Rishi Aurobindo Memorial Academy€¦  · Web viewSubject . Topic . Summary . Execution . Maths . Patterns . Done . Skip counting in 10’s(10-100) 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80,

Study Material of 7/8/2020

For Class Nursery to XII

Class Nursery

Subject

Topic

Execution

English

· Letters ( A – M)

· Write in the copy

Math

· Numbers (1 – 30 )

· Write in the copy

G.K.

· Reading book Pg: 84 & 85

· Listen & repeat

Computer

· Computer Book Pg:7

· Listen & repeat

Class KG I

Subject

Topic

Execution

English

· Work book Pg: 52, 53

· Do in the book

Math

· Work book Pg: 113

· Do in the book

Bengali

· সাহিত্য মুকুলঃ Pg 12

· Read and learn

Hindi

· दो वर्णो के 5 शब्द लिखो: कल, बल, चल, नल, कर ।

· Write in copy

Conversation

· Reading Book Pg: 32

Q: 16 - 20

· Check WhatsApp for the oral sheet

Class I

Subject

Topic

Summary

Execution

Maths

Patterns

Done

Skip counting in 10’s(10-100)

10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100

G. K.

Semester One book-

Chapter 2- My Body.

Children as you all know our body is made up of different parts. As we have our names by which everyone knows us in the same way the different parts of our body have different names. We know each part of our body by their names.

So children look at the picture and learn about the different parts of your body.

Class V

Subject

Topic

Summary

Execution

Science

Ch – Solids, Liquids and Gases

We have learnt in previous class that all things around us are made up of matter. Anything that occupies space and has mass is called matter. Book, pencil, flower, air, water, soil, food and so on are all matter

The amount of matter present in a thing makes up its mass(weight). A small thing or a big thing always has some mass and takes up the space covered by its size.

The amount of space covered by a thing is known as its volume. However small a thing may be, it will always occupy some space.

Matter is made up of very tiny particles called molecules. These molecules cannot be seen with naked eyes, we need a microscope to see these molecules. A tiny grain of soil particle can contain millions of molecules.

Molecules usually have space between them. This space is called intermolecular space. Molecules attract nearby molecules with a force called intermolecular force of attraction. Molecules that attract each other more strongly lie close together. Molecules that have a weak attraction lie far apart.

Book’s exercise

A. Tick the correct answer:

1.The space between molecules of matter are called – a. intermolecular spaces.

2. The molecules in solid are – b. tightly packed

3. The molecules of liquids move more freely than those of – c. neither gases nor solids.

GK

Book – GK Times

Chapter – 9

Topic – Safety rules

1. A seatbeltkeeps you safe in a car.

2. A lifeguardhelps with safety in water.

3. Cross streets at corners and crosswalk.

4. Obey trafficlight.

5. A fall might cause an injury.

6. Wear a bike helmet to protectyour head.

7. “ Do not pet strange animals “ is a safetyrule.

Class VI

SUBJECT

TOPIC

SUMMARY

EXECUTION

HISTORY AND CIVICS

CIVICS:1

Rural Local Self- Government

THE BLOCK LEVEL

COMPOSITION PANCHAYAT SAMITIS:

· Block or Panchayat Samitis are known by different names in different states such ‘Kshetra Samiti’, ‘Janpada Panchayats’, ‘Taluka Panchayats’ and ‘Panchayat Samitis’.

· All the Presidents of the Panchayats within the Block are the ex-officio members of the Panchayat Samiti.

· The Samiti includes many other persons, such as the Chairpersons of the Nagar Panchayats of that area, the MLAs of that area and members of the Zila Parishad from that Block.

· At least one third of the seats would be reserved for women.

· The Scheduled Castes and the Scheduled Tribes shall have representation in proportion to their population.

· The Panchayat Samiti has a term of 5years.

· The Samiti elects its own Chairperson.

· The Chief Administrative Officer of the Panchayat Samiti is known as the Block Development Officer.

FUNCTION OF THE PANCHAYAT SAMITI:

1) More than three thousand Community Health Centres (CHCs) have been set up to provide health services to the villagers.

2) Development of rural roads and regulation of market are the chief responsibilities of a Panchayat Samiti.

3) The functions relating to agriculture include the provision of improved seeds and chemical fertilizers.

4) Handlooms, handcrafts and village industries should be promoted in order to increase job opportunities.

5) The Panchayat Samitis should promote the welfare of SCs and STs and other weaker sections. ‘Anganwadis’ have been set up in rural areas.

6) The Panchayat Samiti supervises the work of the Gram Panchayats. The Samiti examines the Budget of the Panchayats and may make suitable modifications in it.

GEOGRAPHY

CHAPTER 6 :NORTH AMERICA

THE CENTRAL PLAIN

· The Central Plains, also known as the Great Plains, extend from the northern Arctic Coast to the Gulf of Mexico. These are undulating lowlands formed by the denudations of land by glaciers and rivers.

· The northern part around the Hudson Bay is known as the Canadian Shield. The Canadian Shield is made up of some of the oldest rocks in the world.

· This area was covered by thick ice sheets, which extended up to the Great Lakes, in the recent geological past, which is known as the Ice Age.

· The denudation of the area by ice sheets has resulted in the formation of a large number of basins.

· The south of the Great Lakes lies the vast lowland drained by the Mississippi River and its tributaries.

· This lowland becomes wider in the south and merges with the Gulf Coast Plain.

· The lowland to the north of the Great Lakes is drained by rivers flowing to the Hudson Bay and the Arctic Ocean.

**** THOROUGHLY READ.

Subject- Bengali 2nd languageTopic- চিঠি (ব্যক্তিগত পত্র)

তুমি বিদ্যালয়ের হোস্টেলে থাকো, বই কেনার জন্য টাকার দরকার সেই বিষয়ে বাবাকে পত্র লেখো-

৪১৪,বি সোদপুর রোড

কোলকাতা-৭০০১১০

তারিখ- ০৭/০৮/২০

শ্রীচরণেষু বাবা,

অনেক দিন হল বাবা তোমার সঙ্গে দেখা হচ্ছেনা। তুমি ব্যাবসার কাজের জন্য বাইরে গিয়েছিলে। কিন্তু তুমি আমায় বলে যাওনি। তুমি ভেবেছ আমি কষ্ট পাবো। আমি এখন আর ছোট নেই বড় হয়ে গেছি। হোস্টেলে একা থাকছি; নিজের কাজ নিজে করছি নিজের পড়াশুনা নিজেই করে নিচ্ছি। ম্যাডামদের কথা শুনি স্কুলের প্রতিদিনের পড়া করছি কিন্তু বাবা একটা সমস্যা হয়েছে আমার হোস্টেল ব্যাঙ্ক অ্যাকাউন্ট-এ টাকা নেই কত গুলো বই কেনার প্রয়োজন। এই বই গুলি আমার নিজের পরাশুনার জন্য দরকার। তাই তোমার কাছে আমার অনুরোধ তুমি যদি কিছু টাকা আমার নামে স্কুলের ব্যাঙ্ক অ্যাকাউন্ট এ জমা করে দাও খুব ভালো হয়। আমি তাহলে তাড়াতাড়ি বই গুলো কিনে নিতে পারব এবং আমার পড়ার কাজে লাগবে। আর যদি সম্ভব হয় তুমি আর মা এলে খুব খুশি হবো। আমি ভালো আছি; তোমরাও সুস্থ থেকো। আমার প্রণাম নিও।

ইতি

স্নেহের রিনা

ডাক টিকিট

প্রাপকের নাম-শ্রী বিক্রম দে

প্রযত্নে-শ্রী জয় দে

ঠিকানা-৫/বি শরত কলোনী, গুপ্তি পাড়া

জেলা-নদীয়া

পিনকোড-৭১২৫১২

Class VII

Subject

Topic

Summary

Execution

Hindi 2ndlang

पत्र

आप जिस क्षेत्र में रहते हैं वहां अत्यधिक गंदगी रहती है कहीं कोई भयंकर बीमारी न फैल जाए इसकी चेतावनी देते हुए स्वास्थ्य निरीक्षक को पत्र लिखिए ।

