7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor http://slidepdf.com/reader/full/ritual-dynamics-in-the-eastern-mediterranean-case-studies-in-ancient-greece 1/26 Originalveröffentlichung in: W.V. Harris (ed.), Rethinking th e Mediterranean, Oxford 2005,S.141-1666RitualDynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean: Case Studies in Ancient Greeceand Asia Minor AngelosChaniotis 1. MEDITERRANEAN RITUALS 1One of the many monuments the Athenians proudly showed theiryouth and the visitors to their city was the ship with which Theseuswas believedto have sailed to Crete. In the course of the centuries the ship's wooden parts rotted, and the Athenians had to replace them,providingancientphilosophers with an unsolvedpuzzled: did Theseus'ship remain the same even thoughits rotten components were continually being replaced? 2 Icannot help thinking about this puzzlewhen I am confrontedwithdiachronicstudieson 'the' Mediterranean. Can the Medi terraneanbe a somehow distinctiveobject of historical and culturalstudy, given the continualchange of its living (and therefore,ephemeral)components(human populationsand theircultures, animals, and plants)? Or is the Mediterraneanasa historical and culturalentity just a constructof the collect- ive imaginationof scholars who contribute to journals,books, or Conferences that have the name 'Mediterranean' in their title? 1 The views expressedhere stem from the project 'Ritual and Communi- cationin the Greek citiesand in Rome',which is partof the interdisciplinary projects'Ritualdynamik in traditionellenund modernen Gesellschaften' fundedby the Ministry of Science of Baden-Württemberg (1999-2000) and 'Ritualdynamik:SoziokulturelleProzesse in historischerund kulturvergle ichenderPerspektive'funded by the German Research Council(2002-5);referencesto my own preliminarystudies on relevant subjects are,unfortu- nately, unavoidable. I have profited greatly from theoreticaldiscussions with my colleagues in this project. 2 Plu. Theseus23.
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7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
Originalveröffentlichung in : W.V. Harris (ed.), Rethinking the Mediterranean, Oxford 2005,
S. 141-166
6
Ritual Dynam i c s in the Eastern Mediterranean: Case Studies in Anc ien t
Greece and Asia Mino r
Angelos Chaniotis
1. M E D I T E R R A N E A N R I T U A L S 1
One o f th e m a n y m o n u m e n t s th e A t h e n i a n s p r o u d l y s h o w e d
their y o u t h a n d t h e v i s i t o r s t o t he i r c i t y w a s t h e s h i p w i t h w h i c h
Theseus w a s b e l i e v e d t o h a v e sa i l ed t o C r e t e . I n t h e c o u r s e o f
the c e n t u r i e s t h e s h i p ' s w o o d e n pa r t s r o t t e d , a n d t h e A t h e n i a n s
had t o r e p l a c e t h e m , p r o v i d i n g a n c i e n t p h i l o s o p h e r s w i t h an unso lved p u z z l e d : d i d T h e s e u s ' s h i p r em a i n t h e s am e e v e n
though i ts r o t t e n c o m p o n e n t s w e r e c o n t i n u a l l y b e i n g r e p l a c e d ? 2
I c a n n o t h e l p t h i n k i n g a b o u t t h i s p u z z l e w h e n I a m c o n f r o n t e d
with d i a c h r o n i c s t u d i e s o n ' t h e ' Me d i t e r r a n e a n . C a n th e M e d i
terranean b e a s o m e h o w d i s t i n c t i v e o b j e c t o f h i s t o r i c a l a n d
cultural s t u d y , g i v e n t h e c o n t i n u a l c h a n g e o f its l i v i n g ( a n d
therefore, e p h e m e r a l ) c o m p o n e n t s ( h u m a n p o p u l a t i o n s a n d
their c u l t u r e s , a n im a l s , a n d p l an t s ) ? O r is t h e Me d i t e r r a n e a n
as a h i s t o r i c a l a n d c u l t u r a l e n t i t y j u s t a c o n s t r u c t o f t h e co l l e c t -
ive i m a g i n a t i o n o f s c h o l a r s w h o c o n t r i b u t e to j o u r n a l s , b o o k s ,
or Con f e r e n c e s t h a t h a v e t h e n a m e ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n ' i n t h e i r t i t le?
1 T h e v i ew s e x p r e s s ed here s t em f r om the pro j e c t ' R i t u a l and C o m m u n i -
cation in th e G r e e k cit ies and in R om e ' , wh i c h is par t o f th e i n terd i sc ip l inary
projects ' R i t u a l d y n am i k in t r ad i t i one l l en u n d mod e r n e n Gese l l s cha f t en '
funded b y th e M i n i s t r y o f Sc i ence o f B a d e n -W ü r t t em b e r g ( 1 9 99 - 2 000 ) a n d
'Ritualdynamik: Soz i oku l t u r e l l e Proze s s e in h i s tor i s cher u n d ku l t u r v e rg l e
ichender Pe r s p ek t i v e ' f u n d e d b y th e G e r m a n Resea r ch C o u n c i l ( 2 0 02 - 5 ) ;
references to m y o w n p r e l im i n a r y s tud ies o n re l evan t sub jec t s are , u n f o r t u -
nately, una v o i d a b l e . I ha v e pro f i t ed great ly f r om theoret ica l d i scuss ions w i t h
my co l l eagues in th is pro j ec t . 2 P l u . Theseus 23 .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
T h e q u e s t i o n o f t h e u n i t y o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n s h o u l d b e a s k e d
not o n l y ' v e r t i c a l l y ' ( w i t h r e g a r d t o d i a c h r o n i c d e v e l o p m e n t s ) ;
it m u s t b e a s k e d ' h o r i z o n t a l l y ' as w e l l . C a n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n
in i ts e n t i r e t y b e a m e a n i n g f u l a n d d i s t i n c t i v e o b j e c t o f s t u d y i nany g i v e n p e r i o d o f t h e a n t i q u i t y , g i v e n t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f
cultures a n d e n v i r o n m e n t s i n t h is g e o g r a p h i c a l r e g i o n ? A n d l f
continuities, c o n v e r g e n c e s , a n d h o m o g e n e i t i e s c a n s o m e h o w b e
detected i n a n o n - a n t h r o p o g e n o u s f r a m e w o r k — f o r e x a m p l e
there is s u c h a t h i n g a s a M e d i t e r r a n e a n c l im a t e , w e c a n s t u d y
Mediterranean s e i s m i c a c t iv i t i e s, a n d w e k n o w f r o m p e r s o n a l
Observation t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n k a rs ti c l a n d s c a p e s — c a n w e
characterize c u l tu r a l p h e n o m e n a as ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n p h e n o m -
ena'? I s t h e r e s u c h a t h i n g as a M e d i t e r r a n e a n m e n t a l i t y , a
Medi terranean w a y o f l i f e , t y p i c a l M e d i t e r r a n e a n c u l t ic p r a c -
tices o r r i t u a ls , o r e v e n M e d i t e r r a n e a n v a l u e s ? 3 T h e s e q u e s t i o n s
sound r h e t o r i c a l . M o s t o f u s w o u l d s p o n t a n e o u s l y d e n y t h e
existence o f a M e d i t e r r a n e a n c u l t u re , a M e d i t e r r a n e a n r e l ig i o n
or a M e d i t e r r a n e a n w a y o f l if e , p e r h a p s o n l y m a k i n g a l lo w a n c e s
for c e r t a i n h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d s o r c e r t a i n l i m i t e d a s p e c t s . I t i s
necessary t o r e t h i n k w h a t is s p e c i f i c a l ly ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n ' i n
Medi terranean s t u d i e s , t o d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n o b j e c t s a n d O b
servation a n d c o n s t r u c t s — b u t a ls o t o a sk o u r s e l v e s if t h e r e is
any l e g i t i m a c y fo r M e d i t e r r a n e a n s t u d ie s o t h e r t h a n t h e n a t u r a l
geographical l i m i t s o f t h i s c l o s e d s e a , a n d i f y e s , w h i c h P a r a m
eters w e s h o u l d t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n .
I h a v e c h o s e n t o e x p l o r e t h i s i s s u e b y t r e a t i n g a c u l t u r a l
p h e n o m e n o n f o r w h i c h g e o g r a p h i c a l f a c t o r s d o n o t s e e m t o b edeterminant: r it u a ls . A d m i t t e d l y , r e l ig i o u s r e s p o n s e s t o s p a c e
and l a n d s c a p e h a v e o f t e n b e e n o b s e r v e d , a n d P . H o r d e n a n d N .
Purcel l h a v e v e r y a p t l y i n c l u d e d i n t h e ir Corrupting Sea a
chapter o n t e r r i t o r i e s o f g r a c e . 4 T h i s c h a p t e r d e a ls w i t h a
great v a r i e t y o f s u b j e c t s p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n r e l i
gion a n d t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a n d t o g e o g r a p h i c a l p a r a m -
eters, s u c h a s t h e t o p o g r a p h i c a l f e a t u r e s o f c u l t p l a c e s ( h o l y
waters, h i g h p l a c e s , w o o d s a n d g r o v e s , n a t u r a l c a t a s t r o p h e s
such a s b a d w e a t h e r , e a r t h q u a k e s a n d v u l c a n i c a c t i v i t y ) , t h e
3 Se e e . g . J . G . P e r i s t i an y ( ed . ) , Honour and Sham e. The Values of Mediter
ranean Society ( L o n d o n , 1 9 65 ).4 CS 4 0 1 - 6 0 .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
sacralized e c o n o m y , a n d t h e m o b i l i t y o f r e l i g io u s p r a c t ic e s . T h e
questions o f c o n t i n u i t i e s , s u r v i v a l s , a n d c h a n g e s , c o n v e r g e n c e s
and d i v e r g e n c e s n a t u r a l l y o c c u p y a n i m p o r t a n t p o s i t i o n i n t h e ir
discussion. A l t h o u g h n o c l a i m is m a d e i n t h i s b o o k ( o r h a s e v e rbeen m a d e , a t l e a st t o t h e b e s t o f m y k n o w l e d g e ) t h a t t h e r e is a
'Mediterranean' r e l i g i o n o r t h a t t h e r e is a n y t h i n g s p e c i f i c a l l y
Mediterranean i n t h e r e l i g i o n s o f t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a n ,
still c o n t i n u i t i e s i n w o r s h i p a r e d e t e c t e d i n c e r t a i n s i t e s — t h e
'classical' e x a m p l e b e i n g t h e u s e o f t h e s a m e s a c r e d s p a c e b y
pagans, C h r i s t i a n s a n d M u s l i m s ; a l so s i m i l a r it i e s i n t h e r e l i
gious u s e o f S p a c e a n d l a n d s c a p e p r a c t i c e s w i t h a w i d e g e o -
graphical d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n h a v e b e e n
observed . I n t e r e s t i n g l y , t h i s d i s c u s s i o n o f c o n t i n u i t i e s , s u r
vivals , a n d s i m i l a r i t i e s i n t h e s a c r e d l a n d s c a p e s o f t h e M e d i t e r
ranean re fe r s to cult, religion, w orship, o r t h e sacred; i t do e s no t
to r e f e r t o rituals. A l t h o u g h r it u a ls a r e o f t e n a l l u d e d t o b y
H o r d e n a n d P u r c e l l , t h e r e is h a r d l y a n y d i r e c t r e f e r e n c e t o t h e
term ritual o r t o i n d i v i d u a l r i tu a l s , a n d v e r y p r u d e n t l y s o , f o r
reasons t h a t w i l l b e g i v e n in a m o m e n t .
2. F R O M M E A N I N G S T O F U N C T I O N S
But d e s p i t e t h e p r u d e n c e a n d c a u t i o n t h a t s h o u l d b e s h o w n i n
the t r e a t m e n t o f r it u a l s a s o b j e c t s o f a c o m p a r a t i v e o r a d i a -
chronic s t u d y , y e t r it u a l s a r e e s s e n ti a l f o r t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f
cult, r e l i g i o n , a n d w o r s h i p , f o r t h e u s e o f s a c r e d s p a c e , b u t a ls o
for t h e c u l t u r a l p r o f i l e o f a g r o u p , i n t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a nas i n a n y o t h e r r e g i o n a n d p e r i o d . I t w a s w i t h t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f
differences i n r i t u a l s ( e s p e c i a l l y b u r i a l c u s t o m s a n d t h e r i t u a l s
of d i n i n g ) t h a t m a n y a n c i e n t h i s t o r ia n s ( n o t a b l y H e r o d o t u s )
established c u l t u r a l d i f f e r e n c e a n d id e n t i t y b e t w e e n G r e e k s
and b a r b a r i a n s o r a m o n g t h e G r e e k c o m m u n i t i e s . 5 I n o n e o f
the l o n g e s t a n d m o s t d e t a i l e d a n c i e n t t r e a t m e n t s o f r i t u a l s , i n
Athenaeus ' d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e d i n i n g r i tu a l s o f v a r i o u s p e o p l e s ,
the p e c u l i a r it i e s o f ea c h g r o u p a re d e t e c t e d t h r o u g h a c o m p a r i -
son o f t h e r i t u a l s a t t h e d i n i n g t a b l e . 6 T h e r e is a n u n s p o k e n , b u t
5 e . g . , F . H a r t o g , The M irror of Herodo tus. The Representation of the Other
in the Writing of H istory (Ber ke ley and Lo s An ge les , 1988) ; R . B i ch ler ,
Herodots Welt ( B e r l i n , 2 0 0 0 ), e s p . 4 8 - 5 6 , 8 4 - 9 3 , 1 2 3 - 3 1 , 1 5 1 - 7 8 .6 A t h e n . 4 . 1 4 8 - 5 4 d .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
relatively w i d e s p r e a d v i e w ( in G e r m a n y i n p a r t i c u la r ) , p e r h a p s
influenced b y t h e s p i r i t o f P r o t e s t a n t i s m , t h a t r e l i g i o u s b e l i e f s
and d o c t r i n e s h a v e a s u p r e m a c y o v e r r i t u a ls , t h a t r i tu a l s a r e
meaningless. A n d y e t , s c h o l a r s s ti ll s e a r c h fo r t h e m e a n i n g o frituals n o l e s s t h a n s o m e a n t i q u a r i a n s d i d i n a n t i q u i t y .
