Section 1 - Module - Page 1 3FL 11820 ACAA WBZZA Edition 3 All rights reserved © 2005, Alcatel Evolium BSS - RNE Fundamentals 3FL 11820 ACAA WBZZA Edition 3 RNE Fundamentals
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Evolium BSS - RNE Fundamentals
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RNE Fundamentals
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Objectives
By the end of the course, participants will be able to: - Plan a standard GSM (single band and single layer)
network in urban, suburban and rural areas fulfillingdefined coverage probability;
- Choose suitable BTS site configurations for different clutter types:
- Omni sites/sectorized sites, - Number of TRX,
- Antenna height and antenna type,
- Feeder cable.
- Plan site locations:
- To achieve planned coverage probability
- Inter site distance Antenna azimuth and tilt.
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Objectives [cont.]
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Table of Contents
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1 Introduction 141.1 Standardisation & Documentation 151.1.1 www.3GPP.org organizational partners 161.1.2 TSG Organisation 171.1.3 Specifications and Releases 181.1.4 Specifications out of Release 1999 19
1.2 Radio Network Architecture 201.2.1GSM Network Architecture with out GPRS 211.2.2 GSM Network Architecture with GPRS 221.2.3 OMC-R 231.2.4 GSM Network Elements 241.2.5 RF Spectrum 25
1.3 Mobile Phone Systems 261.3.1 Access Methods 271.3.2 FDMA 281.3.3 TDMA 291.3.4 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access) 301.3.5 Analogue Cellular Mobile Systems 311.3.6 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) 321.3.7 AMPS - Technical objectives 331.3.8 AMPS Frequency Range 341.3.9 TACS Total Access Communications System 351.3.10 TACS - Technical objectives 361.3.11 Different TACS-Systems 371.3.12 TACS (Total Access Communications System) 381.3.13 Why digital mobile communication ? 391.3.14 GSM - Technical objectives 401.3.15 DECT (Digital European Cordless Telephone) 411.3.16 DECT - Technical objectives 421.3.17 CDMA - Technical objectives 431.3.18 CDMA - Special Features 441.3.19 CDMA - Technical objectives 451.3.20 TETRA - Features 461.3.21 TETRA - Typical Users 471.3.22 TETRA - Technical objectives 481.3.23 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System 49
1.4 RNP Process Overview 501.4.1 Definition of RN Requirements 511.4.2 Preliminary Network Design 521.4.3 Project Setup and Management 531.4.4 Initial Radio Network Design 541.4.5 Site Acquisition Procedure 551.4.6 Technical Site Survey 561.4.7 Basic Parameter Definition 571.4.8 Cell Design CAE Data Exchange over COF 581.4.9 Turn On Cycle 591.4.10 Site Verification and Drive Test 601.4.11 HW / SW Problem Detection 611.4.12 Basic Network Optimization 621.4.13 Network Acceptance 631.4.14 Further Optimization 64
2 Coverage Planning 652.1 Geo databases 662.1.1 Why are geographical data needed for Radio Network Planning ? 672.1.2 Maps are flat 68
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Table of Contents [cont.]
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2.1.3 Mapping the earth 692.1.4 Map Projection 702.1.5 Geodetic Ellipsoid 712.1.6 Global & Regional Ellipsoids 722.1.7 Geodetic Datum 732.1.8 Different Map Projection’s 742.1.9 Geo-Coordinate System 752.1.10 WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 1984) 762.1.11 Transverse Mercator Projection 77
2.1 Geo databases 2.1.12 Transverse Mercator Projection (e.g. UTM ) 782.1.13 Universal Transverse Mercator System 792.1.14 UTM - Definitions 802.1.15 UTM Zones (e.g. Europe) 812.1.16 UTM-System 822.1.17 UTM Zone Numbers 832.1.18 UTM-System: Example "Stuttgart" 842.1.19 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection 852.1.20 Geospatial data for Network Planning 862.1.21Creation of geospatial databases 872.1.22 Parameters of a Map 882.1.23 Raster- and Vectordata 892.1.24 Rasterdata / Grid data 902.1.25 Vectordata 912.1.26 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) 92
2.1 Geo databases 2.1.27 Morphostructure / Land usage / Clutter (1) 932.1.28 Morphostructure (2) 942.1.29 Morphoclasses 952.1.30 Morphoclasses (2) 962.1.31Background data (streets, borders etc.) 972.1.32 Orthophoto 982.1.33 Scanned Maps 992.1.34 Buildings 1002.1.35 Buildings (2) 1012.1.36 Traffic density 1022.1.37 Converting one single point (1a) 1032.1.38 Converting one single point (1b) 1042.1.39 Converting one single point (2a) 1052.1.40 Converting one single point (2b) 1062.1.41 Converting a list of points (3a) 1072.1.42 Converting a list of points (3b) 1082.1.43 Converting a list of points (3c) 1092.1.44 Provider for Geospatial data 1102.1.45 Links for more detailed infos 111
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Table of Contents [cont.]
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2.2 Antennas and Cables 1122.2.1.1 The Antenna System 1132.2.1.2 Antenna Theory 1142.2.1.3 Antenna Data 1152.2.1.4 Antenna Pattern and HPBW 1162.2.1.5 EIRP 1172.2.1.6 Linear Antennas 1182.2.1.7 Monopole Antenna Pattern 1192.2.1.8 Panel Antenna with Dipole Array 1202.2.1.9 Dipole Arrangement 1212.2.1.10 Omni Antenna 122
2.2.2 Antenna Parameters 1232.2.2.1 X 65° T6 900MHz 2.5m 1242.2.2.2 X 65° T6 900MHz 1.9m 1252.2.2.3 X 90° T2 900MHz 2.5m 1262.2.2.4 V 65° T0 900MHz 2.0m 1272.2.2.5 V 90° T0 900MHz 2.0m 1282.2.2.4 X 65° T6 1800MHz 1.3m 1292.2.2.5 X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m 1302.2.2.6 X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.9m 1312.2.2.7 V 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m 1322.2.2.8 V 90° T2 1800MHz 1.9m 133
2.2.3 Cable Parameters 1342.2.3.1 7/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Coaxial Cable 1352.2.3.2 1-1/4" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable 1362.2.3.3 1-5/8" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable 1372.2.3.4 1/2" CELLFLEX® Jumper Cable 138
2.3 Radio Propagation 1392.3.1 Propagation effects 140
2.3.1.1 Reflection 1412.3.1.2 Refraction 1422.3.1.3 Diffraction 1432.3.1.4 Fading 1442.3.1.5 Fading types 1452.3.1.6 Signal Variation due to Fading 1462.3.1.7 Lognormal Fading 147
2.4 Path Loss Prediction 1482.4.1 Free Space Loss 1492.4.2 Fresnel Ellipsoid 1502.4.3 Fresnel Ellipsoid 1512.4.4 Knife Edge Diffraction 1522.4.5 Knife Edge Diffraction Function 1532.4.6 "Final Solution" for Wave Propagation Calculations? 1542.4.7 CCIR Recommendation 1552.4.8 Mobile Radio Propagation 1562.4.9 Terrain Modeling 1572.4.10 Effect of Morphostructure on Propagation Loss 1582.4.11 Okumura-Hata for GSM 900 1592.4.12 CORRECTIONS TO THE HATA FORMULA 1602.4.13 Hata-Okumura for GSM 900 1612.4.14 COST 231 Hata-Okumura GSM 1800 1622.4.15 Alcatel Propagation Model (Standard Propagation Model) 1632.4.16 Alcatel Propagation Model 1642.4.17 Exercise ‘Path Loss’ 165
2.5 Link Budget Calculation 1662.5.1 Maximum Propagation Loss (Downlink) 1672.5.2 Maximum Propagation Loss (Uplink) 1682.5.3 GSM900/1800 Link Budget 1692.5.3 GSM900/1800 Link Budget 1712.5.4 GSM1800 Link Budget 1722.5.5 Additional Losses Overview 173
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Table of Contents [cont.]
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2.6 Coverage Probability 1742.6.1 Indoor propagation aspects 1752.6.2 Indoor propagation: empirical model 1762.6.3 Indoor Penetration 1772.6.4 Body Loss (1) 1782.6.5 Body Loss (2) 1792.6.6 Body Loss (3) 1802.6.7 Interference Margin 1812.6.8 Degradation (no FH) 1822.6.9 Diversity Gain 1832.6.10 Lognormal margin 1842.6.11 Consideration of Signal Statistics (1) 1852.6.12 Consideration of Signal Statistics (2) 186
2.7 Cell Range Calculation 1872.7.1 Calculation of Coverage Radius R 1882.7.2 Coverage Probability 1892.7.3 Coverage Ranges and Hata Correction Factors 1902.7.4 Conventional BTS Configuration 1912.7.5 Coverage Improvement by Antenna Diversity 1922.7.6 Radiation Patterns and Range 1932.7.7 Improvement by Antenna Diversity and Sectorization 1942.7.8 Improvement by Antenna Preamplifier 195
2.8 Antenna Engineering 1962.8.1 Omni Antennas 1972.8.2 Sector Antenna 1982.8.3 Typical Applications 1992.8.4 Antenna Tilt 2002.8.5 Mechanical Downtilt 2012.8.6 Electrical Downtilt 2022.8.7 Combined Downtilt 2032.8.8 Assessment of Required Tilts 2042.8.9 Inter Site Distance in Urban Area 2052.8.10 Downtilt in Urban Area 2062.8.11 Downtilt in Urban Area 2072.8.12 Downtilt in Suburban and Rural Area 2082.8.13 Antenna configurations 2092.8.14 Antenna Configurations for Omni and Sector Sites 2102.8.15 Three Sector Antenna Configuration with AD 2112.8.16 Antenna Engineering Rules 2122.8.17 Distortion of antenna pattern 2132.8.18 Tx-Rx Decoupling (1) 2142.8.19 TX-RX Decoupling (2) 2152.8.20 TX-RX Decoupling (3) 2162.8.21 Space Diversity 2172.8.22 Power Divider 2182.8.23 Power Divider 2192.8.24 Panel Configurations (1) 2202.8.25 Panel Configurations (2) 2212.8.26 Panel Configurations (3) 222
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Table of Contents [cont.]
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2.8 Antenna Engineering 2.8.27 Feeders 2232.8.28 Feeder Installation Set and Connectors 2242.8.29 Feeder Parameters 2252.8.30 Feeder attenuation (1) 226
2.8 Antenna Engineering 2.8.31 Radiating Cables 2272.8.32 Components of a radiating cable system 2282.8.33 Comparison of field strength: Radiating cable and standard antenna 2292.8.34 Example of a radiating cable in a tunnel 2302.8.35 Microwave antennas, feeders and accessories 2312.8.36 Parabolic antenna 2322.8.37 High performance antenna 2332.8.38 Horn antennas 2342.8.39 Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (1) 2352.8.40 Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (2) 2362.8.41 Data sheet 15 GHz 2372.8.42 Radiation pattern envelope 2382.8.43 Feeders (1) 2392.8.44 Feeders (2) 2402.8.45 Feeders (3) 2412.8.46 Feeders (4) 2422.8.47 Feeders (5) 2432.8.48 Antenna feeder systems (1) 2442.8.49 Antenna feeder systems (2) 2452.8.50 Antenna feeder systems (3) 246
2.9 Alcatel BSS 2472.9.1 Architecture of BTS - Evolium Evolution A9100 2482.9.2 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (1) 2492.9.3 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (2) 2502.9.4 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (3) 2512.9.5 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features 2522.9.7 Generic Configurations for A9100 G4/5 BTS 2582.9.8 Non multi-band configurations 2592.9.9 Multi-band configurations 2602.9.10 Extended cell configurations 2612.9.11 Standard configurations 2622.9.12 TRX Types 2632.9.12 TRX Types 2642.9.13 BTS Output Power 2652.9.14 Feature Power Balancing 2662.9.15 Cell Split Feature 2672.9.19 Cell Split Example: High Power Configuration 2682.9.22 Indoor BTS Rack Layout 2692.9.23 Outdoor MBO1 Evolution and MBO2 Evolution cabinets 2702.9.24 Micro BTS types 2712.9.25 Technical Data 2722.9.26 BSC capacities in terms of boards 2732.9.27 Capacity and dimensioning for E1 links 2742.9.28 Abis and atermux allocation on LIU boards 275
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Table of Contents [cont.]
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2.10 Coveradge Improvement 2762.10.1 Antenna Diversity 2772.10.1.1 Diversity 2782.10.1.2 Selection Diversity (1) 2792.10.1.3 Selection Diversity (2) 2802.10.1.4 Selection Diversity (3) 2812.10.1.5 Equal Gain Combining (1) 2822.10.1.6 Equal Gain Combining (2) 2832.10.1.7 Maximum Ratio Combining (1) 2842.10.1.8 Maximum Ratio Combining (2) 2852.10.1.9 Comparison of combining methods 2862.10.1.10 Enhanced Diversity Combining (1) 2872.10.1.11 Enhanced Diversity Combining (2) 2882.10.1.12 Tx Diversity 2892.10.1.12 Tx Diversity 2902.10.1.12 Tx Diversity 2912.10.1.12 Tx Diversity 2922.10.1.12 Diversity systems in Mobile Radio Networks 2932.10.1.13 Space Diversity Systems 2942.10.1.14 Space Diversity - General Rules 2952.10.1.15 Achievable Diversity Gain 2962.10.1.16 Polarization Diversity 2972.10.1.17 Principle of Polarization Diversity 2982.10.1.18 Air Combining 2992.10.1.19 Air Combining with Polarization Diversity 3002.10.1.20 Air Combining with Space Diversity 3012.10.1.21 Decoupling of Signal Branches 3022.10.1.22 Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (1) 3032.10.1.23 Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (2) 3042.10.1.24 Conclusion on Antenna Diversity 305
2.10.2 Repeater Systems 3062.10.2.1 Repeater Application 3072.10.2.2 Repeater Block Diagram 3082.10.2.3 Repeater Applications (2) 3092.10.2.4 Repeater Types 3102.10.2.5 Repeater for Tunnel Coverage 3112.10.2.4 Repeater for Indoor coverage 3122.10.2.5 Planning Aspects 3132.10.2.6 Repeater Gain Limitation (1) 3142.10.2.7 Repeater Gain Limitation (2) 3152.10.2.8 Intermodulation Products 3162.10.2.9 Repeater Link Budget 3172.10.2.10 High Power TRXs 3182.10.2.13 3x6 TRXs High Power Configuration 3192.10.2.14 Mixed TRX Configuration 320
3 Traffic & Frequency Planning 3213.1 Traffic Caspacity 3223.1.1 Telephone System 3233.1.2 Offered Traffic and Traffic Capacity 3243.1.3 Definition of Erlang 3253.1.4 Call Mix and Erlang Calculation 3263.1.5 ERLANG B LAW (2) 3283.1.6 Erlang´s Formula 3293.1.7 Blocking Probability (Erlang B) 3303.1.8 BTS Traffic Capacity (Full Rate) 331
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3.2 Network Evolution 3323.2.1 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (1) 3333.2.2 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (2) 3343.2.3 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (3) 3353.2.4 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (4) 336
3.3 Cell Structures 3373.3.1 Cell Structures and Quality 3383.3.2 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites) (1) 3393.3.2 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites)(2) 3403.3.4 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site) (1) 3413.3.5 4x3 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site) (2) 3423.3.6 Irregular (Real) Cell Shapes 343
3.4 Frequency Reuse 3443.4.1 GSM Frequency Spectrum 3453.4.2 Impact of limited Frequency Spectrum 3463.4.3 What is frequency reuse? 3473.4.4 RCS and ARCS (1) 3483.4.5 RCS and ARCS (2) 3493.4.6 Reuse Cluster Size (1) 3503.4.7 Reuse Cluster Size (2) 3513.4.8 Reuse Distance 3523.4.9 Frequency Reuse Distance 3533.4.10 Frequency Reuse: Example 354
3.5 Cell Planning 3553.5.1 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (1) 3563.5.2 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (2) 3573.5.3 Influencing Factors on Frequency Reuse Distance 3583.5.4 Conclusion 3593.5.5 Examples for different frequency reuses 360
3.6 Interference Probability 3613.6.1 Interference Theory (1) 3623.6.2 Interference Theory (2) 3633.6.3 CPDF - Cumulative Probability Density Function 3643.6.4 Interference Probability dependent on Average Reuse 365
3.7 Carrier Types 3663.7.1 Carrier Types - BCCH carrier 3673.7.2 Carrier Types - TCH carrier 368
3.8 Multiple Reuse Pattern MRP 3693.8.1 Meaning of multiple reuse pattern (1) 3703.8.2 Meaning of multiple reuse pattern (2) 3713.8.3 GSM restrictions 372
3.9 Intermodulation 3733.9.1 Intermodulation problems (1) 3743.9.2 Intermodulation problems (2) 3753.9.3 Intermodulation problems (3) - Summary 3763.9.4 Treating “neighbor” cells 3773.9.5 Where can I find neighbor cells? 378
3.10 Manual Frequency Planning 3793.10.1 Frequency planning (1) 3803.10.2 Frequency planning (2) 3813.10.3 Exercise: Manual frequency planning (1) 3823.10.4 Exercise: Manual frequency planning (2) 3833.10.5 Discussion: Subdivide Frequency Band? 3843.10.6 Hint for creating a future proofed frequency plan 3853.10.7 Implementing a frequency plan 386
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3.11 BSCI Planning 3873.11.1 BSCI allocation 3883.11.2 BSIC Planning Rules 3893.11.3 Spurious RACH 3903.11.4 Summary 391
3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques 3923.12.1 Capacity enhancement by planning 3933.12.2 Capacity enhancement by adding feature 3943.12.3 Capacity enhancement by adding TRX 3953.12.4 Capacity enhancement by adding cells 3963.12.5 Capacity enhancement by adding sites 397
4 Radio Interface 398
4.1 GSM Air Interface 3994.1.1 Radio Resources 4004.1.2 GSM Transmission Principles (1) 4014.1.3 GSM Transmission Principles (2) 4024.1.4 Advantages of Signal Processing 4034.1.5 Signal Processing Chain 404
4.2 Channel Coding 4054.2.1 Speech Coding 4064.2.2 Error Protection 4074.2.3 Interleaving and TDMA Frame Mapping 4084.2.4 Encryption 4094.2.5 Burst Structure 4104.2.4 Synchronisation 4114.2.5 Modulation 4124.2.6 Propagation Environment 4134.2.7 Equalizing 4144.2.8 Definition of Bit Error Rates 4154.2.9 Speech Quality 4164.2.10 Dependence of BER on Noise and Interference 4174.2.13 Frequency Hopping (1) 4184.2.14 Frequency Hopping (2) 4194.2.15 The OSI Reference Model 4204.2.16 GSM Burst Types (1) 4214.2.17 GSM Burst Types (2) 4224.2.18 Logical Channels 4234.2.19 Possible Channel Combinations 4244.2.20 Channel Mapping (1) 4254.2.21 Channel Mapping (2) 4264.2.22 TDMA Frame Structure for TCHs 427
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1 Introduction
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1 Intruduction
1.1 Standardisation & Documentation
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1.1 Standardisation & Documentation
1.1.1 www.3GPP.org organizational partners
Project supported by
ARIB Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (Japan)
CWTS China Wireless Telecommunication Standard group
ETSI European Telecommunications Standards Institut
T1 Standards Committee T1 Telecommunication (US)
TTA Telecommunications Technology Association (Korea)
TTC Telecommunication Technology Committee (Japan)
The Organizational Partners shall determine the general policy and strategy of 3GPP and perform the following tasks:
Approval and maintenance of the 3GPP scope
Maintenance the Partnership Project Description
Taking decisions on the creation or cessation of Technical Specification Groups, and approving their scope and terms of reference
Approval of Organizational Partner funding requirements
Allocation of human and financial resources provided by the Organizational Partners to the Project Co-ordination Group
Source: www.3gpp.org
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TSG ORGANIZATION
Project Co-ordination Group
(PCG)
TSG RANRadio Access Networks
RAN WG1
Radio Layer 1 specification
RAN WG2
Radio Layer2 &3 spec
RAN WG3UTRAN O&M requirements
RAN WG4Radio &Protocol Aspects
RAN WG5 (ex T1)Mobile TerminalTesting
TSG SAServices & System Aspects
SA WG1Services
SA WG2Architecture
SA WG3Security
SA WG4Codec
SA WG5Telecom Management
TSG CTCore Network & Terminals
CT WG1 (ex CN1)MM/CC/SM (lu)
CT WG3 (ex CN3)Networks Interworking
CT WG4 (ex CN4)MAP/GTP/BCH/SS
CT WG5 (ex CN5)Open Service Access
CT WG6 (ex T3)Card Application Aspects
TSG GERANGSM EDGE
Radio Access Network
GERAN WG1Radio Aspects
GERAN WG2Protocol Aspects
GERAN WG3Terminal TestingGERAN WG3Terminal Testing
1.1 Standardisation & Documentation
1.1.2 TSG Organisation
Source: www.3gpp.org
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1.1 Standardisation & Documentation
1.1.3 Specifications and Releases
GSM/Edge Releases: http://www.3gpp.org/specs/releases.htm
TR 41.103 GSM Phase 2+ Release 5
• Freeze date: March - June 2002
TR 41.102 GSM Phase 2+ Release 4
• Freeze date: March 2001
TR 01.01 Phase 2+ Release 1999
• Freeze date: March 2000
For the latest specification status information please go to the 3GPP Specifications database: http://www.3gpp.org/ftp/Information/Databases/Spec_Status/
The latest versions of specifications can be found on ftp://ftp.3gpp.org/specs/latest/
TS – Technical Specification
TR – Technical Report
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1.1 Standardisation & Documentation
1.1.4 Specifications out of Release 1999
TR 01.04 Abbreviations and acronyms
TS 03.22 Functions related to Mobile Station (MS) in idle mode and group receive mode
TR 03.30 Radio Network Planning Aspects
TS 04.04 Layer 1 - General Requirements
TS 04.06 Mobile Station - Base Stations System (MS - BSS) Interface Data Link (DL) Layer Specification
TS 04.08 Mobile radio interface layer 3 specification
TS 05.05 Radio Transmission and Reception
TS 05.08 Radio Subsystem Link Control
TS 08.06 Signalling Transport Mechanism Specification for the Base Station System - Mobile Services Switching Centre (BSS-MSC) Interface
TS 08.08 Mobile-services Switching Centre - Base Station system (MSC-BSS) Interface Layer 3 Specification
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1 Intruduction
1.2 Radio Network Architecture
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1.2 Radio Network Architecture
1.2.1GSM Network Architecture with out GPRS
HLRHLRHLRHLR GCRGCRGCRGCR AuCAuCAuCAuC
EEEE
BBBB CCCC
DDDD
FFFF
GGGGHHHH
IIII
AbisAbisAbisAbis
BBBB CCCC DDDD EEEE FFFF GGGG HHHH IIII
PSTNPSTNPSTNPSTN
ISDNISDNISDNISDN
BTS BTS BTS BTS ---- BSC BSC BSC BSC
MSCMSCMSCMSC----VLRVLRVLRVLR (SM(SM(SM(SM----G)MSCG)MSCG)MSCG)MSC----HLRHLRHLRHLR
HLRHLRHLRHLR----VLRVLRVLRVLR (SM(SM(SM(SM----G)MSCG)MSCG)MSCG)MSC----MSCMSCMSCMSC (SS7 basic) + (SS7 basic) + (SS7 basic) + (SS7 basic) +
MAPMAPMAPMAP MSCMSCMSCMSC----EIREIREIREIR VLRVLRVLRVLR----VLRVLRVLRVLR
HLRHLRHLRHLR----AuCAuCAuCAuC MSCMSCMSCMSC----GCRGCRGCRGCR
MSCMSCMSCMSC----PSTNPSTNPSTNPSTN (SS7 basic) + TUP or (SS7 basic) + TUP or (SS7 basic) + TUP or (SS7 basic) + TUP or ISUPISUPISUPISUP MSCMSCMSCMSC----ISDNISDNISDNISDN
LapDLapDLapDLapD
(ISDN type)
GSM CircuitGSM CircuitGSM CircuitGSM Circuit----switching:switching:switching:switching:
(BSSAP = BSSMAP + DTAP)
AAAA BSC BSC BSC BSC ---- MSC MSC MSC MSC (SS7 basic) + (SS7 basic) + (SS7 basic) + (SS7 basic) + BSSAPBSSAPBSSAPBSSAP
BTSBTSBTSBTS
LapDmLapDmLapDmLapDm
(GSM specific)
Um Um Um Um (Radio)(Radio)(Radio)(Radio)
MS MS MS MS ---- BTS BTS BTS BTS
BSCBSCBSCBSC BSCBSCBSCBSC
MSCMSCMSCMSC MSCMSCMSCMSC
BTSBTSBTSBTS
PSTN /PSTN /PSTN /PSTN / ISDN ISDN ISDN ISDN
MSMSMSMS
VLRVLRVLRVLR VLRVLRVLRVLR EIREIREIREIR
AuCAuCAuCAuC
AuC Authentication Center
BTS Base Transceiver Station
BSC Base Station Controller
BSS Base Station System
EIR Equipment Identity Register
HLR Home Location Register
ISDN Integrated Services Digital Network
MS Mobile Station
OMC-R Operation and Maintenance Centre – Radio
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
VLR Visitor Location Register
GCR Group Call Register -The general architecture of GSM is maintained. In addition, a network function is required which is used for registration of the broadcast call attributes, the Group Call Register.
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GcGcGcGc GGSNGGSNGGSNGGSN----HLRHLRHLRHLR IP/SS7IP/SS7IP/SS7IP/SS7
LAPDmLAPDmLAPDmLAPDm(GSM specific)
GsGsGsGs
GbGbGbGb
UmUmUmUm (Radio)(Radio)(Radio)(Radio)
GiGiGiGi GGSNGGSNGGSNGGSN----Data NetworkData NetworkData NetworkData Network IPIPIPIP
MSMSMSMS
BSS BSS BSS BSS ---- SGSN SGSN SGSN SGSN
GrGrGrGr SS7SS7SS7SS7SGSNSGSNSGSNSGSN----HLRHLRHLRHLR
GfGfGfGf SS7SS7SS7SS7SGSNSGSNSGSNSGSN----EIREIREIREIRSGSNSGSNSGSNSGSN----MSC/VLRMSC/VLRMSC/VLRMSC/VLR
GnGnGnGnSGSNSGSNSGSNSGSN----GGSNGGSNGGSNGGSN IPIPIPIP
IPIPIPIPSGSNSGSNSGSNSGSN----SGSNSGSNSGSNSGSN
MS MS MS MS ---- BTS BTS BTS BTS
GsGsGsGs
GfGfGfGfGrGrGrGr
GnGnGnGn
GnGnGnGn
GcGcGcGc SS7SS7SS7SS7
GSM GSM GSM GSM PacketPacketPacketPacket----switchingswitchingswitchingswitching (GPRS/EDGE):(GPRS/EDGE):(GPRS/EDGE):(GPRS/EDGE):
BSSGPBSSGPBSSGPBSSGP
BSS BSS BSS BSS withwithwithwithPCUPCUPCUPCU
BSS BSS BSS BSS withwithwithwithPCUPCUPCUPCU
HLRHLRHLRHLR EIREIREIREIR
DataDataDataDataNetworkNetworkNetworkNetwork
SGSNSGSNSGSNSGSN
GGSNGGSNGGSNGGSN
SGSNSGSNSGSNSGSNMSCMSCMSCMSC
1.2 Radio Network Architecture
1.2.2 GSM Network Architecture with GPRS
Note: according to GSM 03.60, the PCU function (Packet Control Unit) may be implemented on the BTS, the BSC or the SGSN site.
