areas.
In 2005, the three areas in the United States with the highest
levels of traffic congestion were Los Angeles, New York City, and
Chicago. The congestion cost for the Los Angeles area alone was
estimated at US$9.325 billion.[40]Between 1980 and 1999 the total
number of miles of vehicle travel increased by 76 percent.[41] [42]
National and local highway construction programs have accommodated
some, but not all, of this traffic growth.
VenezuelaWhile most of the world is troubled with high gas
prices, Venezuela has the lowest gas price in the world. They pay
0.097 strong bolivars an equivalent of $0.03 cents per liter or
$0.12 per gallon. Venezuela has fixed their price of gasoline at
this rate since 1998, even though it is estimated that the
government could save $3 billion dollars a year by cutting 30
minutes from the average drive time. Zarhay Infante leaves home
shortly after 5am on a 30km (19 miles) drive to her job in the
capital. If her journey goes well, she gets there three-and-a-half
hours later. Three years ago she could gotten to Caracas in 45
minutes on the motorway. According to Zarhay, It gets worse every
day. No president has been able to increase the price of gasoline,
due to protests that arise every time there are talks of doing
so.
( in true sense speed reducers) at the school building or
Hospital building- side road or highway. If these speed breakers
Yes! In true sense it is speed and ultimately breaker the opposing
impact energy supplied by the hard speed breaker will apply massive
thrust impact on the soft leaf spring and suspension system of the
vehicle, which perhaps may get broken. Also it may cause damage to
the occupant goods or passengers.
Hence we, the group of our class found the need of designing and
manufacturing such a system, which will make the speed breaker
somewhat flexible, soft which will not damage the vehicle more also
the impact energy being absorbed by the generation system will be
utilized to convert it in to electricity rather than this hard
impact transferring to damage the suspension. Here on working this
group task we over-comed our following needs:-
we became able to have market survey
doped capability of designing a system by collecting necessary
data.
Learnt actual practical fabrication processes of the
sub-components of the system.
Planning the cost estimation ands budget.
Duties of a technician or an Engineer.
CHAPTER-03
PROBLEM OF TRAFFIC
Traffic congestion has a number of negative effects:
Wasting time of motorists and passengers ("opportunity cost").
As a non-productive activity for most people, congestion reduces
regional economic health.
Delays, which may result in late arrival for employment,
meetings, and education, resulting in lost business, disciplinary
action or other personal losses.
Inability to forecast travel time accurately, leading to drivers
allocating more time to travel "just in case", and less time on
productive activities.
Wasted fuel increases air pollution and carbon dioxide emissions
(which may contribute to global warming) owing to increased idling,
acceleration and braking. Increased fuel use may also in theory
cause a rise in fuel costs.
Wear and tear on vehicles as a result of idling in traffic and
frequent acceleration and braking, leading to more frequent repairs
and replacements.
Stressed and frustrated motorists, encouraging road rage and
reduced health of motorists.
Emergencies: blocked traffic may interfere with the passage of
emergency vehicles traveling to their destinations where they are
urgently needed.
Spillover effect from congested main arteries to secondary roads
and side streets as alternative routes are attempted ('rat
running'), which may affect neighborhood amenity and real estate
prices.
CHAPTER-03
SELECTION OF THE PROJECT
A engineer is always focused towards challenges of bringing
ideas and concepts to life. Therefore, sophisticated machines and
modern techniques have to be constantly developed and implemented
for economical manufacturing of products. At the same time, we
should take care that there has been no compromise made with
quality and accuracy.
In the age of automation machine become an integral part of
human being. By the use of automation machine prove it self that it
gives high production rate than manual production rate. In
competition market every one wants to increase their production
& make there machine multipurpose.
The engineer is constantly conformed to the challenges of
bringing ideas and design into reality. New machines and techniques
are being developed continuously to manufacture various products at
cheaper rates and high quality.
CHAPTER -06
WORKING OF PROJECT
The flexible road dividing project works on the principle of
high torque dc motor and chain drive system in which we make a box
shaped casing for entire movable assembly with 4 mm thick mild
steel plate. The divider assembly is mounded on chain drive which
is hold between two set of sprocket mounted on shaft and pedestal
bearing arrangement. The chain drive system is driven by high
torque dc geared motor by separate chain drive mechanism.We make
whole assembly on separate plate for ease in maintenance of
system.
CHAPTER 08
LITERATURE SURVEYIMPORTANCE OF SYSTEM
This system very suitable for our country because we have wide
range of road.
State/UTTotal Road LengthAreaPopulationRoad Length (km)
(km)(sq.km)(million)(per 100(per 1 million
sq.km)of population)
A & N Islands122482490153497
Andhra Pradesh17266927506873632354
Arunachal Pradesh10240837431129394
Assam680797843825872693
Bihar855651738779549898
Chandigarh1723114115112127
D & N Haveli51849101053047
Delhi2658214831317922132
Goa7457381421965108
Gujarat13385019602446682883
Haryana279074421219631467
Himachal Pradesh29610556736534753
J & K13042222236961408
Karnataka14275419179150742839
Kerala14185638863323654509
Madhya Pradesh19893644344676452617
Maharashtra359262307690881174070
Manipur10760223272484678
Meghalaya8391224292373780
Mizoram6910210811337943
Nagaland13732165792838975
Orissa210238155707351356015
Pondicherry234349514732320
Punjab5815150362231152550
Rajasthan13463234223951392638
Sikkim183470961263596
Tamil Nadu205706130058601583412
Tripura147261048641404256
Uttar Pradesh237358294411161811477
West Bengal775798875276871019
Denver, Colorado is one of the first implementations of
Multi-modal lanes in North America. In Denver, Lightrail is run
manually to prevent any accidents. The second iteration of light
rail, called the T-REX Project successfully implemented 17 miles of
dual-track light rail, bike path, and also widened conventional
roadways along most major arteries in the Denver Metro Area
Big Idea for Transportation in Bangalore - Plan for Non
Motorized Transportation in Bangalore
When people refer to Bangalore, they immediately visualise the
chaotic traffic scenario. A lot of concern has been expressed over
the years on the congestion issue with government launching several
schemes to improve its traffic (Building several Roads, Flyovers
etc) but alas no solution!!