Agatharchides n a r r a t e s a v e r y i n s t r u c t i v e a n e c d o t e : 7 ' T h e B o e -
otians s a c r i f i c e t o t h e g o d s t h o s e e e l s o f t h e K o p a i c L a k e w h i c h
are o f s u r p a s s i n g s i ze , p u t t i n g w r e a t h s o n t h e m , s a y i n g p r a y e r s
over t h e m , a n d C a s ti n g b a r l e y - c o r n s o n f h e m as o n a n y o t h e r
sacrificial v i c t i m ; a n d t o t h e f o r e i g n e r w h o w a s u t t e r l y p u z z l e d
at t h e s t r a n g e n e s s o f t h i s c u s t o m a n d a s k e d t h e r e a s o n , t h e
Boeotian d e c l a r e d t h a t h e k n e w o n e a n s w e r , a n d h e w o u l d
reply t h a t o n e s h o u l d o b s e r v e a n c e s t r a l c u s t o m s , a n d i t w a s
not h i s b u s i n e s s t o j u s t i f y t h e m to o t h e r m e n . ' T h i s a n e c d o t e
of A g a t h a r c h i d e s , r a th e r t h a n c o n f i r m i n g t h e v i e w o f t h o s e w h o
regard r i t u a l s m e a n i n g l e s s , a d v i s e s u s t o s h i f t t h e f o c u s o f t h e
discussion f r o m m e a n i n g t o f u n c t i o n s . T h e B o e o t i a n s c o n -
t inued t o s a c r i f i c e e e l s , n o t b e c a u s e o f a n o r i g i n a l , n o w f o r g o t -
ten, o b s c u r e a n d e n t ir e l y i n s i g n i f ic a n t m e a n i n g , b u t b e c a u s e o f
the i m p o r t a n c e a t ta c h e d t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f a n c e st ra l t r a d -
itions f o r t h e c o h e r e n c e a n d id e n t i t y o f a C o m m u n i t y .
O n e o f t h e p r i m a r y f u n c t i o n s o f r i t u a l s , a t l e a s t i n t h e c i v i c
communi t i es i n G r e e c e , w a s t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n
humans a n d o t h e r b e i n g s w i t h i n a n d w i t h o u t h u m a n s o c ie t y . 8
Publ i c r e l i g i o u s r i t u a l s — s a c r i f i c e i n p a r t i c u l a r , a n d o t h e r a c t i v -
ities c o n n e c t e d w i t h s a c r if i c e ( th e s in g i n g o f h y m n s , r it u a l
dances, e t c . ) , r i tu a l s o f p u r i f i c a t i o n a n d r i t u a l s o f d e d i c a t i o n —are p r i v i l e g e d m e a n s o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n m o r t a l s a n d
gods; r it u a l a c t i v it i e s e s t a b l is h t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e
l iving a n d t h e d e a d , i n t h e f u n e r a r y c u l t a n d t h e c u l t o f h e r o e s ; it
is a l s o w i t h r i t u a l s — t h e s e c re t r it u a ls o f m a g i c — t h a t m e n e s t a b
lish a c o n t a c t w i t h s u p e r h u m a n b e i n g s . P u b l i c r it u a ls ( s u c h a s
7 FGrH 8 6 F 5 ( f r o m A t h e n . 7 . 2 9 7 d ) .
8 e . g. F . G r a f , ' Z e i c h e n k o n z e p t i o n in d e r R e l i g i o n d e r g r i e c h is c h e n u n d
römischen A n t i k e ' , i n R . P o s n e r , K . R o b e r i n g , a n d T . A . S e b e o k ( e d s .) ,
Semiotik. Ein Handbuch zu den zeichentheoretischen Grundlagen von Natur
und Kultur ( B e r l i n a n d N e w Y o r k , 1 9 9 7) , 9 3 9 - 5 8 . C f . N . B o u r q u e , ' A n
Anthropologist's V i e w o f R i t u a l ' , i n E . B i s p h a m a n d C . S m i t h (e d s .) , Religion
in Archaic and Repu blican Rome and Italy: Evidence and Experience ( E d i n
burgh, 2 0 0 0 ) , 2 1 - 2 .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
oath c e r e m o n i e s , b a n q u e t s , p r o c e s s i o n s , a n d i n i t i a t o r y r it u a ls )
play a n i m p o r t a n t p a r t a ls o in t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n
communit ies , g r o u p s a n d i n d i v i d u a l s ; t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f
rituals e x p r e s s e s s y m b o l i c a l l y r o l e s , h i e r a r c h i c a l s t r u c t u r e s ,and i d e a l s ; r i t u a ls i n c l u d e o r e x c l u d e i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n s o r
whole g r o u p s f r o m c o m m u n a l l i fe . C o m m u n i c a t i o n is a ls o t h e
aim o f a ll t h o s e f o r m s o f r i t u a l a n d r i t u a l i z e d b e h a v i o u r t h a t
accompany t h e s o c ia l a n d p o l i t ic a l l if e o f t h e G r e e k s — t h e
drinking p a r t y o r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f a v i c t o r y , t h e h o n o u r i n g
of b e n e f a c t o r s o r t h e a s s e m b l y , t h e e n t h r o n i z a t i o n o r t h e adven-
tus o f a r u l e r , o r e v e n d i p l o m a t i c n e g o t i a t i o n s , a s m y n e x t
anecdote w i l l h o p e f u l l y d e m o n s t r a t e . I n 8 6 B C S u l l a w a s a t
war w i t h A t h e n s . A f t e r a l o n g s i eg e o f t h e i r c i t y t h e A t h e n i a n s
sent a d e l e g a t i o n t o n e g o t i a t e w i t h t h e R o m a n g e n e r a l . P l u t a r c h
reports: 9 ' W h e n t h e y ( th e e n v o y s ) m a d e n o d e m a n d s w h i c h
could s a v e t h e c i t y , b u t t a l k e d i n l o f t y s t r a in s a b o u t T h e s e u s
and E u m o l p u s a n d th e P e r s i a n w a r s , S u l l a s a id t o t h e m : ' B e o f f ,
m y d e a r s i r s , a n d t a k e t h e s e s p e e c h e s w i t h y o u ; f o r I w a s n o t
sent t o A t h e n s b y t h e R o m a n s t o l ea r n it s h i s t o r y , b u t t o s u b d u e
its r e b e l s . ' T h i s a n e c d o t e m a y p r e s e n t m o r e t h a n t h e c o n f r o n -
tation o f A t h e n i a n o r a t o r y a n d R o m a n p r a g m a t i s m . I t h in k w e
have h e r e t h e c a s e o f a m i s u s e d a n d m i s u n d e r s t o o d r i tu a l , t h e
funct ion o f w h i c h w o u l d h a v e b e e n t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e
basis o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n , b u t w h i c h f a i l e d t o d o s o . F r o m t h e
t imes o f P l a t o ' s Menexenus t o A e l i u s A r i s t i d e s , t h e A t h e n i a n s
reminded t h e m s e l v e s a n d o t h e r s s t e r e o t y p i c a l l y a n d i n a n
almost r i t u a l i z e d w a y o f t h e s a m e t h r e e v i c t o r i e s o v e r b a r b a r -ians: t h e v i c t o r y o f T h e s e u s o v e r t h e A m a z o n s , E r e c h t h e u s o v e r
the T h r a c i a n s o f E u m o l p u s , a n d t h e v i c t o r y in t h e P e r s i a n
Wa r s . 1 0 T h e s e s t a n d a r d i z e d c o m p o n e n t s o f t h e ir c u l t u ra l
m e m o r y a r e t o b e f o u n d n o t o n l y i n o r a t i o n s h e l d i n f e s t i v a l s
(in o t h e r w o r d s w i t h i n t h e f r a m e w o r k o f a r i tu a l ) , b u t a l s o i n
their d i p l o m a t i c c o n t a c t s , e . g . w i t h S p a r t a . 1 1 T h i s r i tu a l i ze d u s e
of h i s t o r y a s a n a r g u m e n t t h a t c a n b e o b s e r v e d in m a n y o c c a -
sions a n d i n m a n y f o r m s i n t h e h i s t o r y o f G r e e k d i p l o m a c y ,
f rom t h e P e l o p o n n e s i a n W a r t o t h e ' k i n s h i p d i p l o m a c y ' o f t h e
9 P l u . Sulla 13.10 Pla t . Menex. 2 3 9 b - 4 0 e ; A e l . A r i s t. Panath. 8 3 - 7 , 9 2 - 1 1 4 .11 Xen.Hell. 2.2 .20 ; 6 .2 .6 .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
Hellenistic a n d I m p e r i a l p e r i o d , e s t a b l i s h e d a n d f a ci l it a t e d
communica t ion a m o n g t h e G r e e k c o m m u n i t i e s t h at s h a r e d t h e
same c u l tu r a l m e m o r y a n d v a l u e s . 1 2 T h i s d i p l o m a t i c r it u al
failed i n t h e c a s e o f S u l l a , a n d q u i t e n a t u r a l l y : S u l l a h i m s e l f
w as a b a r b a r i a n a g g r e s s o r, n o t u n l i k e t h e A m a z o n s , t h e T h r a -
cians a n d t h e P e r s i a n s t h a t h a d t h r e a t e n e d t h e f r e e d o m o f t h e
Athenians i n t h e r e m o t e p a s t .
3. R I T U A L S A N D C U L T U R A L T R A N S F E R
I h a v e s t r e t c h e d o u t t h i s c o m m u n i c a t i v e f u n c t i o n o f r it u a ls a n d
ritualized a c t i v i ti e s b e c a u s e I t h i n k it s h o w s w h y w e s h o u l d
include r i tu a l s a n d r i t u a l i z e d b e h a v i o u r i n c o m p a r a t i v e a n d
diachronic s t u d i e s o f t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a n e a n , d e s p i t e a ll
the o b s t a c l e s a n d m e t h o d o l o g i c a l p r o b l e m s t h a t c o n f r o n t u s . I t
w o u l d b e m i s l e a d i n g , f o r i n s t a n c e , t o i g n o r e t h e r it u a l c o m p o n -
ents i n d i s c u s s i o n s o f c o n t i n u i t i e s i n t h e u s e o f s a c r e d s p a c e .