MFS Multi – BSS Fast Packet Server A935
PSTN Public Switched Telephone Network
SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node
GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node
VLR Visitor Location Register
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1.2 Radio Network Architecture
1.2.3 OMC-R
BSSBSSBSSBSS
BTSBTSBTSBTS
BTSBTSBTSBTS
AlcatelAlcatelAlcatelAlcatel9135 9135 9135 9135 MFSMFSMFSMFS
SSPSSPSSPSSP+ RCP+ RCP+ RCP+ RCP
BSCBSCBSCBSC
SGSNSGSNSGSNSGSN
OMCOMCOMCOMC----RRRR
MSMSMSMS
AAAA bisbisbisbis AAAA terterterter
TCTCTCTC
GbGbGbGb
AAAA
GGSNGGSNGGSNGGSNGnGnGnGn
OMCOMCOMCOMC----GGGG
NSSNSSNSSNSS
GPRS CNGPRS CNGPRS CNGPRS CN
GPRS Core Network (CN): Alcatel 1000 GPRS
Packet Control Unit (PCU) function for several BSS: Alcatel 9135 MFS
TC Transcoder
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1.2 Radio Network Architecture
1.2.4 GSM Network Elements
Base Station System BSS
Base Transceiver Station BTS
Base Station Controller BSC
Terminal Equipment
Mobile Station MS
Operation and Maintenance Center-Radio OMC-R
Network Subsystem NSS
Mobile Services Switching Center MSC
Visitor Location Register VLR
Home Location Register HLR
Authentication Center AuC
Equipment Identity Register EIR
Operation and Maintenance Center OMC
Multi-BSS Fast Packet Server (GPRS) MFS
Serving GPRS Support Node SGSN
Gateway GPRS Support Node GGSN
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1.2 Radio Network Architecture
1.2.5 RF Spectrum
System Total Bandwidth Uplink frequency band /MHz
Downlink frequency band /MHz
Carrier Spacing
GSM 450 2x7.5MHz 450.4-457.6 460.4-467.6 200 kHz
GSM 480 2x7.2MHz 478.8-486 488.8-496 200 kHz
GSM 850 2x25MHz 824-849 869-894 200 kHz
GSM 900 2x25MHz 890-915 935-960 200 kHz
E-GSM 2x35MHz 880-915 925-960 200 kHz
DCS 1800 (GSM)
2x75MHz 1710-1785 1805-1880 200 kHz
PCS 1900 (GSM)
2x60MHz 1850-1910 1930-1990 200 kHz
AMPS : UK
TACS : UK
DECT: Cordless
CDMA: System of next Generation
TETRA: Digital communication System for Commercial use
Frequency Ranges depends on country.
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1 Intruduction
1.3 Mobile Phone Systems
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FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
TDMA (Time Division Multiple Access)
CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.1 Access Methods
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@@SECTION - @@MODULE - 25
1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.2 FDMA
Used for standard analog cellular mobile systems(AMPS, TACS, NMT etc.)
Each user is assigned a discrete slice of the RF spectrum
Permits only one user per channel since it allows the user to use the channel 100% of the time.
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.3 TDMA
Multiple users share RF carrier on a time slot basis
Carriers are sub-divided into timeslots
Information flow is not continuous for an user, it is sent and received in "bursts"
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.4 CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access)
Multiple access spread spectrum technique
Each user is assigned a sequence code during a call
No time division; all users use the entire carrier
What is CDMA ?
One of the most important concepts to any cellular telephone system is that of "multiple access", meaning that multiple,
simultaneous users can be supported. In other words, a large number of users share a common pool of radio channels and
any user can gain access to any channel (each user is not always assigned to the same channel). A channel can be thought
of as merely a portion of the limited radio resource which is temporary allocated for a specific purpose, such as
someone's phone call. A multiple access method is a definition of how the radio spectrum is divided into channels and
how channels are allocated to the many users of the system.
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.5 Analogue Cellular Mobile Systems
Analogue transmission of speech
One TCH/Channel
Only FDMA (Frequency Division Multiple Access)
Different Systems
AMPS (Countries: USA)
TACS (UK, I, A, E, ...)
NMT (SF, S, DK, N, ...)
...
NMT: Nordic Mobile Telephone System. Allianz von Nordischen Systembetreibern.
AMPS: Advanced Mobile Phone System
TACS: Total Access Communications System
UK United Kingdom
I Italy
A Austria
E Spain
SF Finnland
S Schweden
DK Denmark
N Norwegen
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.6 AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System)
Analogue cellular mobile telephone system
Predominant cellular system operating in the US
Original system: 666 channels (624 voice and 42 control channels)
EAMPS - Extended AMPS Current system: 832 channels (790 voice, 42 control); has replaced AMPS as the US standard
NAMPS - Narrowband AMPS New system that has three times more voice channels than EAMPS with no loss of signal quality
Backward compatible: if the infrastructure is designed properly, older phones work on the newer systems
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.7 AMPS - Technical objectives
Technology FDMARF frequency band 825 - 890 MHzChannel Spacing 30 kHzCarriers 666 (832)Timeslots 1Mobile Power 0.6 - 4 WTransmission Voice, (data)HO possibleRoaming possible
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.8 AMPS Frequency Range
991 1023 1 666 667 799
Extended AMPS
AMPSUplink
Channel number
Frequency of Channel(MHz)
824.040 825.030 844.980
845.010
845.010
Duplex distance45 MHz
Downlink
Channel number
Frequency of Channel(MHz)
991 1023 1 666 667 799
Extended AMPS
AMPS
869.040 870.030 889.980 893.980
890.010
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.9 TACS Total Access Communications System
Analogue cellular mobile telephone system
The UK TACS system was based on the US AMPS system
TACS - Original UK system that has either 600 or 1000 channels (558 or958 voice channels, 42 control channels)
RF frequency band: 890 - 960Uplink: 890-915 Downlink: 935-960
Channel spacing: 25 KHz
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.10 TACS - Technical objectives
Technology FDMARF frequency band 890 - 960 MHzChannel Spacing 25 kHzCarriers 1000Timeslots 1Mobile Power 0.6 - 10 WTransmission Voice , (data)HO possibleRoaming possible
Tacs disturb GSM because the same frequency- range!
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.11 Different TACS-Systems
ETACS - Extended TACS Current UK system that has 1320 channels (1278 voice, 42 control)
and has replaced TACS as the UK standard
ITACS and IETACS - International (E)TACS Minor variation of TACS to allow operation outside of the UK by allowing flexibility in
assigning the control channels
JTACS - Japanese TACS A version of TACS designed for operation in Japan
NTACS - Narrowband TACS New system that has three times as many voice channels as ETACS with no loss of
signal quality
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.12 TACS (Total Access Communications System)
1329 2047 0 23 44 323
344
600
100011
890.0125(935.0125
)
905(950
)
915(960
)
1st Assignment in the UK (600 channels)
Organisation B
Organisation A
Original concept (1000 channels)
890935
889.9875(934.9875
)
889.9625(934.9625
)
872.0125(917.0125
)
872917
Frequency of channel
[Mhz]
Number of Channel
E-TACS - 1320 Channels
Borders of channels [Mhz]
Mobile Station TX
(Base Station TX)
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.13 Why digital mobile communication ?
Easy adaptation to digital networks
Digital signaling serves for flexible adaptation to operational needs
Possibility to realize a wide spectrum of non-voice services
Digital transmission allows for high cellular implementation flexibility
Digital signal processing gain results in high interference immunity
Privacy of radio transmission ensured by digital voice coding and
encryption
Cost and performance trends of modern microelectronics are
in favour of a digital solution
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.14 GSM - Technical objectives
Technology TDMA/FDMARF frequency band 890 - 960 MHzChannel Spacing 200 kHzCarriers 124Timeslots 8Mobile Power (average/max) 2 W/ 8 WBTS Power class 10 ... 40 WMS sensitivity - 102 dBmBTS sensitivity - 104 dBmTransmission Voice, dataHO possibleRoaming possible
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.15 DECT (Digital European Cordless Telephone)
European Standard for Cordless Communication
Using TDMA-System
Traditional Applications
Domestic use ("Cordless telephone")
Cordless office applications
Combination possible with
ISDN
GSM
High flexibility for different applications
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.16 DECT - Technical objectives
Technology TDMA/FDMARF frequency band 1880 - 1900 MHzChannel Spacing 1.728 MHzCarriers 10Timeslots 12 (duplex)Mobile Power (average/max) 10 mW/250 mWBTS Power class 250 mWMS sensitivity -83 dBmBTS sensitivity -83 dBmTransmission Voice, dataHO possible
Frequency Range with 10 carriers, 1728 KHz channel spacing
10 carrier 24 timeslots
120 Duplex channels
cell radius 200-300 meter
no Equalizer
HO und Macro Diversity Optional
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.17 CDMA - Technical objectives
Spread spectrum technology(Code Division Multiple Access)
Several users occupy continuously one CDMA channel(bandwidth: 1.25 MHz) The CDMA channel can be re-used in every cell
Each user is addressed by
A specific code and
Selected by correlation processing
Orthogonal codes provides optimumisolation between users
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Vocoder:
8Kbps oder 13 Kbps.
Multiple Forms of diversity:
Frequency diversity (Spektrum 1.25 MHz)
Spatial diversity (2 different receiving Antennas)
Path diversity (Usage of Multi-path propagation)
Time diversity (Interleaving, error correction codes….)
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.18 CDMA - Special Features
Vocoder allows variable data rates
Soft handover
Open and closed loop power control
Multiple forms of diversity
Data, fax and short message services possible
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.19 CDMA - Technical objectives
Technology CDMARF frequency band 869-894 / 824-849
or 1900 MHzChannel Spacing 1250 kHzChannels per 1250 kHz 64Mobile Power (average/max) 1-6.3 W / 6.3 WTransmission Voice, dataHO ("Soft handoff") possibleRoaming possible
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.20 TETRA - Features
Standard for a frequency efficient european digital trunked radio communication system (defined in 1990)
Possibility of connections with simultaneous transmission of voice and data
Encryption at two levels:
Basic level which uses the air interface encryption
End-to-end encryption (specifically intended for public safety users)
Open channel operation
"Direct Mode" possible
Communication between two MS without connecting via a BTS
MS can be used as a repeater
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.21 TETRA - Typical Users
Public safety
Police (State, Custom, Military, Traffic)
Fire brigades
Ambulance service
...
Railway, transport and distribution companies
For use in:
Police, ambulance and fire Services Security Services Military Transport Services Closed User Groups (CUGs) Factory site services
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.22 TETRA - Technical objectives
Technology TDMA/FDMARF frequency band 380 - 400 MHzChannel Spacing 25 or 12.5 KHzCarriers not yet specifiedTimeslots 4Mobile Power (3 Classes) 1, 3, 10 WBTS Power class 0.6 - 25 WMS sensitivity -103 dBmBTS sensitivity -106 dBmTransmission Voice, data, images,
short messageHO possibleRoaming possible
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1.3 Mobile Phone Systems Access Methods
1.3.23 Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
Third generation mobile communication system
Combining existing mobile services (GSM, CDMA etc.) and fixed
telecommunications services
More capacity and bandwidth
More services (Speech, Video, Audio, Multimedia etc.)
Worldwide roaming
"High" subscriber capacity
http://www.vtt.fi/tte/nh/UMTS/
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1 Intruduction
1.4 RNP Process Overview
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.1 Definition of RN Requirements
The Request for Quotation (RfQ) from the customer prescribes the requirements mainly
Coverage
Definition of coverage probability
• Percentage of measurements above level threshold
Definition of covered area
Traffic
Definition of Erlang per square kilometer
Definition of number of TRX in a cell
Mixture of circuit switched and packed switched traffic
QoS
Call success rate
RxQual, voice quality, throughput rates, ping time
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.2 Preliminary Network Design
The preliminary design lays the foundation to create the Bill of Quantity (BoQ)
List of needed network elements
Geo data procurement
Digital Elevation Model DEM/Topographic map
Clutter map
Definition of standard equipment configurations dependent on
clutter type
traffic density
Coverage Plots
Expected receiving level
Definition of roll out phases
Areas to be covered
Number of sites to be installed
Date, when the roll out takes place.
Network architecture design
Planning of BSC and MSC locations and their links
Frequency spectrum from license conditions
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.3 Project Setup and Management
This phase includes all tasks to be performed before the on site part of the RNP process takes place.
This ramp up phase includes:
Geo data procurement if required
Setting up ‘general rules’ of the project
Define and agree on reporting scheme to be used
• Coordination of information exchange between the different teams which are involved in the project
Each department/team has to prepare its part of the project
Definition of required manpower and budget
Selection of project database (MatrixX)
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.4 Initial Radio Network Design
Area surveys As well check of correctness of geo data
Frequency spectrum partitioning design
RNP tool calibration For the different morpho classes:
• Performing of drive measurements
• Calibration of correction factor and standard deviation by comparison of measurements to predicted received power values of the tool
Definition of search areas (SAM – Search Area Map) A team searches for site locations in the defined areas
The search team should be able to speak the national language
Selection of number of sectors/TRX per site together with project management and customer
Get ‘real’ design acceptance from customer based on coverage prediction and predefined design level thresholds
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.5 Site Acquisition Procedure
Delivery of site candidates
Several site candidates shall be the result out of the site location search
Find alternative sites
If no site candidate or no satisfactory candidate can be found in the search area
Definition of new SAM (Search Area Map)
Possibly adaptation of radio network design
Check and correct SAR (Site Acquisition Report)
Location information
Land usage
Object (roof top, pylon, grassland) information
Site plan
Site candidate acceptance and ranking
If the reported site is accepted as candidate, then it is ranked according to its quality in terms of
• Radio transmission
-High visibility on covered area
-No obstacles in the near field of the antennas
-No interference from other systems/antennas
• Installation costs
-Installation possibilities
-Power supply
-Wind and heat
• Maintenance costs
-Accessibility
-Rental rates for object
-Durability of object
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.6 Technical Site Survey
Agree on an equipment installation solution satisfying the needs of
RNE Radio Network Engineer
Transmission planner
Site engineer
Site owner
The Technical Site Survey Report (TSSR) defines
Antenna type, position, bearing/orientation and tilt
Mast/pole or wall mounting position of antennas
EMC rules are taken into account
• Radio network engineer and transmission planner check electro magnetic compatibility (EMC) with other installed devices
BTS/Node B location
Power and feeder cable mount
Transmission equipment installation
Final Line Of Site (LOS) confirmation for microwave link planning
• E.g. red balloon of around half a meter diameter marks target location
If the site is not acceptable or the owner disagrees with all suggested solutions
The site will be rejected
Site acquisition team has to organize a new date with the next site from the ranking list
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.7 Basic Parameter Definition
After installation of equipment the basic parameter settings are used for
Commissioning
• Functional test of BTS and VSWR check
Call tests
RNEs define cell design data
Operations field service generates the basic software using the cell design CAE data
Cell design CAE data to be defined for all cells are for example:
CI/LAC/BSIC
Frequencies
Neighborhood/cell handover relationship
Transmit power
Cell type (macro, micro, umbrella, …)
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.8 Cell Design CAE Data Exchange over COF
A9156 RNO
OMC 1
COF
ACIE
ACIE
POLOBSS Software offline production
3rd Party RNP or Database
A955 V5 /A9155 V6
RNP
A9155PRC Generator
Module
ConversionOMC 2
ACIE = PRC file
ACIE ASCII Configuration Import Export
PRC Provisioning Radio Configuration
SC Supervised Configuration
COF CMA Offsite
CMA Customer Management Application
CAE Customer Application Engineering
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.9 Turn On Cycle
The network is launched step by step during the TOC
A single step takes typically two or three weeks
Not to mix up with rollout phases, which take months or even years
For each step the RNE has to define ‘TOC Parameter’
Cells to go on air
Determination of frequency plan
Cell design CAE parameter
Each step is finished with the ‘Turn On Cycle Activation’
Upload PRC/ACIE files into OMC-R
Unlock sites
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.10 Site Verification and Drive Test
RNE performs drive measurement to compare the real coverage with the predicted coverage of the cells.
If coverage holes or areas of high interference are detected
Adjust the antenna tilt and orientation
Verification of cell design CAE data
To fulfill heavy acceptance test requirements, it is absolutely essential to perform such a drive measurement.
Basic site and area optimization reduces the probability to haveunforeseen mysterious network behavior afterwards.
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.11 HW / SW Problem Detection
Problems can be detected due to drive tests or equipment monitoring
Defective equipment
• will trigger replacement by operation field service
Software bugs
Incorrect parameter settings
• are corrected by using the OMC or in the next TOC
Faulty antenna installation
• Wrong coverage footprints of the site will trigger antenna re-alignments
If the problem is serious
Lock BTS
Detailed error detection
Get rid of the fault
Eventually adjusting antenna tilt and orientation
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.12 Basic Network Optimization
Network wide drive measurements It is highly recommended to perform network wide drive tests before doing
the commercial opening of the network
Key performance indicators (KPI) are determined
The results out of the drive tests are used for basic optimization of the network
Basic optimization All optimization tasks are still site related
Alignment of antenna system
Adding new sites in case of too large coverage holes
Parameter optimization• No traffic yet -> not all parameters can be optimized
Basic optimization during commercial service If only a small number of new sites are going on air the basic optimization
will be included in the site verification procedure
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.13 Network Acceptance
Acceptance drive test
Calculation of KPI according to acceptance requirements in contract
Presentation of KPI to the customer
Comparison of key performance indicators with the acceptance targets in the contract
The customer accepts
the whole network
only parts of it step by step
Now the network is ready for commercial launch
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1.4 RNP Process Overview
1.4.14 Further Optimization
Network is in commercial operation
Network optimization can be performed
Significant traffic allows to use OMC based statistics by using A9156 RNO and A9185 NPA
End of optimization depends on contract and mutual agreement between Alcatel and customer
Usually, Alcatel is only involved during the first optimization activities directly after opening the network commercially
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2 Coverage Planning
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2 Coverage Planning
2.1 Geo databases
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2.1 Geo databases
2.1.1 Why are geographical data needed for Radio Network Planning ?
Propagation models dependon geographical data
Geographical information for site acquisition
Latitude (East/West) / Longitude (North/South)
Rectangular coordinates(e.g. UTM coordinates)
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2.1.2 Maps are flat
Longitude
Latitude
x, y
Problem: Earth is 3D, the maps are 2D
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2.1.3 Mapping the earth
The Earth is a very complex shape
To map the geography of the earth, a reference model (-> Geodetic Datum) is needed
The model needs to be simple so that it is easy to use
It needs to include a Coordinate system which allows the positions of objects to be uniquely identified
It needs to be readily associated with the physical world so that its use is intuitive
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2.1.4 Map Projection
Geodetic Datume.g. WGS84, ED50
Ellipsoide.g. WGS84,
International 1924
GeocoordinateSysteme.g. UTM
Map Projectione.g. Transverse Mercator (UTM),
Lambert Conformal Conic
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2.1.5 Geodetic Ellipsoid
Definition: A mathematical surface (an ellipse rotated around the earth's polar axis) which provides a convenient model of the size and shape of the earth. The ellipsoid is chosen to best meet the needs of a particular map datum system design.
Reference ellipsoids are usually defined by semi-major (equatorial radius) and flattening (the relationship between
equatorial and polar radii).
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2.1.6 Global & Regional Ellipsoids
Global ellipsoidse.g. WGS84, GRS80
Center of ellipsoid is“Center of gravity”
Worldwide consistence ofall maps around the world
Regional ellipsoidse.g. Bessel, Clarke, Hayford, Krassovsky
Best fitting ellipsoid for a part of the world(“local optimized”)
Less local deviation
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2.1.7 Geodetic Datum
A Geodetic Datum is a Reference System which includes:
A local or global Ellipsoid
One “Fixpoint”
Attention: Referencing geodetic coordinates to the wrong map datum can result in positionerrors ofhundreds of meters
Info:In most cases the shift, rotation and scale factor of a Map Datum is relative to the “satellite map datum” WGS84.
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2.1.8 Different Map Projection’s
Cylindrical
e.g. UTM, Gauss-Krueger
Conical
e.g.Lambert Conformal Conic
Planar/Azimuthal
Info: In 90% of the cases we will have a cylindrical projection in 10% of the cases a conical projection
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2.1.9 Geo-Coordinate System
To simplify the use of maps aCartesian Coordinates is used
To avoid negative values a
False Easting value and a
False Northing valueis added
Also a scaling factor is used to minimize the “projection error” over the whole area
X = EastingY = Northing
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2.1.10 WGS 84 (World Geodetic System 1984)
Most needed Geodetic Datumin the world today (“Satellite Datum”)
It is the reference frame usedby the U.S. Department of Defenseis defined by the National Imageryand Mapping Agency (NIMA)
The Global Positioning System (GPS)system is based on the World GeodeticSystem 1984 (WGS-84).
Optimal adaption to the surface of the earth
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2.1.11 Transverse Mercator Projection
Projection cylinder is rotated 90 degrees from the polar axis (“transverse”)
Geometric basisfor the UTMand theGauss-KruegerMap Projection
ConformalMap projection
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2.1.12 Transverse Mercator Projection (e.g. UTM )
Middle-Meridian
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2.1.13 Universal Transverse Mercator System
60 zones, each 6o (60 · 6o = 360o )
±3o around each center meridian
Beginning at 180o longitude(measured eastward fromGreenwich)
Zone number = (center meridian + 183o ) / 6o
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2.1.14 UTM - Definitions
False Easting: 500 000 m(Middle-meridian x = 500 000 m)
False Northing:Northern Hemisphere: 0 m Southern Hemisphere: 10 000 000 m
Scaling Factor: 0,9996(used to minimize the“projection error” over the whole area)
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2.1.15 UTM Zones (e.g. Europe)
UTM-Zones
9° 15° 21° 27° 33° 39°3°-3°-6° Middle-Meridian
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UTM-System
False origin on the central meridian of the zone has an easting of 500,000 meters.
All eastings have a positive values for the zone
Eastings range from 100,000 to 900,000 meters
The 6 Degree zone ranges from 166,667 to 833,333 m, leaving about a 0.5° overlap at each end of the zone(valid only at the equator)
This allows for overlaps and matching between zones
2.1 Geo databases
2.1.16 UTM-System
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2.1.17 UTM Zone Numbers
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UTM-Zone: 32
Middle meridian: 9o
(9o = 500 000500 000500 000500 000 m“False Easting”)
2.1 Geo databases
2.1.18 UTM-System: Example "Stuttgart"
Transformation: latitude / longitude → UTM system
North 48o 45' 13.5''
East 9o 11' 7.5''
y = 5 400 099 m
x = 513 629 m
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2.1.19 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
Maps an ellipsoid onto a cone whose central axis coincides with the polar axis
Cone touches the ellipsoid=> One standard parallel (1SP)(e.g. NTF-System in France)
Cutting edges of cone and ellipsoid=> Two standard parallels (2SP)(e.g. Lambert-Projection in Austria)
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2.1.20 Geospatial data for Network Planning
DEM (Digital Elevation Model)/ Topography
Morphostructure / Land usage / Clutter
Satellite Photos /Orthoimages
Scanned Maps
Background data(streets, borders,coastlines, etc. )
Buildings
Traffic data
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2.1.21Creation of geospatial databases
Satellite imagery Digitizing maps Aerial photography
Geospatial data
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2.1.22 Parameters of a Map
Coordinate system
Map Projection(incl. Geodetic Datum)
Location of the map (Area …)
Scale:
macrocell planning1:50000 - 1:100000
microcell planning1:500 -1:5000
Thematic
Source
Date of Production
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Raster data
DEM /Topography
Morphostructure /Land usage / Clutter
Traffic density
Vector data
Background data(streets, borders, coastlines, etc. )
Buildings
2.1 Geo databases
2.1.23 Raster- and Vectordata
x
y
(x1,y1)
(xn,yn)
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2.1.24 Rasterdata / Grid data
Pixel-oriented data
Stored as row and column
Each Pixel stored in one or two byte
Each Pixel contents information(e.g. morphoclass,colour of a scanned map, elevation of a DEM)
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2.1.25 Vectordata
Vector mainly used are: airport, coastline, highway, main roads, secondary roads, railway, rivers/lakes
Each vector contents
Info about kind of vector(e.g. street, coastline)
A series of several pointsEach point has a corresponded x / y -value(e.g. in UTM System or as Long/Lat)
Info about Map projection and used Geodetic Datum
(x1,y1)
(xn,yn)
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2.1.26 Digital Elevation Model (DEM)
Raster dataset that showsterrain features such as hillsand valleys
Each element (or pixel) inthe DEM image represents the terrain elevation at that location
Resolution in most cases: 20 m for urban areas50-100 m for other areas
DEM are typically generatedfrom topographic maps,stereo satellite images,or stereo aerial photographs
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2.1 Geo databases
2.1.27 Morphostructure / Land usage / Clutter (1)
Land usage classificationaccording to the impact on wave propagation
In most cases:7...14 morpho classes
Resolution in most cases:20 m for cities50…100m other areasfor radio networkplanning
The clutter files describe the land cover (dense urban, buildings, residential, forest, open, villages....). Ground is
represented by a grid map where each bin is characterised by a code corresponding to a main type of cover (a clutter
class). The clutter maps are 8 bits/pixel (256 classes)-raster maps, they show an image with a colour assigned to each
clutter class (by default, grey shading).
Clutter file provides clutter code per bin. Bin size is defined by pixel size (P stated in metre). Pixel size must be the same
in both directions. Abscissa and ordinate axes are respectively oriented in right and down directions. First point given in
the file corresponds to the upper-left corner of the image. This point refers to the northwest point geo-referenced by A9155
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2.1 Geo databases
2.1.28 Morphostructure (2)
Besides the topo database the basic input for radio network planning
Each propagation area has different obstacles like buildings, forest etc.Obstacles which have similar effects on propagation conditions are classified in morphoclasses
Each morphoclass has a corresponding value for the correction gain
The resolution of the morphodatabases should be adaptedto the propagation model
Morpho correction factor for predictions:0 dB (”skyscapers") … 30 dB (”water")
Morphodatabases (Landuse/Clutter) are a special kind of geodatabases. The morphodatabase is beside the topodatabase the basic input for radio network planning. Each morphoclass has a corresponding value of propagation loss. Together with a topographical database it is possible to predict the radio wave propagation.
Each propagation area has different obstacles like buildings, forest etc. Those obstacles, which have similar effects on propagation conditions are classified in morphoclasses.
This resolution of the morphodatabases should be adapted to the empirical propagation model for macrocellular radio network planning and the necessary planning resolution. In most cases the resolution of the rasterdatabases for morphostructure is around 50 ...100 m. With those values an optimum between calculation time and the necessary resolution of the prediction is reached in most radio network planning projects.
For microcellular radio network planning a buildingdatabase is needed with a higher resolution.
Each morphoclass is corresponding with a morpho-correction factor. The propagation loss is between 30 dB ("skyscrapers") ... and around 0 dB ("open area") The morphocorrection factors are achieved by calibration measurements
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2.1.29 Morphoclasses
Code Morpho-
structure
Description
0 not classified e.g. edge of a database
1 skyscrapers /
buildings
very high buildings ( >40m), very high density of buildings,
no vegetation on ground level
e.g. cities like NewYork, Tokio etc.
2 dense urban 4 or more storeys, areas within urban perimeters, inner city,
very little vegetation, high density of buildings, most
buildings are standing close together, small pedestrian
zones and streets incl.
3 medium
urban / mean
urban
3 or 4 storeys, areas within urban perimeters, most buildings
are standing close together, less vegetation, middle density
of buildings, small pedestrian zones and streets included
4 lower urban /
suburban
2 or 3 storeys, middle density of buildings,
some vegetation, terraced houses with gardens
5 residential 1-2 storeys, low density of buildings with gardens
e.g. farmhouses, detached houses
6 industrial zone
/ industrial
factory, warehouse, garage, shipyards
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2.1.30 Morphoclasses (2)
Code Morpho-
structure
Description
7 forest all kinds of forest, parks, with high tree density
8 agriculture /
rural
high vegetation, plants: 1... 3 m,
high density of plants, e.g. crop fields, fruit plantation
9 low tree
density / parks
low vegetation, low height of plants,
low density of plants, some kinds of parks, botanical
garden
10 water sea, rivers, all kind of fresh- and saltwater
11 open area no buildings, no vegetation
e.g. desert, beach, part of an airport, big streets etc.
huge parking areas, large
12 (optional)
defined by networkplanner if necessary
13 (optional)
defined by networkplanner if necessary
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2.1.31Background data (streets, borders etc.)