Problem
Bangalore has approximately 6.8 million trips daily. Urban
sprawl in years has increased the trip lengths, which has resulted
in decreasing mode share of public transportation and increase in
private automobiles. The problem is not insufficient roads as made
out by the authorities but the priority given to improve vehicular
flow rather than improving people movements. The transportation
share is nearly 20% of the Bangalore's landuse which simulates
international practice. Than why so much congestion?As per my
estimate Bangalore loses out nearly 208 million Rs per day due to
congestion (A very Conservative Estimate).The root cause for
congestion can be known from the fact that the 88% of total
vehicles constitute only two wheelers and four wheelers, which
contribute only 39% of total Trips.
Solution
It is very surprising to know that nearly 25% of trips are made
in range of 1-5 km. Nearly 40% of those trips are made by motorised
share (Cars/Bikes). We need to eliminate those trips by using non
motorised transportation such as by walking, cycling etc.
Provide Pedestrian Facilities.
Bangalore lacks good pedestrian facilities. Pedestrians have to
compete with vehicles, hawkers and encroachment to gain space. It
is fact that nearly 40% of people killed in accidents in Bangalore
are pedestrians. Improving footpaths are very economical way of
sustainable transportation, which we often neglect. The pedestrian
crossings are very rare to find in Bangalore roads. In fact you may
find more number of flyovers in Bangalore than grade separated
pedestrian facilities. Authorities need to improve footpaths/
provide pedestrian facilities at war footing.
Provide Cycling Facilities
Cycling as a mode of transport is virtually non-existent in
Bangalore (less than 2%). Bangalore has nearly 477853 cycles. Such
a large number of cycles does not transform into trips on roads
basically due to lack of facilities (less than 15% operational
trips). If proper facilities such as cycle tracks are provided by
the authorities than the mode share has the potential to improve in
Bangalore. It can also be developed as a feeder to public
transportation by providing small parking facilities near prominent
bus stops. Internationally the City-Bike System is the new big
thing. It involves provision of city bikes with proper
infrastructure (monthly-annually-fees) with several parking lots
provided by the private party. It is considered to be the best
option to demotorise thus having a sustainable city.
Traffic congestion is a condition on networks that occurs as use
increases, and is characterized by slower speeds, longer trip
times, and increased queueing. The most common example is the
physical use of roads by vehicles. When traffic demand is great
enough that the interaction between vehicles slows the speed of the
traffic stream, congestion is incurred. As demand approaches the
capacity of a road (or of the intersections along the road),
extreme traffic congestion sets in. When vehicles are fully stopped
for periods of time, this is colloquially known as a traffic
jam.
Congestion caused by evacuees fleeing Hurricane Rita. Traffic in
all lanes of the highway is traveling in the same direction.
Traffic congestion occurs when a volume of traffic or modal
split generates demand for space greater than the available road
capacity. There are a number of specific circumstances which cause
or aggravate congestion; most of them reduce the capacity of a road
at a given point or over a certain length, or increase the number
of vehicles required for a given throughput of people or goods.
About half of U.S. traffic congestion is recurring, and is
attributed to sheer weight of traffic; most of the rest is
attributed to traffic incidents, road works and weather events.[1]
Speed and flow can also affect network capacity though the
relationship is complex
Traffic research still cannot fully predict under which
conditions a "traffic jam" (as opposed to heavy, but smoothly
flowing traffic) may suddenly occur. It has been found that
individual incidents (such as accidents or even a single car
braking heavily in a previously smooth flow) may cause ripple
effects (a cascading failure) which then spread out and create a
sustained traffic jam when, otherwise, normal flow might have
continued for some time longer.[2]CHAPTER 5
MATERIAL SELECTION
The proper selection of material for the different part of a
machine is the main objective in the fabrication of machine. For a
design engineer it is must that he be familiar with the effect,
which the manufacturing process and heat treatment have on the
properties of materials. The Choice of material for engineering
purposes depends upon the following factors:
1. Availability of the materials.
2. Suitability of materials for the working condition in
service.
3. The cost of materials.
4. Physical and chemical properties of material.
5. Mechanical properties of material.
The mechanical properties of the metals are those, which are
associated with the ability of the material to resist mechanical
forces and load. We shall now discuss these properties as
follows:
1. Strength : It is the ability of a material to resist the
externally applied
forces
2. Stress: Without breaking or yielding. The internal resistance
offered by a part to an externally applied force is called
stress.
3. Stiffness: It is the ability of material to resist
deformation under stresses. The modules of elasticity of the
measure of stiffness.
4. Elasticity: It is the property of a material to regain its
original shape after deformation when the external forces are
removed. This property is desirable for material used in tools and
machines. It may be noted that steel is more elastic than
rubber.
5. Plasticity: It is the property of a material, which retain
the deformation produced under load permanently. This property of
material is necessary for forging, in stamping images on coins and
in ornamental work.
6. Ductility: It is the property of a material enabling it to be
drawn into wire with the application of a tensile force. A ductile
material must be both strong and plastic. The ductility is usually
measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percent reduction
in area. The ductile materials commonly used in engineering
practice are mild steel, copper, aluminum, nickel, zinc, tin and
lead.
7. Brittleness: It is the property of material opposite to
ductile. It is the
Property of breaking of a material with little permanent
distortion. Brittle materials when subjected to tensile loads snap
off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron is a brittle
material.