T w o C r e t a n s a n c t u a r i e s w i t h t h e l o n g e s t r e c o r d o f a n u n i n t e r -
rupted u s e a s s a c r e d p l a c e s , t h e s a n c t u a r y i n S i m i V i a n n o u a n d
the I d a e a n C a v e , d e m o n s r a t e t h a t it i s e x a c t l y t h e c h a n g e o f t h e
rituals t h a t r e v e a l s s u b s t a n t i a l b r e a k s i n t h e t r a d i t i o n , d i s c o n -
tinuities r a t h e r t h a n c o n t i n u i t i e s . I n S i m i V i a n n o u t h e r e w a s a
shift i n t h e w o r s h i p f r o m s a c r i fi c ia l r i t u a ls a n d b a n q u e t s t o t h e
initiatory r i t u a l s o f e p h e b e s i n t h e h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d . 1 3 I n t h e
Idaean C a v e t h e o f f e r i n g o f f o o d i t e m s i n t h e M i n o a n p e r i o d is
replaced b y b l o o d s a c ri f i ce s , t h e d e d i c a t i o n o f w e a p o n s — a g a i n ,poss ib ly i n c o n n e c t i o n w i t h m i l i t a r y r it es o f p a s s a g e — i n t h e
early h i s t o r i c a l p e r i o d , a n d t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f a c u l t o f d e a t h
and r e b i r t h . 1 4 T h a t t h e c o n t i n u i t y o f u s e c a n b e a c c o m p a n i e d b y
12 S e e m o s t r e c e n t l y C . P . J o n e s , Kinship Diplomacy in the Ancient World
(Cambridge, M a s s . , 1 99 9 ).13
A . L e b e s s i a n d P . M . M u h l y , ' A s p e c t s o f M i n o a n C u l t : S a c r e d E n c l o s -ures: T h e E v i d e n c e f r o m t he S y m e S a n c t u a r y ( C r e t e )' , Archäologischer Anzei
ger ( 1 9 9 0 ) , 3 1 5 - 3 6 ; A . L e b e s s i , ' F l a g e l l a t i o n o u a u t o f l a g e l l a t i o n ? D o n n e e s
iconographiques p o u r u n e t e n t a t i v e d ' i n t e r p r e t a t i o n ' , Bulletin de Correspon-
dance Hellenique 1 1 5 ( 1 9 9 1 ), 1 0 3 - 2 3 ; K . S p o r n , Heiligtümer und K ulte Kretas
in klassischer und hellenistischer Zeit ( H e i d e l b e r g , 2 0 0 2 ) , 8 5 - 9 ( w i t h th e ea r li e r
bibliography).14 J . S a k el la r ak is , ' T h e Id e a n C a v e : M i n o a n a n d G r e e k W o r s h i p ' , Kernos 1
(1988), 2 0 7 - 1 4 ; S p o r n , Heiligtümer 2 1 8 - 2 3 ( w i t h t h e e a r li e r b i b l i o g r a p h y ) .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
a r a d i c a l d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n r i t u a l p r a c t i c e s i s a l s o d e m o n s t r a t e d
b y t h e c o n v e r s i o n o f p a g a n t e m p l e s . S c h o l a r s o f t e n r e f e r t o t h e
e x i s t e n c e o f C h r i s t i a n c h u r c h e s o n t h e r u i n s o f p a g a n s a n c t u a r -
i es a s a c a s e o f c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e u s e o f s a c r e d s p a c e ; s o m e t i m e s i t
w a s n o t t h e s a n c t i t y o f t h e s p a c e t h a t i n v i t e d t h e C h r i s t i a n s t o
b u i l d t h e i r p l a c e s o f w o r s h i p t h e r e , b u t o n t h e c o n t r a r y i t s
u n h o l i n e s s ; n o t t h e e f f o r t t o c o n t i n u e t h e s a c r e d u s e o f a s i t e ,
b u t t h e e f f o r t t o e x p e l t h e p a g a n d e m o n s ; t h e e f f o r t t o c o n q u e r
a n u n h o l y a n d i m p u r e p l a c e a n d make i t s a c r e d . A s H o r d e n a n d
P u r c e l l p u t i t : ' t h e " h a r d w a r e " o f l o c a l i t y a n d p h y s i c a l f o r m ,
i n c l u d i n g t e m p l e , c h u r c h o r t o m b , i s i n p r a c t i c e i n f u s e d w i t h
c h a n g i n g s t r u c t u r e s o f m e a n i n g b y r i t u a l a n d o b s e r v a n c e . ' 1 5
R i t u a l s h a v e b e e n a n d s h o u l d r e m a i n a n i n t r i n s i c p a r t o f
c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n . T h e r e i s a p l e t h o r a
o f c o m p a r a t i v e s t u d i e s o n r i t u a l s t h a t n o t o n l y c o n t a i n t h e n a m e
o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n i n t h e i r t i t l e , b u t a l s o a d d r e s s t h e c o n v e r -
g e n c e s a n d d i v e r g e n c e s i n r i t u a l s i n t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a
n e a n . 1 6 W i t h o u t c l a i m i n g t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a M e d i t e r r a n e a n
15 CS 4 2 2 . F o r a me th o d o lo g i c a l a p p r o a c h s ee P . Pa k k a n e n , ' T h e R e la t i o n -
ship b e t w e e n C o n t i n u i t y a n d C h a n g e in D a r k A g e G r e e k R e l i g io n : A M e t h
odological S t u d y ' , Opuscula Atheniensia 25—6 (2 00 0-1 ) , 71—88.16 T o g ive on ly a few e xam ple s f r om the last decade or so , a Conference in
Ro me wa s devo ted to ded ica to ry prac t ices in the anc ient Med i ter ra nea n
(G . B a r to lo n i , G . C o lo n n a a n d C . G r o ta n e l l i ( e d s .) , Atti del corwegno inter-
nazionale Anathema. Regime delle offene e vita dei santuari nel mediterraneo
antico, Roma 15-18 Giugno 1989, in Scienze dell'antichitä 3-4 ( 1 9 8 9 - 9 0 )
(1991)); ar iö ther Conference in L y o n had M ed i ter ra nea n sacr i fi c ia l r i tua ls as
its s u b j e c t ( R . E t i e n n e an d M . - T . L e D i n a h e t ( e ds .) , L'Espace sacrificiel dans
les civilisations mediterraneenne s de l'antiquite: Actes du colloque tenu ä la
Maison de l'Orient, Lyon, 4-7 juin 1988 (Par is 1991); R . E . De M ar is , has
studied th e cu l t o f D e m e te r in R o m a n C o r in th a s a 'l o ca l d e v e lo p m e n t in a
Mediterranean r e li g io n ' ( ' D e m e t e r i n R o m a n C o r i n t h : L o c a l D e v e l o p m e n t i n
a M e d i t e r r a n e a n R e l i g i o n ' , Numen 4 2 ( 1 99 5 ) 1 0 5 - 1 7 ) ; D . J . T h o m p s o n a p -
proached Ph i l a d e lp h u s ' p r o c e s s io n in A l e x a n d r i a a s a n e x p r e s s io n o f ' d y n a s t i c
power i n a M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o n te x t ' ( 'Ph i l a d e lp h u s ' P r o c e s s io n : D y n a s t i c
Power i n a M e d i t e r r a n e a n C o n te x t ' , i n L . M o o r e n ( e d . ) , Politics, Adminis
tration and Society in the Hellenistic and Roman World: Proceedings of the
International Colloquium, Bertinoro 19-24 July 1997 ( L o u v a i n , 2 0 00 ) 3 6 5 -
88); and L . L i D o n n ic i has r ecent ly s tud ied 'e ro t ic spe l l s for fever and c o m -
pulsion in the anc ient Med i ter r ane an w or ld ' ( 'Bu rn in g for i t: Ero t ic Spe l l s for
Fever a n d C o m p u l s i o n in t h e A n c i e n t M e d i t e r ra n e a n W o r l d ' , Greek, Roman,
and Byzantine Studies 3 9 ( 1 9 9 8 ), 6 3 - 9 8 ) . S e e a l so B . G la d i g o w , 'M e d i t e r r a n e
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
religion o r o f Mediterranean r i t u a l s , t h e s e s c h o l a r s r e g a r d a
comparat ive s t u d y o f r i t u a l s l i m i t e d t o t h i s a r e a a s a m e a n i n g f u l
task. A n d t h e r e a r e g o o d re a s o n s f o r d o i n g s o , a t l ea s t i n c e r t a i n
historical p e r i o d s . T h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n S e a h a s m o r e o f t e n b e e n
a f ac i l it at or o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a n a b a r r i e r, a n d c o m m u m -
cation c o n t r i b u t e s t o t h e w i d e d i f f u s i o n n o t o n l y o f f l o r a , f a u n a ,
and a r t e f a c t s , b u t a l s o o f c u l t u r e . A n d r i tu a l s a r e a n i m p o r t a n t
component o f c u l t u r a l t r a d i t i o n s . R i t u a l t r a n s f e r i s, t h e r e f o r e ,
neither a r a re n o r a s u r p r i s i n g p h e n o m e n o h . 1 7 T h e m e c h a n i s m s
of t h e tr a n s f e r a n d t h e f a c to r s t h a t c o n t r i b u t e — i n ce r t a i n
per iods —conver gences i n r i tu a l p r a c t i c e s a r e m a n i f o l d a n dhave s o o f t e n b e e n s t u d i e d th a t a b r i e f r e f e r e n c e t o t h e m o s t
c o m m o n f o r m s w o u l d s u f fi c e : m a s s i v e m o v e m e n t s o f p o p u l a -
t i o n — i n v a s i o n , m i g r a t i o n , c o n q u e s t , a n d o f c o u r s e c o l o n i z a -
t ion, w i t h t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e r i tu a l s o f t h e m o t h e r - c i t y t o
the c o l o n y — w e r e s o m e t i m e s n o m o r e i n f l u en t ia l t h a n t h e s e tt le -
ment o f s m a l l g r o u p s o f f o r e i g n e r s (e s p e c i a l l y m e r c h a n t s , g a r -
risons, a n d e x i le s : f o r e x a m p l e , P t o l e m a i c m e r c e n a r i e s w e r e a s
important f o r t h e d i f f u s i o n o f t h e c u l t o f E g y p t i a n d e i t i e s , a s t h e
R o m a n a r m y f o r t h e d i f f u s i o n o f m a n y O r i e n t a l c u l t s) .1 8 I n
addit ion t o t h i s , a d m i n i s t r a t i v e m e a s u r e s o f e m p i r e s a n d e v e n
diplomatic c o n t a c t s c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e u n i f o r m i t y o f r i tu a l
practices. O n e s h o u l d a ls o u n d e r s c o r e t h e m i s s i o n a r y a c t i v i t y
of i n d i v i d u a l s o r o r g a n i z e d g r o u p s . F i n a l l y , w e s h o u l d n o t
forget t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f c a n o n i c a l t e x t s , e i t h e r o r a l l y t r a n s m i t
ted o r w r i t t e n , f o r r i t u a l t r a n s f e r f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e u n i f o r m i t y o fmagical r it u a ls t h r o u g h o u t t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n o r t h e u n i f o r m i t y
Religionsgeschichte, R ö m i s c h e R e l i g i o n sg e s c h i ch t e , E u r o p ä i s c h e R e h g i o n s -
geschichte: Z u r G e n e s e e in s e F a k t k o n z e p t e s ' , i n Kykeon: Studies in Honour of
H. S. Versnel ( L e i d e n , e tc . , 2 0 0 2 ) , 49-67.
17 S e e , e . g. E . R . G e b h a r d , ' T h e G o d s i n T r a n s i t : N a r r a t i v e s o f C u l t
Transfer' , i n A . Y . C o l l i n s a n d M . M . M i t c h e l l ( e d s. ), Antiquity and Hum an-ity. Essays on Ancient Religion and Philosophy presented to D. Betz on his 70th
Birthday ( T ü b i n g e n , 2 0 01 ), 4 5 1 - 7 6 .18 M . L a u n e y , Recherches sur les armees hellenistiques ( r e imp r e s s io n a v e c
addenda e t m i s e ä j o u r e n p o s t f a c e p a r Y . G a r l a n , Ph . G a u t h ie r , C l . O r r i e u x ,
Paris, 1 9 8 7 ) , 1 0 2 6 - 3 1 ; A . C h a n i o t i s , ' F o r e i g n S o l d i e r s — N a t i v e G i r l s ? C o n -
structing a n d C r o s s in g B o u n d a r i e s in H e l l e n i s t i c C i t i e s w i th F o r e ig n G a r
risons', i n A . C h a n io t i s a n d P . D u c r e y (e d s . ) , Army and P ower in the Ancient
World ( S tu t tg a r t , 2 0 0 2 ) , 1 0 8 - 9 .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
of r i t u a l s o f m y s t e r y c u l t s w a s t o a g r e a t e x t e n t t h e r e s u l t o f t h e
existence o f r it u a l h a n d b o o k s . 1 9
In w h a t f o l l o w s , I w i l l n o t d i s c u s s t h e m e c h a n i s m s o f r i tu a l
transfer a n d u n i f o r m i t y i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n , b u t s i m p l y a d dress s o m e p r o b l e m s w e a re c o n f r o n t e d w i t h w h e n w e a t t e m p t
to m a k e r it ua ls a m e a n i n g f u l s u b j e c t o f M e d i t e r r a n e a n s t u d i e s —
either d i a c h r o n i c a l l y o r i n p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d s .
4 . T H E E L U S I V E N E S S O F R I T U A L S
Rituals b e l o n g t o t h e m o s t e l u s i v e p h e n o m e n a o f a n c i e n t r e l i -
gious a n d s o c ia l b e h a v i o u r . A s w i d e l y e s ta b l i s h e d , s t e r e o t y p i c a lactivities, f o l l o w e d c o n s i s t e n t l y a n d ( at l ea s t i n t h e o r y ) i n v a r i -
ably , t h e y a r e r a r e l y d e s c r i b e d a n d h a r d l y e v e r e x p l a i n e d b y
those w h o p e r f o r m t h e m ; t h e y a re r a t h e r d e s c r i b e d b y t h o s e
w h o o b s e r v e t h e m a n d ar e a s t o u n d e d a t t h e d i f f e r e n c e s f r o m t h e
rituals o f t h e i r o w n c u l t u r e , o r t h e y a r e d e s c r i b e d b y p u z z l e d
antiquarians. W h e r e a s r e l ig i o u s a c t i v i t y at a s it e c a n b e e s t a b
l ished b y v a r i o u s m e a n s (e .g . t h r o u g h t h e e x i s t e n c e o f a c u l t
bui ld ing, e x - v o t o s , o r d e d i c a t o r y i n s c r i p t i o n s ) , w e o f t e n l a ck
any k n o w l e d g e o f t h e r i tu a l s i n v o l v e d ; a n d t h e c u l t o f a d i v i n i t y
ma y b e p r a c t i s e d c o n t i n u a l l y , e v e n t h o u g h t h e r i tu a l s o f t h e
worship c h a n g e . T o g i v e a f e w e x a m p l e s , t h e r e w a s a d e c l i n e
in t h e o f f e r i n g o f b l o o d s a c r i f i c e i n t h e l a t e r p a r t o f t h e I m p e r i a l
period, a n d i n s t e a d a p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e s i n g i n g o f h y m n s a n d
the o f f e r i n g o f l i b a t i o n s . 2 0 A n o t h e r c h a n g e w e m a y o b s e r v e
19 F o r r rrag ical ha nd bo ok s see F . G ra f , Gottesnähe und Schadenzauber: Die
Magie in der griechisch-römischen Antike ( M u n i c h , 1 9 9 6) 1 0 ; M . W . D i c k i e ,
' The L e a r n e d M a g i c i a n a n d t h e C o l l e c t i o n a n d T r a n s m i s s i o n o f M a g i c a l
Lore' , i n D . R . J o r d a n , H . M o n t g o m e r y , a n d E . T h o m a s s e n ( ed s. ), The
World of Ancient M agic: Papers from the First International Samson Eitrem
Seminar at the Noruiegian Institute at Athens, 4-8 M ay 1997 (Bergen , 1999) ,
163-93. A n imp res s ion o f in i t i a to ry li turg ica l boo ks i s p r ov id ed by the
so-called ' M i t h r a s l i t u r g i e ' i n a p a p y r u s in P a r i s (Papyri Graecae Magicae 4
475-824); s e e R . M e r k e l b a c h , Abrasax III. Ausgewählte Papyri religiösen und
magischen, Inhalts I I I ( O p l a d e n , 19 9 2) .20 S . Br a d b u r y , 'J u l i a n ' s P a g a n R e v i v a l a n d th e D e c l i n e o f B l o o d S a c r i f i c e ' ,
Phoenix 4 9 ( 1 9 9 5 ) , 3 3 1 - 5 6 ; se e e . g. F . S o k o l o w s k i , Lois Sacrees de l'Asie
Mineure ( P a r i s , 1 9 5 5 ) , n o . 2 8 ; A . R e h m , Didyma I I . Die Inschriften, e d .
R. H ä r d e r ( Be r l i n , 1 9 5 8 ) , n o . 2 1 7 ; R . M e r k e l b a c h a n d J . S t a u b e r , ' D i e O r a k e l
des A p o l l o n v o n K l a r o s ' , Epigraphica A natolica 27 (1996) , 1 -54 , nos . 2
(Pergamon), 4 ( H i e r a p o l i s ) , a n d 11 ( S a r d e s o r K o l o e ) .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
thanks t o i n s c r i p t i o n s w i t h s a c r e d r e g u l a t i o n s i s a s h i f t f r o m t h e
preoccupat ion w i t h t h e r it u a l p u r i t y o f t h e b o d y t o a p r e o c c u -
pation w i t h t h e p u r i t y o f t h e m i n d ; 2 1 t h e r e l e v a n t e v i d e n c e d a te s
f r o m t h e f o u r t h C e n t u r y B C o n w a r d s a n d is w i d e l y d i f f u s e d i n
the e a st er n M e d i t e r r a n e a n ( in M a c e d o n i a a n d m a i n l a n d
Greece , i n C r e t e a n d m a n y i s la n d s o f t h e A e g e a n , a n d m a n y
places i n A s i a M i n o r ) . B o t h c h a n g e s i n r i tu a l s o c c u r r e d i n
sanctuaries u s e d w i t h o u t a n y in t e r r u p t i o n a n d d e v o t e d t o t h e
same d i v i n i t y . A l l t h i s h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a n k s t o t h e r a t h e r
unusual a b u n d a n c e o f l i t e r a r y t e x t s a n d a b o v e a ll o f i n s c r i p t i o n s
(sacred r e g u l a t i o n s ) i n t h e r e s p e c t i v e p e r i o d s . S u c h c h a n g e s
have a s o c ia l p a r a m e t e r a s w e l l . B o t h a f o r e m e n t i o n e d c h a n g e s
seem t o h a v e i n f l u e n c e d o n l y p a r t o f t h e w o r s h i p p e r s , t h e i n t e l -
lectual e l it e a n d t h e p e r s o n s t h a t s t o o d u n d e r i ts i n f l u e n c e .