All kinds of information data like streets, borders, coastlines etc.
Necessary for orientationin plots of calculation results
The background data arenot needed for the calculationof the fieldstrength, power etc.
These data represent either polygons (regions...), or lines (roads, coastlines...) or points (towns...).
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2.1.32 Orthophoto
Georeferenced Satellite Image
Resolution: most 10 or 20 m
Satellite: e.g. SPOT, Landsat
These geographic data regroup the road maps and the satellite images ; they are only used for display and provide information about the geographic environment. A9155 supports scanned image files with TIFF (1, 4, 8, 24-bits/pixel), BIL (1, 4, 8, 24-bits/pixel), PlaNET© (1, 4, 8, 24-bits/pixel), BMP (1-24-bits/pixel) and ErdasImagine (1, 4, 8, 24-bits/pixel) formats.
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2.1.33 Scanned Maps
Mainly used asbackground data
Not used for calculationbut for localisation
Has to be geocodedto put it into a GIS (Geographic Information System) e.g. a Radio Network Planning Tool
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2.1.34 Buildings
Vectordata
Outlines of
• single buildings
• building blocks
Building heights
Material code
• not: roof shape
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2.1 Geo databases
2.1.35 Buildings (2)
Microcell radio network planningis mainly used in urban environment
The prediction of mircowavepropagation is calculated witha ray-tracing/launching model
A lot of calculationsteps are needed
Optimum building databaserequired (data reduction) tominimize the pre-calculation time
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2.1.36 Traffic density
Advantageous in theinterference calculation,thus for frequencyassignment andin the calculationof average figures innetwork analysis
Raster database of traffic densityvalues (in Erlangs) of thewhole planning area
Resolution: 20...100 m
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2.1.37 Converting one single point (1a)
Example “Stuttgart” (Example 1)Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84)
Input:Longitude: 9 deg 11 min 7.5 secLatitude: 48 deg 45 min 13.5 secDatum “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”; Projection: “Geodetic”
Exercise: Convert following example with the program “Geotrans”:
Output: Easting: 513629 mNorthing: 5400099 mDatum “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”Projection: “Universersal Transverse Mercator (UTM)”Zone: 32 ; Hemisphere: N (North)
Preset of thisvalues necessary
Values, which willcalculated by program
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2.1.38 Converting one single point (1b)
GEOTRANS(Geographic Translator)is an application program which allows you to convert geographic coordinates easily among a wide variety of coordinate systems, map projections, and datums.
Example “Stuttgart” (Example 1)Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84)
Source: http://164.214.2.59/GandG/geotrans/
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2.1.39 Converting one single point (2a)
Input:Longitude: 9 deg 11 min 7.5 secLatitude: 48 deg 45 min 13.5 secDatum “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”; Projection: “Geodetic”
Exercise: Convert following example with the program “Geotrans”:
Output: Easting: 513549 mNorthing: 5403685 mDatum “EUR-A: EUROPEAN 1950, Western Europe”Projection: “Universersal Transverse Mercator (UTM)”Zone: 32 ; Hemisphere: N (North)
Example “Stuttgart” (Example 2)Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (ED50) (ED50 = EUR-A = European Datum 1950)
Preset of thisvalues necessary
Values, which willcalculated by program
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2.1.40 Converting one single point (2b)
Example “Stuttgart” (Example 2)Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (ED50)(ED50 = EUR-A = European Datum 1950)
Attention: For flat coordinates (e.g. UTM) as well as for geographic coordinates (Long/Lat) a reference called “Geodetic Datum” is necessary.
Diff. X (Ex.2 - Ex.1): 69 mDiff. Y (Ex.2 - Ex.1): 200 mDifference because of different Geodetic Datums
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2.1.41 Converting a list of points (3a)
Example “Stuttgart” (Example 3 )Long/Lat (WGS84) => UTM (WGS84)
Input:text-file with the values (list) of the longitudeand latitude of different points(How to create the inputfile see on page 3c)
Output:Datum: “WGE: World Geodetic System 1984”Projection: “Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)”Zone: 32
Preset of thisvalues necessary
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2.1.42 Converting a list of points (3b)
Example “Stuttgart” (Example 3 )Long/Lat (WGS84)
=> UTM (WGS84)
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2.1.43 Converting a list of points (3c)
Example “Stuttgart” (Example 3)Long/Lat (WGS84)=> UTM (WGS84)
Latitude Longitude UTM-Zone
Hemisphere
Easting (x)
Northing (y)
Optional: different error-infos,depending on the input-datadefault: “Unk”=“unknown”
Geotrans V2.2.3 Geotrans V2.2.3
deg min sec deg min sec
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2.1.44 Provider for Geospatial data
Geodatasupplier Internet
BKS www.bks.co.uk
ComputaMaps www.computamaps.com
Geoimage www.geoimage.fr
Infoterra www.infoterra-global.com
Istar www.istar.fr
RMSI www.rmsi.com
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2.1.45 Links for more detailed infos
Maps Projection Overviewhttp://www.colorado.edu/geography/gcraft/notes/mapproj/mapproj.htmlhttp://www.ecu.edu/geog/http://www.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_projection
Coordinate Transformation (online)http://jeeep.com/details/coord/http://www.cellspark.com/UTM.html
Map Collectionhttp://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/index.html
Finding out Latitude/Longitude of cities etc. http://www.maporama.com
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2 Coverage Planning
2.2 Antennas and Cables
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.1 The Antenna System
Antennas
Power divider
Cables (jumper)
Feeder cables
Connectors
Clamps
Lightning protection
Wall glands
Planning
Rxdiv
Tx
Rx
Feedercable
Earthingkit
Wallgland
Jumper cables
Feederinstallationclamps
Plugs7/16“
Sockets7/16“
Mountingclamp
Grounding
Lightningrod Antennas
Earthing kit
Jumpercable Jumper
cable
Mechanicalantennasupportstructure
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.2 Antenna Theory
50Ω is the impedance of the cable
377Ω is the impedance of the air
Antennas adapt the different impedances
They convert guided waves, into free-space waves (Hertzian waves) and/or vice versa
Z =377ΩZ =50Ω
It happens that the coulomb field and the induction field fall off much more rapidly than the radiation field with increasing distance from the antenna. At distances greater than a few wavelengths from the antenna, in what is called the antenna's far field, the electric field is essentially pure radiation. Closer to the antenna, we have the near field, which is a mixture of the radiation, induction and coulomb fields.
The coulomb field at an instant in time around a half-wave resonant dipole A half-cycle later, the polarity, and all the arrows, will be reversed. The spacing between the field lines indicates field strength.
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.3 Antenna Data
The antenna parameters which are of interest for the radio network engineering are the following:
Antenna directivity, efficiency, gain
Polarization, near field and far field
Specification due to certain wave polarization (linear/elliptic, cross-polarization)
Half power beam width (HPBW)
Related to polarization of electrical field
Vertical and Horizontal HPBW
Antenna pattern, side lobes, null directions
Yields the spatial radiation characteristics of the antenna
Front-to-back ratio
Important for interference considerations
Voltage standing wave ratio (VSWR)
Bandwidth
In electrodynamics, polarization (also spelled polarisation) is the property of electromagnetic waves, such as light, that describes the direction of their transverse electric field. More generally, the polarization of a transverse wave describes the direction of oscillation in the plane perpendicular to the direction of travel. Longitudinal waves such as sound waves do not exhibit polarization, because for these waves the direction of oscillation is along the direction of travel.
Linear Circular Elliptical
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.4 Antenna Pattern and HPBW
0 dB
-3 dB
-10 dB
0 dB
-3 dB
-10 dB
verticalhorizontal
sidelobe
null direction
main beam
HP
BW
The antenna radiation pattern also named antenna diagram, describes the relative strength of the radiated field in various directions from the antenna, at a constant distance. The radiation pattern is a reception pattern as well, since it also describes the receiving properties of the antenna. The radiation pattern is three-dimensional, but usually as shown in Figure 4, the measured radiation patterns are a two dimensional slice of the three-dimensional pattern, in the horizontal or vertical planes.
This pattern depends on the antenna geometry and the current distribution in its elements. It is possible to compose, with a certain degree of freedom, arbitrary antenna diagrams by arranging antenna elements, e.g. dipoles, in groups, e.g. in a grid arrangement.
As shown in Figure, each antenna pattern consists of a couple of beams or lobes. One distinguishes the main beam, pointing in the direction where the maximum power is radiated, and the side lobes, which are local maxima in the antenna diagram. The side lobes must sometimes be treated with special care, as they could radiate too much power towards unplanned directions of the cell. This may lead to unexpected interference with other cells! The antenna has directions where it isn't nearly radiating. These directions are called null directions. They may cause coverage problems.
Based on the radiation pattern, the radio mobiles antennas are categorized in the following types:
Omni-directional antennas that provides a 360 degree horizontal radiation pattern. Omni antennas are typically used when continuous coverage around the site is needed and the offered traffic is low. Directionalantennas that provide a stronger radiation pattern in a specific direction by focusing the radiation energy. For instance the radiation pattern shown in Figure, belongs to a directive antenna.
The sector or panel antennas are directional antennas and they are built based on the array antennas principle. Array antennas consist of a number of dipole antennas arranged in a geometrical manner to create a directional receiving or transmission pattern.
The panel antennas are used on sectorized sites in order to focus the coverage on special area of interest.
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.5 EIRP
Pt = 45 dBm
Gain = 11dBi
Isotropic radiated Power Pt
Effective isotropicradiated power:EIRP = Pt+Gain
= 56 dBm
V1
V2 = V1
radiatedpower
Known the antenna gain and the power fed into antenna, an important link budget parameter, the Effective Isotropic Radiated (EIRP) can be calculated. The EIRP represents the total power radiated by the antenna
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power
Effective Isotropic Radiated Power (in main beam direction) in [dBm];
power fed into the antenna, [dBm];
antenna gain, [dBi];
GPEIRP in +=
EIRP
inP
G
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For the link between base station and mobile station, mostly linear antennas are used:
Monopole antennas
• MS antennas, car roof antennas
Dipole antennas
• Used for array antennas at base stations for increasing the directivity of RX and TX antennas
2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.6 Linear Antennas
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.7 Monopole Antenna Pattern
Influence of antenna length on the antenna pattern
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.8 Panel Antenna with Dipole Array
Many dipoles are arranged in a grid layout
Nearly arbitrary antenna patterns may be designed
Feeding of the dipoles with weighted and phase-shifted signals
Coupling of all dipole elements
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.9 Dipole Arrangement
Dipole arrangement
Typical flat panel antenna
Dipole element
Weightedandphaseshiftedsignals
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2.2 Antennas and Cables
2.2.1.10 Omni Antenna
Antenna with vertical HPBW for omni sites
Large area coverage
Advantages
Continuous coverage around the site
Simple antenna mounting
Ideal for homogeneous terrain
Drawbacks
No mechanical tilt possible
Clearance of antenna required
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2 Coverage Planning
2.2.2 Antenna Parameters
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.1 X 65° T6 900MHz 2.5m
Rural road coverage with mechanical uptilt
Antenna
RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHz
APX906516-T6 Series
Electrical specification
Gain in dBi: 17.1
Polarization: +/-45°
HBW: 65°
VBW: 6.5°
Electrical downtilt: 6°
Mechanical specification
Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 2475 x 306 x 120
Weight in kg: 16.6
Horizontal Pattern
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.2 X 65° T6 900MHz 1.9m
Dense urban area
Antenna
RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHz
APX906515-T6 Series
Electrical specification
Gain in dBi: 16.5
Polarization: +/-45°
HBW: 65°
VBW: 9°
Electrical downtilt: 6°
Mechanical specification
Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1890 x 306 x 120
Weight in kg: 16.6
Vertical Pattern
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.3 X 90° T2 900MHz 2.5m
Rural area with mechanical uptilt
Antenna
RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHz
APX909014-T6 Series
Electrical specification
Gain in dBi: 15.9
Polarization: +/-45°
HPBW: 90°
VBW: 7°
Electrical downtilt: 6°
Mechanical specification
Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 2475 x 306 x 120
Weight in kg: 15.5
Vertical Pattern
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.4 V 65° T0 900MHz 2.0m
Highway
Antenna
RFS CELLite® Panel Vertical Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHz
AP906516-T0 Series
Electrical specification
Gain in dBi: 17.5
Polarization: Vertical
HBW: 65°
VBW: 8.5°
Electrical downtilt: 0°
Mechanical specification
Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1977 x 265 x 130
Weight in kg: 10.9
Vertical Pattern
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.5 V 90° T0 900MHz 2.0m
Rural Area
Antenna
RFS CELLite® Panel Vertical Polarized Antenna 872-960 MHz
AP909014-T0 Series
Electrical specification
Gain in dBi: 16.0
Polarization: Vertical
HBW: 65°
VBW: 8.5°
Electrical downtilt: 0°
Mechanical specification
Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1977 x 265 x 130
Weight in kg: 9.5
Vertical Pattern
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.4 X 65° T6 1800MHz 1.3m
Dense urban area
Antenna
RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna 1710-1880 MHz
APX186515-T6 Series
Electrical specification
Gain in dBi: 17.5
Polarization: +/-45°
HBW: 65°
VBW: 7°
Electrical downtilt: 6°
Mechanical specification
Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1310 x 198 x 50
Weight in kg: 5.6
Vertical Pattern
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.5 X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m
Dense urban area
Antenna
RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna 1710-1880 MHz
APX186515-T2 Series
Electrical specification
Gain in dBi: 17.5
Polarization: +/-45°
HBW: 65°
VBW: 7°
Electrical downtilt: 2°
Mechanical specification
Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1310 x 198 x 50
Weight in kg: 5.6
Vertical Pattern
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.6 X 65° T2 1800MHz 1.9m
Highway
Antenna
RFS Panel Dual Polarized Antenna 1710-1880 MHz
APX186516-T2 Series
Electrical specification
Gain in dBi: 18.3
Polarization: +/-45°
HBW: 65°
VBW: 4.5°
Electrical downtilt: 2°
Mechanical specification
Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1855 x 198 x 50
Weight in kg: 8.6
Vertical Pattern
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.7 V 65° T2 1800MHz 1.3m
Highway
Antenna
RFS CELLite® Panel Vertical Polarized Antenna 1710-1880 MHz
AP186516-T2 Series
Electrical specification
Gain in dBi: 17.0
Polarization: Vertical
HBW: 65°
VBW: 7.5°
Electrical downtilt: 2°
Mechanical specification
Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1310 x 198 x 50
Weight in kg: 4.7
Horizontal Pattern
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2.2.2 Antennas Parameters
2.2.2.8 V 90° T2 1800MHz 1.9m
Highway
Antenna
RFS CELLite® Panel Vertical Polarized Antenna 1710-1880 MHz
AP189016-T2 Series
Electrical specification
Gain in dBi: 17.0
Polarization: Vertical
HBW: 90°
VBW: 5.5°
Electrical downtilt: 2°
Mechanical specification
Dimensions HxWxD in mm: 1855 x 198 x 50
Weight in kg: 6.0
Vertical Pattern
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2 Coverage Planning
2.2.3 Cable Parameters
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2.2.3 Cable Parameters
2.2.3.1 7/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Coaxial Cable
Feeder Cable
7/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Foam-Dielectric Coaxial Cable
LCF78-50J Standard
LCF78-50JFN Flame Retardant
• Installation temperature >-25°C
Electrical specification 900MHz
Attenuation: 3.87dB/100m
Average power in kW: 2.45
Electrical specification 1800MHz
Attenuation: 5.73dB/100m
Average power in kW: 1.79
Mechanical specification
Cable weight kg\m: 0.53
Minimum bending radius
• Single bend in mm: 120
• Repeated bends in mm: 250
Bending moment in Nm: 13.0
Recommended clamp spacing: 0.8m
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2.2.3 Cable Parameters
2.2.3.2 1-1/4" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable
Feeder Cable
1-1/4" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Foam-Dielectric Coaxial Cable
LCF114-50J Standard
LCF114-50JFN Flame Retardant
• Installation temperature >-25°C
Electrical specification 900MHz
Attenuation: 3.06dB/100m
Average power in kW: 3.56
Electrical specification 1800MHz
Attenuation: 4.61dB/100m
Average power in kW: 2.36
Mechanical specification
Cable weight kg\m: 0.86
Minimum bending radius
• Single bend in mm: 200
• Repeated bends in mm: 380
Bending moment in Nm: 38.0
Recommended clamp spacing: 1.0m
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2.2.3 Cable Parameters
2.2.3.3 1-5/8" CELLFLEX® Coaxial Cable
Feeder Cable
1-5/8" CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Foam-Dielectric Coaxial Cable
LCF158-50J Standard
LCF158-50JFN Flame Retardant
• Installation temperature >-25°C
Electrical specification 900MHz
Attenuation: 2.34dB/100m
Average power in kW: 4.97
Electrical specification 1800MHz
Attenuation: 3.57dB/100m
Average power in kW: 3.26
Mechanical specification
Cable weight kg\m: 1.26
Minimum bending radius
• Single bend in mm: 200
• Repeated bends in mm: 508
Bending moment in Nm: 46.0
Recommended clamp spacing: 1.2m
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2.2.3 Cable Parameters
2.2.3.4 1/2" CELLFLEX® Jumper Cable
CELLFLEX® LCF12-50J Jumpers
Feeder Cable
• LCF12-50J CELLFLEX® Low-Loss Foam-Dielectric Coaxial Cable
Connectors
• 7/16” DIN male/female
• N male/female
• Right angle
Molded version available in 1m, 2m, 3m
Mechanical specification
Minimum bending radius
• Repeated bends in mm: 125
Electrical specification 900MHz
Attenuation: 0.068db/m
Total losses with connectors are 0.108dB, 0.176dB and 0.244dB
Electrical specification 1800MHz
Attenuation: 0.099dB/m
Total losses with connectors are 0.139dB, 0.238dB and 0.337dB
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2 Coverage Planning
2.3 Radio Propagation
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2.3 Radio Propagation
2.3.1 Propagation effects
Free space loss
Fresnel ellipsoid
Reflection, Refraction, Scattering
in the atmosphere
at a boundary to another material
Diffraction
at small obstacles
over round earth
Attenuation
Rain attenuation
Gas absorption
Fading
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ϕ
P0
∆h
2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.1 Reflection
Pr = Rh/v ⋅ P0
Rh/v = f(ϕ, ε, σ, ∆h)horizontal reflection factor
vertical reflection factor
angle of incidence
permittivity
conductivity
surface roughness
Rh
Rv
ϕεσ∆h
Pr
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2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.2 Refraction
k = 4/3
k = 1 k = 2/3
k =
true earth
Ray paths with different k over true
∞
Considered via an effective earth radius factor k
Radio path plotted as a straight line by changing the earth's radius
k = 4/3k = 1
k = 2/3
k =
radio path
∞
earth
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2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.3 Diffraction
Occurs at objects which sizes are in the order of the wavelength λ Radio waves are ‘bent’ or ‘curved’ around objects
Bending angle increases if object thickness is smaller compared to λ Influence of the object causes an attenuation: diffraction loss
diffracted radio shadow
zone
obstacle
radio
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2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.4 Fading
Caused by delay spread of original signal
Multi path propagation
Time-dependent variations in heterogeneity of environment
Movement of receiver
Short-term fading, fast fading
This fading is characterised by phase summation and cancellation of signal components, which travel on multiple paths. The variation is in the order of the considered wavelength.
Their statistical behaviour is described by the Rayleigh distribution (for non-LOS signals) and the Rice distribution (for LOS signals), respectively.
In GSM, it is already considered by the sensitivity values, which take the error correction capability into account.
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2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.5 Fading types
Mid-term fading, lognormal fading
Mid-term field strength variations caused by objects in the size of 10...100m (cars, trees, buildings). These variations are lognormal distributed.
Long-term fading, slow fading
Long-term variations caused by large objects like large buildings, forests, hills, earth curvature (> 100m). Like the mid-term field strength variations, these variations are lognormal distributed.
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2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.6 Signal Variation due to Fading
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
0.1
2.8
5.4
8.0
10.6
13.2
15.9
18.5
21.1
23.7
26.3
29.0
31.6
34.2
36.8
39.4
42.1
44.7
47.3
49.9
Distance [m]
Rec
eive
d P
ower
[dB
m]
Lognormal fading
Raleygh fading
Fading hole
Raylaight/Rician Fading: Fast Fading.
Rayleight : Statistical behaviour of Fast Fading signals for NON LOS-Signals.
Lognormal Fading
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2.3.1 Propagation effects
2.3.1.7 Lognormal Fading
Lognormal fading (typical 20 dB loss by entering a village)
Fading hole
Lognormal fading (entering a tunnel)
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2 Coverage Planning
2.4 Path Loss Prediction
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.1 Free Space Loss
The simplest form of wave propagation is the free-space propagation
The according path loss can be calculated with the following formula
Path Loss in Free Space Propagation
L free space loss
d distance between transmitter and receiver antenna
f operating frequency
Ld
km
f
MHzfreespace = + ⋅ + ⋅324 20 20. log log
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.2 Fresnel Ellipsoid
The free space loss formula can only be applied if the direct line-of-sight (LOS) between transmitter and receiver is not obstructed
This is the case, if a specific region around the LOS is cleared from any obstacles
The region is called Fresnel ellipsoid
Transmitter
Receiver
LOS
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.3 Fresnel Ellipsoid
21
21
dd
ddr
+⋅⋅= λ
The Fresnel ellipsoid is the set of all points around the LOS where the total length of the connecting lines to the transmitter and the receiver is longer than the LOS length by exactly half a wavelength
It can be shown that this region is carrying the main power flow from transmitter to receiver
Transmitter Receiver
LOS
LOS + λ/2
Fresnel zone
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.4 Knife Edge Diffraction
1st Fresnel zone
r
BTS
MS
d1 d2
h0
line of sight
path of diffracted wave
d1 d2
h0
replaced obstacle (knife edge)
h0 = height of obstacle over line of sight
d1, d2 = distance of obstacle from BTS and MS
• Knife edge diffraction
In case of an obstruction of the LOS path, the free-space formula with an additional correction term can be used if the obstacle is small compared to the distance from transmitter to receiver. Based on the assumption that this obstacle can be replaced by an ideal conducting half-plane which extends to infinity in the direction perpendicular to the propagation path and which is of infinitesimal thickness („knife-edge“), this situation refers to a field theory problem which can be solved in a deterministic way.
In the case that this knife-edge obstacle type enters the Fresnel region, diffraction occurs (similar to the diffraction known from optics) and introduces some additional diffraction loss compared to the free-space propagation.
The diffraction loss can be described by
with h0 the height of the obstacle above the LOS. v is a parameter which represents the number of „cleared“ Fresnel ellipsoids. The function F(v) is shown in . One can see that the diffraction loss is 6dB if the obstacle is just touching the LOS.
λ2
where)(21
210
0 ⋅⋅+⋅−=−==dd
ddh
r
hvvFLdiff
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.5 Knife Edge Diffraction Function
Knife-edge diffraction function
-5
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
-9 -8 -7 -6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
Clearance of Fresnel ellipsoid (v)
F(v
) [d
B]
Additional diffraction loss F(v)v: clearance parameter, v=-h0/rNote: h0 = 0 ⇒ v =0 ⇒ L = 6 dB
V=0:1=0
The function F(v) is shown on the top . One can see that the diffraction loss is 6dB if the obstacle is just touching the LOS. For v>1, some oscillation is noted, which appears due to the fact that the obstacle moves over several Fresnel regions where the phase of the transmitted signal is alternating between +180° and -180° phase shift.
In reality, the conductivity of the obstacle´s material is not ideal, and the oscillations appears „smoothed“ to an average value.
h0
r
d1 d2
LOS
h0
LOS
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.6 "Final Solution" for Wave Propagation Calculations?
Exact field solution requires too much computer resources! Too much details required for input Exact calculation too time-consuming Field strength prediction rather than calculation
Requirements for field strength prediction models
Reasonable amount of input data
Fast (it is very important to see the impact of changes in the network layout immediately)
Accurate (results influence the hardware cost directly)
Tradeoff required (accurate results within a suitable time)
Parameter tuning according to real measurements should be possible
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.7 CCIR Recommendation
The CCIR Recommendations provide various propagation curves Based on Okumura (1968) Example (CCIR Report 567-3):
Median field strength in urban areaFrequency = 900 MHzhMS = 1.5 mDashed line: free space
How to use this experience in field strength prediction models?
Model which fits the curves in certain ranges → Hata's model
was modified later by the European Cooperation in Science and Technology (COST): COST 231 Hata/Okumura
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.8 Mobile Radio Propagation
Free-space propagation (Fresnel zone not obstructed) → L ~ d2
Fresnel zone heavily obstructed near the mobile station → L ~ d3.7
d
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.9 Terrain Modeling
Topography
Effective antenna height
Knife edge diffraction
• single obstacles
• multiple obstacles
Surface shape/Morpho-structure
Correction factors for Hata-Okumura formula
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.10 Effect of Morphostructure on Propagation Loss
Open area Open areaUrban area
Distance
Field
stre
ngth
urban area
open area
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Path loss (Lu) is calculated (in dB) as follows:
Lu= A1 + A2 log(f) + A3 log(hBTS) + (B1 + B2log(hBTS)) log d
The parameters A1, A2, A3, B1 and B2 can be user-defined. Default values are proposed in the table below:
2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.11 Okumura-Hata for GSM 900
-6.55-6.55B2
44.9044.90B1
-13.82-13.82A3
33.9026.16A2
46.3069.55A1
Cost-Hata
F>1500 MHz
Okumura-Hata
f< 1500 MHz
Parameters
Hata formula empirically describes the path loss as a function of frequency, receiver-transmitter distance and antenna heights for an urban environment. This formula is valid for flat, urban environments and 1.5 metre mobile antenna height.
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.12 CORRECTIONS TO THE HATA FORMULA
As described above, the Hata formula is valid for urban environment and a receiver antenna height of 1.5m. For other environments and mobile antenna heights, corrective formulas must be applied.
Lmodel1=Lu-a(hMS) for large city and urban environments
Lmodel1=Lu-a(hMS) -2log² (f/28) -5.4 for suburban area
Lmodel1=Lu -a(hMS) - 4.78log² (f)+ 18.33 log(f) – 40.94 for rural area
a(hMS) is a correction factor to take into account a receiver antenna height different from 1.5m.
3.2log² (11.75hMS) – 4.97Large city
(1.1log(f) – 0.7)hMS – (1.56log(f) -0.8)Rural/Small city
A(hMS)Environments
Note: When receiver antenna height equals 1.5m, a(hMS) is close to 0 dB regardless of frequency.