सेवा मे,

स्वास्थ्य निरीक्षक,

104,पी,के,गूहा रोड

दम दमकेंट

नगर महापालिका कोलकाता।

विषय-स्वास्थ्य निरीक्षक को सफाई हेतु पत्र।

महोदय जी,

मैं आपके दमदमकैंटोनमेंट क्षेत्र में फैली हुई घोर गंदगी की ओर आपका ध्यान आकर्षित करना चाहती हूं। इस क्षेत्र में लगभग 1 महीने से किसी भी सफाई कर्मचारी के दर्शन नहीं हुए हैं।यहां सड़कों एवं गलियों में कूड़े और गंदगी के ढेर लगे हुए देखे जा रहे हैं यहां कुछ लोग अपने गाय-भैंसों को भी पालते हैं जिन्हें वे सड़कों के किनारे बांध कर चले जाते हैं और उनके मल मूत्र तथा गोबर से सडकोमे गंदगी बनी रहती है उनमें विषैले कीड़े भी हो गए हैं और चारों और मच्छर एवं मक्खियोका उत्पात बढ़ते ही जा रहा है।

यह क्षेत्र नरक जैसा बना हुआ है यदि यही दशा कुछ दिनों तक बनी रही तो निश्चय ही यहां भयंकर बीमारी फैल सकती है और यहां के निवासियों का स्वास्थ्य भी बिगड़ सकता है।

अतः आपसे विनम्र प्रार्थना है कि इस मामले की जांच पड़ताल करें तथा इस क्षेत्र के निवासियों की परेशानी को दूर करने में अपना पूर्ण सहयोग प्रदान करें।

धन्यवाद

आपकी आभारी,

दिनांक-7/7/2020

रीता शाह

126/1कवी मुकुंद दास रोड

कोलकाता-700065

History and civics

The Delhi Sultanate

Long answer questions:

6. Discuss AlauddinKhilji's revenue and military reforms.

Ans: Revenue reforms: Alauddin required used sums of money to maintain a large army to fulfill his military ambitions. He levied taxes on wealthy people and introduced two new taxes - the housing tax and the grazing tax. A market control system was introduced by which the market was regulated and the prices of all the commodities were controlled. It was just like the modern rationing system or the public distribution system.

Military reforms:Alauddin laid the foundation of a permanentstanding army. The soldiers were directly recruited by the army minister. He also started the practice of recording the descriptive roll (huliya) of individual soldiers in the army ministers register and introduced the system of branding of horses (dagh).

7. Discuss the Deccan conquests of AlauddinKhilji.

Ans: Alauddin was the first ruler of Delhi who conquered the Deccan. He sent Malik Kafur to conquer Deccan. Malik kafur planted the conquered regions and took away large amount of gold, silver and other precious gems as also elephants and horses. The local rulers were allowed to rule on the promise of payment of tribute regularly. Thus Alauddin ruled over a vast Kingdom

8. Write a note on the invasion of Timur and explain its effects.

Ans: FirozTughlaq had neglected the defence of the North West frontier. Ten years after his death Timur who had risen to power in Central Asia invaded Delhi. Sultan Nasiruddin Mahmud Tughlaq, the then ruler of Delhi offered no resistance. Timur could easily captured Delhi. His victory was complete.

Timur ordered a general plunder and massacre which lasted for several days. He stayed at Delhi for fifteen days. On his way back he again sacked and plundered the other cities of Northern India mercilessly. His invasion completed the dissolution of the Tughlaq Kingdom.

Subject – Biology Topic – Chapter 1: Classification of Animals

Vertebrates, those have backbone, which are divided into five main categories

1. Pisces

2. Amphibian

3. Reptilia

4. Aves

5. Mammalian

Vertebrates

Characteristics

Examples

i) Pisces( Fish)

a) Live in water

String ray,

Rahu,

Electric ray,

Sea horse etc.

b) Body is streamlined which helps them swim easily

c) Body is covered with scales

d) Swim with the help of their fins

e) Breathe through gills

f) Lay eggs in water

ii) Amphibian

a) Live both on land and in water

Salamander

Frog

Toad

b) Body is covered with thin slippery and moist skin

c) With help of webbed feet they can swim easily in water.

d) Breathe through lungs on land and through gills ana moist skin in water

e) Lay eggs in water

iii) Reptilia

a) Mostly Live on land

Crocodile

Tortoise

Lizard

Snake

Turtle

b) Skin dry and with covered with scales

c) Breathe through lungs

d) Some have no limbs; some have two pairs of limbs. They crawl on land with the help of legs.

e) Lay soft shelled eggs on land

iv) Aves

a) Body is streamlined

b) Body is covered with soft feathers

c) Body is divided into head, neck, trunk, and tail

d) Fore limbs are modified into wings for flying

e) Bones are hollow and light weight

f) A beak is present with no teeth

g) Breath through lungs

h) Female laid eggs protected by a hard shell.

Pigeon, Owl, Crow , Peacock

v) Mammalian

a) Mostly live on land and few live in water.

b) Body is covered with hair and fur

c) They have mammary gland

d) They give birth to young ones who suck their

mother’ s breast milk

e) Breathe through lungs.

Tiger, Cat , Dog

Rat, Elephant ,

Cow, Human

Class VIII

Subject

Topic

Summary

Execution

Hindi 2nd lang

पत्र

आप जिस क्षेत्र में रहते हैं वहां अत्यधिक गंदगी रहती है कहीं कोई भयंकर बीमारी न फैल जाए इसकी चेतावनी देते हुए स्वास्थ्य निरीक्षक को पत्र लिखिए ।

सेवा मे,

स्वास्थ्य निरीक्षक,

104,पी,के,गूहा रोड

दम दम केंट

नगर महापालिका कोलकाता।

विषय-स्वास्थ्य निरीक्षक को सफाई हेतु पत्र।

महोदय जी,

मैं आपके दमदम कैंटोनमेंट क्षेत्र में फैली हुई घोर गंदगी की ओर आपका ध्यान आकर्षित करना चाहती हूं। इस क्षेत्र में लगभग 1 महीने से किसी भी सफाई कर्मचारी के दर्शन नहीं हुए हैं।यहां सड़कों एवं गलियों में कूड़े और गंदगी के ढेर लगे हुए देखे जा रहे हैं यहां कुछ लोग अपने गाय-भैंसों को भी पालते हैं जिन्हें वे सड़कों के किनारे बांध कर चले जाते हैं और उनके मल मूत्र तथा गोबर से सडको मे गंदगी बनी रहती है उनमें विषैले कीड़े भी हो गए हैं और चारों और मच्छर एवं मक्खियो का उत्पात बढ़ते ही जा रहा है।

यह क्षेत्र नरक जैसा बना हुआ है यदि यही दशा कुछ दिनों तक बनी रही तो निश्चय ही यहां भयंकर बीमारी फैल सकती है और यहां के निवासियों का स्वास्थ्य भी बिगड़ सकता है।

अतः आपसे विनम्र प्रार्थना है कि इस मामले की जांच पड़ताल करें तथा इस क्षेत्र के निवासियों की परेशानी को दूर करने में अपना पूर्ण सहयोग प्रदान करें।

धन्यवाद

आपकी आभारी,

दिनांक-7/7/2020

रीता शाह

126/1कवी मुकुंद दास रोड

कोलकाता-700065

Bengali (2nd language)

কাণ্ডারী হুঁশিয়ার

কাজী নজরুল ইসলাম

কবি পরিচিতি-

কবি নজরুল ইসলাম চুরুলিয়া গ্রামে জন্মগ্রহন করেন। তাঁর লেখা ‘বিদ্রোহী’ কবিতা সমাজে প্রতিবাদের ঝর তোলে। কবি কাজী নজরুল ইসলামকে আমারা সকলে ‘বিদ্রোহী’ কবি নামে চিনি।