Social a n d in t e l l e c t u a l d i f f e r e n t i a t i o n s i n t h e p r a c t i c e o f r i t u a l s
should b e t a k e n i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , b u t it i s o n l y i n e x c e p t i o n a l
cases t h a t o u r s o u r c e s a l l o w u s t o d o so .
A n o t h e r e x a m p l e o f c o n t i n u a l u s e o f a s a c r e d p l a c e c o n n e c t e d
wi th a d i s r u p t i o n o f r i t u a l p r a c t i c e s i s p r o v i d e d b y t h e a l ta r o f t h e
Jerusa lem t e m p l e . I t w a s u s e d a s a n al ta r f o r b l o o d s a c r i f ic e s
throughout t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , w i t h n o i n t e r r u p t i o n i n i ts
u s e — a w o n d e r f u l c a s e o f c o n t i n u i t y i n r i tu a l s , o n e m i g h t h a v e
thought , i f w e d i d n o t h a v e t h e l i t e r a r y e v i d e n c e t h a t i n f o r m s u s
that f o r a p e r i o d o f t h r e e y e a r s a n d s i x m o n t h s d u r i n g t h e r e i g n o f
Ant iochus I V t h e a l ta r w a s u s e d f o r t h e s a c r i f i c e o f s w i n e ; 2 2 t h e
change o f j u s t o n e c o m p o n e n t o f t h e r i tu a l o f b l o o d s a c r i f i c e ( t h especies o f t h e s a c r if ic i a l a n i m a l ) p r o v o c a t i v e l y d e m o n s t r a t e d a
disrupt ion o f t h e r i t u a l t r a d i t i o n . I n t h i s p a r t i c u l a r c a s e w e
happen t o k n o w o f t h i s s h o r t - t e r m i n t e r r u p t i o n , i n o t h e r s w e
do n o t , a n d it h a s o f t e n b e e n o b s e r v e d t h a t c o n t i n u i t y i n u s e o f
the s a m e s p a c e d o e s n o t n e c e s s a r i l y m e a n it s i d e n t i c a l u s e . 2 3 It is
21
A . C h a n i o t i s , ' R e i n h e i t d es K ö r p e r s — R e i n h e i t d e r S e e le in d e n g r ie chischen K u l t g e s e t z e n ' , in J . A s s m a n n a n d T h . S u n d e r m e i e r ( ed s .) , Schuld,
Gewissen und Person ( G ü te r s l o h , 1 9 9 7 ) , 1 4 2 - 7 9 .22 J o s e p h . Ant.Jud. 1 2 .2 5 3 .23 A . C h a n io t i s , in J . S c h ä fe r ( e d . ), Amnisos nach den archäologischen, topo
graphischen, historischen und epigraphischen Zeugnissen des Altertums und der
Neuzeit ( B e r l in , 1 9 9 2 ), 8 8 - 9 6 ; L . V . W a t r o u s , The Cave Sanctuary of Zeus at
Psychro. A Study of Extra-Urban Sanctuaries in Minoan and Early Iran Age
Crete ( L i e g e , 1 9 9 6 ) , e s p . 1 0 6 - 1 1 ; CS 4 0 4 - 1 1 .
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often t h i s e l u s i v e n e s s o f r i tu a l s t h a t m a k e s s c h o l a r s v e r y p r u -
dently t a lk a b o u t c o n t i n u i t y o f c u l t , b u t n o t o f c o n t i n u i t y o f
rituals.
But e x c e p t f o r i n t e r r u p t i o n s a n d d i s r u p t i o n s t h a t e s c a p e o u rnotice, s o m e t i m e s th e r e a r e e l u s i v e c o n t i n u i t i e s . R i t e s o f p a s -
sage i n p a r t i c u l a r , l o n g a b o l i s h e d o r n e g l e c t e d , h a v e t h e t e n -
dency t o e m e r g e i n u n e x p e c t e d p la c e s a n d f o r m s ( v e r y o f t e n a s
the b a c k g r o u n d o f l it e ra r y n a r r a t i v e s — a n i m p o r t a n t s u b j e c t
that c a n n o t b e a d d r e s s e d h e r e ) . 2 4 T h e a c t iv it ie s o f t h e A t h e n i a n
ephebes i n t h e H e l l e n i s t i c p e r i o d , a f t e r t h e a r ti f ic i a l r e v i v a l o f
the e p h e b i c i n s t it u t i o n s b u t w i t h o u t t h e in s t i t u t io n a l i z e d P e r
formance o f i n i t i a t o r y r i t u a l s , p r e s e n t a n i n t e r e s t i n g ca s e . A n
honor i f ic d e c r e e o f 1 2 3 B C d e s c r i b e s t h e s e a c t i v i t i e s , w h i c h
included p a r t i c i p a t i o n i n f e s t i va l s , p r o c e s s i o n s , a n d a t h le t i c
competit ions, a t t e n d a n c e at p h i l o s o p h i c a l s c h o o l s , m i l i t a r y
exercises, v i s i ts t o i m p o r t a n t h i s t or i ca l m o n u m e n t s a n d s a n c t u -
aries, a n d a c q u a i n t a n c e w i t h t h e b o r d e r s o f A t h e n i a n t e r r i t o r y ;
these a c t i v i t i e s a r e m o r e o r l e ss s t a n d a r d i z e d , s i n c e w e f i n d
references to th e m in s im i la r dec rees . I t i s in th i s pa ssa ge thatw e f i n d t h e f o l l o w i n g r e p o r t : 2 5
and they m ad e an excu rsion to the border of Att ic terr itory carry ing
their we ap on s, acquir ing k no wl edg e of the terr itory and the roads
[lacuna] an d they visited the sanctuaries in the cou ntr ysid e, offering
sacrifices on b ehalf of the people . W h e n they arr ived at the grave at
Marathon, they offe red a wrea th and a sacrif ice to those w h o died in
war for f reedo m ; they a lso came to the sanctuary o f Am ph iara us . A n d
there they d em onstra ted the legit imate possession of the sanctuary
which ha d been occ upie d b y the ancestors in o ld t imes. A n d after they
had offe red a sacrif ice, they returned o n the sam e day to our o w n
territory.
W h a t a t f i rs t s i g h t s e e m s a h a r m l e s s e x c u r s i o n , a c q u i r e s a n o t h e r
dimension w h e n w e t a k e i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e f a c t t h a t i n t h i s
per iod t h e s a n c t u a r y o f A m p h i a r a u s w a s not p a r t o f t h e A t h e n
ian t e r r i t o r y , b u t b e l o n g e d t o t h e c i ty o f O r o p o s . T h e A t h e n i a n s
had l o s t th i s t e r r i t o r y l e ss th an a ge ne ra t io n ear l i e r ( th i s w a s the
occasion o f t h e f a m o u s e m b a s s y o f t h e A t h e n i a n p h i l o s o p h e r s t o
24 C f . J . M a , ' B la c k H u n t e r V a r i a t i o n s ' , Proceedings of the Cam bridge Philo-
logical Society 4 0 (1 9 9 4 ) , 4 9 - 8 0 .25 IG I I 2 1 0 0 6 l i n es 6 5 - 7 1 .
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R o m e ) . T h e A t h e n i a n e p h e b e s m a r c h e d u n d e r a r m s i n to f o r -
eign t e r r i t o r y , r e m i n d i n g t h e ir a u d i e n c e w i t h S p ee c h e s t h a t t h e
Athenians w e r e t h e l e g i t i m a t e o w n e r s o f t h e s a n c t u a r y , a n d t h e n
w i t h d r e w b e h i n d t h e A t h e n i a n b o r d e r . T h i s l o o k s v e r y m u c h
like t h e s u r v i v a l o f a n i n i t i a t o r y r i t u a l : S e p a r a t i o n f r o m u r b a n
life, l i m i n a l i t y t h r o u g h v i s i t o f t h e b o r d e r s o f t h e t e r r i t o r y ,
exp'osure t o a d a n g e r a n d a c h i e v e m e n t o f a n i m p o r t a n t d e e d ,
and r e i n t e g r a t i o n — r e t u r n t o A t h e n s a n d a c c e p t a n c e i n t o t h e
Citizen b o d y .
5. A R T I F I C I A L R E V I V A L S
A s e c o n d p r o b l e m i n v o l v e d in t h e s t u d y o f c o n t i n u i t ie s i n
rituals ( b u t a l s o i n t h e s t u d y o f r e l i g i o u s c o n t i n u i t i e s i n g e n e r a l )
is t h e fa c t t h a t w h a t a t f i r s t s i g h t s e e m s a s u r v i v a l m a y w e l l b e a n
artificial r e v i v a l . S o m e t i m e in t h e f if t h C e n t u r y A D , a p a g a n
priest i n M e g a r a , o n e H e l l a d i o s , s et u p a n i n s c r i p t i o n o n t h e
m o n u m e n t o f t h e d e a d o f t h e P e r s i a n W a r s , r e s to r i n g S i m o m -
des' e p i g r a m ( w r i t t e n a l m o s t o n e m i l l e n n i u m ea r li er ) a n d
adding t h e r e m a r k t h a t ' t h e c i t y o f f e r e d s a c r i f i c e s u p t o t h i s
day ' . 2 6 I t w o u l d b e a b i g m i s t a k e t o t a k e t h i s S t a t e m e n t a s p r o o f
that t h i s r i t u a l h a d b e e n c o n t i n u a l l y p e r f o r m e d in M e g a r a f o r
ten c e n t u r i e s . A l o n g t i m e a f t e r t h e p r o h i b i t i o n o f p a g a n s a c r i
fices, H e l l a d i o s p r o v o c a t i v e l y d e f i e s t h e l a w s o f t h e C h r i s t i a n
e m p e r o r s — a p h e n o m e n o n to w h i c h I w i l l r e t u r n l at er . H e r e , w e
are m o r e p r o b a b l y d e a l in g w i t h a r e v i v a l r a th e r t h a n a s u r v i v a l .T h i s is m o r e c le a r i n m y s e c o n d e x a m p l e , a M i l e s i a n d e c r e e o f
the m i d - f i r s t C e n t u r y c o n c e r n i n g a b a n q u e t w h i c h s h o u l d b e
offered b y t h e prophetes ( th e p r i e st o f A p o l l o D i d y m e u s ) at
D i d y m a t o t h e kosmoi ( p r o b a b l y a b o a r d o f s a c re d o ff i c ia l s
responsible f o r s o m e k i n d o f d e c o r a t i o n in t h e s a n c t u a r y ) a n d
b y t h e stephanephoros to the molpoi, t h e o l d , r e s p e c t e d p r i e s t l y
board o f s i n g e r s . 2 7 T h i s d e c r e e w a s b r o u g h t t o t h e a s s e m b l y b y
T iber ius C l a u d i u s D a m a s , a w e l l - k n o w n C it iz en o f M i l e t u s .
26 IG V I I 5 3.27 P . H e r r m a n n , Inschriften von Milet, Pa r t 1 (Ber l in , 1997) , no .13 4 (w i th
the e a rl ie r b ib l i o g r a p h y ) ; F . S o k o lo w s k i , Lots sacrees de l'Asie Mineure (Par is ,
1955), no . 53 . Fo r a deta i led d iscuss ion o f the re l ig ious con tex t o f D am a s '
initiative a n d fu r th e r e x a m p le s s ee A . C h a n io t i s , ' Ne g o t i a t in g R e l ig io n in th e
Cities o f t h e E a s t e r n R o m a n P r o v i n c e s ' , Kernos 16 (2003) , 177 -90 .
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T h a n k s t o n u m e r o u s i n s c r i p t i o n s a n d c o i n s w e k n o w a f e w
things a b o u t h i s p e r s o n a l i t y . H e h e l d t h e o f f i c e o f t h e prophetes
for a t l e a st t w o t e r m s a n d h e in i t i a t e d a c o i n a g e w i t h r e p r e s e n t a -
tions o f A p o l l o D i d y m e u s a n d A r t e m i s P y t h i e .
2 8
W e a re d e a l in gwi th a n i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a p a r t i c u l a r i n t e re s t i n t h e o l d , r e v e r e d ,
but a l s o o f t e n d e s t r o y e d a n d n e g l e c t e d s a n c t u a r y a t D i d y m a .