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.13 Hata-Okumura for GSM 900
Formula valid for frequency range: 150…1000 MHz
Lmorpho [dB] Morpho/surface shape-Correction factor 0 dB: ‘Skyscrapers’->27 dB: ‘open area’
f [MHz] Frequency (150 - 1000 MHz)hBTS [m] Height of BTS (30 - 200 m)hMS [m] Height of Mobile (1 - 10m)d [km] Distance between BTS and MS (1 - 20 km)
Power law exponent shown colored
LossHata = 69.55 + 26.16 log (f) - 13.82 log (hBTS)- a(hMS) +(44.9 - 6.55 log (hBTS)) log (d) - Lmorpho
a (hMS) = (1.1 log (f) - 0.7) hMS - (1.56 log (f) - 0.8)
2.4 Path Loss Prediction 2.4 Path Loss Prediction
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.14 COST 231 Hata-Okumura GSM 1800
Formula is valid for frequency range: 1500...2000 MHz
Hata’s model is extended for GSM 1800
Modification of original formula to the new frequency range
For cells with small ranges the COST 231 Walfish-Ikegami model is more precisely
LossHata = 46.3 + 33.9 log (f) - 13.82 log (hBTS) - a(hMS) +(44.9 - 6.55 log (hBTS)) log (d) - Lmorpho
a (hMS) = (1.1 log (f) - 0.7) hMS - (1.56 log (f) -0.8)
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With: K1: constant offset (dB). K2: multiplying factor for log(d). d: distance between the receiver and the transmitter (m). K3: multiplying factor for log(HTxeff). HTxeff: effective height of the transmitter antenna (m). K4: multiplying factor for diffraction calculation. K4 has to be a positive number. Diffraction loss: loss due to diffraction over an obstructed path (dB). K5: multiplying factor for log(HTxeff)log(d). K6: multiplying factor for . : effective mobile antenna height (m). Kclutter: multiplying factor for f(clutter). f(clutter): average of weighted losses due to clutter.
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )clutterfKHKHdKlossnDiffractioKHKdKKL clutterRxeffTxeffTxeffel ++×+×+++= 654321mod loglog loglog
2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.15 Alcatel Propagation Model (Standard Propagation Model)
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.16 Alcatel Propagation Model
Using of effective antenna height in the Hata-Okumura formula:
ΤhRx eff = f(α, d, hBTS, hMS)
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2.4 Path Loss Prediction
2.4.17 Exercise ‘Path Loss’
Scenario
Height BTS = 40m
Height MS = 1.5m
D (BTS to MS) = 2000m
1. Calculate free space loss for
A.) f=900MHz
B.) f=1800MHz
2. Calculate the path loss for f = 900MHz
A.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’
B.) Morpho class ‘open area’
3. Calculate the path loss for f = 1800MHz
A.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’
B.) Morpho class ‘open area’
Morpho correction factors:
-Skyscraper: 0dB;
-Open area: 27dB
1. Calculate free space loss for
A.) f=900MHz: 97.6dB
B.) f=1800MHz: 103.6dB
2. Calculate the path loss for f = 900MHz
A.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’: 135dB
B.) Morpho class ‘open area’: 108dB
3. Calculate the path loss for f = 1800MHz
A.) Morpho class ‘skyscraper’: 144.8dB
B.) Morpho class ‘open area’: 117.8dB
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2 Coverage Planning
2.5 Link Budget Calculation
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2.5 Link Budget Calculation
2.5.1 Maximum Propagation Loss (Downlink)
Feeder Cable LossLcable = 3 dB
BTS Antenna GainGantBS = 16.5 dBi
Effective Isotropic Radiated PowerEIRPBTS = 59.5 dBm
MS Antenna GainGantMS = 2 dBi
Internal LossesLint = 2 dB
ALCATEL EvoliumTM
Propagation LossLprop Minimum Received Power
PRX,min,MS = -102 dBm
Maximum allowed downlink propagation loss: LMAPL = EIRPBTS - PRX,min,MS = 161.5 dB
MS RXSensitivity-102 dBm
Output Power at antenna connector 46.0 dBm
Exercice:Calculate the MAPL for this Example:
MAPL=
Add. Losses:
Anx = 1.8 dB
Anc = 5.1 dB
ANy = 3.5 dB
----------
Give the result for different using :
1. With Combiner
2. Without combiner
Pathloss without ANy = 153.6 dB
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Max. allowed uplink propagation loss: Lprop,max = EIRPMS - PRX,min,BTS = 157.5 dB
With antenna diversity gain of 3dB: Lprop,max,AD = EIRPMS - PRX,min,BTS + GAD = 160.5 dB
With TMA compensating cable loss: Lprop,max,AD,TMA = EIRPMS - PRX,min,BTS + GAD + GTMA = 163.5 dB
2.5 Link Budget Calculation
2.5.2 Maximum Propagation Loss (Uplink)
Feeder Cable LossLcable = 3 dB
BTS Antenna GainGantBS = 16.5 dBi
Minimum Received PowerPRX,min,BTS = -124.5 dBm
MS Antenna GainGantMS = 2 dBi
Internal LossesLint = 2 dB
ALCATEL EvoliumTM
Propagation LossLprop
EIRPMS = 33 dBm
MS TX Power33 dBm
Receiving sensitivity at ant. conn. -111 dBm
AD = Antenna Diversity ~3dB Gain
TMA = Tower Mounted Amplifier ~3-4 dB Gain
Exercice:
Calculate the MAPL for these Examples:
MAPL(AD)=
MAPL(AD+TMA) =
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2.5 Link Budget Calculation
2.5.3 GSM900/1800 Link Budget
MAPLDL = EIRPDL - PISO_DL - MMAPLUL = EIRPUL - PISO_UL – MMaximum Allowable Path Loss
M = LSFM + LIF + LBODY + LPENM = LSFM + LIF + LBODY + LPENTotal Margins
LPENLPENPenetration Margin (indoor/in-car)
LBODYLBODYBody Loss
LIFLIFInterference Margin
LSFMLSFMSlow Fading Margin
Margins
EIRPDL = PTX_BTS - LEXT - LFEEDER - LJC - LTMA + GANT - LSLANTEIRPUL = PTX_MSEIRP
LSLANTSlant Polarization Loss
GANTAntenna Gain
LTMATMA Insertion Loss
LJCJumpers and Connectors Losses
LFEEDERFeeder Loss
LEXTExternal Device Losses
PTX_BTSPTX_MSTX Output Power
TX Parameters
PISO_DL = PRX_MSPISO_UL = PRX_BTS - GAD + LEXT +LFEEDER+LJC - GTMA- GANTIsotropic Power
GANTAntenna Gain
GTMATMA Contribution
LJCJumpers and Connectors Losses
LFEEDERFeeder Loss
LEXTExternal Device Losses
GADAntenna Diversity Gain
PRX_MSPRX_BTSRX Sensitivity
RX Parameters
DownlinkUplink
The GSM link budget components are described as follows:
UL/DL: measured in dBm, represent the BTS and the MS output power.
UL/DL: measured in dBm, express the BTS and MS receiver sensitivity.
DL only: the BTS antenna gain, measured in dBi. The MS antenna gain is normally assumed to be 0dBi.
UL only: the gain measured in dB that is caused by the diversity reception of the radio signal in uplink. Information concerning the antenna diversity gain
used for link budget calculation is given in;
UL only: the Tower Mounted Amplifier’s contribution in UL. It is expressed in dB.
DL only: the loss caused in DL path due to internal TMA filters and duplexers. It is a TMA catalog parameter and it is expressed in dB.
UL/DL: the loss due to the usage of external components such external diplexers, splitters, etc. It is measured in dB, and can be deduced from
respective data sheets.
UL/DL: the loss due to feeder cable, measured in dB.
UL/DL: the loss due to the usage of jumpers and connectors, measured in dB.
TX Output Power
RX Sensitivity
Antenna Gain
Antenna Diversity Gain
TMA Contribution
TMA Insertion Loss
External Device Loss
Feeder Loss
Jumper and Connector Loss
See also next page
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DL only: the polarization mismatch loss and represents a signal loss due to different polarization at the transmitting and receiving end, e.g. the usage of BTS cross polarized antenna at ± 45°. It is not applicable for MS.
As a rule of thumb, 0 dB is considered for slant polarization loss in case of cross-polar antenna usage within the urban and sub-urban areas. Contrary, 1.5 to 3 dB is recommended in case of rural and open areas. For deeper aspects please.
UL/DL: the Effective Isotropic Radiated Power, measured in dBm.
UL/DL: the minimum power, measured in dB, required to maintain a certain level of service, at the receiver antenna. The calculation method inside the link budget is described in page 169
UL/DL: Maximum allowable path loss. The weaker value is considered within the network design process. Explanation on computation is shown in page 169
UL/DL: called also log-normal margin, measured in dB, added to the path loss calculation in order to increase the coverage probability at the cell border to a certain value.
UL/DL: a margin measured in dB, added to the link budget in order to compensate the signal degradation due to interference. A value of 3 dB is typical considered. More information on interference margin can be found in GSM rec. 03.30.
UL/DL: a margin measured in dB, included to reflect the loss especially experienced if handheld mobiles are used. It is occurring due to partial field absorption in the human body. Typical values are 3 dB and 4 dB. Further details are specified in GSM rec. 03.30.
UL/DL: the penetration margin is measured in dB and is given on the service class basis. Consequently, the penetration margin can be an in-caror an indoor margin:
In-car margin measured in dB, added due to MS usage in a car. Typically a loss of 6 to 8 dB is assumed.
Indoor margin measured in dB, added due to MS usage in indoor environment at ground floor level. Usually, indoor is referred to the first wall and no statement is given for deep indoor coverage. Its range varies from 10 to 18 dB.
Deep indoor margin measured in dB, included due to MS usage deep inside the buildings. Its range varies from 13 to 28 dB.
Slant Polarization Loss
EIRP
Isotropic Power
MAPL
Slow Fading Margin
Interference Margin
Body Loss Margin
Penetration Margin
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2.5 Link Budget Calculation
2.5.3 GSM900/1800 Link Budget
dB133,0dB133,0Max. Pathloss
dBm-87,0dBm-104,0Isotr. Rec. Power:
dB0,0Antenna Pre-Ampl.
dB0,0dB0,0Degradation (no FH)
90,9%
dB8,0dB8,0Lognormal Margin 50%→dB3,0dB3,0Interferer Margin
dB3,0Diversity Gain
dBi2,0dBi11,0Antenna Gain
dB2,0dB3,0Cables, Connectors Loss
dB4,0Body/Indoor Loss
dBm-102,0dBm-104,0Rec. Sensitivity
DownlinkUplinkRX
dBm46,0dBm29,0EIRP
dBi11,0dBi2,0Antenna Gain
dB4,0Body/Indoor Loss
dB3,0dB2,0Cable,Connectors Loss
dBm38,0dBm33,0Output Power
dB3,0dB0,0Comb+Filter Loss, Tol.
dBm41,0dBm33,0Internal Power
DownlinkUplinkTX
BS to MSMS to BS
GSM900 Link Budget(Example)
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2.5 Link Budget Calculation
2.5.4 GSM1800 Link Budget
TX Uplink Downlink
Internal Power 33 dBm 45.4 dBm
Comb+Filter Loss - 0 dBm - 5.3 dBm
Output Power 33 dBm 40.1 dBm
Cable+Conn Loss - 2 dB - 3 dBm
Body/Indoor Loss - 4 dB
Antenna Gain + 2 dBi + 11 dBiEIRP 29.0 dBm 48.1 dBm
RX Uplink Downlink
Rec. Sensitivity - 109 dBm - 102 dBmBody/Indoor Loss + 4 dB
Cables, Con. Loss + 3 dB + 2 dB
Antenna Gain - 11 dBi - 2 dBi
Diversity Gain - 3 dBi
Interferer Margin + 3 dB + 3 dBLognormal Margin + 8 dB + 8 dB
Isotr. Rec. Power - 109 dB - 87 dBm
Max. Pathloss 138 dB 135.1 dB
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2.5 Link Budget Calculation
2.5.5 Additional Losses Overview
Loss type Reason Value
Indoor loss Electrical properties of wall material 20dB (3...30dB)
Incar loss Brass influencing radio waves 7dB (4...10dB)
Body loss Absorption of radio waves by thehuman body
3dB (0...8dB)
Interferer margin Both signal-to-noise ratio and C/I low 3 dB
Lognormal margin Receiving the minimum field strengthwith a higher probability
According toprobability
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2 Coverage Planning
2.6 Coverage Probability
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.1 Indoor propagation aspects
Penetration Loss
Multiple Refraction
Multiple Reflection
Exact modeling of
indoor environment
not possible
Practical solution:empirical model!
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.2 Indoor propagation: empirical model
d
Additional Loss in [dB] relative to loss at vertical incidence
Power relative to power at d=0
ϕ
d
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
0 6
12
18
24
30
36
42
48
54
60
66
72
78
84
90
Angle of incidence in degree
Additional attenuation in dB
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.3 Indoor Penetration
Incident wave
Incident wave
Lindoor = 3 ... 15 dB
Lindoor = 13 ... 25 dBLindoor = ∞ dB (deep basement)
Lindoor = 17 ... 28 dB
-2.7 dB / floor(1st ... 10th floor)
-0.3 dB / floor(11th ... 100th floor)
Lindoor = 7 ... 18 dB(ground floor)
Depending on environment
Line-of-sight to antenna?
Interior unknown
general assumptions
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.4 Body Loss (1)
Measured attenuation versus
time for a test person walking
around in ananechoic chamber
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.5 Body Loss (2)
Head modeled as sphere
Calculation model
Near field of MS antenna•without head•with head
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.6 Body Loss (3)
Indirect measured field strength penetrated into the
head (horizontal cut)
Test equipment for indirectfield strength measurements
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.7 Interference Margin
In GSM, the defined minimum carrier-to-interferer ration (C/I) threshold of 9 dB is only valid if the received server signal is not too weak.
In the case that e.g. the defined system threshold for the BTS of -111dBm is approached, a higher value of C/I is required in order to maintain the speech quality.
According to GSM, this is done by taking into account a correction of 3 dB.
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.8 Degradation (no FH)
GSM uses a frame correction system, which works with checksum coding and convolutional codes.
Under defined conditions, this frame correction works successfully and copes even with fast fading types as Rayleigh or Rician fading.
For lower mobile speed or stationary use, the fading has a bigger influence on the bit error rate and hence the speech quality is reduced.
In such a case, a degradation margin must be applied. The margindepends on the mobile speed and the usage of slow frequency hopping, which can improve the situation for slow mobiles again.
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.9 Diversity Gain
This designates the optional usage of a second receiver antenna.
The second antenna is placed in a way, which provides some decorrelation of the received signals.
In a suitable combiner, the signals are processed in order to achieve a sum signal with a smaller fading variation range.
Depending on the receiver type, the signal correlation, and the antenna orientation, a diversity gain from 2…6 dB is possible.
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.10 Lognormal margin
Lognormal margin is also called fading margin
Due to fading effects, the minimum isotropic power is only received with a certain probability
Signal statistics, lognormal distribution with median power value Fmed and standard deviation σ (sigma)
Without any margin, the probability is 50%, which is not a sufficient value in order to provide a good call success rate.
A typical design goal should be a coverage probability of 90...95%. The following normalised table can be applied to find fading margins for different values of σ. The fading margin is calculated by multiplying the value of k (in the table) with the standard deviation:
Lognormal/Fading Margin = kσσσσ.
k -∞ -0.5 0 1 1.3 1.65 2 2.33 +∞
Coverage
Probability
0% 30% 50% 84% 90% 95% 97.7
%
99% 100
%
k -∞ -0.5 0 1 1.3 1.65 2 2.33 +∞
Coverage
Probability
0% 30% 50% 84% 90% 95% 97.7
%
99% 100
%
kk -∞-∞ -0.5-0.5 00 11 1.31.3 1.651.65 22 2.332.33 +∞+∞
Coverage
Probability
Coverage
Probability
0%0% 30%30% 50%50% 84%84% 90%90% 95%95% 97.7
%
97.7
%
99%99% 100
%
100
%
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.11 Consideration of Signal Statistics (1)
100 m10
0 m
BS
x
Field strength at location xlognormally distributedarround Fmedian
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2.6 Coverage Probability
2.6.12 Consideration of Signal Statistics (2)
0
0,05
0,1
0,15
0,2
0,25
0,3
received signal level F [dBm]
Local coverage probability: Pcov = P [ F > Fthreshold ]
σ
FmedianFthreshold
Area representing thecoverage probability
probability density function (pdf)
Folie large Scale (slow) Fading:
The lognormal distribution, described by a mean fieldstrength Fmed and a standard deviation s, is shown in the diagram. A coverage probability Pcov can be calculated, which defines the chance that a certain fieldstrengththreshold Fthr is reached or exceeded by the calculated (or predicted) mean fieldstrength level Fmed.
The variation of the probability in dependence on Fmed is shown in the diagram. The required difference between Fmed and Fthr in order to achieve a required probability is called the fading margin.
Without any margin, the probability is 50% (Fmedian), which is not a sufficient value in order to provide a good call success rate. A typical design goal should be a coverage probability of 90...95%. This can be reached by applying a factor s (Fthreshold). (Additional System margin). -> Next Chapter
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2 Coverage Planning
2.7 Cell Range Calculation
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For what Radius R is the average coverage probability in the cell area 95% ?
2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.1 Calculation of Coverage Radius R
r = distance between BTS and MS
Frec = received power
σ = Standard deviation
F rec, thr
F rec
Frec,med (r)
0 r
σ
R
R
<Pcov(R)> = = 0.95∫20
π
πR²
Pcov (r) dr !
Frec,med (r) = EIRP - LossHata (r)
Loss Hata = f(hBS, hMS, f, r) + Kmor
Pcov(r)= P(Frec (r) > Frec,thr)
R = f (hBS, hMS, f, Kmor, EIRP, Frec,thr)
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.2 Coverage Probability
0
0,5
0,951
Pcov (r)
R r
Pcov = P ( Frec > Frec, thr )
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.3 Coverage Ranges and Hata Correction Factors
Area Coverage Probability
70%
75%
80%
85%
90%
95%
100%
0,0 1,5 3,0 4,5 6,0 7,5 9,0 10,5
d [km]
Pco
v
155
150
145
140
135
130
125
120
115
110
Reference
Pathlos s [dB]
Calculation conditions:
Correction = 3; Sigma = 7hBS= 30 m; hMS = 1.7m; f = 900 Mhz
Clutter type Cor [dB] σ [dB]
Skyscrapers 0 6Dense urban 2 6Medium urban 4 7Lower urban 6 7Residential 8 6Industrial zone 10 10Forest 8 8Agricultural 20 6Low tree density 15 8Water 27 5Open area 27 6
The lognormal distribution, described by a mean fieldstrength Fmed and a standard deviation s, is shown in in the left diagram. A coverage probability Pcov can be calculated, which defines the chance that a certain fieldstrength threshold Fthr is reached or exceeded by the calculated (or predicted) mean fieldstrength level Fmed. This probability is represented by the area enclosed by the graph of the probability density function and the vertical line at F=Fthr in the left diagram. The variation of the probability in dependence on Fmed is shown in the right diagram. The required difference between Fmed and Fthr in order to achieve a required probability is called the fading margin.
Without any margin, the probability is 50%, which is not a sufficient value in order to provide a good call success rate. A typical design goal should be a coverage probability of 90...95%. The following normalized table can be applied to find fading margins for different values of s. The fading margin is calculated by multiplying the value of k (in the table) with the standard deviation (Fading Margin = k s).
k -∞ -0.5 0 1 1.3 1.65 2 2.33 +∞CoverageProbability 0% 30% 50% 84% 90% 95% 97.7% 99% 100%
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.4 Conventional BTS Configuration
ALCATEL EvoliumTM
TX → 45.4 dBmRX → -109dBm
TX
TX and RX
1 BTS
Omnidirectional antenna for both TX and RX
Coverage Range R0
Coverage Area A0
R0
A0
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.5 Coverage Improvement by Antenna Diversity
ALCATEL EvoliumTM
TX → 45.4 dBmRX → -109dBm
TX RXDIV
RX and TX
1 BTS
Omnidirectional antennas
one for both RX and TX
one for RXDIV
Antenna diversity gain (2...6 dB)
Example: 3 dB
Coverage rangeRDiv = 1.23 · R0
Coverage areaADiv = 1.5 · A0
R0RDiv
A0
ADiv
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.6 Radiation Patterns and Range
3 antennas at sector site,Gain: 18 dBi, HPBW: 65°
Resulting antenna footprint ("cloverleaf")compared to an 11 dBi omni antenna
omni
sector
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.7 Improvement by Antenna Diversity and Sectorization
TX
RXDIV
3 BTS
Directional antennas (18 dBi)
Antenna diversity (3 dB)
Max. coverage rangeRsec,div = 1.95 · R0
Coverage areaAsec,div = 3 · A0
ALCATELEvoliumTM
ALCATELEvoliumTM
ALCATELEvoliumTM
R0
Rsec,div
Asec,div
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2.7 Cell Range Calculation
2.7.8 Improvement by Antenna Preamplifier
TX
RXDIV
3 BTS
Directional antennas (18 dBi)
Antenna diversity (3 dB)
Antenna preamplifier (3dB)
Max. coverage rangeRsec,div,pre = 2.22 · R0
Coverage areaAsec,div,pre = 3.9 · A0
General:Asec = g · A0
g: Area gain factorR0
Rsec,div,pre
Asec,div,pre
ALCATELEvoliumTM
ALCATELEvoliumTM
ALCATELEvoliumTM
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2 Coverage Planning
2.8 Antenna Engineering
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.1 Omni Antennas
Application Large area coverage
Umbrella cell for micro cell layer
Advantages Continuous coverage around the site
Simple antenna mounting
Ideal for homogeneous terrain
Drawbacks No mechanical tilt possible
Clearance of antenna required
Densification of network difficult
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.2 Sector Antenna
Antenna with horizontal HPBW of e.g. 90° or 65°
Advantages
Coverage can be focussed on special areas
Low coverage of areas of no interest (e.g. forest)
Allows high traffic load
Additional mechanical downtilt possible
Wall mounting possible
Drawbacks
More frequencies needed per site compared to omni sites
More hardware needed
Lower coverage area per sector
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.3 Typical Applications
Wide horizontal beam width (e.g. 90°)
For areas with few reflecting and scattering objects (rural area)
Area coverage for 3-sector sites
Sufficient cell overlap to allow successful handovers
Small horizontal beam width (e.g. 65°)
For areas with high scattering (city areas)
Coverage between sectors by scattering and by adjacent sites (mostly site densification in urban areas)
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.4 Antenna Tilt
Downtilting of the Antenna main beam related to the horizontal line
Goals:
Reduction of overshoot
Removal of insular coverage
Lowering the interference
Coverage improvement of the near area (indoor coverage)
Adjustment of cell borders (handover zones)
Mechanical / Electrical or Combined downtilt
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.5 Mechanical Downtilt
Advantages
Later adjustment of vertical tilt possible
Antenna diagram is not changed, i.e. nulls and side lobes remain in their position relative to the main beam
Cost effective (single antenna type may be used)
Fast adjustments possible
Drawbacks
Side lobes are less tilted
Accurate adjustment is difficult
Problems for sites with difficult access
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.6 Electrical Downtilt
Advantages
Same tilt for both
main and side lobes
Antenna mounting is more simple → no adjustment errors
Drawbacks
Introduction of additional antenna types necessary
New antenna installation at the site if downtilting is introduced
Long antenna optimization phase
Adjustment of electrical tilt mostly not possible
τ τ τ τ = 0
τ τ τ τ = t
τ τ τ τ = 2 t
τ τ τ τ = 3 t
ττττ = delay time
downtilt angle
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.7 Combined Downtilt
Combination of both mechanical and electrical downtilt
High electrical downtilt: Distinct range reduction in sidelobe direction (interference reduction)
Less mechanical uptilt in main beam direction
Choose sector antennas with high electrical downtilt (6°...8°) and apply mechanical uptilt installation for optimum coverage range in main beam direction
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.8 Assessment of Required Tilts
Required tilt is estimated using Geometrical Optics
Consideration of
Vertical HPBW of the antenna
Antenna height above ground
Height difference antenna/location to be covered
Morpho-structure in the vicinity of the antenna
Topography between transmitter and receiver location
Tilt must be applied for both TX and RX antennas!
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.9 Inter Site Distance in Urban Area
Using sectorized sites with antennas of 65° horizontal half power beam width
The sidelobe is approximately reduced by 10dB.
This is a reduction of cell range to 50%.
The inter site distance calculation factor depends on
Type of antenna
Type of morpho class
• Multi path propagation
• Scattering
• Sigma (fading variations)
X XA B
0.5* R2R2
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.10 Downtilt in Urban Area
Cell range R2
Main beam
0.5* R2
Side l
obe
Tilt 2 Tilt 2Site A Site B
Inter Site Distance A-B = 1.5* R2
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.11 Downtilt in Urban Area
The upper limit of the vertical half power beam widthis directed towards the ground at maximum cell range
Upper –3dB point of the vertical antenna pattern
To be used in areas with
Multi path propagation condition
Good scattering of the beam
Aim
Reduction of interference
Optimization
Coverage Optimization in isolated cases using less downtilt
Interference Reduction in isolated cases using more downtilt
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.12 Downtilt in Suburban and Rural Area
Downtilt planning for
Suburban
Rural
Highway Coverage
The main beam is directed towards the ground at maximum cell range
Main beamMain
beam
Cell range R1 Cell range R1
Tilt 1 Tilt 1
Inter Site Distance C-D = 2* R1
Site C Site D
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.13 Antenna configurations
Application of Duplexer
Consists of a TX/RX Filter and a combiner
one antenna can be saved
Tower Mounted Amplifier (TMA)
Increase Uplink Sensitivity
TMA needs to have TX bypass => in case of duplexer usage
Diversity
Space diversity
Polarization diversity
Rx/Tx
RxTx
DuplexFilter
To BTS
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.14 Antenna Configurations for Omni and Sector Sites
Antenna Configurations for Omni and Sector Sites
RxRxdiv
TxRx
Tx
Rxdiv
Bracons
Sectorantenna
Pole
SectorAntenna
Pole
Tower mounting for omni antennas Tower mounting for directional antennas
Pole mounting for roof-top mounting
Pole mounting for wallor parapet mounting
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.15 Three Sector Antenna Configuration with AD
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.16 Antenna Engineering Rules
Distortion of antenna pattern: No obstacles within
Antenna near field range
HPBW Rule plus security margin of 20°
First fresnel ellipsoid range (additional losses!)
