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Research MethodologyResearch MethodologyTopics

y Introduction

y Research Theory

y Research Analysis

y

Library Researchy Literature Review

y Methods & Procedures of Conducting Research

y Methodology Procedures

y Research Designs: a. Quantitative b. Qualitative

y Method of Analysis

y Results: Conclusions, Implications & Recommendations

y Writing & Communicating Research

y Cue words or Cloud Words

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y Some Definitions

Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing information to

increase our understanding of the phenomenon under study. It is the function of the

researcher to contribute to the understanding of the phenomenon and to

communicate that understanding to others.

Alternatively, research is the seeking of answers to questions and the scientific

means of solving problems. A research could be fundamental/ basic research or an

applied research.

y Research Design: A detailed plan of research indicating the methods and

procedures to be used for collecting and analyzing data on a given subject andreporting results.

Research Design includes qualitative and quantitative designs, and are used to

answer a question or test a hypothesis presented in a study.

y Research Process: The series of stages or steps involved in a research project. A

Research Process consists of

What=>How=>Where=>Who=>When=>Why

y Methodology is the procedure of conducting research composed of systematic

directions of how the research is conducted. It consists of three basic parts: 1. the

sample or subjects, 2. the instrument or prototype, and 3. the method of analysis.

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y Demographic study/research: data of vital statistics about the population

y Ethnographic study/research: is used in examining different groups.

y Psychographic study/research: is information about the lifestyle of a population

y Normal Distribution: A distribution of a continuous random variable where the

curve has a single peak, and which is bell-shaped and symmetrical around a vertical

line drawn at the mean, which is located at the centre. The two tails of the

distribution extend indefinitely and never touch the horizontal axis.

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ExamplesExamples ofResearch in MarketingofResearch in MarketingAs noted, marketing research is undertaken to support a wide variety ofmarketing decisions. The table below presents a small sampling of theresearch undertaken by marketing decision area. Many of the issues listedunder Types of Research are discussed in greater detail in other parts of thePrinciples of Marketing Tutorials.

Marketing Decision Types of Research

Target Markets

sales, market size; demand for product, customer

characteristics, purchase behavior, customer satisfaction,

website traffic

Product

product development; package protection, packaging

awareness; brand name selection; brand recognition, brand

preference, product positioning

Distributiondistributor interest; assessing shipping options; online

shopping, retail store site selection

Promotion

advertising recall; advertising copy testing, sales promotion

response rates, sales force compensation, traffic studies

(outdoor advertising), public relations media placement

Pricingprice elasticity analysis, optimal price setting, discount

options

External Factorscompetitive analysis, legal environment; social and cultural

trends

Other company image, test marketing

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When Research is unnecessaryWhen Research is unnecessary

y When cost of undertaking is higher than the benefit

y When project attempts to collect information relating to distant past.

y When information sought is of very personal nature

y When respondents find it very difficult to communicate their emotions

and sensations

y The nature of some product with very short lifecycle is such that there is

hardly any time to conduct research

y When a firm may have an apprehension that its new product is likely to be

copied by its competitors once they come to know about it.

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Need for information:

1. When one is unsure about what is to be done

2. Where extreme values are involved

Characteristics of a value information:

1. Relevant

2.Available

3. Accurate

4. Current

5. Adequate

The concept of Probability- is the basis of decision making under conditions

of uncertainty. The probability indicates the likelihood of occurrence of aparticular result or event.

So, n(P) = n(E)/n(S) where n(E) is occurrence of a particular event and n(S) is

the total sample size.

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Measurement and ScalingMeasurement and Scaling

Measurement means assigning numbers or other

symbols to characteristics of objects according to

certain prespecified rules.

One-to-one correspondence between the numbers

and the characteristics being measured.

The rules for assigning numbers should be

standardized and applied uniformly.

Rules must not change over objects or tim

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Measurement and ScalingMeasurement and Scaling

Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which

measured objects are located.

Consider an attitude scale from 1 to 100. Each

respondent is assigned a number from 1 to 100, with 1

= Extremely Unfavorable, and 100 = Extremely

Favorable. Measurement is the actual assignment of a

number from 1 to 100 to each respondent. Scaling is

the process of placing the respondents on a continuum

with respect to their attitude toward departmentstores.

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Primary Scales of MeasurementPrimary Scales of MeasurementScale

y Nominal Numbers

Assigned

to Runners

y Ordinal RankOrderof Winners

y Interval Performance

Rating on a

0 to 10 Scale

y Ratio Time to Finish, in

Seconds

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A Comparison of Scaling TechniquesA Comparison of Scaling Techniques

y Comparative scales involve the direct comparison of

stimulus objects. Comparative scale data must be

interpreted in relative terms and have only ordinal or rank

order properties.

y In non comparative scales, each object is scaled

independently of the others in the stimulus set. The

resulting data are generally assumed to be interval orratio scaled.