T h e a c t u a l s u b j e c t o f t h e d e c r e e i s p r e s e n t e d in f e w e r t h a n s i x
lines: T h e a c t i ng prophetes a n d t h e stephanephoros a r e o b l i g e d
'to o r g a n i z e t h e b a n q u e t o f t h e kosmoi a n d t h e molpoi a c c o r d i n g
to a n c e s t r a l c u s t o m a n d i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e l a w s a n d t h e
decrees w h i c h h a v e b e e n p r e v i o u s l y is s u e d . ' S u r p r i s i n g l y
enough, t h i s s h o r t t e x t is f o l l o w e d b y t w e n t y - f o u r li n e s, d e v o t e d
to m e a s u r e s p r e v e n t i n g f u t u r e v i o l a t i o n s o f t h i s d e c r e e a n d t h e
punishment o f w r o n g d o e r s . T h e r e s p o n s i b l e m a g i s tr a te s w e r e
not a l l o w e d t o S u b s t i t u t e t h i s c e l e b r a t i o n w i t h a m o n e y c o n t r i -
but ion .2 9 A n y f u t u r e d e c r e e w h i c h d i d n o t c o n f o r m to t h i s
decree s h o u l d b e i n v a l i d ; i ts i n i ti a t o r w o u l d h a v e t o p a y a f in e ,
in a d d i t i o n t o t h e d i v i n e p u n i s h m e n t w h i c h a w a i t s t h e i m p i o u s ;
and t h e r it u a l w o u l d h a v e t o b e p e r f o r m e d , n o n e t h e l e s s . T h i sdecree i s d e c l a r e d t o b e ' a d e c r e e p e r t a i n i n g t o p i e t y t o w a r d s t h e
gods a n d t h e A u g u s t i a n d t o t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n o f t h e c i t y ' . D a m a s
w as o b v i o u s l y a f r a i d t h a t h i s d e c r e e w o u l d b e a s p e r s i s t e n t l y
ignored b y f u t u r e m a g i s t r a t e s a s a ll t h o s e e a r l i e r l a w s o n t h e
same m a t t e r w h i c h h e q u o t e s . H i s c o n c e r n m u s t h a v e b e e n
justif ied. D a m a s h i m s e l f s e r v e d as a prophetes, v o l u n t a r i l y ; i n
the t e x t w h i c h r e c o r d s h i s f ir s t t e r m i n t h i s o f f i c e D a m a s u n d e r -
scores t h e f a c t t h a t ' h e p e r f o r m e d e v e r y t h i n g w h i c h h i s p r e d e -
cessors u s e d t o p e r f o r m ' . S u c h S ta t e m e n ts i n h o n o r i f i c
inscriptions i n d i c a t e t h a t s o m e m a g i s t r a t e s w e r e l es s d i l i g e n t
in t h e f u l f i l m e n t o f t h e i r d u t i e s . D a m a s s e r v e d a s e c o n d t e r m
later, a f t e r a y e a r o f v a c a n c y in t h i s o f f i c e ; 3 0 n o t a S ingle
28 L . R o b e r t , Monn aies grecques. Types, legendes, Ma gistrats monetaires et
geographie ( G e n e v a a n d P a r i s , 1 9 6 7 ) , 5 0 .29 T h a t t h is o cc a s i o n a ll y h a p p e n e d , f o l l o w i n g t he d e m a n d o f t h e C o m m u
nity, is d em o n s t r a t e d b y a n e w in s cr ip t io n f r o m D a g ' m a r a / K a r a k ö y ( T e m p -
sianoi?): a p r ie s t acceded to the request o f the c i t y and p r ov ide d the m on ey he
was s u p p o s e d t o s p e n d f o r b a n q u e t s fo r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f an a q u e d u c t (c.AD
180-92). S e e H . M a l a y , Researches in Lydia, Mysia and Aiohs (TAM, E r g a n -
Eungsband 23) (V ien na , 1999) , 115 no . 127 .30 R e h m , Didyma, no . 268 .
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Miles ian h a d b e e n W i l l i n g t o s e r v e a s a prophetes—not an un -
usual S it u at io n a t D i d y m a .
N u m e r o u s i n s c r i p t i o n s d o c u m e n t a g e n e ra l u n w i l l i n g n e s s
amongst t h e C i t i z e n s t o s e r v e a s prophetai a n d a n e v e n g r e a t e r
unwil l ingness t o p e r f o r m all t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r i t u ä l s . I n t h e l o n g
series o f m o r e t h a n o n e h u n d r e d i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a t r e c o r d t h e
names o f t h e prophetai m a n y t e x t s i n f o r m u s t i m e a n d a g a i n o f
the d i f f i c u l t i e s i n f i n d i n g c a n d i d a t e s . O n e o f t h e prophetai,
Cla ud ius C h i o n i s , e x p l i c i t l y s ta t es t h a t h e s e r v e d b o t h a s archi-
prytanis a n d a s prophetes i n a y e a r i n w h i c h ' n o C i t iz e n w a s
Willing t o a c c e p t e i t h e r o f f i c e ' .3 1
W e g et s o m e i n f o r m a t i o nabout D a m a s ' s e c o n d t e r m as a prophetes f r o m t h e a b o v e i n -
scription f r o m D i d y m a . I t r e po r ts t h at D a m a s s e r v e d v o l u n t a r -
i ly a s e c o n d t e r m as a prophetes, at th e ag e o f 81 , a n d tha t
'he r e v i v e d t h e a n c e s t r a l c u s t o m s ' a n d c e l e b r a t e d t h e b a n q u e t
in t h e s a n c t u a r y a t D i d y m a t w e l v e d a y s l o n g . S i m i l a r r e fe r e n ce s
to t h e r it es p e r f o r m e d b y t h e prophetes a p p e a r o c c a s i o n a l l y i n th e
inscriptions o f t h e prophetai. T h e e x p l i c i t c e r t i fi c a t i o n t h a t
the p a r t i c u l a r p r i e s t h a d f u l f i l l e d h i s d u t i e s i n d i c a t e t h a t t h i s
w a s n o t a l w a y s t h e c a s e. A n d s o m e o f f ic i a l s s e e m t o h a v e d o n e
mor e t h a n t h e ir p r e d e c es s o r s . A n a n o n y m o u s prophetes, f o r
example , p r o v i d e d t h e f u n d s f o r a b a n q u e t fo r a ll t h e C i t iz e n s
for 1 3 d a y s ; h e d i s t r i b u t e d m o n e y to w o m e n a n d v i r g i n s i n a
festival; h e o f f e r e d a d i n n e r f o r t h e b o y s w h o o f f i c i a t e d i n
a c e l e b r a t i o n ; a n d h e d i s t r i b u t e d m o n e y t o t h e m e m b e r s o f t h e
Council o n A p o l l o ' s b i r t h d a y .3 2
T h e s e s p o r a d i c r e f e r e n c e s t o r e v i v a l s s e e m t o m e t o r e f l e c t
failures r a t h e r t h a n s u c c e s s . T h i s e v i d e n c e ( a n d t h e r e is m u c h
mor e f r o m o t h e r c i ti e s) s h o w u s h o w a n i n d i v i d u a l w i t h a v i v i d
interest i n a n c e s t r a l c u s t o m s r e v i v e d ri tu a l s l o n g fo r g o t t e n a n d
neglected. T h e f a c t t h a t i n s c r i p t i o n s w h i c h r e f e r t o t h e s e i n i t i a
tives s u r v i v e d o e s n o t p e r m i t t h e c o n c l u s i o n t h a t t h e s u c c e s s o f
these i n i t i a t i v e s w a s l a s t i n g . D a m a s ' d e c r e e o f f e r s a n i n t e r e s t i n g
example o f a r e v i v a l w h i c h w a s a p p a r e n t l y a c c e p t e d b y t h e
people , b u t w h o s e s u c c e s s w a s e p h e m e r a l . F r o m h i s o w n
31 Ib id . no . 272 . S im i la r p ro b l em s are a l lud ed to in nos . 214 B , 215 , 236 B
I I I , 241 , 243, 244, 252 , 269, 270 , 277, 278, 279 A , 286 , 28 8, and 289.32 I b i d . n o . 2 9 7 . T w o o t h e r prophetai c la i m that they ha d rev ive d anc ient
customs, but the i r insc r ip t ions a re too f ragm en tar y to a l low us to see wha t
exactly the ob je c t o f the rev iva l had been : nos . 289 and 303 .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
inscriptions w e k n o w th a t a t l ea s t he f o l l o w e d t h e c u s t o m , b u t
otherwise t h e r e a r e o n l y s p o r a d i c r e f e r e n c e s to t h i s c e l e b r a t i o n .
W h e n t h e d r i v i n g f o r c e o f a r e v i v a l w a s a n i n d i v i d u a l , n o t t h e
Communi t y , t h e r e v i v a l o f t e n d i e d w i t h i ts i n i t i a t o r , e x a c t l y a s
certain f e s t i v a l s o r c u l t s d i d n o t s u r v i v e t h e d e a t h o f t h e i r
founders. I h a v e d i s c u s s e d t h i s c a s e i n s u c h d e t a i l , b e c a u s e i t
seems t o m e a v e r y c h a r a c t e ri s t ic e x a m p l e o f h o w m i s l e a d i n g it
m a y b e t o t r y t o d r a w c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e c o n t i n u a l P e r f o r m
ance o f r it u a ls f r o m is o l a te d p i e c e s o f e v i d e n c e . T h i s e x a m p l e
also d e m o n s t r a t e s th e r o l e o f i n d i v i d u a l p e r s o n a l i t i es a n d i d i o -
syncrasies f o r t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f r i t u a l s , a s u b j e c t t o w h i c h Ireturn l a te r . N e e d l e s s t o s a y a r t if ic i a l r e v i v a l s s o m e t i m e s a re
accompanied w i t h c h a n g e s i n m e a n i n g . T h e i n i t i a t o r y r it u al o f
the f l a g e l la t i o n i n t h e s a n c t u a r y o f A r t e m i s O r t h i a i n S p a r t a
( k n o w n a l s o f r o m C r e t e ) w a s r e v i v e d a s a t o u r i s t i c a t t r a c t i o n i n
the i m p e r i a l p e r i o d . 3 3
6. M I S L E A D I N G A N A L O G I E S : T H E D A I D A L A O FP L A T A I A A N D I T S M O D E R N E X E G E T E S
A t h i r d p r o b l e m is t h a t s o m e t i m e s s im i l a r it i es i n i s o la t e d e l e m -
ents o f r i t u a l s a t t e s t e d i n d i s t a n t p a r t s o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a r e
regarded a s p r o o f o f t h e i d e n t i t y o f t h e s e r i t u a l s , o r o f a n a n a l o g y
between t h e m . L e t u s t a k e , f o r e x a m p l e , t h e c a r r y i n g o f t h e
w o o d e n i m a g e i n a p r o c e s s i o n , t h e c e n t r a l r i t u a l o f t h e f e s t i v a l o f
the D a i d a l a .3 4
T h e a e t io l o g ic a l m y t h is n a r r a t e d b y P l u t a r c hand P a u s a n i a s :3 5 o n c e H e r a h a d q u a r r e l le d w i t h Z e u s a n d w a s
hiding. A l a l k o m e n e s a d v i s e d Z e u s to d e c e i v e H e r a , b y a c t in g a s
if h e w e r e g o i n g t o m a r r y a n o t h e r w o m a n . W i t h A l a l k o m e n e s '
help, Z e u s s e c r e t ly c u t d o w n a b i g a n d v e r y b e a u t i f u l o a k - t r e e ,
gave it t h e s h a p e o f a w o m a n , d e c o r a t e d it a s a b r i d e , a n d c a l l e d
it D a i d a l e . T h e n t h e y s a n g t h e w e d d i n g s o n g fo r h e r , t h e
n y m p h s o f t h e r i v e r T r i t o n g a v e h e r t h e n u p t i a l b a t h , a n d
Boiotia p r o v i d e d f o r f l a u t i s ts a n d r e v e l l e rs . W h e n a ll t h i s w a s
33 P l u . Mor. 2 3 9 d .34 F o r a mo r e d e ta i l e d d i s c u s s io n s ee A . C h a n io t i s , ' R i tu a l D y n a m ic s : T h e
Boiotian fes t i va l o f the Da ida la ' , in Kykeon: Studies in Honour ofH. S. Versnel
(Leiden, 2002) , 23 -48 (w i th the ear l ier b ib l iography) .
35 P l u t a r c h , FGrH 388 F 1 (peri ton en Plataiais Daidalon); Pa u s a n ia s 9 .2 .7 -
9.3.3.
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
of no b laz e that is so hig h, or seen so far as this (trans. W . H . S. Jo n es ,
modified).
F r o m F r a z e r ' s t i m e s o n w a r d s t h e D a i d a l a o f B o e o t i a h a v e f a s -
cinated s c h o l a r s s t u d y i n g t h e r e l a ti o n b e t w e e n m y t h a n d r i tu a l .
A m o n g s t t h e m a n y s t u d i e s o n th e D a i d a l a t h e m o s t i n f l u e n t i a l
approach r e c o g n i z e s t h e h e t e r o g e n e i t y o f t h e d e t a i l s d e s c r i b e d
b y P a u s a n i a s , b u t f o c u s e s o n t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n a n d b u r n i n g o f
the w o o d e n i m a g e o r i m a g e s , in v e s t i n g th i s r it u a l w i t h a v a r i e t y
of m e a n i n g s w h i c h r ä n g e f r o m th e i d e a o f a n a n n u a l f ir e e x -
pressing t h e r e j u v e n a t i o n o f n a t u r e t o t h e a p p e a s e m e n t o f a
mighty c h t h o n i c g o d d e s s . T h i s a p p r o a c h a s s oc ia t e s t h e D a i d a l awi th t h e s p r i n g a n d m i d - s u m m e r b o n f i r e f e st iv a ls o f m o d e r n
E u r o p e ( o f t h e M a y p o l e o r J o h a n n e s f e u e r - t y p e ) , a t w h i c h a
w o o d e n i m a g e is b r o u g h t t o t h e s e t t l e m e n t a n d b u r n e d .
A c c o r d i n g t o F r a z e r ' s i n t e r p r e t a t io n , t h e D a i d a l a r e p r e s e n t
the m a r r i a g e o f p o w e r s o f V e g e t a t i o n ; H e r a ' s r e t i r e m e n t is a
mythica l e x p r e s s i o n f o r a b a d s e a s o n a n d t h e f a i lu r e o f
crops.3 6 M . P . N i l s s o n s p e c u l a t e d t h a t t h e i m a g e w h i c h w a s
bur ned r e p r e s e n t e d a d e m o n o f V e g e t a t i o n t h a t h a d to g o
through f i r e i n o r d e r t o s e c u r e t h e w a r m t h o f t h e s u n f o r
every th ing t h a t l i v e s a n d g r o w s . S i n c e t h i s f i r e r i t u a l h a d t h e
purpose o f p r o m o t i n g f e r t i l it y , it w a s u n d e r s t o o d a s a w e d d i n g ;
Her a w a s asso c ia ted w i t h th i s f e s t i v a l a t a l a te s tage , as th e
goddess o f m a r r i a g e ; t h e d i s c r e p a n c i e s i n t h e m y t h s a n d t h e
rituals r e f l e c t t h e l a t e c o n f l a t i o n o f t w o s e p a r a t e f e s t i v a l s , a f i r e
festival a n d a f e s t i v a l o f H e r a . 3 7
T h e p r o m i n e n t p o s i t i o n o f a h o l o c a u s t o f f e r i n g a t t w o f e s t i
vals o f A r t e m i s , t h e L a p h r i a a n d t h e E l a p h e b o l i a , l ed A .