8. Malleability: It is a special case of ductility, which
permits material to be rolled or hammered into thin sheets, a
malleable material should be plastic but it is not essential to be
so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering
practice are lead, soft steel, wrought iron, copper and
aluminum.
9. Toughness: It is the property of a material to resist the
fracture due to high impact loads like hammer blows. The toughness
of the material decreases when it is heated. It is measured by the
amount of absorbed after being stressed up to the point of
fracture. This property is desirable in parts subjected to shock an
impact loads.
10. Resilience: It is the property of a material to absorb
energy and to resist rock and impact loads. It is measured by
amount of energy absorbed per unit volume within elastic limit.
This property is essential for spring material.
11. Creep: When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high
temperature for long period of time, it will undergo a slow and
permanent deformation called creep. This property is considered in
designing internal combustion engines, boilers and turbines.
12. Hardness: It is a very important property of the metals and
has a wide
verity of meanings. It embraces many different properties such
as resistance to wear scratching, deformation and mach inability
etc. It also means the ability of the metal to cut another metal.
The hardness is usually expressed in numbers, which are dependent
on the method of making the test. The hardness of a metal may be
determined by the following test.
a) Brinell hardness test
b) Rockwell hardness test
c) Vickers hardness (also called diamond pyramid) test and
d) Share scaleroscope.
The science of the metal is a specialized and although it
overflows in to realms of knowledge it tends to shut away from the
general reader. The knowledge of materials and their properties is
of great significance for a design engineer. The machine elements
should be made of such a material which has properties suitable for
the conditions of operations. In addition to this a design engineer
must be familiar with the manufacturing processes and the heat
treatments have on the properties of the materials. In designing
the various part of the machine it is necessary to know how the
material will function in service. For this certain characteristics
or mechanical properties mostly used in mechanical engineering
practice are commonly determined from standard tensile tests. In
engineering practice, the machine parts are subjected to various
forces, which may be due to either one or more of the
following.
1. Energy transmitted
2. Weight of machine
3. Frictional resistance
4. Inertia of reciprocating parts
5. Change of temperature
6. Lack of balance of moving parts
The selection of the materials depends upon the various types of
stresses that are set up during operation. The material selected
should with stand it. Another criteria for selection of metal
depend upon the type of load because a machine part resist load
more easily than a live load and live load more easily than a shock
load.
Selection of the material depends upon factor of safety, which
in turn depends upon the following factors.
1. Reliabilities of properties
2. Reliability of applied load
3. The certainty as to exact mode of failure
4. The extent of simplifying assumptions
5. The extent of localized
6. The extent of initial stresses set up during
manufacturing
7. The extent loss of life if failure occurs
8. The extent of loss of property if failure occurs
Material used
Mild steel
Reasons:1. Mild steel is readily available in market
2. It is economical to use
3. It is available in standard sizes
4. It has good mechanical properties i.e. it is easily
machinable
5. It has moderate factor of safety, because factor of safety
results in unnecessary wastage of material and heavy selection. Low
factor of safety results in unnecessary risk of failure
6. It has high tensile strength
7. Low co-efficient of thermal expansion
PROPERTIES OF MILD STEEL:
M.S. has a carbon content from 0.15% to 0.30%. They are easily
wieldable thus can be hardened only. They are similar to wrought
iron in properties. Both ultimate tensile and compressive strength
of these steel increases with increasing carbon content. They can
be easily gas welded or electric or arc welded. With increase in
the carbon percentage weld ability decreases. Mild steel serve the
purpose and was hence was selected because of the above purpose
BRIGHT MATERIAL:It is a machine drawned. The main basic
difference between mild steel and bright metal is that mild steel
plates and bars are forged in the forging machine by means is not
forged. But the materials are drawn from the dies in the plastic
state. Therefore the material has good surface finish than mild
steel and has no carbon deposits on its surface for extrusion and
formation of engineering materials thus giving them a good surface
finish and though retaining their metallic properties
CHAPTER -09
MACHINE DESIGN
Machine designI N T R O D U C T I O N
The subject of MACHINE DESIGN deals with the art of designing
machine of structure. A machine is a combination of resistance
bodies with successfully constrained relative motions which is used
for transforming other forms of energy into mechanical energy or
transmitting and modifying available design is to create new and
better machines or structures and improving the existing ones such
that it will convert and control motions either with or without
transmitting power. It is the practical application of machinery to
the design and construction of machine and structure. In order to
design simple component satisfactorily, a sound knowledge of
applied science is essential. In addition, strength and properties
of materials including some metrological are of prime importance.
Knowledge of theory of machine and other branch of applied
mechanics is also required in order to know the velocity.
Acceleration and inertia force of the various links in motion,
mechanics of machinery involve the design.
CONCEPT IN M.D.P.
Consideration in Machine Design When a machine is to be designed
the following points to be considered: -
i) Types of load and stresses caused by the load.
ii) Motion of the parts and kinematics of machine. This deals
with the
iii) type of motion i.e. reciprocating . Rotary and
oscillatory.
iv) Selection of material & factors like strength,
durability, weight, corrosion resistant, weld ability, machine
ability are considered.
v) Form and size of the components.
vi) Frictional resistances and ease of lubrication.
vii) Convience and economical in operation.
viii) Use of standard parts.
ix) Facilities available for manufacturing.
x) Cost of making the machine.
xi) Number of machine or product are manufactured.
GENERAL PROCEDURE IN MACHINE DESIGN
The general steps to be followed in designing the machine are as
followed.
i) Preparation of a statement of the problem indicating the
purpose of the machine.
ii) Selection of groups of mechanism for the desire motion.
iii) Calculation of the force and energy on each machine
member.
iv) Selection of material.
v) Determining the size of component drawing and sending for
manufacture.
vi) Preparation of component drawing and sending for
manufacture.
vii) Manufacturing and assembling the machine.