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The Research Process

y Identify & formulate the problem

y Choose the research design

y Determine the information needs

y

Design data collection formsy Determine sample design & sample size

y Organize and conduct the field survey

y Analyze and interpret the collected data

y Prepare the research reporty What=>How=>Where=>Who=>When=>Why

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y Acomplete problem must specify

1. Sample and sampling units

2. Time & space boundaries

3. Product feature and consumer preferences

4. Specific environmental conditions

5. Hypothesis development

y Choice ofResearch Design

1. Exploratory Studies: generally based on secondary data e.g. literature search,Experience survey, Focus Group, Analysis of selected cases

2. Descriptive studies: to study characteristic of certain group e.g. sex, education level,income, occupations etc. this can be Longitudinal-Panel or cross-sectional-sample

3. Causal Studies: to study cause and effect relationship between two or morevariables. This can be done thru Natural experiments and Controlled experiments.

The main criterion of a design that it must answer the research questions andhence a formulation of a proper hypothesis. Second criterion relates to control ofindependent variables, so the subject selection should be random. Thirdcriterion is generalisability. This is more true in the case of applied research.

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y Determining source of Data

1. Primary Data: Collected by Survey,Observation ( Structured/unstructured,

Dis/undisguised, Setting un/natural, Direct/Indirect, Human/Mechanical),

Questionnaire (Open-ended, Dichotomous, Multiple-choice & pre test for any

ambiguity)

2. Secondary Data: Selection criteria Availability, relevance, accuracy & data

sufficiency

Advantage: Economical, Time saving, Helps to collect primary data, helps in

validating

Sources of secondary data:

i. Internal: accounting records, sales force reports, internal experts

ii. External: Govt. publication-census, annual reports, journals & bulletins;Non-govt.

publications-industry & trade associations, universities, syndicate services, consumer

research services, international publications

y Designing Data collection Forms

1. Observational method: unobtrusive & collected without the direct participation ofthe respondents

2. Survey method: i. Personal ii. Telephonic iii. By mail iv. By diary

y Determining Sampling Design & Sampling Size

1. Ad hoc or practical

2. Statistical approach

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y Sampling DesignCensus survey => Population

Sampling/sample survey => Sample

y Objectives of a sample Survey

1. To estimate certain population parameters

2. To test a hypothesis

y Advantage of a sample survey

1. Cheaper2. Faster

3. Easier to handle data

4. Amenable to a more detailed information

5. Quality of supervision better than census survey

y The Sampling ProcessDefine the population -> Indentify sampling frame -> Specify sampling units -> Specify

sample design -> Determine sample size -> Select the sample units -> Collect the data

from the designated sample units

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y Types of Sample Design

i. Probability Sampling: a sampling technique in which sampling units are selected by chance and

for which there is known, non-zero probability of selection

1. Random Sampling

2. Systematic Sampling

3. Stratified Random sampling

4. Cluster Sampling

5. Multi stage Sampling

6. Area sampling

7. Multi Phase Sampling

8. Replicated Sampling

9. Sequential Sampling

10. Master Samples

ii.Non Probability Samples: any sampling method which is not based on the random selection of

elements in the population.

1. Quota Sampling: If some prior knowledge about the population is there

2. Judgment Sampling: Researcher puts his judgment as to whether to include a study object or not

3. Convenience sampling: Selecting a sample of study objects based on convenience

4. Snowball Sampling: A judgmental sample design in which respondents selected earlier are

asked to identify other sample members

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y Characteristics of a good Sample design

1. GoalOrientation

2. Measurability

3. Practicality

4. Economy

Testing of a Hypothesis: Steps

1. Formulate a hypothesis

2. Set up a suitable significance level

3. Choose a test criterion

4. Compute

5. Make decisions

Types of error in testing of a hypothesis

Decision State of Nature

Ho is true Ho is false

Accept Ho Correct Decision Type II error

Reject Ho Type I error Correct Decision

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There are two types of statistical tests:

1. ParametricTest: assumes that parameters such as mean, std. deviation etc. exist

and are used in testing a hypothesis. The underlying assumptions in such tests is

that the source of data is:i. normally distributed

ii. Sample is large

iii. Measurement scale is not defined

Commonly used parametric tests are a. Z-test; b. t-test c. F-test and d. ANOVA

Z= (sample mean-pop. mean)/ sam S.D.

2. Non-ParametricTest: In all Non Parametric Tests, it is assumed that

i.No prior distribution is assumed about the population from which the sample is

drawn

ii. Sample size < 20

iii. Measurement of the variables is at the most ordinal or nominal

e.g. chi-square test 2 = (Oi Ei)2/Ei