TX-RX Decoupling to avoid blocking and intermodulation
Required minimum separation of TX - RX antennas dependent on antenna configuration (e.g. duplexer or not)
Diversity gain
Required antenna separation for space diversity
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.17 Distortion of antenna pattern
Antenna Near Field Range: Rmin = 2D²/λ D = Aperture of antenna (e.g. 3m)
=> Rmin = 60 / 120m for GSM / DCS
HPBW Rule with securtiy margin of 20° and tilt αααα
Roof Top = Obstacle
ϕϕϕϕϕ = ϕ = ϕ = ϕ = HPBW/2 + 20° + αααα
D
H
D[m] 1 5 10H[m] 0.5 2.5 5
HPBW = 8°, α = 2°
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.18 Tx-Rx Decoupling (1)
TX
RX
fuse
fint
f[MHz]
P [dBm]
fuse fint
-101
-13
n*200kHz
Pout
Pin
ReceiverCharacteristic
Pblock
P1dB
Out of Band Blocking Requirement (GSM Rec. 11.21)
GSM 900 = +8 dBm
GSM 1800 = 0 dBm
Required Decoupling (n = number of transmitters)
TX-TX = 20 dB
TX-RX GSM = 30 + 10 log (n) dB
TX-RX DCS = 40 + 10 log (n) dB
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.19 TX-RX Decoupling (2)
Horizontal separation (Approximation)
IH=22+20log(d
H/λλλλ)-(G
T+G
R) [dB]
dH
Isolation for Horizontal Separation - omni 11dBi
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
1,7
2,7
3,7
4,7
5,7
6,7
7,7
8,7
9,7
10,4
10,8
11,2
11,6 12
12,4
12,8
13,2
13,6 14
14,4
14,8
15,2
Separation [m]
Isol
atio
n [d
B]
GSM1800
GSM900
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.20 TX-RX Decoupling (3)
Vertical separation (Approximation)
IV=28+40log(d
V/λλλλ) [dB]
dv
dm
Mast
Isolation for Vertical Separation
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0,2 0,3 0,4 0,5 0,6 0,7 0,8 0,9 1
Separation [m]
Isol
atio
n [d
B] GSM1800
GSM900
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Required separation for max. diversity gain = F(λ)
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.21 Space Diversity
dH
RXA RXB
dV
RXA
RXB
For a sufficient low correlation coefficient ρ < 0.7:
dH = 20λ => GSM 900: 6m / GSM1800: 3m
dV = 15λ => GSM 900: 4.5m / GSM1800: 2.25m
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.22 Power Divider
Power dividers connect several
antennas to one feeder cable
For combination of individualantenna patterns for a requested configuration
Quasi-omni configuration
Bidirectional configuration(road coverage)
4-to-1 Power splitter(6 dB loss)
To BTS: Receiver input
To BTS: Duplexer output(TX plus RX diversity)
Quasi-OmniConfiguration
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Power divider
Also called "power splitter" or "junction box"
Passive device (works in both (transmit and receive) direction)
3 dB
Pin
Pin
2
Pin
2
Pin
3
4.5 dB
Pin
Pin
3
Pin
3
6 dB
Pin
Pin
4
Pin
4
Pin
4
Pin
4
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.23 Power Divider
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.24 Panel Configurations (1)
Radial Arrangement
of 6 Panel Antennas with horizontal beamwidth = 105 °gain = 16.5 dBi, mast radius = 0.425 m, mounting radius = 0.575 m
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.25 Panel Configurations (2)
Example 2: Quasi Omni Arrangement
of 3 antennas with horizontal beamwidth = 105 °, gain =13.5 dBi,mounting radius = 4 m
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.26 Panel Configurations (3)
Example 3: Skrew Arrangement
of 4 Panel Antennas with horizontal beamwidth = 65 °,gain = 12.5 dBi, mast radius = 1 m,mounting radius = 1.615 m
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.27 Feeders
Technical summary
Inner conductor: Copper wire
Dielectric: Low density foam PE
Outer conductor: Corrugated copper tube
Jacket: Polyethylene (PE)black
Inner conductor Outer conductor
Dielectric Jacket
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.28 Feeder Installation Set and Connectors
1 Cable Clamps2 Antenna Cable3 Double Bearing4 Counterpart5 Anchor tape
7/16 Connector:Coaxial ConnectorRobustGood RF-Performance
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Type Minimum bending radius Jacket(outer diameter)
Weight (m) Recommendedclamp spacing
Single bending Repeated bending
LCF 1/2’’ 70 mm 210 mm 16 mm 0.35 kg 0.6 m
LCF 7/8’’ 120 mm 360 mm 28 mm 0.62 kg 0.8 m
LCF 1 5/8’’ 300 mm 900 mm 49.7 mm 1.5 kg 1.2 m
These values are based on feeder types with an impedance of 50 ohms
GSM 900 GSM 1800 GSM 1900
Type Attenuation /100 m [dB]
Recommendedmax length [m]
Attenuation /100 m [dB]
Recommendedmax length [m]
Attenuation /100 m [dB]
Recommendedmax length [m]
LCF 1/2“ 6.6 45 10.3 30 10.6 28
LCF 7/8“ 4.0 75 6.0 50 6.3 47
LCF 1_5/8“ 2.6 115 4.0 75 4.2 71
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.29 Feeder Parameters
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.30 Feeder attenuation (1)
Main contribution is given by feeder loss
Feeder Cable 4dB/100m => length 50m Loss =2.0dB
Jumper Cable 0.066dB/1m => 5m Loss =0.33dB
Insertion Loss of connector and power splitter < 0.1dB
Total Loss 2.0dB+2x0.33dB+5x0.1dB+0.1dB =3.26dB
Cable type is trade off between
Handling flexibility
Cost
Attenuation
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.31 Radiating Cables
Provide coverage in Tunnels, buildings, along side tracks or lines
Principle: Radiate a weak but constant electromagnetic wave
Suitable for coverage over longer distances (Repeater)
Fieldstrength distribution more constant as with antennas
F
FThr
Repeater
F
FThr
Terminat-ing Load
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Components are shown with black lines
BTS
Tx
Rx
Radiating cable Termination load
Earthing kitMounting clips with 50 mm wall standoff
N-connections
Jumper cabel
1-leg radiating cable system
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.32 Components of a radiating cable system
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-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
-90
-100
-110
[dBm]
Cable attenuationbetween the antennas
Radiating cable field strength
Antenna field strength
Distance
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.33 Comparison of field strength: Radiating cable and standard antenna
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Example of a radiating cable in a tunnel
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.34 Example of a radiating cable in a tunnel
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.35 Microwave antennas, feeders and accessories
Microwave point to point systems use highly directional antennas
Gain
with G = gain over isotropic, in dBi
A = area of antenna aperture
e = antenna efficiency
Used antenna types
parabolic antenna
high performance antenna
horn lens antenna
horn antenna
GA e= 10 4
2lg
πλ
Section 1 - Module - Page 2323FL 11820 ACAA WBZZA Edition 3
Parabolic dish, illuminated by a feed horn at its focus.
Available in a wide variety of sizes [1’ (0.3 m), 2’ (0.6 m), 4’ (1.2 m), 6’ (1.8 m), 8’ (2.4 m), 10’ (3.0 m) and sometimes up to 16’ (4.8 m) in most frequency bands.
Sizes over 4’ are seldom used due to the installation restrictions on private buildings
Mostly with single plane polarised feed, which can be either vertical (V) or horizontal (H)
Dual polarized feeds (DP), with separate V and H connections possible
DP`s usually have lower gain than single polarized antennas
Front-to-back ratios of about 45 dB are not high enough to use these antennas back-to-back on the same frequency (interference calculations)
Antenna patterns are absolutely necessary for interference calculations
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.36 Parabolic antenna
Parabolic dish, illuminated by a feed horn at its focus
Available sizes: 1’ (0.3 m) up to 16’ (4.8 m)
Sizes over 4’ seldom used due to installation restrictions
Single plane polarized feed vertical (V) or horizontal (H)
Also: dual polarized feeder (DP), with separate V and H connections (lower gain)
Front-to-back ratios of 45 dB not high enough for back-to-back configuration on the same frequency
Antenna patterns are absolutely necessary for interference calculations
Section 1 - Module - Page 2333FL 11820 ACAA WBZZA Edition 3
Similar to the common parabolic antenna, except for an attached cylindrical shield
Improvement of the front-to-back ratio, and wide angle radiation discrimination
Available in the same sizes as parabolic ones, either single or double polarised
Substantially bigger, heavier, and more expensive than the ordinary parabolics
Allow back-to-back transmision at the same frequency in both directions (refer to interference calculation)
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.37 High performance antenna
Similar to common parabolic antenna, except for attached cylindrical shield
Improvement of front-to-back ratio and wide angle radiation discrimination
Available in same sizes as parabolic, single or dual polarized
Substantially bigger, heavier, and more expensive than parabolic antennas
Allow back-to-back transmission at the same frequency in both directions (refer to interference calculation)
Section 1 - Module - Page 2343FL 11820 ACAA WBZZA Edition 3
Horn lens antenna
Only available for very high frequencies (above 25 Ghz)
Replacement for small parabolic antennas (1’)
Electrical data nearly the same, but easier to install due to their size and weight
Horn reflector antenna
Consists of a very large parabola, mounted at such an angle that the energy from the feed horn is reflected at right angle (90°)
Gain in the region of a 10’ parabolic antenna (60 dBi), but it has much higher front-to-back ratios ( 70 dB or more)
Very big, heavy and requires a complex installation procedure
Only used on high capacity microwave backbones (example: MSC-MSC interconnections).
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.38 Horn antennas
Horn lens antenna
For very high frequencies > 25 GHz
Replacement for small parabolic antennas (1’)
Same electrical data, but easier to install due to size and weight
Horn reflector antenna
Large parabola, energy from the feed horn is reflected at right angle (90°)
Gain like 10’ parabolic antenna (60 dBi), but higher front-to-back ratios > 70 dB
Big and heavy, requires a complex installation procedure
Only used on high capacity microwave backbones (e.g. MSC-MSC interconnections)
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.39 Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (1)
Cross polarization discrimination (XPD)
highest level of cross polarisation radiation relative to the main beam; should be > 30 dB for parabolic antennas
Inter-port isolation
isolation between the two ports of dual polarised antennas; typical value: better than 35 dB
Return loss (VSWR)
Quality value for the adaption of antenna impedance to the impedance of the connection cable
Return loss is the ratio of the reflected power to the power fed at the antenna input (typical> 20 dB)
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Radiation pattern envelope (RPE)
Tolerance specification for antenna pattern (specification of antenna pattern itself not suitable due to manufacturing problems)
Usually available from manufacturer in vertical and horizontal polarisation (worst values of several measurements)
Weight
Wind load
2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.40 Specific Microwave Antenna Parameters (2)
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.41 Data sheet 15 GHz
Parabolic antenna 15 GHz High performance antenna 15 GHz
Bandwidth (GHz) 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35
Model number PA 2 - 144 PA 4 - 144 PA 6 - 144
Nominal diameter (m) 0.6 1.2 1.8
(ft) 2 4 6
Half-power beamwidth (deg) 2.3 1.2 0.8
Gain low band (dBi) 36.2 42.3 45.8
Gain mid band (dBi) 36.5 42.5 46.0
Gain high band (dBi) 36.7 42.8 46.3
Front-to-back ratio (dB) 42 48 52
Cross polar discrimination (dB) 28 30 30
Return loss (dB) 26 26 28
Weight (kg) 19 43 73
Windload
Elevation adjustment (deg) +/- 5 +/- 5 +/- 5
Bandwidth (GHz) 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35 14.4 - 15.35
Model number DA 2 - 144 DA 4 - 144 DA 6 - 144
Nominal diameter (m) 0.6 1.2 1.8
(ft) 2 4 6
Half-power beamwidth (deg) 2.3 1.2 0.8
Gain low band (dBi) 36.2 42.3 45.8
Gain mid band (dBi) 36.5 42.5 46.0
Gain high band (dBi) 36.7 42.8 46.3
Front-to-back ratio (dB) 65 68 68
Cross polar discrimination (dB) 28 30 30
Return loss (dB) 26 26 26
Weight (kg) 28 55 130
Windload
Elevation adjustment (deg) +/- 12 +/- 12 +/- 12
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.42 Radiation pattern envelope
Section 1 - Module - Page 2393FL 11820 ACAA WBZZA Edition 3
Depending on the frequency coaxial cables and waveguides are used for the transmission of RF energy between radio systems and antennas. The most important characteristic of feeders is their loss, but also
their impedance (return loss).
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.43 Feeders (1)
Coaxial cables or waveguides (according to frequency)
Most important characteristic: loss and return loss
Coaxial cables
Used between 10 MHz and 3 GHz
Dielectric material: foam or air
Parameters of common coaxial cables:
type dielectric diameter(mm)
loss(dB/100m)
powerrating (kW)
bendingradius (mm)
LCF 1/2’ CU2Y foam 16.0 10,9 / 2 GHz 0.47 200
13.8 / 3 GHz
LCF 7/8’ CU2Y foam 28.0 6.5 / 2 GHz 0.95 360
8.5 / 3 GHz
LCF 1 5/8’ CU2Y foam 49.7 4.4 / 2 GHz 1.7 380
5.6 / 3 GHz
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.44 Feeders (2)
Waveguides
Used for frequency bands above 2.5 GHz
Three basic types available: circular, elliptical and rectangular
Rigid circular waveguide
Very low loss
Supports two orthogonal polarisations
Capable to carry more than one frequency band
Usually, short components of this type are used
Disadvantages: cost, handling and moding problems
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.45 Feeders (3)
Elliptical semiflexible waveguides
Acceptable loss, good VSWR performance
Low cost and easy to install
Various types optimised for many frequency bands up to 23 GHz
Used for longer distances (easy and flexible installation)
Can be installed as a "single run" (no intermediate flanges)
type loss /100 m FrequencyEW 34 2.0 4 GHz
EW 52 4.0 6GHz
EW 77 5.8 8GHz
EW 90 10.0 11 GHz
EW 220 28.0 23 GHz
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.46 Feeders (4)
Solid and flexible rectangular waveguides
Solid rectangular waveguides
Combination of low VSWR and low loss
High cost and difficult to install
Used for realising couplers, combiners, filters
type loss /100 m FrequencyWR 229 2.8 4 GHz
WR159 4.5 6GHz
WR112 8.5 8GHz
WR 90 11.7 11 GHz
WR 75 15.0 13 GHz
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.47 Feeders (5)
Flexible rectangular waveguides
Worse VSWR and losses than for solid waveguides
Often used in short lengths (<1 m), where position between connection points depends on actual installation place
Common applications: connection of microwave system to antenna (close together on rooftops or towers) for frequencies >13 Ghz
type loss / m FrequencyPDR140 0.5 15GHz
PDR180 1 18 GHz
PDR220 2 23 GHz
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.48 Antenna feeder systems (1)
Direct radiating system
Most commonly used for frequencies up to 13 Ghz
Depending on accepted feeder loss/length, higher frequencies may be possible
Excessive attenuation and costs in long runs of wave guide
Occurence of echo distortion due to mismatch in long runs of waveguide possible
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.49 Antenna feeder systems (2)
Periscope antenna system
Used for
• considerable antenna heights
• waveguide installation problems
Negligible wave guide cost and easy installation
System gain is a function of antenna and reflector size, distance and frequency
Used above 4 GHz , because reflector size is prohibitive for lower frequencies
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2.8 Antenna Engineering
2.8.50 Antenna feeder systems (3)
Combined antenna with transceiver
Antenna and transceiver are combined as a single unit to cut out wave guide loss (higher frequencies)
Units are mounted on top of a mast and connected to multiplex equipment via cable
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2 Coverage Planning
2.9 Alcatel BSS
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.1 Architecture of BTS - Evolium Evolution A9100
3 levels
Antenna coupling level
TRX level
BCF level Station unit module
Abis interface
Abbreviations
BCF Base station Control Function TRX Transceiver
Antenna network stage ANC
Air interface
Combiner stage (ANY) Combiner stage (ANY)
TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX TRX
Antenna network stage ANC or ANB (note)
)1)
Note 1 : ANB module is limited to 2 TRX in No TX Div mode and to 1 TRX in TX Div mode.
Antenna coupling level
The general functions performed at this level are:
- Duplexing transmit and receive paths onto common antennas;
- Feeding the received signals from the antenna to the receiver front end, where the signals are amplified and distributed to the different receivers (Low Noise Amplifier (LNA) and power splitter functions);
- Providing filtering for the transmit and the receive paths;
- Combining, if necessary, output signals of different transmitters and connecting them to the antenna(s);
- Supervising antennas VSWR (Voltage Standing Wave Ratio).
-Powering and supervising TMA through the feeder.
The Antenna Network Combiner (ANC) module
- one duplexer allowing a single antenna to be used for the transmission and reception of both downlink and uplink channels- hence minimizing the number of antenna
- a frequency selective VSWR meter to monitor antenna feeder and antenna
- one LNA amplifying the receive RF signal, and giving good VSWR values, noise compression and good reliability
- two splitter levels distributing the received signal to four separate outputs so that each output receives the signal from its dedicated antenna and from the second one (diversity)
- one Wide Band Combiner (WBC), concentrating two transmitter outputs into one, only for configurations with more than two TRX
- insertion of 12V DC current in the feeder in order to provide power to TMAs when TMAs are used; there is thus no need for separate Power Distribution Unit (PDU) nor Bias-Tee (Feeder Lightning protections, that come with the ANC in case of outdoor BTSs, are themselves of a new type, compatible with this DC power feeding) (This function is only available with the new Evolution version of this module; it can be disabled, even if TMAs are used, in case those TMAs have their own PDUs).
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.2 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (1)
The Antenna network Combiner (ANc)- no-combining mode
Antenna A TXA - RXA -
RXdivB
Splitter WBC
TRX 1 TX RXn RXd
TRX 2 TX RXn RXd
Splitter
Splitter
LNA
Duplexer
Filter Filter
Splitter Splitter WBC
Antenna B TXB- RXB - RXdivA
Duplexer
Filter Filter
Splitter
LNA
By-pass function By-pass function
No-combining mode & No TX Div mode
The No-combining mode for configuration up to 2 TRX if TX Diversity is not used, or up to one TRX if TX Diversity is used (two TRX ports must then be connected to the two Antenna Connector ports of
a same Twin TRX module); in these cases, the Wide Band Combiner is not needed, and therefore bypassed
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.3 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (2)
The Antenna network Combiner (ANc)- Combining mode & No TX Div mode
Antenna A TXA - RXA -
RXdivB
Splitter WBC
TRX 1 TX RXn RXd
TRX 4 TX RXn RXd
Splitter
Splitter
LNA
Duplexer
Filter Filter
Splitter Splitter WBC
Antenna B TXB- RXB - RXdivA
Duplexer
Filter Filter
Splitter
LNA
TRX 2 TX RXn RXd
TRX 3 TX RXn RXd
The Combining mode for configuration from 3 up to 4 TRX if TX Diversity is not used, or up to 2 TRX if TX Diversity is used (two TRX ports must then be connected to the two Antenna Connector ports of
a same Twin TRX module); in these cases, the Wide Band combiner is not bypassed, as shown in the figure
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.4 EVOLIUMTM A9100 Base Station (3)
ANy: Twin Wide Band Combiner Stage
Splitter SplitterWBC SplitterSplitter WBC
TXA RXA RXAdiv
TX RX RXdiv
TRX 1
TX RX RXdiv
TRX 2
Rxdiv RX TX
TRX 4
Rxdiv RX TX
TRX 3
RXBdiv RXB TXB
The Twin Wide Band Combiner stage (ANY) combines up to four transmitters into two outputs, and distributes the two received signals up to four receivers. This module includes twice the same structure, each structure containing:
one wide band combiner (WBC), concentrating two transmitter outputs into one two splitters, each one distributing the received signal to two separate outputs
providing diversity and non-diversity path
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.5 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features
Standard Features according to GSM• DR (Dual Rate), EFR (Enhanced Full Rate coder), AMR (Adaptive Multi Rate) requires
that the BSS software release and the other network elements also support these codecs
• HW supports GSM 850, E-GSM, GSM 900, GSM 1800 and GSM 1900 bands
• Multi Band Capabilities (supporting of 850/1800 TRX, 850/1900TRX, and, 900 /1800 can be located in the same cabinet)
• All known A5 algorithms to be supported; HW provisions done
Standard Features due to new Architecture and new SW Releases• SUS (Station Unit Sharing)
Only one central control unit (SUM) for all BTS per cabinet
• Multiband BTS (GSM 900/1800) in one cabinet
• Static (Release 4) and statistical (Release 6) submultiplexing on Abis
- Better use of Abis-interface capacity: More BTS/TRX to be supported in a multidrop loop
• Introduction of GPRS and HSCSD without HW changes
• EDGE compatible TRX
The BTS range supports A5/1 and A5/2 ciphering algorithms;
A5/0 = ‘no ciphering’ is always supported.
The TRX are hardware ready for A5/3.
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.6 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features [cont.]
Features specific to Radio Performance
TX Output Power (at TRX output)
RX Sensitivity: -111 dBm certified(GSM|ETSI| request: -104 dBm)
Synthesized Frequency Hopping as general solution• Standard RF hopping mode
• Pseudo baseband RF hopping mode
Antenna Diversity in general• Two or four antennas (RX) per sector
• TX Diversity feature is possible with Twin TRX module in coverage mode only.
Duplexer (TX and RX on one antenna) as general solution
Multiband capabilities• Thanks to the high flexibility of the EVOLIUM™ A9100 Base Station, GSM 850 and GSM 1800 TRXs or
GSM 850 and GSM 1900 TRXs or GSM 900 and GSM 1800 TRXs or GSM 900 and GSM 1900 TRXs can be located in the same cabinet with a single Station Unit Module (SUM).
25 W = 44.0 dBm45 W = 46.5 dBmGSM 1900
30 W = 44.8 dBm60 W = 47.8 dBmGSM 1800 HP
30 W = 44.8 dBm35 W = 45.4 dBmGSM 1800 MP (*)
30 W = 44.8 dBm60 W = 47.8 dBmGSM 900 HP
30 W = 44.8 dBm45 W = 46.5 dBmGSM 900 MP (*)
15 W = 41.8 dBm45 W = 46.5 dBmGSM 850
TX output power, 8-PSK (EDGE)TX output power, GMSKFrequency band
(*) Note that for the Twin TRX, the TX output powers above are in capacity mode, i.e. each of the functional TRX achieves these output powers. In coverage mode, i.e. with Tx Diversity, a significant extra gain has to be considered (see "TX Diversity" chapter) thanks to on-air combining and diversity.
The diagram below shows that 4RX Diversity requires two Antenna Network modules per sector, thereby needing either 4 vertical-polarized or 2 cross-polarized antennas.
Antenna Network Antenna Network
TX1 RX1
TX2 RX3
RX20
RX4
TW IN
TRX
Figure : Twin TRX module in TX Div & 4 RX div
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.6 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features [cont.]
Capacity Mode Principle
1 TWIN module = 2 functional TRX
1 Housing = 2 functional TRX = 16 radio timeslots
Same Radio Performances as EDGE + TRX Medium Power
Reduced Power Consumption
Tx : GSM 900 : 45 W GMSK / 30 W 8PSKGSM 1800 : 35 W GMSK / 30 W 8PSK
Rx : Sensitivity < -114 dBm(-114 to -117 dBm with 2 Rx diversity – environment dependent)
Tx : GSM 900 : 45 W GMSK / 30 W 8PSKGSM 1800 : 35 W GMSK / 30 W 8PSK
Rx : Sensitivity < -114 dBm(-114 to -117 dBm with 2 Rx diversity – environment dependent)
Saving per TRX (vs. TRX EDGE+):- 17 % in GSM 900- 35 % in GSM 1800
Saving per TRX (vs. TRX EDGE+):- 17 % in GSM 900- 35 % in GSM 1800
2 TRXs can belongto different sectors
TRX1
TRX2
TRX
TRX
TRX
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Rx : Equ. sensitivity = -117.4 to - 121 dBm (*) (4RX div)(*) environment dependent)
Rx : Equ. sensitivity = -117.4 to - 121 dBm (*) (4RX div)(*) environment dependent)
Coverage Mode Principle
• 1 TWIN module = 1 functional TRX = 8 radio TS
• 2 RX & 4 RX diversity possible
• TX diversity used ( very high coverage)
• Gain in sites (less sites needed)
• This mode is also called TX div mode
• Up to 12 TRX in MBI5/MBO2 cabinets
Tx : GSM 900 : 113 to 175 W (*) GMSKGSM 1800 : 88 to 136 W (*) GMSK
Tx : GSM 900 : 113 to 175 W (*) GMSKGSM 1800 : 88 to 136 W (*) GMSK
Higher Output Power
Higher Sensitivity
2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.6 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features [cont.]
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.6 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features [cont.]
2 RX Diversity
The TRX module supports enhanced diversity combining in all frequency bands, which is based on several algorithms:
A beam-forming algorithm to improve the received signal by steering a beam in the direction of the mobile. This is one way of doing smart antennas,
An algorithm to reduce interference: this mitigates the influence of interferers by steering a null beam in the direction of the main interferer (the phase difference between the two antennas for the strongest interfering signal is estimated and then this interfering signal is strongly attenuated by summing the signals with an inversed phase).
-114.5dBm3.5 dBRural (RA100)
-116dBm5 dBSub Urban (TU50)
-117dBm6 dBDense Urban (TU3)
Equivalent RX sensitivity (without TMA)Total 2RX diversity gain
EnvironmentUser
x
strong interferer
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.6 EVOLIUMTM BTS Features [cont.]
4 RX Diversity 4 RX diversity is supported by the Twin TRX module in coverage mode only. It uses exactly the same
algorithms as for 2Rx diversity, i.e. beam-forming techniques are implemented. The table below provides the typical gains achieved thanks to 4RX enhanced Diversity and the equivalent Rx sensitivity that can be considered for link budget calculations.
4 RX diversity also provides significant benefits for GPRS/EDGE since it allows achieving higher throughputs for given radio conditions.
-117.4dBm6.4 dBRural (RA100)
-119.6dBm8.6 dBSub Urban (TU50)
-121dBm10 dBDense Urban (TU3)
Equivalent RX sensitivity (without TMA)Total 4RX diversity gain
Environment
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.7 Generic Configurations for A9100 G4/5 BTS
The configurations for indoor (MBI) and outdoor (MBO) cabinet are presented in the next slides
larger configurations with more than one cabinet can be derived from the tables
configurations are valid for EDGE capable TRX (Evolution step 2)
availability of multiband configurations other than GSM 900 / GSM 1800 must be checked with product management (authorization required)
Notation:
BBU - Battery Backup Unit
BATS - Small Battery Backup
LBBU - Large Battery Backup Unit
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
ANY
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
ANY
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
ANY
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
ANY
ANC
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
ANY
ANC
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
ANY
ANC
SUM
Mounting Frame for 19" equipment (3U) A//DC conversion
Ava
ilabl
e sp
ace
for
eith
er:
• M
ount
ing
Fra
me
fo
r 19
" eq
uipm
ent
(6U
) •
Bat
tery
Ava
ilabl
e sp
ace
for
eith
er:
• M
ount
ing
Fra
me
fo
r 19
" eq
uipm
ent (
6U)
• B
atte
ry
Stand
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
ANC
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
ANY
ANY
ANC
TWIN
TRX
TWIN
TRX
ANY
ANY
ANC
ANY
ANY
SUM
Indoor MBI5 3x8
Outdoor MBO2 3x8
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.8 Non multi-band configurations
900/1800 (2)2222213Low loss TX div & 4 RX div
900/1800 (2)22222222212Low loss TX div & 4 RX div
900/1800 (2)2222222222211Low loss TX div & 4 RX div
900/1800 (2)221222222113Standard TX div & 2 RX div
900/1800 (2)4211444422212Standard TX div & 2 RX div
900/1800 (2)4422444444411Standard TX div & 2 RX div
900/1800 (2)8866433Low-loss no TX div
900/1800 (2)126121010864332Low-loss no TX div
900/1800 (2)161264161616161210831Low-loss no TX div
900/1800 (2)* No BU5** MBO1 Evo. only
62**64442214Standard(3) no TX div
900/1800 (2)* No BU58421*864442213Standard(3) no TX div
900/1800 (2)8632888864412Standard(3) no TX div
900/1800 (2)8864888888811Standard(3) no TX div
Other BU5BU90other BU5
DCACDCACACACDCACAC
bandsMBO2Evolution
MBO1Evoluti
on
CBOMBI5 (Note 4)MBI3per sect.
FrequencyNotesMax TRX per sectorMin TRXSectors
Note 1: "AC other" is referring to the Indoor AC configurations without integrated battery, i.e. either with no battery, or with batteries in an external cabinet.Note 2: Frequency bands: new modules are available initially in GSM 900 and GSM 1800 frequency band; they will be available in a second step in GSM 850 and GSM 1900, on market request.Note 3: As described in chapter "Standard configurations" above, "Standard" is referring to configurations with 1 Antenna Network per sector, and are thus limited to 8 TRXs per sector. Configurations with more than 8 TRXs per sector need two Antenna Networks per sector; such configurations are called "Low-loss" and described in a separate section of the table.Note 4: With MBI5, more than 18 TRX per cabinet is only possible with DC cabinets (and using TWIN modules) and more precisely with functional variant 3BK 25965 ABxx of these cabinets, that has become since end 2006 the standard delivery; MBI5 with functional variant 3BK 25965 AAxx, are limited to 18 TRX (using TWIN modules); functional variant of a cabinet can be checked either on site (on printed Barcode label, or available through Line Maintenance Terminal), or from the OMC-R where it is part of the Remote Inventory data.