কবিতার সারাংশ- ইংরেজ শাসনের বিরুদ্ধে কবি তাঁর অনেক কবিতায় প্রতিবাদ জানিয়েছেন। আমাদের আলোচ্য ‘কাণ্ডারী হুঁশিয়ার’ কবিতাটিতেও কবির প্রতিবাদের সুর ধরা পড়েছে।কবি মনে করেছেন ইংরেজদের অত্যাচারের বিরুদ্ধে রুখে দাঁড়ানোর মত প্রকৃত শাসকের অভাবে ভারতে ইংরেজরা রাজত্ব করেছে। কবির কাছে ভারতবর্ষ নৌকার মত ,আর ভারতবাসী হল সেই নৌকার যাত্রী। কিন্তু সেই নৌকার হাল ধরার ও নৌকার যাত্রীদের রক্ষা করার জন্য কবি এমন এক কাণ্ডারী সন্ধান করছেন। রাতের অন্ধকারে দুর্গম পাহাড় পর্বত , জঙ্গল ও মরু পথ পেরোতে হবে কিন্তু এই অন্ধকারে তা অতিক্রান্ত করা খুবই কঠিন তাই কবি যাত্রীদের হুঁশিয়ার করছেন। নদী জল ফুলে উঠছে , নৌকা দুলছে,নৌকার হাল ছিঁড়ে গেছে এমনকি মাঝিও পথ হারিয়ে ফেলেছে এই প্রতিকূল পরিস্থিতিতে কবি নৌকার হাল ধরার জন্য জোয়ান অর্থাৎ দেশের যুবক সম্প্রদায়কে আহ্বান জানিয়েছেন এবং কবির মতে তারাই এই ঝর-জল ও বিপদের মধ্যে নৌকা এগিয়ে নিয়ে যাবে। কবি এই অন্ধকার রাতে দেশের জনগণকে সাবধান করে বলেছেন ইংরেজদের বিরুদ্ধে যুগ-যুগান্তর জমে থাকা সমস্ত ব্যাথা-অভিমান- অভিযোগ সমস্ত কিছুকে সঙ্গে নিয়ে এগিয়ে যেতে এবং দেশের মানুষের নিজেদের অধিকার প্রতিষ্ঠা করতে হবে। ইংরেজদের বিরুদ্ধে লড়াই কীভাবে করবে তা তারা জানে না তাই তারা অসহায় সাঁতার জানে না বলে মৃত্যু তাঁদের অনিবার্য। এই কঠিন সময়ে কবি কাণ্ডারী অর্থাৎ দেশের নেতাকে বলছেন জাতিভেদ না সকলকে সন্তান মনে করে মৃত্যুর হাত থেকে এবং ইংরেজদের হাত থেকে রক্ষা করতে হবে। সঙ্কটময় পরিস্থিতিতে ভীরু,পিছিয়ে পড়া যাত্রীদের মনে কাণ্ডারীকে নিয়ে সংশয় –সন্দেহ জাগলেও কাণ্ডারীর মাঝপথ থেকে সরে যেতে পারবেন না বা পথ ভুল করতে পারবেন না কারন তাঁর উপর রয়েছে সেই মহাভার জনগণকে রক্ষা করার। কবি কবিতার মধ্য দিয়ে এক ঐতিহাসিক প্রেক্ষাপট তুলে ধরে কাণ্ডারীকে বলছেন পলাশীর প্রান্তরের এই দেশের বাংলার মানুষের রক্ত ঝরিয়ে ইংরেজ সাহেব ক্লাইভ ইংরেজ শাসন প্রতিষ্ঠায় মুখ্য ভুমিকা নিয়েছিলেন। তেমনি আবার এই দেশের মানুষের রক্ত ঝরিয়ে দেশের স্বাধীনতার সূর্য উদিত হবে।দেশকে রক্ষা করার জন্য অনেক স্বাধীনতা সংগ্রামী মানুষেরা ফাঁসির মঞ্চে নিজেদের প্রান বলিদান দিয়েছেন। এই কঠিন পরিস্থিতিতে কবি দেশের কাণ্ডারী; সেই সব যুবক জোয়ান মানুষদের হুঁশিয়ার করে এগিয়ে আসতে বলছেন দেশকে জাতিকে রক্ষা করার জন্য যারা নিজেদের জীবন বলিদান দিয়ে দেশকে ইংরেজদের হাত থেকে রক্ষা করবে।

১। কবি যাত্রীদের হুঁশিয়ার হতে বলছেন কেন?

উঃ- রাতের অন্ধকারে কঠিন পথ অতিক্রান্ত করতে হবে।

২। মাঝি পথ ভুলে যাচ্ছে কেন?

উঃ- নদীর জল ফুলে উঠছে, নৌকা দুলছে, পাল ছিঁড়ে গেছে তাই মাঝি পথ ভুলে যাচ্ছে।

৩। ভবিষ্যৎ হেঁকে কী বলছে?

উঃ- দেশের জোয়ান যুবকদের এগিয়ে আসার কথা বলছে।

৪। কবি কাদের পথে নিতে বলেছেন?

উঃ- মানুষের মনের মধ্যে যত রাগ –অভিমান-ব্যাথা আছে।

৫। কাদের মনে সন্দেহ জাগে?

উঃ- যারা ভীরু পশ্চাৎ পথ যাত্রী।

৬। ক্লাইভ কে?

উঃ- ব্রিটিশ ইষ্ট ইন্ডিয়া কোম্পানির সেনাপতি ছিলেন। তাঁর নেতৃত্বেই পলাশীর যুদ্ধে ইংরেজ ইস্ট ইন্ডিয়া কোম্পানির সৈন্যদল বাংলার নবাব সিরাজদৌল্লার সৈন্যবাহিনীকে পলাশীর প্রান্তরে পরাজিত করেছিল।

৭। ক্লাইভের খঞ্জর কোথায় লাল হল?

উ-পলাশীর প্রান্তরে।

৮। কবিতায় ভারতের দিবাকর বলতে কি বোঝানো হয়েছে?

উঃ- ভারতের স্বাধীনতার কথা বলা হয়েছে।

৯। আজ কীসের পরীক্ষা?

উঃ- এই কঠিন পরিস্থিতি থেকে দেশের মানুষ ও জাতিকে উদ্ধার করার পরীক্ষা।

Biology

Chapter - 05: Endocrine System and Adolescence

Endocrine Glands

Location

Hormones secreted

Deficiency Diseases

1.PituitaryGland

( Master Gland)

2. Thyroid Gland

( Largest Endocrine gland)

At the base of the brain, below hypothalamus.

Just below the larynx on either side of the windpipe.

i)Growth hormone

ii)Thyroid stimulating hormone

iii)Gonad stimulating hormone Thyroxin

a)Dwarfism-less secretion

b) Gigantism-more secretion.

a)Stimulates the thyroid gland to secrete thyroxine.

a)Stimulates the ovaries and tests to secrete sex hormones.

a)Goiter: Insufficient iodine in diet.

b)Cretinism: Abnormal physical and mental growth in children .

c)Myxoedema :

above all three due to less secretion of thyroxin.

d)Due to excessive secretion of thyroxin cause increased metabolic rate , heart beat and restlessness.

3.Adrenal gland

4. Pancreas Gland

( Mixed gland)

On the top of each kidney

In between stomach and small intestine

i)Adrenaline from adrenal medulla

i)Cortisone from adrenal cortex

i) Insulin

ii) Glucagon

It helps a person deal with any kind of emergency situation or emotional stress.

It increases the heart beat , rate of respiration and blood pressure.

It regulates carbohydrates, protein, and fat metabolism.

a) It regulates the salt and water balance in the body.

a) It changes excess glucose into glycogen

b) It stimulates the cells to burn extra glucose to provide heat & energy.

· Less secretion causes diabetes mellitus.

· Excessive secretions cause insulin shock.

a) It stimulates the breakdown of glycogen into glucose.

b) It increases the level of glucose in blood.

History and Civics

The Traders to Rulers

The Battle of Buxar :-It was fought on 22 October 1764, between the forces under the command of the British East India Company, led by Hector Munro, and the combined armies of Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal till 1763. Mir Jafar was made the Nawab of Bengal for a second time in 1763 by the Company, just after the battle. After being defeated in 4 battles in Katwa, Giria and Udaynala, the Nawab of Awadh ShujaUd Daula and the Mughal emperor Shah Alam II, accompanied by Raja Balwant Singh of Kashi made an alliance with Mir Qasim. The battle was fought at Buxar, a "small fortified town" within the territory of Bihar, located on the banks of the Ganga river about 130 kilometres (81 mi) west of Patna; it was a decisive victory for the British East India Company. The war was brought to an end by the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765.