DC GEARED MOTOR
DESIGN OF DC MOTOR
Power of motor = H.P = 746 x .25 = 186.5 N- m /s
Rpm of motor = 1800 rpm
Out put rpm required = 24rpm
Max load = 100 kg = 100 x 9.81 = 981 N
Max load transported = 120kg = 120x 9.81 = 1177 N
Number of stage in gear box = 2
Ratio of gearing =1 : 74.8
CALCULATION FO FINAL SPEED & TORQUE OF SYSTEM
Power of motor=P=186.5 watt.
2 N T
P = -----------------
60
Where, N Rpm of motor =1800
T Torque transmitted
2 x 1800 x T
186.5 = ----------------------
60
T= 0.989N-m
T= 989.9 N-mm
T= 990 N-mm
CALCULATION OF TORQUE OBTAIN BY GEAR BOX
In put torque of gear box = 990 N- mm
In put rpm of gear box = 1800 rpm
Torque & rpm obtain at gearing
As reduction ratio is 1:22
So,
Out put rpm of gear box is
N 2 = N 1 / 22
N 2 = 1800
22
N 2 = 81.8 rpm
N 2 = 82 rpm
TORQUE AT GEAR BOX OUT PUT
N 1
T 2
=
N 2 T 1
1800 x
=
82 990
x = 1800 x 990
82
x = 21731 N-mm
T2 = 21731N-mm
Load of system = 100 kg = 100 x 9.81 = 981 N
Max load transported = 120kg = 120x 9.81 = 1177 N
TOTAL LOAD = 981 + 1177 = 2158 N
We know T = F x R
So
21731 = F x 46 / 2
F = 21731 x 2 \ 46
F = 944.8 N
F = 945 / 9.81 = 96 kg
As out put of gearing system is insufficient to lift the total
load of 300 kg so further more speed reduction is required to
increase the torque value.
We use spur gearing having reduction ratio = 1 : 3.4
So torque at out put speed of spur gearing
As reduction ratio is 1:3.4
N 2 = N 1 / 3.4
N 2 = 82
3. 4
N 2 = 24.1 rpm
N 2 = 24 rpm
TORQUE AT GEAR BOX OUT PUT
N 1
T 2
=
N 2 T 1
82 x
=
24 21731
x = 82 x 21731
24
x = 74247.58 N-mm
T2 = 74248 N-mm
Torque = force x distance
Torque = force x radius of out put gear
74248 = F x 60 /2
F = 74248 x 2 / 60
F = 2474.59 N
F = 2475 N
F = 2475 / 9.81 = 252.2 kg
F = 252 kg
This Force Value Is Sufficient So Transmission Is Safe.
FORCE REQUIRED Fr = 220 kg
SO OUTPUT FORCE OF SYSTEM Fs= 252 kg
Fr < FsAs out put force is more than required force value so
design of transmission system is safe.
DESIGN OF CHAIN DRIVEWe know ,
TRANSMISSION RATIO = Z2 / Z1 = N2/N1 = 30/30= 1
For this transmission ratio number of teeth on pinion sprocket
is in the range of 35 to 25 , so we select number of teeth on
pinion sprocket as 30 teeth.
So , Z1 = Z2 = 30 teeth
SELECTION OF PITCH OF SPROCKET
The pitch is dicided on the basis of RPM of sprocket.
RPM of pinion sprocket is vaeiable in normal condition it is =
72 rpm
For this rpm value we select pitch of sprocket as 12.7mm from
table.
P = 12.7mm
CALCULATION OF MINIMUM CENTER DISTANCE BETWEEN SPROCKETS
THE TRANSMISSION RATIO = Z2 / Z1 = 30/30 = 1 which is less than
3.
So from table,
MINIMUM CENTER DISTANCE = C + (30 to 50 mm )
Where C = Dc1 + Dc2
2
C = 112 + 112
2
C = 112 mm
MINIMUM CENTER DISTANCE = 112 + (30 to 50 mm )
MINIMUM CENTER DISTANCE = 150 mm
CALCULATION OF VALUES OF CONSTANTS K1 K2 K3 K4 K5 K6
Load factor K1 = 1.25 ( Load with mild shock )
Factor for distance regulation K2 = 1.25 ( Fixed center
distance)
Factor for center distance of sprocket K3 =0.8
Factor for position of sprocket K4 = 1
Lubrication factor K5 = 1.5 (periodic)
Rating factor K6 = 1.0 (single shift)
CALCULATION OF VALUE OF FACTOR OF SAFETY
For pitch = 12.7 & speed of rotation of small sprocket = 72
rpm
FACTOR OF SAFETY = 8.55
CALCULATION OF VALUE OF ALLOWABLE BEARING STRESS
For pitch = 12.7 & speed of rotation of small sprocket =
72rpm
ALLOWABLE BEARING STRESS = 2.87 kg / cm2
= 2.87 * 981 / 100 =28 N /mm2
CALCULATION OF COEFFICENT OF SAG K
For horizontal position coefficient of sag K = 6
CALCULATION OF MAXIMUM TENSION ON CHAIN
As we know maximum torque on shaft = Tmax = 18 x 103 N-mm
Where ,
T1 = Tension in tight side
T2 = Tension in slack side
O1,O2 = center distance between two shaft
From fig.
Sin ( = R1 - R2
O1O2
Sin ( = 100 - 30
660
Sin ( = 0.1
( = 6
TO FIND (
( = (180 2( ) X 3.14/180
( = (180 2*6 ) X 3.14/180
( = 2.9 rad
we know that,
T1/T2 = e((T1/T2 = e0.35 x 2.9
T1 = 1.1 T2
We have,
T = ( T1 T2 ) X R
18000 = ( 1.1 T2 T2 ) X 100
T2 = 1800 N
T1 = 1.1 X 1800
T1 = 1980 N
So tension in tight side = 1980 N
We know ,
Stress = force / area
Stress induced = 1980/ ( 3.14 * 82 / 4 )
Stress induced = 39.41 N /mm2
As induced stress is less than allowable design of chain is safe
.