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.9 Multi-band configurations
900/1800 (2)4/44/42/22/22/21/13Standard no TX div
900/1800 (2)6/62/26/64/44/44/41/12Standard no TX div
900/1800 (2)12/126/64/22/212/128/88/88/86/62/22/21/11Standard no TX div
Other BU5BU90other
BU5
DCACDCACACACDCACAC
bandsMBO2Evolution
MBO1Evolution
CBOMBI5 (Note 4)MBI3per sect.band1/band2
(3)
FrequencyNotesMax TRX per sector (band 1/ band 2)Min TRXSectors
Note 1: "AC other" is referring to the Indoor AC configurations without integrated battery, i.e. either with no battery, or with batteries in an external cabinet.Note 2: Frequency bands: new modules are available initially in GSM 900 and GSM 1800 frequency band; they will be available in a second step in GSM 850 and GSM 1900, on market request.Note 3: Count of sectors is made with hypothese of multiband cell, i.e. that each sector contains one cell in band1 and one cell in band2, these two cells being paired as a single "multiband cell", counted as one sector.
In multiband "without multiband cell", a same configurations would be counted as having twice the number of sectors.The table above thus describes at the same time- possible configurations for multiband "with multiband cell"- those configurations for multiband "without multiband cell" that have the same number of sectors in each band
Note 4: With MBI5, more than 18 TRX per cabinet is only possible with DC cabinets (and using Twin TRX modules) and more precisely with functional variant 3BK 25965 ABxx of these cabinets, that has become since end 2006 the standard delivery; MBI5 with functional variant 3BK 25965 AAxx, are limited to 18 TRX (using Twin TRX modules); functional variant of a cabinet can be checked either on site (on printed Barcode label, or available through Line Maintenance Terminal), or from the OMC-R where it is part of the Remote Inventory data.
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.10 Extended cell configurations
900MBI3; MBO1 Evolution4411
900MBI5; MBO2 evolution8811
OuterInnerOuterInner
Frequency band
Type of cabinetof TRXMax. numberof TRXMin. Number
Extended Cell configurations
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.11 Standard configurations
1 up to2TRX/ sector
No-combining ANC or ANB
Antenna Antenna
TRX 1 TRX 2
3 up to 4TRX/ sector
Antenna Antenna
TRX 1 TRX 4
Combining ANC
5 up to 6TRX/ sector 5 up to 8RX/sector
TRX 1 TRX 2
Combining ANC
Antenna Antenna
TRX 3 TRX 6
Combiner (ANY)
TRX 1 TRX 4
Combining ANC
Antenna Antenna
TRX 5 TRX 8
Combiner (ANY) Combiner (ANY)
The interface with the antenna system is through one single Antenna network combining (ANC) module in each sector (and then through 2 feeders and two antennas or one dual-polarized antenna).
Standard configurations with Twin TRX in No TX Div
The number of sectors and TRXs depends on the cabinet type, with a maximum of 6 sectors and 24 TRXs in a Indoor MBI5 ("AB" functional variant) or an Outdoor MBO2 evolution cabinet.
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.12 TRX Types
44,830W45,435W1800TGT18
44,830W46,545W900TGT09
44,830W46,860WHP1800TADHE
44,025W47,760WHP1800TADH
47,760WHP1800TRDH
40,025W46,545WMP1900TRAP
44,830W45,435WMP1800TRADE
40,812W45,435WMP1800TRAD
41,830W47,860WHP900TAGHE
44,025W47,760WHP900TAGH
44,830W46,545WMP900TRAGE
41,815W46,545WMP900TRAG
41,815W46,545WMP850TRAL
dBmWdBmW
8PSKGMSKPOWERBANDNAME
Example of TRE boards with their frequency band and power characteristics
GMSK – Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying
8PSK – 8 phase shift keying
TGT – Twin GSM Tranceiver
Different Transceivers are used depending on the band : 900, 1800, 1900 (in America) and 850MHz (this new band has been introduced in the Release 1999 of the 3GPP Standard).
The list above is not exhaustive.
A new Tx Rx hardware module gives the possibility to have per Hardware module transmission receiption function. In this case the module is called Twin TRX
For example
In the MBI5 rack, the number of hardware module is 12 maximum, but if all are Twin TRX the maximum number of Transmitter functions will be 24. (TRE G5)
The new Twin TRX (TGT) gives also the possibility to provide TX diversity
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.12 TRX Types
The losses between TRE connector and the Antenna connector
Configuration Transmission loss (dB)
1 ANC without bridges 1.8
1 ANC 5.1
1 ANC + 1 ANY 8.6
1 ANX 1.8
1 ANX / 1 ANY 5.3
1 ANX + 2 ANY 8.8
delta ANY 3.5
Module Transmission loss (dB)
ANC 4.4
ANC no bridge 1
ANX 1
ANY 3.3
Radio cables
TRE-AN
AN-AN
AN-Antenna
0.3
0.2
0.5
Losses due to the Antenna Network (AN)
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.13 BTS Output Power
What is monitored during validation is the BTS output power at antenna connector
The individual losses for duplexer, combiner and internal cabling are not systematically measured
for detailed info consult the BTS product description
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.14 Feature Power Balancing
From G4 (now G5) BTS it is allowed to use TRXs of different power within the same sector, or to use of different combining path for TRX belonging to the same sector.
Reason: the G4 BTS is able to detect unbalanced losses/powers within a sector and automatically compensate it for GMSK modulation.
Consequence: All TRX connected to one ANc are automatically adjusted to the GMSK output power of the weakest TRX (required for BCCH recovery)
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.15 Cell Split Feature
Principle Cell Split allows to provide one logical cell with one common BCCH over
several BTS cabinets. The cabinets must be synchronized
Benefits Same number of TRX in fewer racks No need to touch/modify the configuration of existing BTS (cabling) Take full benefit of 24 TRX per cabinet
Drawback: more complex antenna system Applications
Multi-band cells Configuration extension of sites by adding TRX Large configurations
Condition: BTS must be synchronized
Configuration built with several cabinets and the “cell split over two BTSs” feature
It is possible to optimize the number of cabinets needed for a site configuration (indoor or outdoor, single band or multi-band) built with more than one cabinet, thanks to a feature called “cell split over two BTSs”.
In that case, the TRXs of one sector can be split over two A9100 BTS cabinets. Various configurations are possible, the only constraint being that following conditions are fulfilled:
Maximal number of TRX per cell is 16.
Maximal number of cabinets between which a given cell is shared is 2.
Cabinets between which a cell is shared are clock synchronised in a master / slave configuration
Note : when used in mono band configurations, cell split feature may allow to reduce the number of cabinets with regards to the solution with one cabinet per sector; but at the expense of a more complex antenna system (two ANC, hence 4 feeders per sector instead of 2 feeders, as for "low-loss" configurations); this has to be considered before selecting such a solution.
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.19 Cell Split Example: High Power Configuration
Cabinet1
(Standard 8,8,8TRX)
Cabinet2
(Standard 8,8,8TRX)
Sector3: 1x16 TRX Sector2: 1x16 TRX Sector1: 1x16 TRX
TRX 1 TRX 4
ANC
TRX 5 TRX 8
ANY ANY
TRX 1 TRX 4
ANC
TRX 5 TRX 8
ANY ANY
TRX 1 TRX 4
ANC
TRX 5 TRX 8
ANY ANY
TRX 1 TRX 4
ANC
TRX 5 TRX 8
ANY ANY
TRX 1 TRX 4
ANC
TRX 5 TRX 8
ANY ANY
TRX 1 TRX 4
ANC
TRX 5 TRX 8
ANY ANY
The following figure gives an example of standard multi-band with multi-band cell 3x8/3x8 in 2 MBI5 cabinets :
For a MBI5, in a 3 sector configuration, max. 3 HP TRX /sector are allowed (thermal reasons).
The only way´to have 3x6 in MBI5 is with the cell split feature.
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.22 Indoor BTS Rack Layout
IND mini: 4carrier, 1 Duplexer (Anx), 1 Combiner (Any), SUM (CPU, Link to BSC)
IND Medi: 12carrier, 3 Duplexer (Anx), 3 Combiner (Any), SUM (CPU, Link to BSC)
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.23 Outdoor MBO1 Evolution and MBO2 Evolution cabinets
Mounting Frame for 19" equipment (3U) A//DC conversion
Ava
ilabl
e sp
ace
for
eith
er:
• M
ount
ing
Fra
me
fo
r 19
" eq
uipm
ent
(6U
) •
Bat
tery
Ava
ilabl
e sp
ace
for
eith
er:
• M
ount
ing
Fra
me
fo
r 19
" eq
uipm
ent (
6U)
• B
atte
ry
Radio subrack
Radio subrack
Radio subrack
Radio subrack
Radio subrack
Radio subrack
156 cm94 cmWidth
161 cm161 cmHeight with plinth
146 cm146 cmHeight without plintht
80 cm80 cmDepth (roof level)
74 cm74 cmDepth (floor level)
MBO2Evolution
MBO1Evolution
External Dimensions
The Multi-standard Outdoor BaseStation cabinets MBO1 Evolution and MBO2 Evolution offer operators important flexibility with:
An easy extension on-site from the Outdoor MBO1 Evolution BTS (up to 12 TRXs capacity) to the Outdoor MBO2 Evolution BTS (up to 24 TRXs capacity)
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.24 Micro BTS types
M5M EVOLIUM A9110 Micro-BTS (M5M)
Introduced in Q3 2003
up to 12 TRX-es
site configurations can mix older A910 with newer A9110-E
support for GPRS and EDGE (release dependent)
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.25 Technical Data
A910A910A910A910(2 TRX)(2 TRX)(2 TRX)(2 TRX)
A9110A9110A9110A9110(2 TRX)(2 TRX)(2 TRX)(2 TRX)
Frequency band GSM 850, E-GSM,GSM900, GSM 1800, GSM
1900
GSM 850, E-GSM,GSM900, GSM 1800, GSM
1900
Tx output power(at antenna connector)
Up to 4.5 W 7 W
Rx sensitivity -107 dBm -110 dBm
Radio FH Yes yes
Temperature range (max.) 55 °C 55 °C
Max. power consumption 130 W 145 W
Size (volume) 54 litres 54 litres
Weight 39.6 kg (incl. connectionbox)
32.5
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.26 BSC capacities in terms of boards
Three BSC capacities are defined depending on the number of TRXs
200 TRX 400 TRX 600 TRX
BSC Capacity
ATCA shelf
CCP
Spare CCP
TPGSM
OMCP
SSW
LIU shelf
MUX
LIU
1 2 3
1
1
2
2
2
1
2
8 16
Equipment
The quantity of TPGSM, OMCP, SSW and MUX boards have to be considered as 1 activ + 1 stand-by for redundancy function in the shelf.
LIU Line Interface Unit – 16x 2Mbit/Board
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.27 Capacity and dimensioning for E1 links
The BSC Evolution is able to process up to 2600 erlangs
200 TRX 400 TRX 600 TRX
BSC Capacity
Max number of BTS
Max number of cells
Total number of E1
Number of Abis
Number of Atermux CS
Number of Erlangs
Traffic Ater PS (Mb/s) Max
255
Equipment
Number of Atermux PS
264
224
176
30
18
2600
36
255
264
128
96
20
12
1800
24
150
200
112
96
10
6
900
12
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2.9 Alcatel BSS
2.9.28 Abis and atermux allocation on LIU boards
Abis and atermux allocation on LIU boards versus BSC capacity
200 TRXLIU 1 LIU 2 LIU 3 LIU 4 LIU 5 LIU 6 LIU 7 LIU 8 LIU 9 LIU 10 LIU 11 LIU 12 LIU 13 LIU 14 LIU 15 LIU 16
1 1 17 33 49 65 81 97 113 129 145 161 41 31 21 2 1
2 2 18 34 50 66 82 98 114 130 145 162 42 32 22 4 3
3 3 19 35 51 67 83 99 115 131 147 163 43 33 23 6 5
4 4 20 36 52 68 84 100 116 132 148 164 44 34 24 8 7
5 5 21 37 53 69 85 101 117 133 149 165 45 35 25 10 9
6 6 22 38 54 70 86 102 118 134 150 166 46 36 26 12 11
7 7 23 39 55 71 87 103 119 135 151 167 47 37 27 14 13
8 8 24 40 56 72 88 104 120 136 152 168 48 38 28 16 15
9 9 25 41 57 73 89 105 121 137 153 169 x 39 29 18 17
10 10 26 42 58 74 90 106 122 138 154 170 x 40 30 20 19
11 11 27 43 59 75 91 107 123 139 155 171 x 24 18 12 11
12 12 28 44 60 76 92 108 124 140 156 172 x 23 17 10 9
13 13 29 45 61 77 93 109 125 141 157 173 28 22 16 8 7
14 14 30 46 62 78 94 110 126 142 158 174 27 21 15 6 5
15 15 31 47 63 79 95 111 127 143 159 175 26 20 14 4 3
16 16 32 48 64 80 96 112 128 144 160 176 25 19 13 2 1
Abis ports (max 176)Atermux CS (max 48)Ater mux PS (max 28)
200 TRX400 TRX 400 TRX
600 TRX 600 TRX
200
400
400
200
Abis portsAter Ports
One ater LIU boardfor 200 TRX
Maximum flexibilityon abis LIU board
LIU boards are fitted in the LIU shelf depending on the BSC configuration (Capacity + connectivity), but
• only 2 HW configurations for the LIU shelf are considered: one with 8 LIU boards, one with 16 LIU boards,
• Assignment to each LIU boards either to Abis or Ater,
• On the Ater LIU, 10 TP are “generic” (can be assigned either to PS, full CS or a mixed of the 2), and the 6 others are dedicated to PS.
In case of 200 TRX configuration, Alcatel decided to split the traffic up to 2 LIU boards (even if one LIU board should be efficient) in order to not impact all the traffic in case of one LIU board failure.
The maximum of available LIU boards are used for Abis, to offer maximum flexibility to the clients.
The port numbered 9, 10, 11 and 12 on the LIU 12 are not used.
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2 Coverage Planning
2.10 Coveradge Improvement
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2.10 Coveradge Improvement
2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.1 Diversity
Purpose
Improvement in fading probability statistics
leads to a better total signal level or better total S/N ratio
Principle
Combining signals with same information from different signal branches
Demands
correlation between different signal branches should be low
Combining methods
Selection Diversity
Maximum Ratio Combining
Equal Gain Combining
Purpose
The purpose of using diversity is to reduce short-term fading effects, such that an acceptable level of performance (receiver sensitivity) can be achieved, without having to increase the transmitted power or the bandwidth.
Principle
The principle relies on the combination of two or more signals, containing the same information, which are at least partially de-correlated. If two signals of the same level are completely de-correlated, the probability that both signals experience the same depth of fade is very low. Therefore the signal reliability is increased.
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Time [sec]
Fieldstrength
[dBm]
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
-80
-90
-100
Antenna 1 Antenna 2
2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.2 Selection Diversity (1)
Principle
selection of the highest baseband signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) or of the strongest signal (S+N)
Correlation of signal levels
a lower correlation between signal levels of different branches improves the total signal level
Correlation of signal levels should be low
The algorithm for the selective diversity combining technique is based on the principle of selecting the best signal among all of the signals received from different branches, at the receiving end.
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Time [sec]
Fieldstrength
[dBm]
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
-80
-90
-100
Antenna 1
Antenna 2
2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.3 Selection Diversity (2)
Difference in signal level
a high difference in signal levels of two branches doesn’t improve the total signal level
Difference in signal levels should be low
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.4 Selection Diversity (3)
Theoretical diversity gain
10dB for two-branch diversity at the 99% reliability level
16dB for four branches at the 99% reliability level
The theoretical diversity gain doesn’t improve linear with the number of branches
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In comparison with MRC, in this technique the branch weights are all set to unity but the signal from each branch are co-phased to provide equal gain combining diversity.
The possibility of producing an acceptable signal from a number of unacceptable inputs is still retained, and performance is only marginally inferior to maximal ratio combining an superior to selection diversity.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.5 Equal Gain Combining (1)
Principle
cophase signal branches
sum up signals
Coherent addition of signals and incoherent addition of noises
Theoretical diversity gain
11dB for two-branch diversity at the 99% reliability level
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.6 Equal Gain Combining (2)
Difference in signal level
Assuming equal noise in the branches, the higher the difference in signal levels is, the higher is the loss of S/N ratio of the better signal branch after summation
Difference in signal levels should be low
Correlation of signal levels
a lower correlation between signal levels of different branches improves the total S/N ratio
Correlation of signal levels should be low
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.7 Maximum Ratio Combining (1)
Principle
weight signals proportionally to their S/N ratios
cophase signal branches
sum up the weighted signals
Coherent addition of signals and incoherent addition of noises
Improved S/N
In this method the signals from all the branches are weighted according to their individual S/N and then summed. Here the individual signals must be co-phased before being summed ( unlike selection diversity ) which generally requires an individual receiver and phasing circuit for each antenna .
Maximal ratio combining produces an output SNR equal to the sum of the individual SNRs. Thus, it has the advantage of producing an output with an acceptable SNR even when none of the individual signals are themselves acceptable.
This technique gives the best statistical reduction of fading of any known diversity combiner. Modern DSPs and digital receivers are now making this optimal form of diversity practical.
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Correlation of signal levels
a lower correlation between signal levels of different branches improves the total S/N ratio
Correlation of signal levels should be low
2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.8 Maximum Ratio Combining (2)
Difference in signal level
Assuming equal noise in the branches, the higher the difference in signal levels is, the higher is the loss of S/N ratio of the better signal branch after summation
comparing to equal ratio combining, this combining reduces influence of worse signal branches
Difference in signal levels should be low
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.9 Comparison of combining methods
Improvement of average SNR from a diversity combiner compared to one branch
(a) Maximum Ratio Combining
(b) Equal Gain Combining
(c) Selection Diversity
The maximum ratio combining, which is used in the ALCATEL BTS, gives the best statistical reduction of any known linear diversity combiner.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.10 Enhanced Diversity Combining (1)
Principle:
2 algorithms
• Beam forming algorithm (available also for MRC)
• Interference reduction algorithm (new)
best efficiency when the useful signal and the interfering signals come from different directions.
Requirements to benefit from this feature:
Hardware: G4 (onwards) TRE (Edge capable TRX) installed in EvoliumEvolution BTS step1 resp. step 2 (internal name: G3 resp. G4)
Software release: from B6.2 onwards
For a maximum gain: antenna engineering rules respected
• Correct antenna choice for the considered environment
• Correct antenna spacings and orientations (in case of space diversity)
The TRX module supports enhanced diversity combining in all frequency bands, which is based on several algorithms:
A beam-forming algorithm to improve the received signal by steering a beam in the direction of the mobile. This is one way of doing smart antennas,
An algorithm to reduce interference: this mitigates the influence of interferers by steering a null beam in the direction of the main interferer (the phase difference between the two antennas for the strongest interfering signal is estimated and then this interfering signal is strongly attenuated by summing the signals with an inversed phase).
Maximum efficiency of enhanced diversity combining is achieved when the useful/desired signal and the interfering signals emanate from different directions. In interference-limited environments, beam-forming algorithms will provide a much greater diversity gain compared to traditional maximum ratio combining.
The above mentioned algorithms are working together in a way to combat spatial interferer signals while keeping optimal sensitivity perfomance for undisturbed but week reception.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.11 Enhanced Diversity Combining (2)
-114.5dBm3.5 dBRural (RA100)
-116dBm5 dBSub Urban (TU50)
-117dBm6 dBDense Urban (TU3)
Equivalent RX sensitivity (without TMA)Total 2RX diversity gain
Environment
Diversity gain coming from the fact that the signals received on both antennas are de-correlated (this requires using Xpol antennas or largely spaced antennas)Array-Gain or Beamforming gain : coming from the fact, that co-phased signals are added (stronger combined signal power) for this directionNull Steering / Interference Reduction (with a spatial interferer) coming from a algorithm which reduces the interference (the figures below assume a standard interference margin is considered for the link budget)
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity
GSM900: 50.5dBm (113W)GSM1800: 49.4dBm (88W)
4 dBRural (RA100)
GSM900: 51.1dBm (129W)GSM1800: 50dBm (100W)
4.6 dBSub Urban (TU50)
GSM900: 52.4dBm (175W)GSM1800: 51.3dBm (136W)
5.9 dBDense Urban (TU3)
Equivalent TX output power (GMSK)Total TX diversity gain
Environment
Basic Idea:Transmit twice the same signal from two antennasNo combining losses (on air combining) 3dB gain
Possible Issue:Coherence between signal can lead to destructive effectsThis effect depends on the environment a short delay is introduced between two antennas (2 symbols)
BTS MS
0011000101001
0011000101001
short delay
TX Diversity works with all types of Mobile stations since it is fully transparent to the receiver; this feature takes advantage of the MS equalizer which can already handle multiple paths with different times of arrival.
Consequently, the equivalent TX output power is very high, up to 6dB above the nominal TX output power, which improves the coverage and reduces the number of sites needed to cover a given area, provided the link budget remains balanced or downlink-limited
The table provides the typical gains achieved thanks to TX Diversity and the equivalent TX output power that can be considered for link budget calculations. Note that such gains are environment-dependent
since they are highly related to the level of de-correlation between paths.
In 8-PSK, the TX diversity gain is highly dependent on the coding scheme, the environment and the level of Carrier to Interference+Noise Ratio. No significant gains are expected.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity
Diversity Gain:
On top of the output power increase
TxDiv artificially increases the number of multi-paths
The higher the de-correlation between paths, the higher the gain
Other features: a) high power TRX or b) Transmit Coherent Combining do not benefit from this effect
First channel
Second channel
Time
Attenuation
Fading hole
Example:
2 paths (blue and red)
They show independent amplitude (fast) fading
Probability to fall in a hole is reduced
Fading holes of a channel are often compensated by the other channel
Additional gain
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity
Delay Trade-Off
Higher delay between antennas implies
• Less destructive effect, more de-correlated paths and so higher diversity gain: Higher Gains
• Higher channel delay spread: More Self-interference
Alcatel found the optimal trade-off
• For all environments
• Based on extensive simulations and lab measurements
0011000101001
0011000101001
short delay
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.12 Tx Diversity
Summary of the Transmit Diversity effects
3dB increase of the signal strength
Additional up to 2.9dB diversity gain for un-correlated fast fading:• Diversity gains are maximum in dense urban because there are a lot of scatterers
• Diversity gains are reduced in rural because we have Line of Sight propagation
Self-interference due to the artificial increase of the delay spread
Environment Fading Profile
Power increase
Diversity gain
Total TxDivgain
Dense Urban TU3 3dB 2.9dB 5.9dB
Sub-Urban TU50 3dB 1.6dB 4.6dB
Rural RA100 3dB 1dB 4dB
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.12 Diversity systems in Mobile Radio Networks
Two diversity systems are used in Mobile Radio Networks :
Space DiversitySpace Diversity
• horizontal
• vertical
Polarization DiversityPolarization Diversity
dH
RXA RXB
+45° -45°
RXA RXB
dH
TXA TXB
+45° -45°
TXA TXBTXA
TXB
dv
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.13 Space Diversity Systems
Diversity gain depends on spatial separation of antennas
dH
RXA RXB
dV
RXA
RXB
Horizontal separation(e.g. Roof Top)
Vertical separation(e.g. Mast)
For Optimum Diversity GaindH = 20λλλλ dV =
15λλλλGSM900 = 6m GSM900 = 4.5mGSM1800 = 3m GSM1800 = 2.25m
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The larger the separation the higher the diversity gain
Prefer horizontal separation (more effective)
The higher the antenna the higher the required
separation, rule: d > h/10
Highest diversity gain from the "broadside”
Select orientation of diversity setup according to orientation of cell / traffic
h
d
Optimum diversity Gain
2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.14 Space Diversity - General Rules
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.15 Achievable Diversity Gain
Depends on fading conditions
Varies in between 2.5 - 6dB
Higher diversity gain in areas with multipath propagation (urban and suburban areas)
General rule: consider diversity gain with 3dB in the link budget
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Horizontal / vertical polarization:Hor/Ver Antenna
Polarization of +/- 45°:cross polarized antennaor Slant antenna
Big Advantage: Only one panel antenna is required to profit from diversity gain using this configuration
V H +45° -45°
RXA RXB RXA RXB
2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.16 Polarization Diversity
Diversity gain in using orthogonal orientated antennas
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Diversity
Gain
multipath-
propagation
reflection,
diffraction
reception with
reception with
a hor / ver
polarised
antenna
a X-polarised
antenna
EV
EH
EX2
EX1
G = f( ρ,∆ )
Time [sec]
Ex1 or Ev
Ex2 or Eh
2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.17 Principle of Polarization Diversity
ρρρρ correlation coeficient (0.7)
∆∆∆∆ difference in signal level
---> diversity gain with dual polarized antennas depends on :
ρ, ∆ and the orientation of the sending and receiving antenna
To achieve low correlation and low differences in signal level, reflection and diffraction under multipath condition is necessary. ---->
In rural areas neglectible diversity gain can be expected from polarization diversity.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.18 Air Combining
Features
only one TX per antenna
combining signals "on air" and not in a combiner
3dB combiner loss can be saved to increase coverage
Can be realized with
two vertical polarized antennas
one cross polarized panel antennaTX1 TX2
TX1 TX2
The idea of air combining is to combine transmitted signals in the air and not with an internal combiner, in order to save combining losses. Thus the maximum achievable coverage range will be increased.
Air combining can be realized with
• two sector or omni antennas
• one cross polar antenna transmitting different carriers on +/-45°.
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.19 Air Combining with Polarization Diversity
One antenna system
cross polarized antennas recommended for urban/suburban area (less space req.)
No Air combiningBandfilter if De-coupling too low
Air combiningRecommended forEvolium BTS
V H
DUPL BF
TX RXA RXB
DUPL
TX1 RX1 TX2 RX2RX2D RX1D
DUPL
or
1 TRX 2 TRX
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.20 Air Combining with Space Diversity
Two antenna system
Vertical or horizontal spacing (recommended for rural area)
RXA RXB TX
or or
RXARXB
TX
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.21 Decoupling of Signal Branches
One antenna system: TX / RX decoupling cannot be achieved by spatial separation
Decoupling between both polarization branches needs to be sufficiently high to avoid
blocking problems
intermodulation problems
Required decoupling values
G2 BTS: 30 dB
Evolium A9100 BTS: 25dB (Integrated duplexer Anx)
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.22 Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (1)
Receiving Application
same diversity gain for cross polarized and hor/ver antennas
in urban and suburban area polarization diversity gainpolarization diversity gain equal to space space diversity gaindiversity gain (2.5 - 6dB)
negligible polarization diversity gain polarization diversity gain in rural areas (not recommended)
accordingly consider polarization diversity gainpolarization diversity gain with 3dB in the link budget
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.23 Cross Polarized or Hor/Ver Antenna? (2)
Transmission Application: Air combining
3dB loss when transmitting horizontal/vertical polarized (use of combiner)
1-2dB losses when transmitting at 45° (optimum antenna is straighten vertically)
Air combining only recommended with cross polarized antenna
3dB2dB
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2.10.1 Antenna Diversity
2.10.1.24 Conclusion on Antenna Diversity
Rural Areas
installation space not limited
apply Space Diversity (higher gain)
Urban and Suburban Area
apply space or polarization diversity
use cross polarized antennas for air combining
Diversity Gain
consider diversity gain in link budget with 3dB
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2.10. Coveradge Improvement
2.10.2 Repeater Systems
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.1 Repeater Application
BTS (donor cell)repeater
original service areaarea covered by repeater
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.2 Repeater Block Diagram
Required Isolation > 70…90 dB
A repeater is a bi-directional amplifier. It receives the downlink signal from the BTS, amplifies it and transmits the signal to the mobile. In the uplink direction, the signal of the mobile is received, amplified and transmitted to the BTS.
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.3 Repeater Applications (2)
Coverage Improvement of Cells (‘Cell Enhancer’)
removal of coverage holes caused by
• topography (hills, ravines, ...)