The British victory at Buxar had "at one fell swoop", disposed of the three main scions of Mughal power in Upper India. Mir Qasim [Qasim] disappeared into an impoverished obscurity. Shah Alam realigned himself with the British, and Shah Shuja [Shuja-ud-Daula] fled west hotly pursued by the victors. The whole Ganges valley lay at the Company's mercy; Shah Shuja eventually surrendered; henceforth Company troops became the power-brokers throughout Oudh as well as Bihar

Answer the following questions:-

Short notes:-Battle of Buxar

Homework:-learn.

SUBJECT

TOPIC

SUMMARY

EXECUTION

MATHEMATICS

Ch: VIII

Factorisation

Factorization by grouping:

Steps:

(1) Arrange the terms of the given expression in suitable groups such that each group has a common factor.

(2) Factories each group.

(3) Take out the factor which is common to each group.

Exercise – 13(A)

Factories:

(2)

· Solution:

(4)

· Solution:

(7)

· Solution:

(9)

· Solution:

(10)

· Solution:

(12)

· Solution:

(16)

· Solution:

(18)

· Solution:

(19)

· Solution:

(20)

· Solution:

Home Work

Exercise – 13(B)

(6)

(17)

Class IX

Subject

Topic

Summary

Execution

Geography

Volcanoes

CONSTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF VOICANOES

Landforms found in volcanic regions are classified as into two major types:

Extrusive Landforms: Extrusive forms are those formed by the by solidification of lava on the surface of the land.

· The most typical extrusive landform found in a, volcanic region is a cone-shaped hill called a volcanic cone.

· When a volcano erupts explosively, a portion of the summit gets blown up to form a depression. This is called a crater.

· Volcanic cones are called cinder cones when the material erupted consists of cinder and other solid particles. Cinder cones have steep slopes because they consist of particles of large size.

· Most volcanoes start as cinder cones and grow into large volcanic hills with alternating layers of lava and ash. Such cones are called composite cones. Composite cones are formed due to an explosive eruption followed by eruption of lava.

On the Basis of Composition of Lava:

ACID LAVA (VOLCANIC DOME):

Acid lava is highly viscous and can flow over a short distance. It is rich in silica but poor in iron and magnesium When the volcano erupts with a great explosion, this type of lava forms high, steep-sided cones and solidifies in the vent, forming a plug through which it may erupt again.

Acid lava is viscous and it does not flowrapidly. It solidifies near the vent to form asteep dome-shaped hill. This is called a volcanic dome.

BASIC LAVA (LAVA SHIELDS):

It is the hottest lavas at about 1000°C and is highly fluid. It is dark coloured like basalt, rich in iron and magnesium but poor in silica. As it is pours out of the volcano, it is not very explosive and flows quietly and readily at about 10 to20 km per hour.

· CALDERA: In some volcanoes, the summit of the volcano blows up during a violent explosion resulting in the formation of a large depression called a caldera. Some calderas may have been formed by the collapse of the summit portion. Calderas are occupied by large lakes. In the state of Oregon in the United States, there is caldera which is about 9 km in diameter.

Plate: A Caldera

Plate: A Caldera lake

FISSURE ERUPTIONS:

In places where fissure eruptions have taken place, the land forms produced are different from those of the central type of eruptions. Magma erupts quietly through narrow fissures or cracks several kilometers in length. Eruptions at intervals lead to the piling up of lava sheets one over the other forming a series of steps.

Plate: Deccan trap region of Peninsular India

· Deccan trap region of Peninsular India has several lava sheets having a maximum thickness of about 2,000 m. This region forms a lava plateau.

Q1. Define the following: Caldera, Crater, Dormant volcano, Extinct volcano.

A1. Note: All answers are available in the summary.

Q2.  Distinguish between Crater and Caldera:

A2.

Crater

Caldera

When a volcano erupts explosively, a portion of the summit gets blown up to form a depressions called a crater.

In some volcanoes, the summit of the volcano blows up during a violent explosion resulting in the formation of a large depression called a caldera.

It is comparatively small in size.

It is comparatively large in size.

Hindi 2ndlang

पत्र

आप जिस क्षेत्र में रहते हैं वहां अत्यधिक गंदगी रहती है कहीं कोई भयंकर बीमारी न फैल जाए इसकी चेतावनी देते हुए स्वास्थ्य निरीक्षक को पत्र लिखिए ।

सेवा मे,

स्वास्थ्य निरीक्षक,

104,पी,के,गूहा रोड

दम दमकेंट

नगर महापालिका कोलकाता।

विषय-स्वास्थ्य निरीक्षक को सफाई हेतु पत्र।

महोदय जी,

मैं आपके दमदमकैंटोनमेंट क्षेत्र में फैली हुई घोर गंदगी की ओर आपका ध्यान आकर्षित करना चाहती हूं। इस क्षेत्र में लगभग 1 महीने से किसी भी सफाई कर्मचारी के दर्शन नहीं हुए हैं।यहां सड़कों एवं गलियों में कूड़े और गंदगी के ढेर लगे हुए देखे जा रहे हैं यहां कुछ लोग अपने गाय-भैंसों को भी पालते हैं जिन्हें वे सड़कों के किनारे बांध कर चले जाते हैं और उनके मल मूत्र तथा गोबर से सडकोमे गंदगीबनी रहती है उनमें विषैले कीड़े भी हो गए हैं और चारों और मच्छर एवं मक्खियोका उत्पात बढ़ते ही जा रहा है।

यह क्षेत्र नरक जैसा बना हुआ है यदि यही दशा कुछ दिनों तक बनी रही तो निश्चय ही यहां भयंकर बीमारी फैल सकती है और यहां के निवासियों का स्वास्थ्य भी बिगड़ सकता है।

अतः आपसे विनम्र प्रार्थना है कि इस मामले की जांच पड़ताल करें तथा इस क्षेत्र के निवासियों की परेशानी को दूर करने में अपना पूर्ण सहयोग प्रदान करें।

धन्यवाद

आपकी आभारी,

दिनांक-7/7/2020

रीता शाह

126/1कवी मुकुंद दास रोड

कोलकाता-700065

Commercial Studies

Chapter: Cooperative Society

Today let us continue with the chapter.

Today I am going to share you about the merits and demerits of Cooperative Society.

Question:

1) Write about the merits or advantages of Cooperative Society.

Answer:The cooperative form of organization offers the following advantages:

1. Easy to Form- A cooperative society is a voluntary association and may be formed with a minimum of ten adult members. Its registration is very simple and can be done without much legal formalities.2. Open Membership- Membership in a cooperative organization is open to all people having a common interest. A person can become a member at any time he likes and can leave the society at any time by returning his shares, without affecting its continuity.

3. Democratic Management- A cooperative society is managed in a democratic manner. It is based on the principle of ‘one man one vote’. All members have equal rights and can have a voice in its management.

4. Limited Liability- The liability of the members of a co-operative society is limited to the extent of capital contributed by them. They do not have to bear personal liability for the debts of the society.

5. Stability- A co-operative society has a separate legal existence. It is not affected by the death, insolvency, lunacy or permanent incapacity of any of its members. It has a fairly stable life and continues to exist for a long period.

6. Economical Operations- The operation of a cooperative society is quite economical due to elimination of middlemen and the voluntary services provided by its members. 

7. Mutual Co-Operation- Cooperative societies promote the spirit of mutual understanding, self-help and self-government. They save weaker sections of the society from exploitation by the rich. The underlying principle of co-operation is “self-help through mutual help.” 

2) Write any two disadvantages of Cooperative Society.

Answer:

As against the advantages of co-operatives, the following limitations and drawbacks of this form of organization must also be noted:

1. Limited Capital- Cooperatives are usually at a disadvantage in raising capital because of the low rate of return on capital invested by the members.