Schachter t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t t h e b u r n i n g o f t h e i m a g e s a t
the D a i d a l a w a s a l s o o r i g i n a l l y d e d i c a t e d t o A r t e m i s a n d a t
some l a te r p o i n t c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e c u l t o f H e r a . 3 8 N e e d l e s s
to s a y , t h e s i m i l a r i t y b e t w e e n t h e D a i d a l a o n t h e o n e h a n d
and t h e L a p h r i a a n d t h e E l a p h e b o l i a o n th e o t h e r is r a t h e r
36 J . G . F r a z e r , The Golden Bough: A Study in Magic and R eligion. Part I :
The Magic Art and the Evolution of Kings, 3rd edn . (L on d o n , 1913), i i. 140 -1 .37 M . P . N i l ss o n , Griechische Feste von religiöser Bedeutung mit Ausschluss
der attischen ( L u n d , 1 9 0 6) , 5 4 - 5 ; Geschichte der griechischen Religion, 3 r d e d n .
(Munich, 1967) , i . 130 -1 , 431 .38 A . S c h a c h t e r , Cults of Boiotia ( L o n d o n , 1 9 8 1 ), i. 2 4 7 .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
superficial; t h e b u r n i n g o f s l a u g h t e r e d s a c ri f ic i a l v i c t i m s a t t h e
Daida la c a n n o t b e c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e t h r o w i n g o f l i v i n g
animals o n t h e p y r e a t t h e L a p h r i a . I n a d d i t i o n t o t h i s , I c a n
see n o e v i d e n c e f o r t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t i n t h e h o l o c a u s t s o f t h e
L a p h r i a a n d th e E l a p h e b o l i a A r t e m i s w a s c o n c e i v e d a s t h e
patroness o f c h i l d b i r t h ; a n d o f c o u r s e t h e r e i s n o e v i d e n c e f o r
the s a c r if ic i a l b u r n i n g o f w o o d e n i m a g e s i n t h e s e f e s t iv a l s o f
Ar temis .
F ina l ly , W . B u r k e r t h a s a t t r i b u t e d t h e D a i d a l a t o a c a t e g o r y
of m y t h s a n d r it u a ls t h e c o m m o n t h e m e o f w h i c h is t h e d e p a r t -
ure a n d r e t u r n o f a g o d d e s s o f f e r t i l i t y — w e l l k n o w n f r o mOrienta l i c o n o g r a p h y a n d m y t h . 3 9 B u r k e r t r e c o g n i z e d a n a n -
cient G r e e k p a r a l l e l i n a r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o n a pithos o f t h e n i n t h
Century B C f o u n d a t K n o s s o s . A w i n g e d g o d d e s s , r i c h ly d r e s s e d
and w i t h a h i g h polos, S t a n d s o n a c h a r i o t . S h e i s r e p r e s e n t e d i n
t w o d i f f e r e n t w a y s i n t w o p a n e l s o n t h e t w o o p p o s i t e s i d e s o f t h e
pithos. I n t h e o n e p a n e l t h e g o d d e s s r ai se s h e r h a n d s o n w h i c h
t w o b i r d s a r e s e a t e d . O n t h e o t h e r p a n e l t h e g o d d e s s h a s
dr opped h e r a r m s , h e r w i n g s a r e l o w e r e d , t h e b i r d s f l y a w a y .
T h e t r e e s i n t h e f i r s t r e p r e s e n t a t i o n b l o s s o m , t h e tr e e s o n t h e
other s i d e d o n o t . A c c o r d i n g t o B u r k e r t ' s p l a u s i b l e i n t e r p r e t -
ation, t h e t w o p a n e l s a r e c o n n e c t e d w i t h a f e s t iv a l o f t h e C o m i n g
and t h e d e p a r t u r e o f t h e g r e a t g o d d e s s o f f e r t i l i t y ; t h e c h a r i o t
impl ies t h a t a n i m a g e o f t h e g o d d e s s w a s b r o u g h t i n t o t h e c i t y .
T h e r e a r e i n d e e d o b v i o u s a n a l o g i e s t o t h e m y t h s a n d t h e r i tu a l
of t h e D a i d a l a : t h e d e p a r t u r e o f a n ( a n g r y ) g o d d e s s a n d h e r
return, t h e c a r r y i n g o f a n i m a g e o n a c h a r i o t . B u t t h e r e a r e
also o b v i o u s d i f f e r e n c e s : t h e r e p r e s e n t a t io n f r o m K n o s s o s is
the i m a g e o f a g o d d e s s ; t h e w o o d e n daidala w e r e n o t ; t h e
daidala w e r e b u r n e d ; a n d t h e r e is n o i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e i m a g e
o n t he K n o s s i a n pithos i s t h a t o f a b r i d e .
Another p a r a l l e l w a s r e c o g n i z e d b y B u r k e r t i n t h e r e p o r t
of F i r m i c u s M a t e r n u s c o n c e r n i n g a f e st iv a l o f P e r s e p h o n e . 4 0
A t r e e w a s c u t a n d w a s u s e d f o r t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f t h e i m a g e o f
39 W . B u r k e r t , ' K a t a g ö g i a - A n a g ö g i a a n d t h e G o d d e s s o f K n o s s o s ' , i n R .
Hägg, N . M a r i n a t o s , a n d G . N o r d q u i s t ( e d s. ), Early Greek Cult Practice.
Proceedings of the Fifth International Symposium at the Sw edish Institute at
Athens, 26-29 June 1986 ( S t o c k h o l m , 1 9 88 ), 8 1 - 7 .40 Err. prof. rel. 27 .2 .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
a m a i d e n , w h i c h w a s t h e n b r o u g h t t o t h e c i t y ; t h e r e , it w a s
m o u r n e d f o r f o r t y d a y s ; o n t h e e v e n i n g o f t h e f o r t i e t h d a y , t h e
image w a s b u r n e d . T h i s r it u a l is s u p p o s e d t o r e fl e ct t h e a n n u a l
cycle o f n a t u r e . T h e j o y a t t h e C o m i n g o f t h e g o d d e s s w a sfo l lowed b y t h e s a d n e s s a t h e r d e p a r t u r e i n t h e fa l l. A g a i n , t h e
differences f r o m t h e D a i d a l a a r e n o l es s s t r i k i n g t h a n t h e s i m i -
larities. P e r s e p h o n e ' s p e r i o d i c a l d e a t h f i n d s n o a n a l o g y i n a n y
k n o w n c u l t o f H e r a ; t h e w o o d e n daidala w e r e n o t b r o u g h t t o t h e
city, t h e y w e r e n o t m o u r n e d , a n d t h e y w e r e n o t s u p p o s e d t o
represent t h e p e r i o d i c a l d e a t h o f a v i r g i n . A e l i a n a n d A t h e n a e u s
have r e p o r t s o f a s i m i l a r fe s t i v a l a t E r y x i n S i c i l y , t h i s t i m e f o r
A p h r o d i t e — t h e f e s t i v a l A n a g o g i a . I t o w e d it s n a m e t o t h e d e
parture o f A p h r o d i t e , w h o w a s t h o u g h t t o l e a ve f o r A f r i c a ,
fo l lowed b y b i r d s ( p i g e o n s ) . N i n e d a y s l at e r a v e r y b e a u t i f u l
pigeon w a s s e e n c o m i n g f r o m t h e s o u t h , a n d its c o m i n g w a s
celebrated a s t h e f e s t iv a l K a t a g o g i a . W e o b s e r v e , h o w e v e r , t h a t
in t h i s f e s t i v a l t h e r e is n o i m a g e , n o m a r r i a g e , n o p y r e . B u r k e r t
suggested a s s o c i a t in g t h is g r o u p o f f e s ti v a ls w i t h m a n k i n d ' s
pr imordia l f e a r s : t h r e a t e n e d b y d r o u g h t , b a d h a r v e s t s , i n f e r t i l -
ity, a n d b a d w e a t h e r , p e o p l e f r o m t i m e t o t i m e l e a v e t h e a re a o f
agricultural a c t i v i t y a n d r e t u r n to t h e fo r e s t , w h e r e t h e y u s e d t o
f ind f o o d a t t h e s t a g e o f h u n t e r s a n d g a t h e r e r s . T h e b u r n i n g o f
an i m a g e m a y b e a s u r v i v a l o f t h e g r e a t p y r e s o n p e a k s a n c t u a r -
ies i n M i n o a n C r e t e .
M o d e r n r e s e a r c h h a s n o t o n l y i s o l a t e d t h e s e t w o i m p o r t a n t
components o f t h e D a i d a l a , t h e s a c r e d m a r r i a g e a n d t h e f i r eritual; it h a s a l s o p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e b u r n i n g o f t h e D a i d a l a c a n
be c o n c e i v e d o f a s a s a c r if i c e , a n d t h is is a v e r y i m p o r t a n t
d e m e n t w h i c h i s d i f f i c u l t t o r e c o n c i l e w i t h t h e o t h e r t w o a p -
proaches. K . M e u l i h a s a s s i g n e d t h e s a c r i f ic e o f t h e D a i d a l a t o
the c a t e g o r y o f t h e ' c h t h o n i s c h e V e r n i c h t u n g s o p f e r ' , s a c ri fi c es
offered t o c h t h o n i c d e it ie s w h o s e d a n g e r o u s p o w e r s h o u l d b e
appeased;41 t h e m y t h a b o u t t h e q u a r r e l b e t w e e n H e r a a n d Z e u s
and t h e g o d d e s s ' w i t h d r a w a l c a n b e a s s o c ia t e d w i t h t h is i n t e r -
pretation, w h i c h , h o w e v e r , f ai ls t o e x p l a i n o th e r c o m p o n e n t s o f
the r i t u a l i n t h e I m p e r i a l p e r i o d ( e s p e c i a l l y t h e a l l u s i o n s t o a
wedding) . T h e f a c t t h a t t h e daidala c a n n o t b e c o n c e i v e d a s
41 K . M e u l i , ' G r i e c h i s c h e O p f e r b r ä u c h e ' , i n Phyllobolia für Peter von
Mühll zum 60. Geburtstag am 1. August 1945 (Base l , 1946) , 20 9 -1 0 .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
div ine i m a g e s l e d E . L o u c a s - D u r i e t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h at t h e ir
burning w a s t h e S u b s t i t u t e f o r a h u m a n s a c r i f ic e , w h i c h m a y
have c o n s t i t u t e d a c e n t r a l p a r t o f t h e ri t u a l i n i t s e a r l y p h a s e . 4 2
I h a v e d e al t w i t h th e D a i d a l a a t s o m e l e n g t h — w i t h o u t m e n -
t ioning a ll t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n s o f f e r e d s o f a r — b e c a u s e it o f f e r s a
characteristic e x a m p l e o f t h e p r o b l e m s w e f a c e w i t h s i m i l a r it i e s
and a n a l o g i e s b e t w e e n r i tu a l s , e s p e c i a l l y w h e n o u r s o u r c e s c o m e
f r o m a p e r i o d in w h i c h t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f t h e r i t u a l is t h e r e s u l t
of a m a l g a m a t i o n s a n d s y n c o p a t i o n s .
7 . R I T U A L S A N D T H E P H Y S I C A L E N V I R O N M E N T
A f o u r t h o b s ta c l e i n t h e w a y o f s t u d y i n g r i tu a l s i n a M e d i t e r r a -
nean c o n t e x t is t h e f a c t t h a t r i t u a ls p r e s e n t a n a s p e c t o f w o r s h i p
that s e e m s t o b e l ea s t r e l a te d t o g e o g r a p h y , p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n -
ment a n d l a n d s c a p e . O n e m a y r a is e o n e ' s h a n d s i n p r a y e r , k n e e l
before a c u l t s t a t u e , k i s s a n o b j e c t o f w o r s h i p , p o u r a l i q u i d
dur ing a n o a t h c e r e m o n y , o r t a k e a r i t u a l b a t h n e a r t h e b a n k s o f
the N i l e o r i n t h e r o c k y l a n d s c a p e o f K a p p a d o k i a — o r v i r t u a l l y
a nywher e e is e . N o g e o g r a p h i c a l f a c t o r s s e e m t o b e d i r e c t l y i n
Operation w h e n p e o p l e p e r f o r m r it es o f p a s s a g e a c c o r d i n g t o t h e
threefold s t ru c t u re e s t a b l is h e d b y v a n G e n n e p a n d m o d i f i e d b y
T u r n e r a n d o t h e r s , w h e t h e r t h e y a r e i n a n c i e n t G r e e c e , m e d i -
eval I n d i a , o r a c o n t e m p o r a r y S t u d e n t f r a t e r n i t y .
T h i s p o s i t io n w h i c h d i s s o c ia t e s r it u a ls f r o m g e o g r a p h i c a l
factors a n d la n d s c a p e s i s r e l a t e d t o a w i d e s p r e a d a t t i t u d e i n t h estudy o f r it u al s t h a t r e a p p e a r s i n d i f f e r e n t f o r m s f r o m F r a z e r ' s
Golden Bough t o B u r k e r t ' s Creation of the Sacred: r i t u a l s a r e
primeval, t h e y a re n o t i n v e n t e d b u t t r a n s m i t t e d — e i t h e r t h r o u g h
natural p r oc es se s o f a c c u l t u r a t i o n o r e v e n b i o l o g i c a l l y — a n d
adapted t o n e w c u l t u ra l e n v i r o n m e n t s . A c c o r d i n g t o t h is v i e w ,
rituals o b s e r v e d i n v a r i o u s c u l t u r e s s h o u l d b e r e g a r d e d a s m u t a -
tions o r v a r ia n t s o f a r c h e t y p a l f o r m s .
It s h o u l d n o t t h e r e f o r e b e a s u r p r i s e t h a t t h e s t u d y o f r i t u a ls
in m o d e r n s c h o l a r s h ip h a s p r i m a r i l y b e e n a s t u d y o f o r i g i n s .