• man made obstacles
Provision of tunnel coverage
street, railway tunnels
underground stations
Provision of indoor coverage at places of low additional traffic
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.4 Repeater Types
Channel selective repeaters
high selectivity of certain channels
high traffic areas, small cell sizes
Band selective repeaters
adjustment to operator’s frequency band
no (accidental) usage by competitors
Broad band repeaters
low cost solution for low traffic areas (rural environment)
medium to high repeater gain
Personal repeaters
low gain
broad band
indoor coverage improvement for certain rooms
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Antennato donor cell
Repeater
Radiatingcable
Tunnel
2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.5 Repeater for Tunnel Coverage
Choice of repeater type due to
tunnel dimensions
wall materials
feeding by
directional antennas
leaky feeder cables
long tunnels
chains of several repeaters
fiber optic backbone for repeater feeding
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Personal repeater
Antennatodonor cell
Fiber opticdistribution
Remoteunits
Master unit
Radiatingcable
2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.4 Repeater for Indoor coverage
For smaller buildings
Compensation for wall losses, window losses (heat insulated windows)
Low cost personal repeaters installed in certain rooms
For larger buildings (shopping malls, convention centers, sport centers)
multispot transmission using
• co-axial distribution network
• fiber-optic distribution network
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.5 Planning Aspects
Repeater does not provide additional traffic capacity
risk of blocking if additional coverage area catches more traffic
possible carrier upgrading required
Repeater causes additional signal delay
delay: 4..8µs → max. cell range of 35 km reduced by 1 to 2km
special care needed for total delay of repeater chain!
delayed signal and original signal could cause outage in urban environment if total delay exceeds 16 ... 22µs
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.6 Repeater Gain Limitation (1)
Intermodulation products should be low
when amplifier reaches saturation point, intermodulation products go up
Signal to noise ratio should be high
when amplifier reaches saturation point, signal to noise ratio is getting worse
Antenna isolation between transmission and receiving antenna should be high
if signal feedback from transmission antenna to receiving antenna is too high, amplifier goes into saturation
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.7 Repeater Gain Limitation (2)
Pin Poutgain78 dB
isolation90 dB
Pback =Pin - 12 dB
Repeater gain limited by antenna isolation:
GRepeater < IDonor, Repeater - M M (Margin) ~ 12 dB
Measure isolation after installation
inMAmplifierGI argδ+=
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.8 Intermodulation Products
A Non-linear system produces higher-order intermodulation
products as soon as output power reaches the saturation point
Parameter 1 dB compression point
3rd order intercept point (ICP3)
Intermodulation reduction (IMR)
Amplifier back-off
GSM900/GSM1800 requirements IM products ≤ -36 dBm or
IM distance > 70 dBc whichever is higher
Each amplifier has a limited linear operation range.
In the linear range the input power is amplified by the amplification factor v. But this is only valid until a certain maximum input power. As soon as you feed the amplifier with too high input power the input signal will less and less amplified. The point were the degradation from the specified amplification is 1dB is called the one dB compression point.
Lower amplification is one effect when you operate an amplifier in the non linear region, another effect which can cause even worse problems is the intermodulation. Especially the 3rd order intermodulation product (2f1+-f2) is very significant. The amplifier produces interfering signals based on available frequencies (f1 and f2).
dbc = is the power of one signal referenced to a carrier signal
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Uplink Loss = Downlink Loss ⇒ Uplink Gain = Downlink Gain!
2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.9 Repeater Link Budget
Different gains may be needed in Up- and Downlink if the
sensitivity of the repeater is worse than the sensitivity of the BTS
!
Downlink Path Unit ValueReceived power at repeater dBm -65Link antenna gain dBi +19Cable loss dB -2Repeater input power dBm -48Repeater gain dB +78Repeater output power dBm 30Cable loss dB -2Repeater antenna gain dBi +18EIRP dBm 46
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.10 High Power TRXs
High Power TRXs: solution for coverage improvement
HP must be used together with TMA: due to unbalanced Link Budget
A9100 BTS supports
High Power TRX
Medium Power
TRX type is chosen by:
• environment conditions
• required data throughput (GPRS/EDGE)
TX power of EVOLIUM™ Evolution step 2 TRX :
Frequency band TX output power, GMSK TX output power, 8-PSK (EDGE)
GSM 900 HP 60 W = 47.8 dBm 25 W = 44.0 dBm
GSM 1800 HP 60 W = 47.8 dBm 25 W = 44.0 dBm
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.13 3x6 TRXs High Power Configuration
Configuration made with EVOLIUM™ A9100 Base Station
Obs:
All TRX are HP
The configuration is using cell split feature
Cabinet1(High power 3x3TRX)
Sector3: 1x6 TRXSector2: 1x6 TRXSector1: 1x6 TRX
Cabinet2(High power 3x3TRX)
No-com-bining
ANc
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2
Combi-ning
MPTRX 3
No-com-bining
ANc
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2
Combi-ning
MPTRX 3
No-com-bining
ANc
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2
Combi-ning
MPTRX 3
No-com-bining
ANc
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2
Combi-ning
MPTRX 3
No-com-bining
ANc
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2
Combi-ning
MPTRX 3
No-com-bining
ANc
HPTRX1 HPTRX 2
Combi-ning
MPTRX 3
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2.10.2 Repeater Systems
2.10.2.14 Mixed TRX Configuration
BTS EVOLIUM™ supports a mix of:
EVOLIUM™ TRX (TRE) - supports GSM/GPRS and EDGE
EVOLIUM™ Evolution step 2 TRX (TRA) with Medium Power
EVOLIUM™ Evolution step 2 TRX (TRA) with High Power
T
R
E
T
R
E
T
R
A
MP
T
R
A
HP
Hardware configuration
Logical cell
TRX1 (BCCH)
TRX2 (1 SDCCH)
TRX3
TRX4
Packet VoiceAllocation
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3 Traffic & Frequency Planning
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.1 Traffic Caspacity
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.1 Telephone System
subscriber
1
2
3
4
line to PSTN
sub 1
sub 2
sub 3
sub 4
timeobservation period, e.g.main busy hour (MBH)
blocked callattempts
Parameters:
λ: arrival rate [1/h]µ: release rate [1/h]1/µ: mean holding time [sec]
"offered" traffic = # of calls arriving in MBH × mean holding time ρ = λ ×ρ = λ ×ρ = λ ×ρ = λ × 1/µµµµ [Erlang]
automaticswitch
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.2 Offered Traffic and Traffic Capacity
Handled Traffic, Traffic Capacity: T
Blocking Probability, Grade of Service (GoS): pblock = R / ρ System load: ττττ = T / n, i.e. T < n
Loss System(n slots)
HandledTraffic (T)
OfferedTraffic (ρ)
Rejected Traffic (R)
T = ρ - R
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.3 Definition of Erlang
ERLANG : Unit used to quantify traffic
T = (resource usage duration)/(total observation duration) [ERLANG]
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.4 Call Mix and Erlang Calculation
CALL MIX EXAMPLE
• 350 call/hour
• 3 LU/call
• TCH duration : 85 sec
• SDCCH duration : 4,5 sec
ERLANG COMPUTATION
• TCH = (350 * 85)/3600 = 8,26 ERLANG
• SDCCH = [ (350 + 350*3) * 4,5 ] / 3600 = 1.75 ERLANG
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.5 ERLANG B LAW
ERLANG B LAW
Relationship between
• Offered traffic
• Number of resources
• Blocking rate
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.5 ERLANG B LAW (2)
call request arrival rate (and leaving) is not stable
number of resources = average number of requests mean duration
is sometime not sufficent => probability of blocking
=> Erlang B law
Pblock : blocking probability
N : number of resources
E : offered traffic [Erlang]
Calculated with Excel - Makro or Table
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.6 Erlang´s Formula
How to calculate the traffic capacity T?
Basics: Markov Chain (queue statistics)
Calculation of the blocking probability using Erlang´s formula (Erlang B statistics):
Varation of ρρρρ until pblock reached: ρρρρ →→→→ T
pn i
block
n i
i
n= ∑
=
ρρρρ ρρρρ! !0
p0 p1
2µµ
λpi
λpn
nµ
p2
3µ
no callestablishe
d
i channels occupied
all channels occupied
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.7 Blocking Probability (Erlang B)
Nr. of Blocking Probability Erlang Bchannels 0.1% 0.2% 0.5% 1% 2% 3% 4% 5% 10% 15% 20% 50%
1 0.001 0.002 0.005 0.010 0.020 0.031 0.042 0.053 0.111 0.176 0.250 1.0002 0.046 0.065 0.105 0.153 0.223 0.282 0.333 0.381 0.595 0.796 1.000 2.7323 0.194 0.249 0.349 0.455 0.602 0.715 0.812 0.899 1.271 1.602 1.930 4.5914 0.439 0.535 0.701 0.869 1.092 1.259 1.399 1.525 2.045 2.501 2.945 6.5015 0.762 0.900 1.132 1.361 1.657 1.875 2.057 2.218 2.881 3.454 4.010 8.4376 1.146 1.325 1.622 1.909 2.276 2.543 2.765 2.960 3.758 4.445 5.109 10.3897 1.579 1.798 2.157 2.501 2.935 3.250 3.509 3.738 4.666 5.461 6.230 12.3518 2.051 2.311 2.730 3.128 3.627 3.987 4.283 4.543 5.597 6.498 7.369 14.3209 2.557 2.855 3.333 3.783 4.345 4.748 5.080 5.370 6.546 7.551 8.522 16.294
10 3.092 3.427 3.961 4.461 5.084 5.529 5.895 6.216 7.511 8.616 9.685 18.27311 3.651 4.022 4.610 5.160 5.842 6.328 6.727 7.076 8.487 9.691 10.857 20.25412 4.231 4.637 5.279 5.876 6.615 7.141 7.573 7.950 9.474 10.776 12.036 22.23813 4.831 5.270 5.964 6.607 7.402 7.967 8.430 8.835 10.470 11.867 13.222 24.22414 5.446 5.919 6.663 7.352 8.200 8.803 9.298 9.730 11.473 12.965 14.413 26.21215 6.077 6.582 7.376 8.108 9.010 9.650 10.174 10.633 12.484 14.068 15.608 28.20116 6.721 7.258 8.099 8.875 9.828 10.505 11.059 11.544 13.500 15.176 16.807 30.19117 7.378 7.946 8.834 9.652 10.656 11.368 11.952 12.461 14.522 16.289 18.010 32.18218 8.046 8.644 9.578 10.437 11.491 12.238 12.850 13.385 15.548 17.405 19.216 34.17319 8.724 9.351 10.331 11.230 12.333 13.115 13.755 14.315 16.579 18.525 20.424 36.16620 9.411 10.068 11.092 12.031 13.182 13.997 14.665 15.249 17.613 19.647 21.635 38.15921 10.108 10.793 11.860 12.838 14.036 14.885 15.581 16.189 18.651 20.773 22.848 40.15322 10.812 11.525 12.635 13.651 14.896 15.778 16.500 17.132 19.692 21.901 24.064 42.14723 11.524 12.265 13.416 14.470 15.761 16.675 17.425 18.080 20.737 23.031 25.281 44.14224 12.243 13.011 14.204 15.295 16.631 17.577 18.353 19.031 21.784 24.164 26.499 46.13725 12.969 13.763 14.997 16.125 17.505 18.483 19.284 19.985 22.833 25.298 27.720 48.13230 16.684 17.606 19.034 20.337 21.932 23.062 23.990 24.802 28.113 30.995 33.840 58.11335 20.517 21.559 23.169 24.638 26.435 27.711 28.758 29.677 33.434 36.723 39.985 68.09940 24.444 25.599 27.382 29.007 30.997 32.412 33.575 34.596 38.787 42.475 46.147 78.08845 28.447 29.708 31.656 33.432 35.607 37.155 38.430 39.550 44.165 48.245 52.322 88.07950 32.512 33.876 35.982 37.901 40.255 41.933 43.316 44.533 49.562 54.029 58.508 98.072
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3.1 Traffic Capacity
3.1.8 BTS Traffic Capacity (Full Rate)
Number of Speech Traffic (Erlang B) Signalling Traffic (Erlang B)
TRX SDCCH TCH 1% 2% 5% 0.1% 0.2% 0.5%
1 4 7 2.501 2.935 3.738 0.439 0.535 0.701
2 8 14 7.352 8.2 9.73 2.051 2.311 2.73
3 8 22 13.651 14.896 17.132 2.051 2.311 2.73
4 16 29 19.487 21.039 23.833 6.721 7.258 8.099
5 16 37 26.379 28.254 31.64 6.721 7.258 8.099
6 24 44 32.543 34.682 38.557 12.243 13.011 14.204
7 24 52 39.7 42.124 46.533 12.243 13.011 14.204
8 32 59 46.039 48.7 53.559 18.205 19.176 20.678
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.2 Network Evolution
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3.2 Network Evolution
3.2.1 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (1)
The roll out of a network is dedicated to provide coverage
Network design changes rapidly
Planning method must be flexible and fast (group method)
Manual frequency planning possible
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3.2 Network Evolution
3.2.2 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (2)
With the growing amount of subscribers, the need for more installed capacity is rising
Possible Solutions:
Installing more TRXs on the existing BTS
Implementing additional sites
Discussion!
Also new services like GPRS are demanding more capacity
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3.2 Network Evolution
3.2.3 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (3)
Installing more TRXs - Advantages
No site search/acquisition process
No additional sites to rent (saves cost)
Trunking efficiency Higher capacity per cell
Installing more TRXs - Disadvantages
More antennas on roof top (Air combining)
Additional losses if WBC has to be used
• Less (indoor) coverage
More frequencies per site needed
Tighter reuse necessary decreasing quality
Trunking efficiency
1TRX 2.7 Erl. +2.7 Erl
2TRX 8.2 Erl +5.3 Erl (+1 Signalling TS)
3TRX 14.9 Erl +6.7 Erl
4TRX 21.0 Erl +6.1 Erl (+1 Signalling TS)
5TRX 28.3 Erl +7.3 Erl
6TRX 34.7 Erl +6.4 Erl (+1 Signalling TS)
7TRX 42.1 Erl +7.4 Erl
….
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3.2 Network Evolution
3.2.4 Network Evolution - Capacity Approach (4)
Implementing additional sites - Advantages
Reuse can remain the same (smaller cell sizes)
Needs less frequency spectrum
• higher spectrum efficiency
Implementing additional sites - Disadvantages
Additional site cost (rent)
Re-design of old cells necessary (often not done)
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.3 Cell Structures
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3.3 Cell Structures
3.3.1 Cell Structures and Quality
Frequency re-use in cellular radio networks
allow efficient usage of the frequency spectrum
but causes interference
Interdependence of
Cell size
Cluster size
Re-use distance
Interference level
Network Quality
interfererregion
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3.3 Cell Structures
3.3.2 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites) (1)
1
2 3
47
6 5 1
2 3
47
6 5RD
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3.3 Cell Structures
3.3.2 Cell Re-use Cluster (Omni Sites)(2)
5 64
1 2 3
7 8 9
10 11 12
D
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3.3 Cell Structures
3.3.4 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site) (1)
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3.3 Cell Structures
3.3.5 4x3 Cell Re-use Cluster (Sector Site) (2)
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3.3 Cell Structures
3.3.6 Irregular (Real) Cell Shapes
12 3
4
56
5
7Network Border
CoverageHole Island
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.4 Frequency Reuse
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.1 GSM Frequency Spectrum
GSM 900
DL: 935-960 MHz UL: 890-915 MHz
200 kHz channel spacing 124 channels
ARFCN 1 - 124
E-GSM
DL: 925-935 MHz UL: 880-890 MHz
200 kHz channel spacing Additional 50 channels
ARFCN 0, 975 - 1023
200 kHz channel spacing 124 channels
GSM 850
DL: 869-894 MHz UL: 824-849 MHz
ARFCN: 128 - 251
GSM 1800
DL: 1805-1880 MHz UL: 1710-1785 MHz
200 kHz channel spacing 374 channels
ARFCN 512 - 885
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.2 Impact of limited Frequency Spectrum
Bandwidth is an expensive resource
Best usage necessary
Efficient planning necessary to contain good QoS when the traffic in
the network is increasing
smaller reuse
Multiple reuse pattern (MRP) usage
implementation of concentric cells / microcells/dual band
implementation of Frequency Hopping
• Baseband
• Synthezised
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.3 What is frequency reuse?
As the GSM spectrum is limited, frequencies have to be reused to provide enough capacity
The more often a frequency is reused within a certain amount of cells, the smaller the frequency reuse
Aim:Minimizing the frequency reuse for providing more capacity
REUSE CLUSTER:Area including cells which do not reuse the same frequency (or frequency group)
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.4 RCS and ARCS (1)
Reuse Cluster Size - RCS
If all cells within the reuse cluster have the same amount of TRXs, the reuse per TRX layer can be calculated:
cellTRX
BRCS
/#=
cellTRX
BARCS
/#=
Average Reuse Cluster Size - ARCS
If the cells are different equiped, the average number of TRXs has to be used for calculating the average reuse cluster size:
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.5 RCS and ARCS (2)
The ARCS is giving the average reuse of the network when using the whole bandwidth and all TRXs per cell
E.g: if we want to have the reuse of all non hopping TCH TRXs, we have to use the dedicated bandwidth and the average number of non hopping TCH TRXs per cell to get the ARCS of this layer type.
Each cell has only one BCCH. Therefore the BCCH reuse is an RCS and not an ARCS!
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.6 Reuse Cluster Size (1)
Sectorized sites
4 sites per reuse cluster
3 cells per site
REUSE Cluster Size:4X3 =12
1 2
3
4 5
6
7 8
9
10 11
12
1 2
3
4 5
6
7 8
9
10 11
12
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.7 Reuse Cluster Size (2)
Sectorized sites
3 sites per reuse cluster
3 cells per site
REUSE Cluster Size3X3 = 9
1 2
3
4 5
6
7 8
9
1 2
3
4 5
6
7 8
9
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.8 Reuse Distance
RCSRfD ⋅⋅⋅= 3
=cells sectorized-three
3
2cells ionalomnidirect1
f
re-use distancecell A
cell B
interfererregion
In theory reuse distance and reuse shouldn’t be dependent.
In reality, when the cells are not well designed: bigger cell overlapp =>higher frequency reuse, smaller reuse distance
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.9 Frequency Reuse Distance
site A site B
distance DR
D = distance between cell sites with the same frequenciesR = service radius of a cellB = number of frequencies in total bandwidthRCS = reuse cluster size, i.e. one cell uses B/RCS frequencies
In hexagonal cell geometry: D/R = f · 3 RCS
omni cells: f=1; sector cells: f=2/3
Examples (omni):RCS = 7: D/R = 4.6RCS = 9: D/R = 5.2RCS =12: D/R = 6.0
Received Power
Frec
σC/I
Frec, A Frec, B
0
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3.4 Frequency Reuse
3.4.10 Frequency Reuse: Example
No sectorization
7 cells per cluster BCCH RCS = 7
TCH Reuse: Depending on BW and Number of installed TRXs per cell
Example: B= 26
4TRXs per cell
interfererregion
63
1726 =−−= GuardBCCHRCSTCH
RCSTCH
RCSBCCH
BCCH reuse is always RCS, because we don’t need to use an average (always one BCCH per cell).
Omni cells
To calculate the TCH reuse in the example, the BCCH RCS is subtracted from the bandwidth B and the average number of TCH TRX per cell is4 minus 1 BCCH = 3
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.5 Cell Planning
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3.5 Cell Planning
3.5.1 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (1)
Can frequency planning be seen independently from cell planning?
Discussion
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3.5 Cell Planning
3.5.2 Cell Planning - Frequency Planning (2)
Bad cell planning
Island coverage disturbing the reuse pattern
Big overlap areas bigger reuse necessary
Good cell planning
Sharp cell borders good containment of frequency
Small overlap areas tighter reuse possible
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3.5 Cell Planning
3.5.3 Influencing Factors on Frequency Reuse Distance
Topography
Hilly terrain Usage of natural obstacles to define sharp cell borders tighter frequency reuse possible
Flat terrain Achieveable reuse much more dependent on the accurate cell design
Morphology
Water low attenuation high reuse distance
City high attenuation low reuse distance
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3.5 Cell Planning
3.5.4 Conclusion
In cellular mobile networks, the frequency reuse pattern has a direct influence on the interference and hence the network quality
Regular hexagonal patterns allow the deduction of engineering formulas
In real networks, cell sizes and shapes are irregular due to
Variation in traffic density
Topography
Land usage
Engineering formulas allow the assessment of the network quality and worst-case considerations, but the real situation must be proved!
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3.5 Cell Planning
3.5.5 Examples for different frequency reuses
Big city in the south of Africa:
BCCH reuse 26
• Irregular cell design
• Mixed morphology
• Lots of water
• Flat terrain plus some high sites
Big city in eastern Europe
BCCH reuse 12
• Regular cell design
• Flat area
• Only urban environment
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.6 Interference Probability
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3.6 Interference Probability
3.6.1 Interference Theory (1)
C/I restrictions
9dB for co-channel interference
-9 dB for adjacent channel interference
distance DR
Received PowerP rec
σC/ I
Prec, A Prec, B
0
C/I is the difference between the two received power lines
when shifting the two transmitters towards each other, the area where the C/I is > 9dB shrinks
At a certain distance of the two transmitters, the C/I can never fulfil the GSM criteria -> minimum site distance.
It has to be kept in mind, that of course other cells will be inbetween two cells transmitting at the same frequency!
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3.6 Interference Probability
3.6.2 Interference Theory (2)
Probability density function [%]
0,0%
1,0%
2,0%
3,0%
4,0%
5,0%
C/I [dB] →C/ImedC/Ithr
Margin
Interferer probability [%]
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
-20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20
C/I - C/Ithr[dB]
Interference probability
C/Imed is the calculated carrier tointerference ratio at a certain location (pixel)
ARCS Pint[%]6.5..9.0 107.0..9.5 7.58.5..11.0 5.012.0..16.0 2.5
3.6 Interference Probability
The marked area left of C/Ithr is the area of interference. Although the received level is above the threshold, there is a certain probability to get interference because of the standard deviation of the received signal.
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3.6 Interference Probability
3.6.3 CPDF - Cumulative Probability Density Function
Pint = P ( C/I < C/I thr)
00,10,20,30,40,50,60,70,80,91
P int
Distance from serving cellDR
CPDF - Cumulative Probability Density Function
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3.6 Interference Probability
3.6.4 Interference Probability dependent on Average Reuse
ARCS =# of frequencies in used bandwidth
average # of carriers per cellPint [%]
ARCS0
3
6
9
12
5 10 15 20 25
Examples:Pint[%] ARCS10 6.5...97.5 7...9.55 8.5...112.5
12...16
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.7 Carrier Types
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3.7 Carrier Types
3.7.1 Carrier Types - BCCH carrier
BCCH frequency is on air all the time
If there is no traffic/signaling on TS 1 to 7 dummy bursts are transmitted
PC (Power Control) and DTX (Discontinuous Transmission) are not allowed
Important for measurements of the mobile
The BCCH frequency must be transmitted with full power all the time!
Otherwise the measurements of the neighborcell levels would be useless.
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3.7 Carrier Types
3.7.2 Carrier Types - TCH carrier
PC allowed and recommended for UL and DL
Reduction of transmit power according to the actual path loss
Careful parameter tuning for DL necessary
DTX allowed and recommended for UL and DL
Discontinuous Transmission
If there is no speech, nothing is transmitted
Generation of comfort noise at receiving mobile
TCH not in use no signal is transmitted
Special case: Concentric cells
Different re-uses for inner and outer zone are possible
PC and DTX are reducing the overall interference in the network.
As a TCH is not transmitting anything when not in use, the interference level is strongly related to the traffic on the interfereing cells.
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.8 Multiple Reuse Pattern MRP
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3.8 Multiple reuse pattern
3.8.1 Meaning of multiple reuse pattern (1)
For different types of carriers, different interference potential is expected
As the BCCH carrier has the highest interferer potential because of being on air all the time and the BCCH channel itself is accepting only low interference, the REUSE on the BCCH layer is higher then on other layers
TCH layers can be planned with a smaller REUSE
Inner zones of concentric cells are able to deal with the smallest reuse in non hopping networks
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3.8 Multiple reuse pattern
3.8.2 Meaning of multiple reuse pattern (2)
REUSE clusters for
INNER ZONE layer
TCH layer
BCCH layer
When applying different reuses in the different cell layers, of course separated bands are necessary!
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3.8 Multiple reuse pattern
3.8.3 GSM restrictions
Intra site minimum channel spacing 2
Intra cell minimum channel spacing 2 (ETSI recommends 3, but with Alcatel EVOLIUM capabilities this value can be set to 2)
constrains:
• Uplink power control enabled
• Intra cell interference handover enabledf A
1,f
A2,f
A3,...
fB1 ,f
B2 ,fB3 ,...
f C1,f C2
,f C3,...
Frequencies fAx,fBx,fCx,… must have at
least 2 channels spacing
Frequencies fx1,fx2,fx3,… must have at
least 3 channels spacing
The Intra cell minimum channel spacing of 3 is given by the combiner in the BTS, to avaoid IM problems
Important remark: the whole training is compliant to the co-cell constraint of 3 channels ; this is more restrictive than the BTS capability of filtering the channels on frequency n*200 kHz
Acc to A.Krause: for Evolium BTS standard equipped with WBC the co-cell constraint can be only 2 channels.
(A channel spacing of 2 was tested @Vodacom in 1999 but the result was not better than with channel spacingof 3.)
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.9 Intermodulation
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3.9 Intermodulation
3.9.1 Intermodulation problems (1)
IM Products GSM900
In a GSM 900 system intermodulation products of 3rd and 5th order can cause interference
• 2 * f1,t – f2,t = f2,r / 2 * f2,t – f1,t = f1,r
• 3 * f1,t – 2 * f2,t = f2,r / 3 * f2,t – 2 * f1,t = f1,r
Frequency planning must avoid fulfilling these equations
Both frequencies must be on the same duplexer
To avoid intra band IM inside GSM900 the following frequency separations shall be avoided:
• 75/112/113 channels
IM5 IM3
Info from techn. dept: If a WBC has to be used because of the number of TRXs, the output power is not high enough to cause problems. -> No intermodulation problems .
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3.9 Intermodulation
3.9.2 Intermodulation problems (2)
IM Products GSM1800
In a GSM 1800 system, only intermodulation products of 3rd order can cause measurable interference
2 * f1,t – f2,t = f2,r / 2 * f2,t – f1,t = f1,r
Frequency separations to be avoided
• 237/238 channels
IM Products Dual Band (GSM900/GSM1800)
f1800,t – f900,t = f900,r Decoupling between the GSM 1800 TX path and the GSM 900 RX path
is less than 30 dB (e.g. same antenna used!)