2. Inefficient Management- The management of a co-operative society is generally inefficient because the managing committee consists of part-time and inexperienced people. Qualified managers are not attracted towards a cooperative on account of its limited capacity to pay adequate remuneration 

Bengali (2nd language)

বাক্যনির্মাণ

বাক্যের অর্থগত শ্রেনি বিভাগ-

অর্থ প্রকাশের ভঙ্গির দিক থেকে বাক্যকে প্রধানত সাতটি ভাগে ভাগ করা হয়-

নির্দেশক বাক্য

প্রশ্নবাচক বাক্য

অনুগাবাচক বাক্য

ইচ্ছাবাচক বাক্য

সন্দেহবাচক বাক্য

আবেগবাচক বাক্য

শর্তসাপেক্ষ বাক্য

নির্দেশক বাক্য-যে বাক্যে কোনো বক্তব্য সাধারন ভাবে নির্দেশিত হয় বা কোন কিছুর বর্ণনা দেওয়া হয়। তাকে নির্দেশক বাক্য বলে। একে বর্ণনা মূলক বাক্য বলা হয়।

নির্দেশক বাক্য আবার দু প্রকার-

হ্যাঁ- বাচক, না- বাচক

প্রশ্ন বাচক বাক্য-যে বাক্যে কোন কিছু জানবার জন্য প্রশ্ন করা হয় তাকে প্রশ্ন বাচক বাক্য বলা হয়।

প্রশ্ন বাচক বাক্য দু প্রকার-

হ্যাঁ- না- বোধকপ্রশ্ন

বিষয়গতপ্রশ্ন

অনুজ্ঞা বাচক বাক্য – যে বাক্যে অনুজ্ঞা অর্থাৎ আদেশ, অনুরোধ, উপদেশ, নিষেধ ইত্যাদি বোঝায় তাকে অনুজ্ঞা বাচক বাক্য বলে।

ইচ্ছাবাচক বাক্য-যে বাক্যে মনের শুভ ও অশুভ ইচ্ছা বা কোন প্রার্থনা প্রকাশ করা হয়, তখন তাকে ইচ্ছা বাচক বাক্য বলে।

সন্দেহ বাচক বাক্য-যে বাক্যে বক্তব্যের মধ্যেই কোন সন্দেহের ইঙ্গিত থাকে, তখন তাকে সন্দেহ বাচক বাক্য বলে।

আবেগ বাচক বাক্য-যে বাক্যে মনের দুঃখ, আনন্দ, বিস্ময় প্রভৃতি আবেগ বা উচ্ছ্বাস প্রকাশিত হয় তখন তাকে আবেগ বাচক বাক্য বলে।

শর্তসাপেক্ষ বাক্য- যে বাক্যের একটি অংশের কাজ আর-একটি অংশের শর্ত সাপেক্ষ হয়, তখন তাকে শর্ত সাপেক্ষ বাক্য বলে।

নির্দেশক বাক্য উদাহরণ-

১। সূর্য পূর্ব দিকে ওঠে।

২। তোমরা ভাত খাও।

৩। আমি টি.ভি দেখছি।

হ্যাঁ বাচক নির্দেশক বাক্য-

লোকটি সত্যবাদী।

না- বাচক নির্দেশক বাক্য-

লোকটি মিথ্যা বাদী নয়।

প্রশ্ন বাচক বাক্য উদাহরণ-

১।তুমি কি আমায় চেন?

২।চিন ভারতের কোন দিকে অবস্থিত?

হ্যাঁ – না- বোধকপ্রশ্ন-

তুমি কি খেয়েছ?

(উত্তর- হ্যাঁ –অথবা না)

বিষয়গত প্রশ্ন-

তুমি কি খাবার খেয়েছ?

অনুজ্ঞা বাচক বাক্য –

১।এখন স্কুলে যাও। (আদেশ)

২। মন দিয়ে পড়াশোনা করো। (উপদেশ)

৩। দয়া করে একটা রুটি দিন। (অনুরোধ)

ইচ্ছা বাচক বাক্য উদাহরণ-

১। তুমি দীর্ঘ জীবী হও।

২। ঈশ্বর তোমার মঙ্গল করুক।

৩। তোমার কল্যান হোক।

সন্দেহ বাচক বাক্য উদাহরণ-

১। হয়তো আজ বৃষ্টি হবে।

২। এবছরটা দুর্যোগেই হয়তো কেটে যাবে।

৩। খেলাটা হয়তো বন্ধ করতে হবে।

আবেগ বাচক বাক্য উদাহরণ-

১। আজ কী আনন্দ!

২। কী বিচিত্র এই সৃষ্টি!

৩। ছি, ছি, তুমি এমন করলে!

শর্ত সাপেক্ষ বাক্য-

১। যদি বারণ করো, গাইব না।

২। মন দিয়ে লেখাপড়া করলে ভালো ফল পাবেই।

৩। যদি বৃষ্টি ভালো হয়, ফসল ভালো হবে।

Math

Economics

Topic: Synopsis on Chapter 3: Basic problems Of An Economy

Meaning of Economic problem

The economic problem, sometimes called the basic, central or fundamental economic problem, is one of the fundamental economic theories in the operation of any economy. It asserts that there is scarcity, or that the finite resources available are insufficient to satisfy all human wants and needs. The problem then becomes how to determine what is to be produced and how the factors of production are to be allocated

Some of the main reasons for the existence of economic problems are given below:

(i) Scarcity of Resources:

Resources (i.e. land, labour, capital, etc.) are limited in relation to their demand and economy cannot produce all what people want. It is the basic reason for existence of economic problems in all economies. Scarcity is universal and applies to all individuals, organizations and countries. There would have been no problem, if resources were not scarce.

(ii) Unlimited Human Wants:

Human wants are never ending, i.e. they can never be fully satisfied. As soon as one want is satisfied, another new want emerges. Wants of the people are unlimited and keep on multiplying and cannot be satisfied due to limited resources. Human wants also differ in priorities, i.e. all wants are not of equal intensity. For every individual, some wants are more important and urgent as compared to others. Due to this reason, people allocate their resources in order of preference to satisfy some of their wants. If all human wants had been of equal importance, then it would have become impossible to make choices.

(iii) Alternate Uses:

Resources are not only scarce, but they can also be put to various uses. It makes choice among resources more important. For example, petrol is used not only in vehicles, but also for running machines, generators, etc. As a result, economy has to make choice between the alternative uses of the given resources.

Central Or Basic Problems of Economy:

The problem of allocation of resources is studied under 3 heads:

(1) What to produce;

(2) How to produce;

(3) For whom to produce.

An economy has to allocate its resources and choose from different potential bundles of goods (What to produce), select from different techniques of production (How to produce), and decide in the end, who will consume the goods (For whom to produce).

1. What to Produce:

This problem involves selection of goods and services to be produced and the quantity to be produced of each selected commodity. Every economy has limited resources and thus, cannot produce all the goods. More of one good or service usually means less of others.

For example, production of more sugar is possible only by reducing the production of other goods. Production of more war goods is possible only by reducing the production of civil goods. So, on the basis of the importance of various goods, an economy has to decide which goods should be produced and in what quantities. This is a problem of allocation of resources among different goods.

The problem of ‘What to produce’ has two aspects:

(i) What possible commodities to produce: An economy has to decide, which consumer goods (rice, wheat, clothes, etc.) and which of the capital goods (machinery, equipment’s, etc.) are to be produced. In the same way, economy has to make a choice between civil goods (bread, butter, etc.) and war goods (guns, tanks, etc.).(ii) How much to produce: After deciding the goods to be produced, economy has to decide the quantity of each commodity that is selected. It means, if involves a decision regarding the quantity to be produced, of consumer and capital goods, civil and war goods and so on.

2. How to Produce:

This problem refers to selection of technique to be used for production of goods and services. A good can be produced using different techniques of production. By ‘technique’, we mean which particular combination of inputs to be used. Generally, techniques are classified as: Labour intensive techniques (LIT) and Capital intensive techniques (CIT).

i. In Labour intensive technique, more labour and less capital (in the form of machines, etc.) is used.

ii. In Capital intensive technique, there is more capital and less labour utilization.