CALCULATION OF MINIMUM BREAKING LOAD OF CHAIN
Calculation of chain velocity = (3.14*Np) / (60000Sin (180 / Z1)
)
v = (3.14*72) / (60000Sin (180 / 30)
v = 0.035m / sec
We know,
Q = N*75*n* Ks / v
Where ,
N = rpm of small sprocket
Q = minimum breaking load of chain
V = chain velocity
.n = allowable factor of safety
Ks = K1*K2*K3*K4*K5*K6
Q = 72*75*8.55*1.875 / 0.035
Q = 2473392.86 kgf
As minimum load bearing capacity is much more than applied load
so design of chain is safe.
DESIGN OF SHAFT
BENDING:
The material forces that are developed on any cross section of
the shaft give rise to stresses at every point. The internal or
resisting moment gives rise to so called bending stresses.
TORSION:
When the shaft is twisted by the couple such that the axis of
the shaft and the axis of the couple coincides, the shaft is
subjected to pure torsion and the stresses at any point of cross
section is torsion or shear stresses.
COMBINED BENDING AND TORSION:
In practice the shaft in general are subjected to combination of
the above two types of stresses. The bending stresses may be due to
following
1. Weight of chain & sprocket
2. Pull of chain
3. Eccentric Mounting
4. Misalignment
The torsional movement on the other hand may be due to direct or
indirect twisting. Thus any cross-section of the shaft is subjected
simultaneously of both bending stresses and torsional stresses.
Shaft is made up of M.S SAE 1040 having Sut = 680 Mpa & Syt
= 380Mpa.
Length of shaft = 620 mm
This shaft has two support placed at equal distance from
center
Horizontal force = 713.46N
Vertical force = 267 N
Vertical force = 18000 N
HORIZONTAL LOAD DIAGRAM
18000 N
505mm
A
C115mm B
620mm
Ra = 3339 N Rb = 14661 N
Ra + Rb = 18000
Taking moment about A
Rb x 620 = 18000 x 505
Rb = 18000 x 505
620
Rb = 14661.29 N
Ra + Rb = 18000
Ra = 18000 - Rb
Ra = 18000 14661
Ra = 3339 N
CALCULATION OF MAXIMUM BENDING MOMENT
We see maximum bending moment occur at point C
Max bending moment = Ra x 505
Max bending moment = 3339 x 505
Max bending moment = 1686195 N mm
Maximum bending moment = 1686195 N-mm
Maximum torque = 24860 N-mm
Apply guest theory of failure
Equalent torque = Tmax 2 + Mmax 2
Equalent torque = 24860 2 + 16861952
Equalent torque = 1686195 N mm
Using tortion formula
Te
= /16 x ds3 x fs
1686195= /16 x 303 x fs induced
fs induced =76 N / mm2 < 90 N / mm2
As induced stress is very less in torsion design of shaft is
safe
DESIGN OF C-SECTION
Material: - M.S.
The vertical column channel is subjected to bending stress
Stress given by => M/I = fb / y
In above equation first we will find the moment of inertia about
x and y
Axis and take the minimum moment of inertia considering the
channel of
ISLC 75 x 40 size.
l = 40
t = 5
B = 75b = 65
We know the channel is subject to axial compressive load
In column section the maximum bending moment occurs at channel
of section
M = Rc x L/2
M = 18000 x 530/2
M = 4770000 N-mm
We know
fb = M/Z
Z = t (l x b + (b2/6))
Z = 5 (40 x 65 + (652/6))
Z = 3304 mm3Now check bending stress induced in C section
fb induced = M/Z
fb induced = 4770000 /3304 = 14.43 N / mm2As induced stress
value is less than allowable stress value design is safe.
fb = Permissble bending stress = 120 N / mm
fb induced < fb allowable
Hence our design is safe.
Design of welded joint OF CHANNEL :
The welded joint is subjected to pure bending moment . so it
should be design for bending stress. We know minimum area of weld
or throat area
A = 0.707 x s x l
Where s = size of weld
l = length of weld
A = 0.707 x 5 x ( 75 + 40 + 35 + 58 +35 )
A = 0.707 x 5 x 243
A = 859 mm2
Bending strength of parallel fillet weld
P = A x fb
fb = 80 N / mm2As load applied at the end of channel joint is
18000 N . So moment generated at the welded joint is
M =P x L
= 18000x 75
= 1350000 N mm
we know fb = M /Z
Z = BH3 bh3 ----------------------
6H
40 x 753 35 x 583 Z = -----------------------------------
6 x 75
Z = 209824
Calculating induce stress developed in welded joint
fb induced = 1350000 / 209824
= 6.43 N /mm 2As induce stress is less then allowable stress the
design is safe.
CHAPTER- 10
MANUFACTURING
The process of conversion of raw material in to finished
products using the
three resources as Man, machine and finished sub-components.
Manufacturing is the term by which we transform resource inputs
to create
Useful goods and services as outputs. Manufacturing can also be
said as an
intentional act of producing something useful . The
transformation process is
Shown below-
Input
Conventional process
out put
Element
Transformation Useful product
Material
Machines
Products
Data
Interpretation
Knowledge
Energy
Skill
Services
Variable cost
Fixed cost
Revenue
It s the phase after the design. Hence referring to the those
values we will plan
The various processes using the following machines:-
i) Universal lathe
ii) Milling machine
iii) Grinding machine
iv) Power saw
v) Drill machine
vi) Electric arc welding machine
FABRICATION AND OPERATION SHEET
NAME OF THE PART SHAFT
MATERIAL
BRIGHT STEEL
QUANTITY 2
SR.NO.DETAIL OPER.M/C. USEDTOOL USEDACCESMEA.INST.