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3.9 Intermodulation
3.9.3 Intermodulation problems (3) - Summary
carrier/antenna restriction
G3 900 1 no
G3 900 2 ore more 112/113 (IM3) and 75 (IM5)G3 1800 1 no
G3 1800 2 or more 237/238 (IM3) no IM5 quality degradation measurable
carrier/antenna
G2 900 w/o dupl 1 no
2 or more no
G2 900 with dupl 1 no
2 or more 112/113 (IM3) and 75 (IM5)
G2 1800 w/o dupl 1 no
2 or more no
G2 1800 with dupl 1 no
2
2
G3 900 G2/G3 1800 f(1800,t) - f(900,t) = f(900,r)
G2 900 w/o dupl G2/G3 1800 no
G2 900 with dupl G2/G3 1800 f(1800,t) - f(900,t) = f(900,r)
Colocated BTSs
dud2(high Power) -> no
dupd -> 237/238
OUTSIDE Problem: Dual Band
INSIDE Problem: IM3 / IM5
Problem only for non hopping and BCCH carriers
Problem can be solved by hopping over more than 10 frequencies
Caution: SFH doesn’t bring additional benefits when hopping over more than 4 frequencies
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3.9 Intermodulation
3.9.4 Treating “neighbor” cells
Cells, which are not declared as neighbor cells but are located in the neighborhood may use adjacent frequencies if it is not avoidable, but no co channel frequencies
Cells which are declared as neighbors, thus have HO relationships, must not use co or adjacent frequencies
If an adjacent frequency is used, the HO will be risky and at least audible by the user
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3.9 Intermodulation
3.9.5 Where can I find neighbor cells?
At the OMC-R for each cell a list of neighbor cells is defined
Maximum number of neighbors: 32
The list of neighbors and their frequencies is transmitted to the mobile to be able to perform measurements on these frequencies
In case of a HO cause, the HO will be performed towards the bestneighbor
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
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3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.1 Frequency planning (1)
No fixed method
Free frequency assignment possible, but very time consuming for larger networks
For easy and fast frequency planning: use group assignment
Example:18 channels, 2TRX per cell ARCS 9
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3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.2 Frequency planning (2)
GSM restrictions are automatically fulfilled, if on one site only groups A* or only B* are used
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
A1
B1
A2
B2
A3
B3
A4
B4
A5
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3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.3 Exercise: Manual frequency planning (1)
A1
A2A3
A2
A4 A5
B4
B1
B2 B3
B1
B2
A1
A2A3A2A4
A5
B4
B1B2
A1
A2A3
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3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.4 Exercise: Manual frequency planning (2)
A1
A2A3
A2
A4 A5
B4
B1
B2 B3
B1
B2
A1
A2A3A2A4
A5
B2
B4B1
A3
A2A1
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3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.5 Discussion: Subdivide Frequency Band?
Any subdivision of the frequency band is reducing the spectrum efficiency!
Separations should be avoided if possible!
As the BCCH has to be very clean, it is nevertheless recommendedto use a separated band and select a bigger reuse
The focus in the discussion is not the fx band splitting by fx management authorities.
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3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.6 Hint for creating a future proofed frequency plan
If a frequency plan is implemented, using all available frequencies in the most efficient way, it is very difficult to implement new sites in the future!
New sites would make a complete re-planning of the surrounding area or the whole frequency plan necessary
To avoid replanning every time when introducing new sites, it is recommended to keep some Joker frequencies free
These Joker frequencies can be used for new sites (especially BCCH TRXs) unless it is impossible to implement new sites without changing a big part of the frequency plan
New frequency plan necessary!
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3.10 Manual Frequency Planning
3.10.7 Implementing a frequency plan
If only a few frequencies have to be changed, the changes can bedone at the OMC-R
Disadvantage: Every cell has to be modified separately
Downtime of the cell approx. 5 minutes
If lots of changes have to be done, it is of advantage to use external tools
Since B6.2 the complete frequency plan can be uploaded from the OMC
the uploaded file can be modified by the tool (A9155 PRC Generator)
the the new plan is downloaded into the network and activated at once
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.11 BSCI Planning
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3.11 BSIC Planning
3.11.1 BSCI allocation
Together with the frequencies the Base Transceiver Station Identity Code (BSIC) has to be planned
The BSIC is to distinguish between cells using the same BCCH frequency
BSIC = NCC (3bits) + BCC (3bits)
NCC Network (PLMN) Colour Code BCC - Base Transceiver Station (BTS) Colour Code
BSIC planning is supported by the A9155 (Alcatel Radio Network Planning Tool)
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3.11 BSIC Planning
3.11.2 BSIC Planning Rules
The same combination BCCH/BSIC must not be used on cell influencing on each other (having a mutual interference <>0)
BSIC allocation rules:
Avoid using same BCCH/BSIC combination of:
• neighbours cells
• second order neighbour cells (the neighbours of neighbour cell (OMC limitation))
Neighbour Cell
BCCH:24
BSIC:36
Neighbour Cell
BCCH:24
BSIC: must NOT be
36
Serving Cell
BCCH:10
BSIC: any
A
B C
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3.11 BSIC Planning
3.11.3 Spurious RACH
Bad BSIC planning can cause SDCCH congestion cause by the spurious RACH problem, also known as “Ghost RACH”
This problem occurs, when a mobile sends an HO access burst to aTRX of cell A using the same frequency as a nearby cell B uses on the BCCH
Both cells using the same BSIC and Training Sequence Code TSQC, the HO access burst is understood by the cell B as a RACH for call setup
Therefore on cell B SDCCHs are allocated everytime a HO access burst is sent from the mobile to the cell A
If in cell B the BCCH and TRX 2 exchange their frequencies (BCCH gets the fx of TRX2 and TRX2 gets the fx of BCCH): no problem with spurious RACH
Cell BF1 F2
BSIC=1
Cell AF5F1
BSIC=1
Cell C
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3.11 BSIC Planning
3.11.4 Summary
For optimal usage of your frequency spectrum a good cell design is essential
Use larger reuse for BCCH frequencies
Use spectrum splitting only when necessary
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3 Fraffic & Frequency Planning
3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques
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3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques
3.12.1 Capacity enhancement by planning
Interference reduction of cells
Check of antenna type, direction and down tilt
• This is a check of cell size, border and orientation
Check of proper cabling
• Is TX and RX path on the same sector antenna?
Check of the frequency plan
• Introduction of a better frequency plan
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3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques
3.12.2 Capacity enhancement by adding feature
Frequency hopping
Base band hopping
Synthesized frequency hopping
Concentric cells
Half rate
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3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques
3.12.3 Capacity enhancement by adding TRX
Adding TRX to existing cells
Multi band cells
Concentric cells
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3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques
3.12.4 Capacity enhancement by adding cells
Adding of cells at existing site locations
Adding new cell = adding new BCCH
Dual band
Adding cells using another frequency band
Cell splitting
Reduction of cell size
Change of one omni cell into several cells/sector cells
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3.12 Capacity Enhancement Techniques
3.12.5 Capacity enhancement by adding sites
Dual band/multi band network
Adding of new sites in new frequency band
Multi layer network
Adding of new sites in another layer
• E.g. adding micro cells for outdoor coverage
Indoor coverage
Adding micro cells indoor coverage
Adding macro cells indoor coverage
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4 Radio Interface
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4 Radio Interface
4.1 GSM Air Interface
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4.1 GSM Air Interface
4.1.1 Radio Resources
Radio Spectrum Allocation
Frequency(FDMA)
Time(TDMA)
Timeslot0<TN<7
TDMA Frames0<FN<FN_MAX
Carrier Frequencies (ARFCN)
Cell Allocation(CA)
Mobile Allocation(MA)
FDMA Frequency division multiple accessTDMA Time division multiple accessARFCN Absolute radio frequency channel numberTN Timeslot numberFN Frame number
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FDMA and TDMA with 8 time slots per carrier
RF frequency band
(E)GSM: (880) 890 ... 915 MHz Uplink (MS → BS)(925) 935 ... 960 MHz Downlink (BS → MS)
GSM1800: 1710 ... 1785 MHz Uplink1805 ... 1880 MHz Downlink
200 kHz bandwidth
Number of carriers: 124 (GSM); 374 (DCS); 49 (E-GSM)
4.1 GSM Air Interface
4.1.2 GSM Transmission Principles (1)
GSM: Flower (n) = 890 + 0.2 · n MHz with 1 ≤ n ≤ 124E-GSM: Flower (n) = 890 + 0.2 · n MHz with 0 ≤ n ≤ 124
Flower (n) = 890 + 0.2 · (n -1024) MHz with 975 ≤ n ≤ 1023DCS : Flower (n) = 1710.2 + 0.2 · (n - 512) MHz with 512 ≤ n ≤ 885
(E)GSM: Fupper (n) = Flower (n) + 45 MHzDCS: Fupper (n) = Flower (n) + 95 MHz
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4.1 GSM Air Interface
4.1.3 GSM Transmission Principles (2)
Channel types
Traffic Channels (TCH)
• Full rate
• Half rate
Control Channels (CCH)
• Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH)
• Common Control Channel (CCCH)
• Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH)
TDMA frame cycles 26 cycle for traffic channels 51 cycle for control channels
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4.1 GSM Air Interface
4.1.4 Advantages of Signal Processing
Spectrum limitationsBad propagation
conditions
P
t
Good spectrum efficiency Good transmission quality
Operator
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4.1 GSM Air Interface
4.1.5 Signal Processing Chain
stealing bit and FACCH
speechcoding
errorprotection
interleaving encryption modulation
radiochannel
stealing bit and FACCH
speechinput
speechdecoding
errorcorrection
de-interleaving decryption demodulation
speechoutput
LossNoise
InterferenceFading
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4 Radio Interface
4.2 Channel Coding
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.1 Speech Coding
260 bits speech block
182 class 1 bits
20 ms of coded speech
78 class 2 bits
sensitive to bit errorsmust be protected
robust to bit errors
Coding algorithm: RPE-LTP
Pre-computation
RPE = Regular Pulse Excitation
• Model of human voice generation
LTP = Long Term Prediction
• Reduction of bit rate
Bit rate: 13 kBit/s
Coding at fixed network: PCM A-law
Bit rate: 64 kBit/s
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.2 Error Protection
Messages (signalling data)
Fire Code
184 bits
184 40
4
Convolutional Coder = 1/2, K = 5
456 = 24 x 19
456 bits in 20 ms = 22.6kbit/s
Convolutional Coder = 1/2, K = 5
Tail bits
Parity check
Cycliccode
Speech (full rate)
Tail bits
Class 1a50 bits
Class 1b132 bits
Class 278 bits
= 456= 8 x 5737
878
50
3 132 4
260 bits
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.3 Interleaving and TDMA Frame Mapping
1 2 3 4 5 6 70 1 2 3 4 5 6 70
Mappingonto bursts
....
.
....
.
Addition of stealing flags
....
.
Interleaving
....
.
....
.
....
.
2 x 57 bits
Block n-1 (456 bits)
57 bits Block n (456 bits) Block n+1 (456 bits)
1 2 3 4 5 6 70
1 time slot
114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits 114 bits
116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits 116 bits
burst n-3 burst n-2 burst n-1 burst n burst n+1 burst n+2 burst n+3 burst n+4
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.4 Encryption
AlgorithmA3
Randomnumber
generator
AlgorithmA8
IMSIKi
Ki RAND (128 bit)
+
Authentication
yes/no
AlgorithmA3
AlgorithmA8
RAND
SRES (32 bit)
SIMCard
Ki
AlgorithmA5
AlgorithmA5
+
Kc (64 bit)
+
RAND
Kc
originaldata
originaldata
encrypted
data
encrypted
data
Network Mobile station
AuC
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.5 Burst Structure
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
TDMA frame = 4.615 ms
DataTrainingSequence
Data
57 bits3 26 bits1 31 57 bits
tail bits tail bitsstealing flags
156.25 bit periods = 0.577 ms
GP GP
A burst contains one data "portion" of one timeslot
TDMA frame: time between two bursts with same timeslot number
The burst also consists of: Guard period (GP): allows for
transition and settling times Tail bits: allow for small shifts in
time delay (synchronisation) Stealing flags: to indicate FACCH
(control channel) data Training sequence: for
equalization purposes
Normal Burst
0
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.4 Synchronisation
received at MS(downlink)
transmitted from MS(uplink)
transmitted from BTS(downlink)
received at BTS(uplink)
Transmitted bursts need a travelling time (TT) to the receiver
For network access, the MS sends a (non-synchronized) shortened RACH burst
The BSS measures the TT and generates a timing advance value TA which is transmitted to the MS
0 1 2 3
1 2
0 1 2
1 2
TT TT
non-synchronized
3 TSdelay
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1
TT
TT
synchronized
RACH
MS delay line setting
1
4
2
3
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.5 Modulation
Gaussian minimum shift keying
Based on phase shift keying
Reduction of required bandwidth
• Maximum phase change during one bit duration
• Baseband filtering to achieve continuous phase changes
∫
cos
sin
+
x
x
≈90°
to RF modulatorDataϕ
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.6 Propagation Environment
Radio propagation is characterised by dispersive multi-path caused by reflection and scattering
Moving MS causes Doppler spectrum→ Definition of propagation models in the time
domain to allow channel simulations
TUxx (Typical Urban)
RAxx (Rural Area)
HTxx (Hilly Terrain)
xx = speed in km/h
see also GSM 05.05, 11.20, 11.21
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.7 Equalizing
Purpose: equalize distortions in transmission spectrum
Adaptive filtering required
Filter parameters determined out of the training sequence
Filter parameters change from burst to burst
Equalizer takes advantage from multipath propagation (path diversity)
0.001
0.01
0.1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Delay of second path [chips]
BE
R
none
Alcatel
MLSE
Equalizer
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.8 Definition of Bit Error Rates
FER = Frame Erasure Rate
Ratio of corrupted frames, indicated by a wrong CRC (cyclic redundancy checksum) and BFI (bad frame indicator)
RBER = Residual Bit Error Rate
considering corrupted frames not recognized as bad frames
BER = total bit error rate
Consideration of class 1 or 2 bits → e.g. RBER1b, RBER2
see also GSM 05.05, 11.20, 11.21
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BER Quality
>0.01 no communication<0.005 “bad”<0.0025 “marginal”<0.0003 “good”<0.0001 “excellent”
Thresholds:
C/I: 9 dBEc/No: 8 dBBTS (GSM900): -104 dBmHH (GSM900): -102 dBmBTS (GSM1800): -104 dBmHH (GSM1800): -100 dBm
4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.9 Speech Quality
HH - handheld
RXQUAL_0 BER <0,2%
RXQUAL_1 0,2%<BER<0,4%
RXQUAL_2 0,4%<BER<0,8%
RXQUAL_3 0,8%<BER<1,6%
RXQUAL_4 1,6%<BER<3,2%
RXQUAL_5 3,2%<BER<6,4%
RXQUAL_6 6,4%<BER<12,8%
RXQUAL_7 12,8%<BER
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.10 Dependence of BER on Noise and Interference
Variation of BER1 over C/I
Parameter: Ec/N0
How to find a quality figure?
BER1 for marginal speech quality: 0.25%
required C/I ≈ 9 dB for TU50 environment
but: signal must not be close to noise floor!
C/I [dB] →
TU50BER1 →
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.13 Frequency Hopping (1)
-70
-60
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
0.1
2.8
5.4
8.0
10.6
13.2
15.9
18.5
21.1
23.7
26.3
29.0
31.6
34.2
36.8
39.4
42.1
44.7
47.3
49.9
Distance [m]
Rec
eive
d P
ower
[dB
m]
Lognormal fading
Raleygh fading
Problem: specific fading pattern for each used frequency
Fast MS cope with the situation (due to signal processing)
Slow MS suffer from fading holes
Solution: change the fading pattern by frequency hopping
Fading holes
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.14 Frequency Hopping (2)
Variation of BER1 over Ec/N0
TU environment, flat fading, v = 0 km/h (worst case)
Parameter: number of hopping frequencies
Compensation with 4 hopping frequencies possible
Ec/N0 [dB] →
BER →
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.15 The OSI Reference Model
Definition in GSM recommendations: layers 1 to 3
Notion of "Physical" channels and "Logical" channels
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Application layer
Presentation layer
Session layer
Transport layer
Network layer
Data link layer
Physical layer
End system End systemTransportation system
04.0408.54
04.05/0608.56
04.07/0808.58/4.0
8
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.16 GSM Burst Types (1)
Normal Burst For regular transmission
Frequency Correction Burst Contains 142 zeros (0) → pure sine wave Allows synchronisation of the mobile's local oscillator
Synchronisation Burst Consists of an enlarged unique training sequence code (TSC) Contains the actual FN → time synchronisation
Access Burst Shortened burst (unique TSC and enlarged guard period) Timeslot overlapping avoided at BTS when MS accesses network
Dummy Burst "Filler" for unused BCCH timeslots → BCCH permanently on air Similar to normal burst (defined mixed bits for data, no stealing flag)
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.17 GSM Burst Types (2)
TB3
57 data bits 126 bit training
sequence1 57 data bits
TB3
Normal burstGP8.25
TB3
142 fixed bits (pure sine wave)TB3
Frequency correction burstGP8.25
TB3
39 data bits64 bit training
sequence39 data bits
TB3
Synchronisation burstGP8.25
TB8
36 data bits41 bit synchronisation
sequence
Access burstenlarged GP68.25 bit
TB3
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.18 Logical Channels
Trafficchannel
Controlchannel
Speech Data
TCH/FS
TCH/HS
TCH/F9.6
TCH/F4.8
TCH/F2.4
TCH/H4.8
TCH/H2.4
CCCHBroadcastchannel
Associatedchannel
Dedicatedchannel
FCCH
SCH
BCCH
RACH
PCH
AGCH
FACCH
SACCH
SDCCH
CBCH
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.19 Possible Channel Combinations
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
TCH/F+FACCH/F+SACCH/TF
TCH/H(0.1)+FACCH/H(0.1)+SACCH/TH(0.1)
TCH/H(0.0)+FACCH/H(0.1)+SACCH/TH(0.1)+TCH/H(1.1)
FCCH+SCH+BCCH+CCCH
FCCH+SCH+BCCH+CCCH+SDCCH/4(0..3)+SACCH/C4(0..3)
BCCH+CCCH
SDCCH/8(0..7)+SACCH/C8(0..7)
CCCH = PCH+RACH+AGCH
Combination 4 and 5 is only possible on TS0 of the first (BCCH) carrier
Combination 6 is possible on TS2, TS4, or TS6 of the BCCH carrier
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.20 Channel Mapping (1)
time
.......
.......
.......
0 0 0 01 1 112 2 223 3 334 4 445 556 6 67 7 7
one TDMA frame = 4.616 ms
Information packages are always related to the same timeslot number!
Bursts are transmitted and received every TDMA frame duration (4.616 ms)Presentation of consecutive
TDMA frames on the vertical axis
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.21 Channel Mapping (2)
SCH
FCCH RACH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
SCH
FCCH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
RACH
BCCH
CCCH
CCCH
CCCH
CCCH
CCCH
CCCH
CCCH
CCCH
CCCH
BCCH BCCH
CCCH
CCCH
CCCH
CCCH
CCCH
CCCH
SDCCH0
SDCCH1
SDCCH2
SDCCH3
SDCCH0
SDCCH1
SDCCH2
SDCCH3
SDCCH0
SDCCH1
SDCCH0
SDCCH1
SDCCH2
SDCCH3
SDCCH2
SDCCH3
SACCH0
SACCH1
SACCH2
SACCH3
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
SACCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
SACCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
TCH
SDCCH0
SDCCH1
SDCCH2
SDCCH3
SDCCH4
SDCCH5
SDCCH6
SDCCH7
SACCH0
SACCH1
SACCH2
SACCH3
SACCH0
SACCH1
SACCH2
SACCH3
SDCCH0
SDCCH1
SDCCH2
SDCCH3
SDCCH4
SDCCH5
SDCCH6
SDCCH7
SACCH4
SACCH5
SACCH6
SACCH7
SDCCH0
SDCCH1
SDCCH2
SDCCH3
SDCCH4
SDCCH5
SDCCH6
SDCCH7
SACCH0
SDCCH0
SDCCH1
SDCCH2
SDCCH3
SDCCH4
SDCCH5
SDCCH6
SDCCH7
SACCH1
SACCH2
SACCH3
SACCH4
SACCH5
SACCH6
SACCH7
0
10
20
30
40
50
0
10
20
30
40
50
0
12
25
0
12
25
not combined BCCH
downlink uplink downlink uplink downlink uplink
combined BCCH TCH SDCCH
up/downlink
Control channels
Follows a 51-cycle
Duration: 235.4 msec
Consists mostly of four consecutive blocks
Synchronisation with FCCH and SCH
Traffic channels
Follows a 26-cycle
Duration: 120 msec
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4.2 Channel Coding
4.2.22 TDMA Frame Structure for TCHs
TB3
57 data bits 126 bit training
sequence1 57 data bits
TB3
GP8.25
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25
Time slot
Frame
Multiframe
Superframe
Hyperframe
51 multiframes of 120 ms duration
2048 superframes of 6.12 s duration
0.577 ms
4.615 ms
120 ms
6.12 s
3 h 28 m 53 s
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Abbreviations and Acronyms
AMR Advanced Multi Rate (TC)
AMSS Aeronautical Mobile Satellite Services
AN Antenna Network (BTS)
ARCS Average Reuse Cluster Size
ARFCN Absolute Radio Frequency Channel
AS Access Switch (BSC)
AS Alarm Surveillance (O&M)
ASMA A-ter Submultiplexer A
ASMB A-ter Submultiplexer B
AuC Authentication Center
BC Broadcast
BCU Broadcast Unit
BCLA BSC Clock A
BCR Broadcast Register
BCU Broadcast Unit
BCCH Broadcast Common Control Channel(GSM TS)
BCF Base station Control Function (BTS)
BG Border Gate (GPRS)
BIE Base Station Interface Equipment
BIEC Base Station Interface Equipment (BSC)
BIUA Base Station Interface Unit A
BPA Back Panel Assembly
BSC Base Station Controller
BSIC Base Transceiver Station Identity Code
BSS Base Station (sub)System
BSSGP Base Station System GPRS Protocol(GPRS)
BTS Base Transceiver Station
CAE Customer Application Engineering
CAL Current Alarm List (O&M)
CBC Cell Broadcast Center
CBCH Cell Broadcast Channel (GSM TS)
CBE Cell Broadcast Entity
CCCH Common Control Channel (GSM TS)
CCU Channel Coding Unit
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Abbreviations and Acronyms [cont.]
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
CE Control Element (BSC)
CEK Control Element Kernel
C/I Carrier to Interferer ratio
CLK Clock
CLSI Custom Large Scale Integrated circuit
CMA Configuration Management Application (O&M)
CMDA Common Memory Disk A
CMFA Common Memory Flash A
CPR Common Processor (Type: CPRA, CPRC)
CRC Cyclic Redundancy Check
CS Circuit Switching (Telecom)
CS Coding Scheme (GPRS):CS-1, CS-2, CS-3, CS-4
CU Carrier Unit (BTS)
DCE Data Circuit Terminating Equipment
DCN Data Communication Network
DL DownLink
DLS Data Load Segment
DMA Direct Memory Access
DRFU Dual Rate Frame Unit
DRX Discontinuous Reception (GSM TS)
DSE Digital Switching Element
DSN Digital Switching Network
DTX Discontinuous Transmission (GSM TS)
DTC Digital Trunk Controller(Type: DTCA, DTCC)
DTE Data Terminal Equipment
EDGE Enhanced Data rates for GSM Evolution
EI Extension interface
EML Element Management Level
EPROM Erasable Programmable Read OnlyMemory
ETSI European Telecom Standard Institute
FPE Functional and Protective Earth
FR Full Rate (GSM TS)
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Abbreviations and Acronyms [cont.]
Switch to notes view!FR Frame Relay (Telecom)
FRDN Frame Relay Data Network (Telecom)
FU Frame Unit (BTS)
FW Firmware
GCR Group Call Register
GGSN Gateway GPRS Support Node (GPRS)
GMLC Gateway Mobile Location Center
GMM GPRS Mobility Management (GPRS)
GMSC Gateway Mobile Switching Center
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
GPU GPRS Packet Unit
GS-1 Group Switch of stage 1 (BSC)
GS-2 Group Switch of stage 2 (BSC)
GSL GPRS Signalling Link
GSM Global System for Mobile Communications
GSM TS GSM Technical Specification
HAL Historical Alarm List (O&M)
HDSL High rate Digital Subscriber Line
HDLC High Level Datalink Control
HLR Home Location Register
HMI Human Machine Interface
HO HandOver
HR Half Rate
HW Hardware
IDR Internal Directed Retry
ILCS ISDN Link Controller
IMT Installation and Maintenance Terminal(MFS)
IND Indoor (BTS)
IP Internet Protocol
ISDN Integrated Services Data Network
IT Intelligent Terminal
LA Location Area (GSM TS)
LAC Location Area Code (GSM TS)
LAN Local Area Network
LED Light Emitting Diode
LEO Low Earth Orbit (Satellite)
LCS Location Services
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Abbreviations and Acronyms [cont.]
Switch to notes view!PCH Paging CHannel (GSM TS)
PCM Pulse Coded Modulation
PCU Packet Control Unit (GPRS)
PDCH Packet Data CHannel
PDN Packet Data Network (Telecom)
PDU Protocol Data Unit (generic terminology)
PLL Phase Locked Loop
PLMN Public Land Mobile Network
PMA Prompt Maintenance Alarm (O&M)
PMC Permanent Measurement Campaign
(O&M)
PPCH Packet Paging CHannel (GPRS)
PRACH Packet Random Access CHannel (GPRS)
Prec Received Power
PRC Provisioning Radio Configuration (O&M)
PSDN Packet Switching Data Network
(Telecom)
PSTN Public Switching Telephone Network(Telecom)
PTP-CNLS Point To Point CoNnectionLeSs datatransfer (GPRS)
QoS Quality of Service
RA Radio Access
RACH Random Access CHannel (GSM TS)
RAM Random Access Memory
RCP Radio Control Point
RLC Radio Link Control (GPRS)
RLP Radio Link Protocol (GSM TS)
RML Radio Management Level
RNO Radio Network Optimisation
RNP Radio Network Planning
RSL Radio Signalling Link
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Abbreviations and Acronyms [cont.]
Switch to notes view!RTS Radio Time Slot
RxLev Received Level
RxQual Received Quality
SACCH Slow Associated Control Channel(GSM TS)
SAU Subrack assembly unit (BSC)
SC Supervised Configuration (O&M)
SCC Serial Communication Controller
SCP Service Control Point
SCCP Signalling Connection Control Part
SCSI Small Computer Systems Interface
SDCCH Standalone Dedicated Control Channel(GSM TS)
SDU Service Data Unit (generic terminology)
SGSN Serving GPRS Support Node (GPRS)
SIEA SCSI Interface Extension A
SM Submultiplexer
SMLC Serving Mobile Location Center
SMP Service Management Point
SMS Short Message Service
SMS-CB Short Message Service - Cell Broadcast
SM-GMSC Short Message Gateway Mobile SwitchingCenter
SRAM Static RAM
SRS SubRate Switch
SS7 Signalling System ITU-T N°7 (ex CCITT)
SSD Solid State Disk
SSP Service Switching Point
SW Software
SWEL Switch Element
TBF Temporary Block Flow (GPRS)
TAF Terminal Adaptor Function
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Abbreviations and Acronyms [cont.]
Switch to notes view!TC Transcoder
TC Terminating Call
TCC Trunk Controller Chip
TCH Traffic CHannel (GSM TS)
TCIL TransCoder Internal Link
TCSM TransCoder / SubMultiplexer equipment
TCU TRX Control Unit (Type: TCUA, TCUC)
TDMA Time Division Multiple Access
TFO Tandem Free Operation (TC)
TFTS Terrestrial Flight Telecom Systems
TLD Top Level Design
TMN Telecommunication ManagementNetwork
TRAC Trunk Access Circuit
TRAU Transcoder and Rate Adapter Unit
TRCU Transcoder Unit
TRE Transceiver Equipment
TRS Technical Requirement Specification
TRU Top Rack Unit
TRX Transceiver
TS Time Slot
TS Technical Specification (GSM TS)
TSS Time Space Switch
TSCA Transmission Sub-System Controller A(BSC)
TSU Terminal Sub Unit (BSC)
TU Terminal Unit (BSC)
UL UpLink
UMTS Universal Mobile Transmission System
USSD Unstructured Supplementary Services Data
VBS Voice Broadcast Service
VGCS Voice Group Code Service
VLR Visitor Location Register
VPLMN Visited PLMN
VSWR Voltage Standing Wave Ratio (BTS)
WAN Wide Area Network
WAP Wireless Application Protocol
WBC Wide Band Combiner
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End of Module