E v e n w h e n w e h a v e d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n s o f r i tu a l s f r o m th e
Imperial p e r i o d , s u c h a s t h e d e s c r i p t i o n o f t h e D a i d a l a i n
42 E . L o u c a s - D u r i e , ' S i m u l a c r e h u m a i n et o f f r a n d e ri t u el le ' , Kernos 1 (1988) ,
151-62.
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Boeotia, t h e q u e s t i o n a s k e d is n o t w h a t t h e f u n c t i o n o f t h e r i t u a l
was i n t h e p e r i o d f r o m w h i c h th e e y e - w i t n e s s r ep o r t s c o m e , b u t
h o w w e c a n r e c o n s t r u c t t h e r i tu a l 's o r i g i n a l f o r m a n d m e a n i n g .
T h i s i s n o t t h e p l a c e t o d i s c u s s t h e e t h o l o g i c a l b a c k g r o u n d o f
rituals43 o r h o w m e a n i n g f u l t h e d i s c u s s i o n o f o r i g i n s m a y b e .
Nonetheless , g i v e n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n c o n t e x t o f t h is v o l u m e , it
is n o t i n a p p r o p r i a t e t o e m p h a s i z e th e i m p o r t a n c e o f p h y s i c a l
environment, n o t f o r t h e o r i g i n o f r i t u a l s p e r h a p s , b u t c e r t a i n l y
for t h e i r e v o l u t i o n a n d d i f f u s i o n . A g a i n , H o r d e n a n d P u r c e l l
have p r e s e n t e d a s t r o n g ca s e f o r a d i s t i n c t i v e l y M e d i t e r r a n e a n
sense o f p l a c e a n d h a v e s h o w n t h a t p l a c e c a n b e a u s e f u l i n s t r u -ment o f a n a l y s i s . 4 4 T h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t f e at u re o f t h e M e d i t e r
ranean, i n t h i s r e s p e c t , is t h e f r a g m e n t e d t o p o g r a p h y , a f a c t o r
that c o n t r i b u t e s t o d i v e r g e n c e s a n d d i v i s i o n s b e t w e e n c u l t u r a l
Systems, b u t h a s i n m a n y p e r i o d s a l so c h a l l e n g e d M e d i t e r r a
nean p o p u l a t i o n s t o o v e r c o m e t h is f r a g m e n t a t i o n . T h e c h a l -
lenge h a s m a d e t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n a z o n e o f ' l at er al
transmission o f i d e a s a n d p r a c t i c e s ' , i n c l u d i n g t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n
of r i t u a l s . 4 5 T h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a s t h e
setting i n w h i c h r it u a ls a re p e r f o r m e d c a n s o m e t i m e s , u n e x -
pectedly, b e o b s e r v e d w h e n a n a t t e m p t is m a d e t o r e p r o d u c e th e
physical e n v i r o n m e n t o f a p a r t i c u l a r r it u a l i n a n e w e n v i r o n
ment, t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n n o t o n l y o f t h e e n v i r o n m e n t , b u t a ls o o f
its o r i g i n a l s e t t in g . T h e b e s t k n o w n e x a m p l e is t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n
of N i l o t i c l a n d s c a p e s i n s a n c t u a r i e s o f t h e E g y p t i a n d e i t ie s
outside E g y p t ; 4 6 s i m i l a r p h e n o m e n a a r e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f
artificial c a v e s f o r t h e c e l e b r a t i o n o f t h e M i t h r a i c m y s t e r i e s o r
for D i o n y s i a c c e l e b r a t i o n s ( c o m p a r e t h e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f c a v e s i n
moder n I n d i a t o r e p r o d u c e t h e c a v e o f S t M a r y a t L o u r d e s ) .
O ne c a n i n c l u d e h e r e th e c o n s t r u c t i o n o f p o o l s f o r t h e w o r s h i p
of t h e n y m p h s , 4 7 a n d p e r h a p s e v e n p e a k s a n c t u a ri e s o n e l e v a -
43 W . B u r k e r t , Creation oj the Sacred: Tracks of Biology in Early Religions
(Cambridge, M a s s . a n d L o n d o n , 1 9 96 ); i d . , ' F i tn e s s o d e r O p i u m ? D i e F r a gestellung der Soz io lo g ie im Bere ich a lter Re l ig io ne n ' , in F . S to lz (ed . ) , Homo
naturaliter religiosus. Gehört Religion notwendig zum Mensch-Sein? ( B e r n ,
1997), 1 3 - 3 8 .44 CS 4 0 1 - 6 0 . 4 5 CS 4 0 4 , 4 0 7 - 8 .46 e . g . R . S a l d i t - T r a p p m a n n , Tempel der ägyptischen Götter in Griechenland
und an der Westküste Kleinasiens ( L e id e n , 1 9 7 0) , 1 - 2 5 .47 C f . CS 4 3 1 . B a k c h i c ca v e s : A th e n . 4 .1 4 8 b c . C f . th e t e r m androphylakes
('the gua rd ian s o f the cave ' ) in an insc r ip t ion o f a D i on ys iac assoc ia t ton in
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
tions t h a t d o n o t d e s e r v e t h e d e s i g n a t i o n m o u n t a i n , b u t p r e s e n t
' imaginary m o u n t a i n s ' . 4 8 T h e S a m a r i t a n s o n D e l o s w e r e s o
b o u n d t o t h e h o l y p l a c e o f t h e ir h o m e l a n d t h a t t h e y d e s i g n a t e d
their a s s o c i a t i o n a s ' t h o s e w h o s a c r i f i c e i n t h e h o l y s a c r e d M t .
Argar ize in ' (aparchom enoi eis hieron hagion Argarizein).49
Fina l ly , e v e n i f i t w o u l d b e f u t i l e t o l o o k f o r r i t u a l s o r i g i n a t i n g
in t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n o r p r a c t i se d o n l y i n t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n ,
one c a n o b s e r v e c e r t a i n p r e f e r e n c e s t h a t t o s o m e e x t e n t a r e
favoured b y t h e p h y s i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t , f ör e x a m p l e t h e p r o m
inent p a r t p l a y e d b y p r o c e s s i o n s o r t h e w i d e s p r e a d c u s t o m o f
setting u p t e n t s , a t t e s t e d i n a v a r i e t y o f c o n t e x t s , f r o m t h eH e b r e w succah t o t h e G r e e k T h e s m o p h o r i a a n d f r o m t h e P t o -
lemaia o f A l e x a n d r i a t o t h e skanopageia o f K o s . 5 0
8. T H E R O L E O F R E L I G I O U S I D I O S Y N C R A S I E S
A f a c to r o f e n o r m o u s i m p o r t a n c e f o r t h e e v o l u t i o n o f r i t u a l s —
no m a t t e r w h e t h e r w e a r e d e a l i n g w i t h r e v i v a l o r t r a n s m i s s i o n ,
amalgamation o r s y n c o p a t i o n , a e s t h e t i c o r i d e o l o g i c a l t r a n s -
f o r m a t i o n — i s t h e p a r t p l a y e d b y i n d i v i d u a l s , t h e i r i d i o s y n -
crasy, p e r s o n a l p i e t y , s o c ia l p o s i t i o n , e d u c a t i o n , o r e v e n
political a g e n d a . I h a v e a l r e a d y r e f e r r e d t o t w o m e n ( u n f o r t u -
nately o u r s o u r c e s m o s t l y r e fe r t o m e n ) w h o s e r o l e w a s e s s en t ia l
for t h e r e v i v a l o f r i t u a l s : t h e p r i e s t H e l l a d i o s i n M e g a r a a n d t h e
prophetes D a m a s i n M i l e t u s . W e o f t e n h e a r o f p e r s o n s w h o o n
their o w n i n i t i a t i v e i n t r o d u c e d c u l t a n d r i tu a l s f r o m o n e p l a c e a tanother, f o r i n s t a n c e t h e T e l e m a c h o s w h o i n t r o d u c e d t h e c u l t o f
Asklep ios i n A t h e n s o r D e m e t r i o s w h o f o u n d e d a s a n c t u a r y o f
the E g y p t i a n d e i t ie s a t D e l o s . 5 1 S o m e t i m e s w e h e a r o f p e r s o n s
Ro me ( G . R i c c i a r d e l l i , ' M i t o e Pe r fo r ma n c e n e l l e a s s o c iaz i o n i d i o n i s i a c h e ' , i n
M . T o r t o r e l l i G h e d i n i , A . S t o rc h i M a r i n o , a n d A . V i s c o n t i ( e d s. ), Tra Orfeo e
Pitagora. Origini e incontri di culture nell'antichitä. Atti dei seminari napoletani
1996-1998 ( N a p l e s , 2 0 0 0 ) , 2 7 4 ) .48 F o r ' i m a g i n a r y m o u n t a i n s ' s ee R . B u x t o n , Imaginary Greece: The Con
texts ofMythology ( C a m b r i d g e , 1 9 94 ), 8 1 - 9 6 .
R. G o g g i n s , ' J e w i s h L o c a l P a t r io t i sm : T h e S a m a r i t a n P r o b l e m ' , i n S .
Jones an d S . Pea rce (eds . ) , Jewish Local Patriotism an d Self-Identification in
the Graeco-Roman Period ( S h e f f i e ld , 19 9 8 ), 7 S - 7 .
Thesmophoria: H . S . V e r s n e l , Inconsistencies in Greek and Roman Reli
gion (L e id en , 1993) , i i. 236 n . 25 .
51 H . E n g e l m a n n , The Delian Aretalogy of Sarapis ( L e id e n , 1 9 7 5) .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
w h o r e v i v e d a n e g l e c t e d r i t u a l, f o r e x a m p l e D a m a s w h o r e v i v e d
the r i t ua l b a n q u e t at D i d y m a , S y m m a c h o s o f L y t t o s w h o
rev ived t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f m o n e y t o t r i b a l s u b d i v i s i o n s i n h i s
Cretan c i t y o n t h e o c c a s i o n o f t h e f e s t i v a ls W e l c h a n i a a n d
Theodais ia , 5 2 o r M n a s i s t r a t o s i n A n d a n i a w h o g a v e t h e s a c re d
books o f t h e m y s t e r i e s t o t h e c i t y , t h u s c o n t r i b u t i n g to a r e -
organization o f t h i s c u l t . 5 3
L e t u s t a k e o n e o f t h e m o s t i n t e r e s t i n g c a s es o f r i t u a l t r a n s f e r ,
the m y s t e r i e s o f t h e r u r a l s a n c t u a r y a t P a n ö i a s i n n o r t h e r n
Portugal. 5 4 A lex sacra i n f o r m s u s t h a t t h e S e n at o r C . C a l p u r -
nius R u f i n u s f o u n d e d a m y s t e r y cu lt d e d i c a te d t o H y p s i s t o sSarapis, t o d e i ti e s o f t h e u n d e r w o r l d (Diis Severis), a n d t h e
local g o d s o f t h e L a p i t e a e . T h e t e x t s m e n t i o n a t e m p l e (tem-
plum, aedes) a n d v a r i o u s c u l t f a c il it i es c o n s t r u c t e d o n t h e n a t
ural r o c k (quadrata, aeternus lacus, a gastra); t h e i r f u n c t i o n is
explained i n s e v e r a l t e x t s : hostiae quae cadunt hic imm olantur.
Extra intra quadrata contra cremantur. Sanguis laciculis super-
funditur (1 ) , in quo h ostiae voto cremantur (3) , lacum, qui voto
miscetur ( 5 ). F r o m t h e s e i n s t r u c t i o n s g i v e n t o t h e i n i ti a t es
A l f ö l d y r e c o n s t r u c t s t h e r i tu a l , w h i c h i n c l u d e d th e p r e p a r a t i o n
of s a c r i f ic i a l a n i m a l s , t h e o f f e r i n g o f t h e i r b l o o d t o t h e g o d s o f
the u n d e r w o r l d , t h e b u r n i n g o f t h e ir i n t es t in e s , a b a n q u e t , a n d
purification. T h e m y s t e r y c u l t w a s p r o b a b l y i n t r o d u c e d f r o m
Perge ( cf . t h e D o r i a n f o r m mystaria, f o r mysteria), R u f i n u s '
place o f o r i g i n . I f w e o n l y h a d t h e d e d i c a t o r y f o r m u l a ( R u f i n u s
dedicated t o H y p s i s t o s S a r a p i s ), w e w o u l d n a t u r a l l y h a v e
assumed t h a t R u f i n u s ' a c t i v i t y w a s s i m i l a r t o t h a t o f T e l e m a -
chos i n A t h e n s o r D e m e t r i o s i n D e l o s . T h e d e t ai le d d e s c r i p t i o n
of t h e r it u a l s s h o w s t h a t u n d e r t h e g u i s e o f m y s t e r i e s o f S a r a p i s
w e h a v e a n a m a l g a m a t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t r it u a l t r a d i t io n s . R u f i n u s
is n o t a n i s o l a t e d c a s e. T h e c u l t f o u n d a t i o n o f A l e x a n d e r , t h e
52 /. Cret. 1 . x v i i i 11 (2n d /3 rd Century ) .
53 F . S o k o l o w s k i , Lois sacrees des cites grecques (Par is , 1969) , no . 65 . F o r the
cult see mo s t r ecent ly L . P io lo t , 'Pausan ias e t les Mys ter es d 'A nd an ie : His t o i re
d'une apo r ie ' , in J . Re na rd (ed . ) , he Peloponnese. Archäologie et Histoire. Actes
de la rencontre internationale de Lorient, 12-15 mai 1998 ( R e n n e s , 1 9 9 9 ), 1 9 5 -
228 ( w i th e a r li e r b ib l i o g r a p h y ) .54 G . A l fö ld y , ' Insc r ic ion es , sac r i f i cios y mis ter ios : E l santuar io rupes tre de
Panöias/Portugal', Mitteilungen des Deutschen Archäologischen Instituts—
Abteilung Madrid 3 6 ( 1 9 95 ) , 2 5 2 - 8 : id . , ' D i e M y s te r i e n v o n Pa n ö ia s ( V i l a
Real, Po r tug a l ) ' , ib id . 38 (1997), 176 -24 6 .