For example, textiles can be produced either with a lot of labour and a little capital or with less labour and more capital. Availability of factors and their relative prices helps in determining the technique to be used. The selection of technique is made with a view to achieve the objective of raising the standard of living of people and to provide employment to everyone. For example, in India, LIT is preferred due to abundance of labour, whereas, countries like U.S.A., England, etc. prefer CIT due to shortage of labour and abundance of capital.

For Whom to Produce:

This problem refers to selection of the category of people who will ultimately consume the goods, i.e. whether to produce goods for poorer and less rich or richer and less poor. Since resources are scarce in every economy, no society can satisfy all the wants of its people. Thus, a problem of choice arises.

Goods are produced for those people who have the paying capacity. The capacity of people to pay for goods depends upon their level of income. It means, this problem is concerned with distribution of income among the factors of production (land, labour, capital and enterprise), who contribute in the production process. 

Class X

Subject

Topic

Summary

Execution

Bengali

একইশব্দেরবিভিন্নঅর্থেপ্রয়োগ

(ব্যাকরণ )

প্রশ্ন) অর্থ শব্দটিকে বিভিন্ন অর্থে প্রয়োগ কর।

উত্তর )1)অর্থ ( টাকা পয়সা )---- সকল মানুষেরই সব সময় অর্থের প্রয়োজন।

2) অর্থ ( মানে ) ---- শুধুমাত্র পড়িলেই হয়না, অর্থও বুঝতে হয়।

3)অর্থ ( প্রয়োজন ) --- অসময়ে যেখানে সেখানে যাওয়ার কোনও অর্থই হয়না।

4)অর্থ ( উদ্দেশ্য ) --- তুমি যে কথা বললে তার অর্থ আমি বুঝতে পারলাম না।

প্রশ্ন) কাঁচা শব্দটিকে বিভিন্ন অর্থে প্রয়োগ কর।

উত্তর) 1) কাঁচা (অপরিণত ) ---দেখলেই বোঝা যায় এটা কাঁচা হাতের লেখা।

2)কাঁচা ( অপূর্ণ )---- তোমাদের চেঁচামেচিতে ছেলেটার কাঁচা ঘুমটা ভেঙে গেল।

3) কাঁচা ( নগদ )--- অল্প বয়সে কাঁচা পয়সার মুখ দেখে ছেলেটি বিগড়ে গেছে।

4) কাঁচা (মাটির )---- গ্রামের কাঁচা রাস্তায় বর্ষায় অনেক জল জমে।

Chemistry

CH-3

-Study of Acids, Bases and Salts

(L-4)

1)pH:-

→Definition of pH: -pH of a solution is a number by which negative power of 10 has to be raised in order to express the hydrogen ion concentration of solution. Alternatively, pH is defined as the negative logarithm (to the base 10) of the Hydrogen ion concentration expressed in moles per litre.

→Calculation of pH:-

pH = -log10[H+]

[H+] = 10-pH

In Neutral Water,

[H+] = [OH-] = 10-7 mol. L-1 i.e. pH=7

In Acidic solutions,

[H+] › 10-7 mol.L-1 i.e. pH is less than 7

[OH-1] ‹ 10-7 mol.L-1

In Basic solutions,

[H+] ‹ 10-7 mol.L-1 i.e. pH is greater than 7

[OH-1] › 10-7 mol.L-1

As we know that,

[H+] = 10-pH

Or, Log10[H+] = -pH

If [H+] = 10-1 , then pH = 1

If [H+] = 10-2 , then pH =2

If [H+] = 10-10 , then pH = 10

→Determination of pH:-

The pH of a solution can be measured in several ways.

(1)One of the methods involves the use of Litmus paper, common acid base indicators such as Phenolphthalein, Methyl orange and Universal indicators. However, these give only approximate values.

(a)UNIVERSAL INDICATOR:-It is a mixture of dyes. Such an indicator gives a range of colours depending upon the strength of the acid or alkali added. It produces different colours with different acids. Indeed, solutions of the same acid with different concentrations give different colours.

(b)WIDE RANGE pH PAPERS:- It can also be used for determining approximate pH value over a wide range. These are prepared by dipping strips of paper in the solutions of different indicators and then drying them. When a drop of the solution under test is placed on such a paper, a particular colour develops on the paper. This colour is matched with the chart provided with the pack of pH papers on which colour changes at different pH values are given. In this way, the approximate pH of a solution can be known.

(2)The most accurate method involve the use of a pH meter, which uses an electrode to measure pH electrically.

Q.1) What is pH scale? What are the rules for pH scale?

Answer:-

→Definition of pH scale:-It is a logarithmic scale used to specify the acidity or basicity of an aqueous solution.

→Rules for pH scale:-

(a)Acids have a pH less than 7.

(b)The more acidic a solution, the lower the pH.

(c)Neutral substances such as pure water, have a pH of 7.

(d)Alkalis have a pH greater than 7.

(e) The more alkaline a solution, the higher the pH.

Q.2) What is the importance of pH?

Answer:-

(1)In agriculture:- pH has a great importance in agriculture. Soil is often tested to determine its pH. The soil pH is also affected by the use of fertilizers and the acidity of rain fall. Different plants prefer different pH conditions.

(2) Food preservation: - A change in pH of milk from 6.6 indicates that the milk has turned sour.

(3) Medicine: - pH values of Urine and Blood are used to diagnose various diseases. Human blood has pH 7.4. If its pH changes by 0.2 pH units, death results.

(4) Analysis: - Large number of qualitative and quantitative analysis are carried out at definite pH values.

(5) In digestion: - Hydrochloric acid produced in the stomach, helps in the digestion of food. However, if excess of HCl is produced in the stomach, the pH falls leading to pain and irritation. To get rid of this, an Antacid like Milk of Magnesia [Mg (OH)2] is generally used to adjust the pH.

(6) Prevention of tooth decay:-

Sweet substances like chocolates are degraded to acids by bacteria present in our mouth. When pH falls to 5.5, tooth enamel which is Calcium phosphate, gets corroded. The saliva produced by salivary glands neutralizes the acids to some extent. However, tooth paste is used to neutralize excess acid in the mouth.

Q.3) Write down pH values of some common solutions and different vegetables:-

Answer:-

pH values of Common Solutions:-

Sl. No.

Substance

pH

1.

Dilute HCl (0.1 mol. L-1)

1.0

2.

Lemon Juice

2.5

3.

Vinegar

3.0

4.

Human Urine

4.8 – 8.54

5.

Milk

6.5

6.

Blood

7.4

7.

Orange Juice

4.1

8.

Acid Rain

5.6

9.

Rain Water

6.5

10.

Pure Water

7.0

11.

Baking Soda Solution

8.5

12.

Lime Water

11.0

Preferred Soil pH for different vegetables:-

Sl. No.

Vegetables

Preferred pH range

1.

Potatoes

4.5 - 6.0

2.

Carrot, Sweet Potato

5.5 – 6.5

3.

Cauliflower, Tomato, Garlic

5.5 – 7.5

4.

Cabbage, Onion

6.0 – 7.5

Q.4) What are the difference between Acid-Base Indicators and Universal Indicators?

Answer:-

Sl. No.

Acid – Base Indicators

Universal Indicators

1.

Common Acid-Base indicators such as Litmus, Methyl orange and Phenolphthalein are single compounds. The change in their colour is abrupt at a particular pH.

Universal indicator is mixture of dyes that give definite colour changes over a wide range of pH.

2.

These can distinguished between acidic and basic solutions but cannot determine the strength of the solutions.

It can distinguish between an acidic and basic solution and at the same time it can also indicate the strength of the solution.

3.

They do not help to distinguish between solutions of different pH values.

They can be used to distinguish between the solutions of different pH values. Solution containing a drop of the universal indicator is matched against a standard colour chart to find the pH.

Commercial Studies

Chapter: Sources of Finance

In this chapter, we will come to know how a joint stock company raises their finance from different sources. Since finance is lifeblood of business, so a company cannot survive without adequate finance. Finance is needed to run the business throughout its life.