1.
Marking on shaft - - -Scale
2.Cutting as per dwgPower hack saw Hock saw bladeJig &
fixturesScale
3.
Facing both side of shaftLathe machineSingle point cutting
toolChuck Vernier caliper
4.
Turning as per dwg size - - - -
5.Filling on both endFlat fileVice -
COMPONENT: FRAME
MATERIAL:- M.S. PLATEQUANTITY : -1
SR. NO
DESCRIPTION OF OPERATIONMACHINE USEDCUTTINGMEASUREMENTTIME
1Cutting the plate of 4 mm thick in to length as per dwgGas
cutting machineGas cutterSteel rule15min.
2Cutting the slot on top plate piece as per dwgGas cutting
machineGas cutterSteel rule15min.
3Filing operation can be performed on cutting side and bring it
in perpendicular C.S. Bench viceFileTry square15 min.
4Weld the plate to the required size as per the drawingElectric
arc welding machine-------Try square20 min
5Drilling the frame at required points as per the drawing.Radial
drill machineTwist drillVernier calliper10 min.
COMPONENT: SPROKETMATERIAL:- M.S
QUANTITY : -4SR. NO
DESCRIPTION OF OPERATIONMACHINE USEDCUTTINGMEASUREMENTTIME
1Take standard sproket as per
design--------------------------------------
2Face both side of hub portionLathe machineSingle point cutting
toolVernier caliper15 min.
3Hold it in three jaw chuck & bore inner dia as per shaft
size Lathe machineSingle point cutting toolVernier caliper20
min.
4Cut key way as per dwgSlotting machineSingle point cutting
toolVernier calliper10 min.
5Filling burrsFlat fill-------------------------5 min.
COMPONENT: MOTOR BASEMATERIAL:- M.S
QUANTITY : -1
SR.NO.
OPERATIONMACHINETOOL/GAUGETIME
1.
Cut M.S. plate of 4mm thickness of required dimensions.Hand
lever cutting machineSteel rule15 min.
2.
It is bent at its edges Hand pressBending dies20 min.
3.
Weld at bottom plate edgeWelding machineWelding rod10 min.
4.
Corners are rounded off -----------Hand grinder 10 min.
5.
It is coated with red oxide and then after paintedAir
compressorRed oxide and green paint20 min
TIME ACCOUNTINGMACHINING TIME ESTIMATION:-
This machining cost estimation gives us time require to machine
a particular component on machine. This gives us an estimation of
how much time will be required to hire the machine for that
particular component.
This is done for all components except standard parts.
PROCEDURE FOR CALCULATING MACHINING TIME
1) After the machining time has been calculated including
allowance for each component because a component can have more than
one operation to be carried out. Hence, rates of machine are
different.
2) The machining time is calculated using standard working
rates.
3) The time required to manufacture a given component on a
machine is multiplied by machine rate to give machine cost.
4) The estimation of machining cost for total number of
components gives us machining cost estimation.
5) Machining time of components are estimated in order to know
total manufacturing cost of component.
Total time includes basic time & various other factors which
are taken into
consideration & they are : -
1) Up time & down time = 10% of basic time.
Transportation time= 10 minutes.
Centrime time
= 20 minutes
Inspection time
= 20 minutes
Other allowances taken into consideration are :
1) Personal allowance
= 5% of basic time
2) Fatique allowance
= 7% of basic time
3) Contingency allowance = 5% of basic time
TIME ANALYSIS
A) Turning Operation
The machining time in a lather work can be calculated for
particular operation. If speed of job, food & length of job is
known as J.C. Time taken for complete cut
= 1 min
= s x n
Where,
.s = feed per revolution
.n = No. of revolution / min of job
.l = Length of job to be m/ced
B) Shaping operation
If length of cutting stokes, breadth of job feed & cutting
speed are known time required to complete job may be calculated
as;
T = L X B (1 + m)/1000 R V x S.
Where,
T = Total time taken to complete cut.
L = length of stoke in mm
R = The ratio of return time to cutting time
V = The cutting speed expressed in m/min
S = Feed expressed in mm/per double stroke
C) Milling operation
Time required to mill any component surface can be given as,
T = A/sz x z x n
Where,
T = Time required to complete cut in min
L= Length of table travel to complete cut in mm
SZ= Feed per tooth in mm
Z= No.of teeth of cutter
.n= No.of revolutions of cutter per minute
D) Drilling operation
Machining time in drilling operation can be determined by
formula.
T = 1/sr x n mm.
Where,
T= Machining time in min.
.l= Length of travel of drill per min.
.n= No.of revolutions of drill in mm.
.sr= Feed per revolution of drill in mm.
E ) Grinding operations.
Time taken for grinding operation is given by,
T= li/sd x np x k
Where,
.li= Length of longitudinal travel
.sd= Longitudinal feed in mm/revolutions
.np= Speed of workpiece in rpm.
.k= Coefficient depending on the specific grade of accuracy
& class of
surface finished (K = 1.3 to 1.7)
TIME REQUIRED FOR MACHINING TIME COMPONENTS
1) Frame
Angle measuring= 30 min
Angle cutting
= 45 min
Welding
= 120 min
Total time
= 195 min
2) Linkage
Measurement
= 15 min
Cutting
= 15 min + 10 min = 25 min
Drilling
= 20 min
Welding
= 10 min
Total time
= 70 min
3) Bearing seat
Facing
= 20 min
Turning= 25 min
Drilling= 10 min + 20 min = 30 min
Boring
= 20 min
Total time= 95 min
4) Bush
Facing
= 20 min + 20 min = 40 min
Turning= 20 min + 30 min + 10 min = 60 min
Drilling= 20 min + 20 min = 40 min
Boring
= 25 min
Total time= 165 min
5) Shaft
Facing
= 20 min + 20 min = 40 min
Turning= 60 min + 60 min = 120 min
Total time= 160 min
6) Casing
Cutting= 120 min
Bending= 40 min
Drilling= 30 min
Riveting= 25 min
Total time= 115 min
7) Slots
Cutting= 15 min
Milling= 180 min
Boring = 15 min
Total time= 210 min
8) Rest plates
Cutting= 15 min
Bending= 10 min
welding= 25 min
Total time= 50 min
9) Rollers
Cutting= 20 min
grinding= 25 min
welding= 20 min
Total time= 65 min
METHOD STUDY:
Method of the study is the systematic recording & critical
Examination of
existing & proposed ways of doing work, as a means of
developing & applying
easier & more effective methods & reducing costs.