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false p r o p h e t , a t A b o n o u t e i c h o s is v e r y s i m i l a r , i n c l u d i n g t h e
adaptation o f h e t e r o g e n e o u s e l e m e n t s f r o m t h e c u lt o f A s c l e -
pius, d i f f e r e n t o r a c u l a r p r a c t i c e s, N e o p y t h a g o r e a n o b s e r v a n c e s
and d o c t r i n e s , a n d t h e m y s t e r i e s o f E l e u s i s . 5 5 A n d a c e rt a in
Dionys ios w h o f o u n d e d a m y s t e r y c u l t a n d a c u l t a s s o c i a t i o n
at P h i l a d e l p h i a c o m p o s e d a s a cr e d r e g u la t io n w i t h st ric t m o r a l
and r i tu a l o b s e r v a n c e s n o t m o d e l l e d a c c o r d i n g to a p a r t i c u l a r
mys te r y c u l t , b u t i n f l u e n c e d b y m a n y d i f f e r e n t t r a d i t i o n s . 5 6 It is
certainly n o t n e c e s s a r y to u n d e r l i n e h o w d i f f i c u l t it is t o g r a s p
the p e r s o n a l r e l i g i o s it y o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s th a t i n t r o d u c e d o r
rev ived r i tu a l s , n o t t o m e n t i o n t h e c a s e o f p e r s o n s w h o p e r -f o r med r it u a ls . H o w c a n w e e v e r k n o w h o w a n E p i c u r e a n p h i l
osopher t h o u g h t a n d fe i t w h e n h e s e r v e d a s a p r i e s t r e s p o n s i b l e
for t h e t r a d i t i o n a l r i tu a l s s c o r n e d b y h i s f e l l o w p h i l o s o p h e r s ? 5 7
9. T H E M A N I F O L D C H A R A C T E R O F R I T U A L T R A N S F E R
Ritual t r a n s f e r m e a n s n o t o n l y t h e t r a n s m i s s i o n o f r it u a ls f r o m
one p l a c e t o a n o t h e r , it i m p l i e s a f a r m o r e c o m p l e x p r o c e s s :
the t r a n s f e r o f a r it u a l f r o m a p a r t i c u l a r c o n t e x t to a n o t h e r — t o
55 S e e tn o st r e c e n t l y U . V i c to r , Lukian von Samosata, Alexander oder Der
Lügenprophet ( L e i d e n , e t c. , 1 9 9 7) ; G . S f a m e n i G a s p a r r o , ' A l e s s a n d r o d i A b o -
nutico, l o " p s e u d o - p r o f e t a ' o v v e r o C o m e cons tru i r s i un ' ide nt i tä r e lig iosa I ' ,
Studi e M ateriali di Storia delle Religioni 62 (1996) (1998) , 565 -9 0 ; ead . ,
'Alessandro d i A b o n u t i c o , l o " p s e u d o - p r o f e t a " o v v e r o c o m e c o s tr u ir s iun'identitä r e l ig i o s a I I ' , i n C . B o n n e t a n d A . M o t t e ( e d s .) , Les syncretismes
religieux dans le monde mediterraneen antique. Actes du colloque international
en l'honneur de Franz Cum ont ( B r ü s se l s a n d R o m e , 1 9 9 9 ), 2 7 5 - 3 0 5 ; A . C h a -
niotis, ' O l d W i n e i n a N e w S k i n : T r a d i t i o n a n d I n n o v a t i o n i n t h e C u l t
Foundation o f A l e x a n d e r o f A b o n o u t e i c h o s ' , i n E . D a b r o w a ( e d. ), Tradition
and Innovation in the Ancient Wo rld ( K r a k o w , 2 0 0 2 ) , 6 7 - 8 5 . F o r th e in f lu e n c e
of m a g i c a l r it u al s o n A l e x a n d e r o f A b o n o u t e i c h o s , s ee A . M a s t r o c i n q u e ,
'Alessandro d i A b o n o u te i c h o s e la ma g ia ' , i n Imago A ntiquitatis. Religions et
iconographie du monde romain: Melanges offerts ä Robert Turcan (Par is , 1999) ,341-52.
56 S . C . B a r t o n a n d G . H . R . H o r s l e y , ' A H e l l e n i st i c C u l t G r o u p a n d
the N e w T e s t a m e n t C h u r c h ' , Jahrbuch für Antike und Christentum 24
(1981), 7 - 4 1 .
57 R e h m , Didyma, no . 285 . Fo r per sona l r e l ig ios i ty see F . G ra f , 'Be m er
kungen z u r b ü r g e r l i c h e n R e l ig io s it ä t im Z e i t a l t e r d e s H e l l e n i s m u s ' , in
M . W ö r r l e a n d P . Z a n k e r (e d s . ), Stadtbild und Bürgerbild im Hellenismus
(Munich, 1995) , 103 -14 .
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
a n e w s o c i a l c o n t e x t , a n e w c u l t i c c o n t e x t , a n e w i d e o -
logical c o n t e x t . M y la st e x a m p l e s a i m a t d e m o n s t r a t i n g t h i s
complex i ty .
T h e f i r s t c o n c e r n s t h e t r a n s f e r o f s a c r i f i c i a l r i t u a l s f r o m
the c u l t o f t h e g o d s t o t h e c u l t o f t h e d e a d , t h e r u l e r c u l t ,
and t h e a p p e a l t o s u p e r h u m a n p o w e r s i n m a g i c . I n a ll t h e s e
cases t h e t r a n s f e r is a c c o m p a n i e d e it h e r b y r e v e r s a l s o r b y
syncopations. I n t h e c a s e o f m a g i c , f o r i n s t a n c e , t h e s a c r i f i c e
takes p l a c e i n t h e d a r k a n d i n v o l v e s t h e k i l l i n g o f u n u s u a l
animals i n u n u s u a l w a y s . 5 8 A n a l o g o u s re v e rs a ls c a n b e o b s e r v e d
in t h e enagismoi o f f u n e r a r y c u l t ; i n t h e r u l e r c u l t , t h e d e m e n t o fprayer, i n t e g r a l p a r t o f t h e s a c r if i c e , h a r d l y p l a y s a n y r o l e . 5 9
M y s e c o n d e x a m p l e c o n c e r n s t h e t r a n s f e r o f a r i tu a l i n t o a
new i d e o l o g i c a l c o n t e x t . L e t u s t a k e a g a i n t h e r i tu a l o f b l o o d
sacrifice. U n t i l t h e l at e f o u r t h C e n t u r y A D it w a s a w i d e l y
attested a n d a c c e p t e d p r a c t i c e . I t w a s p e r f o r m e d in p r i v a t e
and i n t h e C o m m u n i t y ; it d i d n o t h a v e a l i m i n a l p o s i t i o n . O f
course t h i n g s c h a n g e d a f t e r t h e y e a r 3 9 1 , w h e n s a c r i fi c e s w e r e
forbidden. T h e s p o r a d i c P e r f o r m a n c e o f s a c r if ic e s , a t te s t ed b y
several i n s c r i p t i o n s a f t e r t h i s p r o h i b i t i o n ( e .g . t h e in s c r i p t i o n o f
the p r i e s t H e l l a d i o s in M e g a r a ) , a c q u i r e s a d i f f e r e n t m e a n i n g i n
the n e w h i s t o r i c a l c o n t e x t . I t is n o t j u s t t h e P e r f o r m a n c e o f a
custom, b u t t h e d e m o n s t r a t i v e d e f i a n c e o f C h r i s t i a n le g i sl a ti o n
and o b s e r v a n c e o f a n c i e n t c u s t o m s i n a p e r i o d o f r e l ig i o u s
intolerance.60 B u t e v e n b e f o r e t h e p r o h i b i t i o n , w e k n o w f r o m
58 G r a f , Gottesnähe, 203-4. C f . n o w S . I. J o h n s to n , ' S a c r if i c e in th e G r e e k
Magical Pa p y r i ' , i n P . M i r e c k i a n d M . M e y e r ( e d s .) , Magic and Ritual in the
Ancient World ( L e i d e n , 2 0 0 2 ), 3 4 4 - 5 8 .59 S . R . F . Pr ice , Rituals and Power: The Rom an Imperial Cult in Asia
Minor ( C a m b r i d g e , 19 8 4 ), 1 1 8 - 2 1 ; M . C l a u s s , Kaiser und Gott: Herrscherkult
im römischen Reich (S tu t tga r t and Le ip z i g , 1999) , 41 3 -1 9 . In the Eas t , the on ly
unecjüivocal re ference to a pray er (euche) to an em pe ror is in an inscr ip t ion at
Thyateira (IGRRP4A273, l ines 11 -13 ) . M o re pro b lem at ic are the re ferences
to euche in the con tex t o f the em pe ror cu l t in SE G 2 .718 and 45 .1719 . Fo r a
discussion s ee D . F i s h w i c k , ' V o t i v e O f f e r i n g s t o t he E m p e r o r ? ' , ZPE 8 0
(1990), 1 2 1 - 3 0 , a n d A . C h a n i o t i s , ' D e r K a i s e r k u l t i m O s t e n d e s R ö m i s c h e n
Reiches im K o n te x t d e r z e i tg e n ö s s is c h e n R i tu a lp r a x i s ' , i n H . C a n c ik a n d
K. H i t z l (e d s . ) , Die Praxis der Herrscherverehrung in Rom und seinen Provin
zen: Akten der Tagung in B laubeuren vom 4. bis 6. April 2002 ( T ü b i n g e n ,
2003), 3 - 2 8 .60 G e n e r a l s u r v e y o f t h e e v i d e n c e : F . R . T r o m b l e y , Hellenic religion
and Christianization, c.370-529 ( L e i d e n , 1 9 9 3 -4 ) . E x a m p l e s : A . C h a n i o t i s ,
7/28/2019 Ritual Dynamics in the Eastern Mediterranean. Case Studies in Ancient Greece and Asia Minor
the f o u r t h C e n t u r y s e v e r a l c a se s o f l a te p a g a n s w h o e m p h a s i z e i n
their i n s c r i p t i o n s t h a t t h e y h a v e o b s e r v e d t h e p a g a n r it u a ls . N o t
so m a n y p e o p l e b o t h e r e d t o w r i t e e p i g r a m s c o m m e m o r a t i n g t h e
fact t h a t t h e y h a d o f f e r e d s a c r i f ic e s b e f o r e t h e f o u r t h C e n t u r y
AD. I n t h e p e r i o d o f a d v a n c i n g C h r is t i a n iz a t i o n m a n y d i d — f o r
example P l u t a r c h , praeses insularum d u r i n g th e re i g n o f J u l i a n ,
w h o m e n t i o n s i n a n e p i g r a m o n S a m o s t h e f a ct t h a t h e h a d
sacrificed i n t h e I d a e a n C a v e , 6 1 o r V e r a i n P a t m o s ( f o u r t h
Century), s e l e c t e d b y A r t e m i s t o b e h e r p r i e s t e s s ; a s a hydro-
phoros s h e c a m e t o P a t m o s f r o m L e b e d o s i n o r d e r t o c e l e b r a t e a
festival w h i c h i n c l u d e d t h e s a c r if ic e o f a p r e g n a n t s h e - g o a t .6 2
Fina l ly , r i t u a l t r a n s f e r m a y i m p l y a r a d i c a l c h a n g e i n t h e s o c i a l
context o f i ts P e r f o r m a n c e . I t h a s b e e n o b s e r v e d , f o r i n s t a n c e
that i n i t i a t o r y r i tu a l s i n e a r l y t i m e s p e r f o r m e d b y a ll t h e
member s o f a C o m m u n i t y , s u r v i v e d a s r i tu a l s o f a p r i v i l e g e d
group ( e . g . i n A t h e n s t h e r it u a l o f t h e arkteia).63
10 . C O N T E X T U A L I Z I N G M E D I T E R R A N E A N R I T U A L S
T h e p l e t h o r a o f ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n ' s t u d i e s m a k e s c le a r h o w
urgent t h e n e e d t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n i s. T h i s
can o n l y w o r k i f it g o e s a l o n g w i t h t h e c o n t i n u a l e f f o r t t o
contextualize ' M e d i t e r r a n e a n ' p h e n o m e n a . I h o p e t h a t t h e
case s t u d i e s p r e s e n t e d h e r e h a v e s h o w n t h e n e c e s s i t y t o c o n
textualize r i tu a l s a n d r i tu a l b e h a v i o u r in t h e a n c i e n t M e d i t e r r a
nean a n d t h e i r s u r v i v a l s i n l at er p e r i o d s . T h e t i tl e o f t h e b o o kwi th w h i c h th e heros ktistes o f o u r c o m m o n s u b j e ct , F e r n a n d
Braudel, i n a u g u r a t e d M e d i t e r r a n e a n s t u d i es , r e m i n d s u s t ha t
the s t u d y o f t h e M e d i t e r r a n e a n is t h e s t u d y o f h i s t o ri c a l c o n -
texts.
'Zwischen K o n f r o n t a t i o n u n d I n t e r a k ti o n : C h r i s t e n , J u d e n u n d H e i d e n i m
spätantiken A p h r o d i s i a s ' , i n C . A c k e r m a n n a n d K . E . M ü l l e r ( e ds .) , Patch-
work: Dimensionen multikultureller Gesellschaften (B ie le fe ld , 20 02) , 101—2.61 SEG 1 . 4 0 5 . F o r th e i d e n t i t y o f P l u t a r c h se e A . Ch a n i o t i s , ' P l u t a r c h o s ,
praeses I n s u l a r u m ' , ZPE 6 8 ( 1 9 8 7 ) , 2 2 7 - 3 1 .62 R . M e r k e l b a c h a n d J . S t a u b e r , Steinepigramm e aus dem griechischen Osten
(Stuttgart a n d L e i p z i g , 1 9 9 8 ) , i . 1 6 9 - 7 0 .63 O n th e arkteia s ee r e c e n t ly N . D e m a n d , Birth, Death, and Motherhood in
Classical Greece ( Ba l t i m o r e , 1 9 9 4 ) , 1 0 7 - 1 4 , a n d B . G e n t i i i a n d F . P e r u s i n o
(eds.), Le orse di Brauron: Un rituale di iniziazione femminile nel santuario di