In this chapter we will mainly learn about the two sources of finance -- Short term sources of finance & long term sources of finance

Long term sources of finance

· Equity shares

· Preference shares

· Debentures or bonds

· Loan from Financial Institutions

· Public debt instruments

· Retained earnings or ploughing back of Profits

Loan from commercial banks

Raising of funds through shares

The capital of a company is divided into a number of equal parts known as shares. The term share means the interest of a shareholder in the company measured by the sum of money. The share capital of a company is divided into number of smaller units, each unit is known as share. The person who hold the share is known are called shareholders . Share capital represents owned capital of the company.

A public company limited by shares can be of two types:- Equity shares and Preference shares .

Equity shares

Equity share capital means all share capital which is not preference share capital. In other words it is capital which does not carry preference right as to - 1) Payment of dividend 2) Repayment of capital on winding up.

Equity shares are also known as ordinary shares . Equity shares are issued prior to other securities and repaid in the last. Dividend on equity shares is payable only when there are profits and the company declares dividend. Dividend on equity share is paid after paying dividend on preference shares. Thus equity shareholders bears the maximum risk but they enjoy full voting rights and control over the management of the company

Merits /advantages of issuing equity shares

1) No financial burden - Financing through equity shares does not impose any financial burden on the company as the companies not legally oblige to pay a dividend at the time of financial difficulties. Dividend is payable only if there remains a surplus profit after the payment of tax and preference dividend.

2) Permanent capital - Equity share capital is refunded only at the time of winding up of the company. Therefore equity capital remains with the company forever and there are no liabilities with regard to repayment. Even at the time of winding up equity capital is paid back in the last and that too if any surplus is left after meeting all other liabilities.

3) Participation in management- Equity shareholders having voting rights and can exercise control over the affairs of the company.

4) Small nominal value and huge funds - The company can raise the huge amount of funds by the issue of equity shares because the denomination of each equity share is very small. It is easier for people from all income groups to invest in equity shares and thus the company can mobilize huge funds from the investors belonging to different income groups of the society.

5) Source of strength- The substantial proportion of equity shares in the capital structure of the company creates a high reputation and determines it creditworthiness in the market and by virtue of which its ability to borrow increases .

6) Issue of other securities - Equity shares do not carry any charge against the Asset of the company. This helps the company to raise funds by issuing other securities like preference shares and debentures.

Demerits/ Disadvantages of issuing equity shares:

1) Uncertain return - An equity shareholders not get dividend at a fixed rate on their investment. In case the company is able to earn sufficient profits the shareholders get dividend otherwise not.

2) Inflexible - A company cannot issue shares in excess of its authorized capital as stated in the memorandum of association. So it’s creates inflexibility in issuing of shares. Thus in case of financial needs a company cannot raise funds by issuing equity shares as much as it wants.

3) Issue depends on market conditions - The issue of equity shares depends upon market conditions. As the equity shares are risky securities these are usually issued during boom period only. The investors may hesitate to invest in equity share capital during recession.

Costly - The cost of issuing equity shares is higher than the cost of issuing other types of securities. Underwriting Commission, brokerage and other issue expenses are very high for equity capital

ECO-10, 07/08/20, Topic- Money

Money is one of the most important discoveries of the human civilization. It is difficult to think about the world without money. Everybody needs money for various purposes; starting from day – to – day transactions to saving for future. But if you go back to history, you will find that before money came into existence there was barter system to facilitate transactions among individuals in the society. With development of civilization over time, barter system lost its ground and was replaced by money.

FAILURE OF BARTER SYSTEM AND THE NEED

FOR MONEY

In ancient days when there was no money, people used to exchange goods for goods to satisfy their wants without the use of money. Such a system was called barter system. However with passage of time the barter system had to be abandoned because of its inherent problems. Some of the demerits of barter system are as follows:

1. Search Cost

A common problem of barter system was that, one had to spend a lot of time in searching for the person who is willing to exchange the good at the given terms and conditions. In the early period of human civilization, this was a very difficult task as there was no proper facility with regard to transport and communication.

2. Lack of double coincidence of wants

A common problem with the barter system is the lack of double coincidence of wants which means that if one wants to exchange some good with another person then the latter must also be willing to exchange his/her good with the former. For example, let a person wants cloth and he has stock of wheat with him to exchange for it. In such a case the person can exchange wheat for cloth with another person who has cloth and who also wants wheat. In practical life, such situation may or may not arise. If the person who has cloth does not want wheat, then exchange of wheat for cloth will never take place and both the individuals cannot satisfy their wants. This is an example of lack of double coincidence of wants. So barter system will work when there is double coincident of wants, otherwise it will not work.

3. Lack of division of goods

Certain goods are not physically divisible into small pieces. Suppose, a person possesses a buffalo and he wants items, such as food grains. Then how much of buffalo can be traded for food grains? It was very difficult to determine because, a buffalo cannot be divided into several pieces.

4. Lack of common unit of measurement

Under barter system, it was difficult to equate the values of different goods which were traded because of lack of common unit of measurement. Taking the example in the previous paragraph, it will be very difficult to determine the amount of buffalo required to trade for some specific amount of food grains. Also it sounds absurd. This happens because a buffalo can never become a common measure of value. This problem is same for all other goods.

5. Problem of Storage.

Another problem of barter system is that a person must store a large volume of his own good in order to exchange for his/her desired goods with others on day to day basis. Take the example of a farmer who has produced wheat. Obviously, he will use some amount of wheat for his own consumption and keep some amount to get other necessary items by trading with others. If he wants furniture, then he will go to a carpenter who is willing to trade furniture in return of his wheat. Similarly, if he wants cloth, then he has to trade with a weaver who is ready to give cloth by receiving wheat and so on. So the farmer must construct a warehouse first to keep a stock of his wheat in order to carry out the transactions at the time of need for his desired good. But constructing and maintaining a warehouse was itself a very difficult task in early days of civilization.

6. Loss of Value

Finally, a major problem of barter system is that, a good loses its original quality and value if it is stored for a long period. Many goods, such as salt, vegetables etc., are perishable. Hence, goods were never accepted for trading in future because they could not be used as store of value. This also implies that no good could be used for the purpose of lending and borrowing. Due to above problems, the barter system could not continue for long. As human civilization progressed, people realized that there has to be some common medium of exchange which can be easily carried, stored, and used to express the value of a good. So money came into being. Hence the need for money arose due to the failure of barter system.

FUNCTIONS OF MONEY

The use of money has removed the drawbacks of barter system. Broadly speaking the functions of money may be classified into primary (basic) and secondary functions.

Primary or Basic Functions:

(i) Medium of Exchange

Money acts as a medium of exchange of all goods and services. The use of money has greatly facilitated process of exchange by dividing it into two parts i.e. sale and purchase. It has removed the difficulty of double coincidence of wants found under the barter system. Therefore, in modern world we hardly find any evidence of exchange of goods and services without the use of money.

Example: You pay Rs.10 to buy a pen. The seller receives Rs.10 from you by selling the pen. So a pen is exchanged for Rs.10.

(ii) Measure of Value

Money helps to measure value of goods and services in terms of price. The use of money has completely removed the confusion regarding value of one good/service vis-a-vis the other. This function has greatly facilitated the process of exchange of different goods and services. The value of a good is determined by multiplying its price with the quantity purchased. Since the price is expressed in monetary units, the value of a good is also expressed in monetary terms.

Example: Let price of rice be Rs. 20 per Kilogram. One bag full of rice weighs 25 Kilograms. Then the value of the bag of rice is Rs. 20X25= Rs.500

Secondary Functions:

(i) Store of Value or Wealth

Money is the most convenient and economical means to store wealth which does not lose its value so quickly over time. Thus, it is the most accepted means to store wealth or value. As medium of exchange you can pay money to buy goods. This means if you have money, you have the power to purchase a good or a service. So money has purchasing power. The value of the good is contained in that purchasing power. Hence value of good is indirectly stored in money, you hold. Similarly, as a seller of good, you receive the money which means value of good you sold, comes back to you through money.