OBJECTIVES;
(1) The improvements of processes & procedures.
(2) The improvements of factory, shop & work place. Layout
& design of
plat & equipment.
(3) Economy in human effort.
(4) Improvements in the use of materials, machines &
manpower.
(5) The development of better physical working environment.
RECORDING TECHNIQUES:
The next step in basic procedure after selecting the work to be
studies is to
record all the facts relating to existing methods.
PURPOSE OF RECORDING:
(1) To enable the process to be clearly understood.
(2) To present the existing facts for analogs.
FLOW PROCESS CHARTS:
Flow process chart is defined as a graphic representation of all
storages,
occurring during a process or procedure which includes
information considered
necessary for analysis such as time required quantity &
distance moved etc.
TYPES OF FLOW PROCESS CHART:
(a) man type : It records what the worker does.
(b) material type: It records what happens to the materials.
(a) Equipment type: It records how the equipment is used.
Flow process chart gives a complete picture at what is being
done & helps the
man to understand the facts & their relationship to one
another.
OBJECTIVE OF FLOW PROCESS CHART:
(1) To visualize the complete sequence of events occurring in
process.
(2) To study the events in a systematic way for the complete
analysis of the
manufacture of the component part for the following
purposes.
(a) To improve the layout
(b) To improve material handling
(c) To reduce delays.
(d) To diminutive, combine or re-arrange the events in a
systematic
way.
(3) To submit the proposals to managements in a form which can
be easily
understood.
(4) To guide supervisors & operators regarding detailed
operating
instructions.
According to the nature of job being studies & purpose for
the record is
required.
(A) CHARTS : Outline process chart
Flow process chart : man type
Flow process chart : material type
Flow process chart : equipment type
(B) CHARTS : using time scale
i) multiple activity chart
ii) simo chart
iii) P.M.T.S. chart
( C) DIAGRAMS INDICATING MOVEMENTS & MODELS:
i) Flow diagrams
ii) String diagrams
iii) Cycle graph
iv) Chromo cycle graph
v) Travel chart
(3) To compare between two or more alternative methods.
(4) To select operations for a detailed study.
Following chart shows the method study chart for manufacturing
different
Objects :-
SYMBOLS
ACTIVITYPREDOMINATED RESULT
OperationIt indicated main steps in a process, method or
procedure.
InspectionInspection is an act of checking for correctness of
the quantity or quality of the items.
Transport
This indicates a movement of workers, Materials, or equipment
from place to place.
Delay (temporary storage)
Delay occurs when something stops the process & product
waits for next event.
StorageIt indicates, when any object is internationally retained
in a state or location & removal of the object requires proper
authorization.
Change of operation
It indicates change of operation or process.
Operation cum Transportation
Example Articles are being painted as they are transported by
the chain conveyor.
Inspection cum OperationExample A powder milk tin is being
weighed.(inspection) As it is filed. Both the events occur
simultaneously.
FLOW PROCESS CHARTS (MATERIAL TYPE)
(1) PART M.S.Channels
SR. NO.DISCRIPTION OF ACTIVITY
1Inspection of raw material
2Raw material purchasing
3Marking and cutting of material
4Change of operation
5Chamfering the edges
6Inspection of finished angles
7Storage
PART M.S.PLATE FRAMESIZE AS PER THE DRAWING
Sr.No.Activities
1.Raw Material
2.Moved to m/c shop
3.Cutting
4.Taken to welding m/c.
5.Wedding
6.Moved to surface grinder
7.Grinding
8.Moved to grinding shop
9.Grinding
10.Taken to fitting shop
11.Drilling
12.Wait
13.Tapping
14.Moved to m/c shop
15.Inspection
16Send to storage
CHAPTER-11
ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
Following are the different advantages and disadvantages of
FLEXIBLE ROAD DIVIDER unit.
ADVANTAGES :-
Following are the various advantages:-
1) It is easy for maintenance.
2) It requires very no skill or no skill for its operation being
the self activated.
3) It is multi-purpose.
4) So many installation locations having zero scarcity but
ampleness of the space.
DISADVANTAGES:-
1) it required periodical maintenance
2) special road construction is required to be designed
3) The system becomes trouble some in rainy season.
CHAPTER
MAINTENANCE
Maintenance:-
No machine in the universe is 100% maintenance free machine. Due
to its continuous use it is undergoing wear and tear of the mating
and sliding components. Also due to the chemical reaction takes
place when the material comes in the contact with water, makes its
corrosion. Hence it is required to replaced or repaired. This
process of repairing and replacing is called as maintenance
work.
AUTONOMOUS MAINTAINENCE ACTIVITY:-1) Conducting initial cleaning
& inspection.
2) Eliminate sources of dirt, debris, excess lubricants etc.
3) Improve cleaning maintainability.
4) Understand equipment functioning.
5) Develop inspection skills.
6) Develop standard checklists.
7) Institute autonomous inspection.
8) Organize and manage the work environment.
9) Manage equipment reliability.
CLAIR ( CLEANING , LUBRICATING , ADJUSTMENT,
INSPECTIONCLEANINGWhy cleaning ?
Prevent or eliminate contamination.
Find ways to simplify the cleaning process.
Facilitates through inspection when done by knowledgeable
operators and \ or maintainers.
CLEANING IS INSPECTION.
What to look for when cleaning.
Missing part
Wear
Rust and corrosion
Noise
Cracks
Proper alignment
Leaks
Play or sloppiness
VISUAL AIDS TO MAINTAIN CORRECT EQUIPMENT CONDITION
Match marks on nut and bolts
Color marking of permissible operating ranges on dials and
gauges
Marking of fluid type and flow direction of pipes
Marking at open / closed position on valves
Labeling at lubrication inlets and tube type
Marking minimum / maximum fluid levels
Label inspection sequences
ADJUST & MINOR REPAIR
Minor repairs if
Trained
Experienced
Performs safety
Simple tool required
Not longer than 20/30 minutes
CHRONIC DEFECTS
EQUIPMENT IMPROVEMENT
1. Restore obvious deterioration throughout.
2. Establish plan select pilot area , determine bottleneck.
3. Study and understand the production process.
4. Establish goals for improvement.
5. Clarify the problem, collect the reference manuals contact
resources.
6. Conduct evaluation through such techniques as RCM analysis,
FMECA, FTA (Root cause failure analysis).
7. Determine improvement priorities, costs and benefits.
8. Execute improvement in pilot area standardize technique and
document what you have done.
9. Monitor results and optimize based on those results.
10. Implement plant wide
EQUIPMENT RESPONSIBILITIES OF OPERATOR
Operation with the proper standard procedure.
Failure prevention.
Failure resolution.
Inspection.
Equipment up keep.
Cleaning.
Lubricating.
Lightning fasteners.
Minor repairs.
Trouble shooting.
CHAPTER 14
COST ESTIMATION
The machine tool designer must furnish the management with an
idea of how much tooling will cost, and how much money the
productions methods save over a specified run. This information is
generally furnished in a form of cost worksheets. By referring to
the cost worksheets the final cost of machine is calculated.
Cost estimation is defined as the process of forecasting
expenses that are incurred to manufacture a product. These expenses
take into account all expenditure involved in designing and
manufacturing with all the related service facilities such as
material handling, heat treatment and surface coating, as well as
portion of general administrative and selling costs.
NEED OF COST ESTIMATION :
1) Determine the selling price of a product for a quotation or
contract, so as to ensure a reasonable profit to the company.
2) Check the quotations supplied by the vendors.
3) Decide whether a part or assembly is economical to be
manufactured in the plant or is to be purchased from outside.
4) Determine the most economical process or material to
manufacture a product.
5) Initiate means of cost reduction in existing production
facilities by using new materials which result in savings due to
lower scrap loss and revised methods of tooling and processing.
6) To determine standards of production performance that may be
used to control costs.
ELEMENTS OF COST ENCOUNTERED IN THE PROJECT :
The cost encountered in this project are material cost, labour
cost, cost of standard parts, designing cost and cost of indirect
expenses.
1) DESIGN COST :
The designing cost is calculated by considering the amount taken
by the designer (if so) and the cost of designing material.
2) MATERIAL COST :
The material cost can be calculated by finding the total volume
of the material
used and the weight of the material. For calculation the value
and the weight, the
following procedure is adopted :
a) In actual procedure, there are some holes and shapes cut. But
they are considered to be solid while calculation the total volume
of material used.
b) While calculation the volume the triangle shaped parts and
the T shaped parts are considering as rectangular or square
plates.
c) The weight of the parts is calculation by multiplying the
total volume and the density of the material (M.S.) which is equal
to 7.76665x10 3 Kg/Cc.
d) The total cost can be obtained by multiplying the total
weight by the rate of material.
A ) RAW MATERIAL & STANDARD MATERIAL COST
SR NO
PART NAMERATEQTYTOTAL
1FRAME MILD STEEL PLATE 4 mm50/ kg100kg5000
2MOTOR180011800
3SHAFT55/kg8440
4SPROKET8/teeth72576
5CHAIN300/ M3 M900
6PEDESTAL BEARING35041400
7CHAIN SPROKET SET4001400
8CHANNEL40/ kg5200
9SPRING1501150
10DIVIDER2001200
11ELASTOMER2501250
12NUT BOLT WASHER---------------250
1312 V CONVERTOR3501350
14WELDING ROD5 /pcs25125
15COLOUR300/lit0.75 lit225
TOTAL-----/-
B ) DIRECT LABOUR COST
Sr.no.
OperationHoursRate per hourAmount
1.
Turning101501500
2.
Milling2150300
3.
Drilling7100700
4.
Welding161752800
5.
Grinding360180
6.
Tapping340120
7.
Cutting840320
8.
Gas cutting850400
9.
Assembly2100200
10.
Painting2100200
TOTAL6720/-
INDIRECT COST
Transportation cost = 500/-
Coolent & lubricant = 100/-
Drawing cost
= 500/-
Project report cost= 2000/-
TOTAL INDIRECT COST = 2100/-
TOTAL COST
Raw Material Cost + Std Parts Cost + Direct Labour Cost
+Indirect Cost
Total cost of project = ----- + 6720 +2100
Total cost of project = ------ /-
CHAPTER 15
PREACUTIONS & SAFETY MEASURES
Following precautions and safety measures are taken to make our
creation a grand success.
PRECAUTION:-
1) the spring tension in the top plate of road divider plate
should be adjusted uniformly2) the alignment of chain drive
arrangement should be properly done.
3) Do not allow the vehicle to touch divider4) The system should
be robustly designed.
SAFETY MEASURES:-
1) Do not touch the top plate when the vehicle is passing
by.
2) Do not touch the open wires of the transmission system.
CHAPTER-16
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Following different references are taken while collection and
manufacturing
Literature and project: -
1) WORKSH