Example: Harpreet sells furniture to a buyer for Rs.2500.This means a value of Rs.2500 was exchanged. The buyer, who purchased the furniture, has the purchasing power to give ` 2500 as value. Hence a value of` 2500 was stored in the money received by Harpreet as a seller. Harpreet could not have stored furniture but she can definitely store money which in turn has stored the value of Rs. 2500.

(ii) Standard of Deferred Payments

Deferred payments are those payments which are promised to be made in future. Money acts as a means of deferred payments mainly because it has general acceptability. Its value remains relatively constant over time and it is more durable as compared to other goods. In case of borrowing and lending activities only money is normally acceptable to be paid at a future date. Goods lose their value over time and due to possibility of lack of double coincident of wants they are not acceptable to settle debts in future.

(iii) Transfer of Value

This function of money is derived from the store of value function of money. Money is used to transfer value from one place to another or from one person to another. As a traveler when you move from one place to another, you can easily carry money to make necessary transactions on the way and in your destination place. You can also transfer the money through bank. Now people carry ATM card and withdraw cash wherever the facility is available.

Other functions of Money

(i) Distribution of National Income

Income is generated by the factors of production engaged in the production process. The factors are land, labour, capital and entrepreneurship. For the supply of these factor services to the production units, the supplier of labour gets wage, the supplier of land gets rent, the supplier of capital gets interest and the supplier of entrepreneurship gets profit. It should be noted that wage, rent, interest and profit are paid by the firms in money terms and received by the respective suppliers as factor incomes. Thus national income is measured by using income method.

(ii) Liquidity and Uniformity of Value

Money can be easily carried and is easily divisible into smaller units as per convenience. The liquidity feature of money is manifested at the time when it can be withdrawn from the bank account repeatedly in certain amount in each transaction. For example, your father has Rs.10, 000 deposited in his bank account. You want to purchase a shoe worth Rs.600. Your father can withdraw the amount from the bank to give you. The balance of Rs.9, 400 will remain in your father’s account. Money brings uniformity in value of different goods and services which are not comparable physically due to their differences in the units of measurement.

For example a Kg. of rice and a liter of cooking oil cannot be added together as these are given in different units. But they can be added together if expressed in monetary units. If a Kg. of rice is worth Rs.25 and a liter of cooking oil is worth Rs.75, the combined value of rice and oil comes out to be Rs.100.

Class XII

Subject

Topic

Summary

Execution

Bengali

কোনি।

প্রশ্ন)“কোনি তখন অদ্ভুত আচরণ করে বসল“

ক) কোনি কে ?

খ) সে কখন অদ্ভুত আচরণ করে বসল ?

গ) এই আচরণে সে কী অপ্রতিভ হয়েছিল ?

ঘ) অবস্থার সামাল দিতে কোণি কী করেছিল ?

উত্তর ) ক) মতি নন্দী রচিত ‘কোণি‘ উপন্যিসের কেন্দ্রীয় চরিত্র হল কোনি। সে একজন নবীশ সাঁতারু। ক্ষিতিশের তদারকিতে কমলদীঘিতে অ্যাপেলো ক্লাবের মেম্বার হয়ে সাঁতার শেখে।

খ) হিয়া যখন দুহাতে দুগ্লাস জল নিয়ে ক্ষিতিশের কাছে আসে তখন কোনি তার হাতে আঘাত দিয়ে আঘাত করে ফলে জলের একটি গ্লাস ছিটকে গিয়ে ঘাসের ওপর পড়ে। ক্ষিতিশ ও হিয়া দুজনেই অবাক হয়ে যায়। কোনি বলে ওঠে তাদের জল তারা চায়না। তাদের কলের জলই ভালো। কোনি একথা বলে হনহন করে সামনের দিকে এগিয়ে যায়। ক্ষিতিশ অবশ্য কোনির এই ব্যবহারের জন্য মাফ চেয়ে নেয়।

গ) কোনির এই আচরনে ক্ষিতিশ অপ্রতিভ হয়ে যায়। সে কোনির ব্যবহারের জন্য হিয়ার কাছে ক্ষমা চেয়ে নেয়। হিয়া ব্যথিত হয়ে হাতের গ্লাসের জলটা ক্ষিতিশকে খেতে বলে এবং ক্ষিতিশ তা খায়।

ঘ) অবস্থার সামাল দিতে কোনি হন হন করে এগিয়ে যায়। ক্ষিতিশ কোনির এই আচরনের জন্য হিয়ার কাছে ক্ষমা চেয়ে নিয়ে অবস্থার সামাল দিতে চেষ্টা করে। প্রথমে দারুন ভাবে কোনিকে বকবে ভেবেছিল কিন্তু পরে সে কোনিকে কিছুই বলেনি কারন হিয়াই কোনির ভবিষ্যতে প্রতিদ্বন্দ্বী এটা ক্ষিতিশ বুঝতে পেরেছিল।

English Language

Tenses and their use- III

(Present perfect tense and present perfect continuous tense)

Present perfect tense:

The present perfect tense is used:

· To refer to a past situation that continues up to the present.

· To express a past action, the result of which still continues.

· To express what happened in the past without stating a specific time.

· To express an action that has just been completed.

· For repeated or habitual actions.

Exercise 1.

Fill in the blanks using the present perfect tense of the verbs given in brackets:

1. He ______(go) to Ranchi but he will be back soon.

2. Mr. Arora __________(just hear) some bad news. His sister _______ (meet) with an accident.

3. His company________( produce) software to prevent data theft.

4. He ________ (write) his last great work in London.

5. I feel that I _______(reach) a turning point in my career.

6. I am glad that we went to the fete. I _______(not enjoy) myself so much for a long time.

7. I _______ (complete) the work just now.

8. A lot of people _______(ask) about your new book.

9. We ________(just come) back from a holiday in Bhutan. We _______(spend) most of the time in Thimpu.

10. I ________ (write) the letter, but I can’t find an envelope to post it.

CHEMISTRY

Halo alkanes and Halo arenes

1) HalogenDerivatives: - Compounds obtained by replacing 1 or more H-atoms of an Alkane or Arene are called ‘Halogen derivatives’ of Hydrocarbons. Here, the functional group is Halogen atom (represented as ‘X’ – F, Cl, Br, I etc.)i.e. bonded to a Carbon atom (C-atom) with Covalent Bond.

→Halogen derivatives of Alkanes and Arenes are called as ‘Halo alkenes’ or ‘Haloarenes’.

2) CLASSIFICATION : -

(A)Mono-haloalkane

(B)Di-haloalkane

(C)Tri-haloalkane

→Mono-halo alkanes can be classified into different categories according to their hybridization of the C-atom bonded to Halogen atom.

(1)Alkyl halides: -These are monohalogen derivatives of alkanes which are obtained by replacing 1 H-atom of alkanes by 1 halogen atom (F, Cl, Br, I). These are also called ‘Alkyl halides’.

e.g. –

R-H→ R-X (Halo alkanes or Alkyl halide)

CH4→ CH3Cl (Methyl chloride)

CLASSIFICATION:-

(A)Primary Haloalkanes (10)

(B)Secondary Haloalkanes (20)

(C)Tertiary Haloalkanes (30)

In this, C-atom bonded to Halogen atom is bonded to 1 or none Alkyl group.

In this, C-atom bonded to Halogen atom is bonded to 2 Alkyl groups.

In this, C-atom bonded to Halogen atom is bonded to 3 Alkyl groups.

(2)Allylic halides:- In which Halogen atom is bonded to an sp3-hybridized C-atom next to C=C double bond, i.e., Allylic carbon.

e.g. –CH3 = CH2Cl (Allyl chloride) , CH3 = CH2Br (Allyl bromide)

(3)Benzyl halides: - In which Halogen atom is bonded to sp3-hybridized C-atom next to an Aromatic ring.

(4)Vinyl halides:- These are the compounds in which the halogen atom is bonded to a C=C double bond, i.e. , Vinyllic carbon.

e.g. -CH2=CH-X (Vinyl halide), where X represents Halogen atoms like F, Cl, Br, I etc.

(a) CH2=CH-Cl (Vinyl chloride) (b) CH2=CH-Br (Vinyl bromide)

(5)Aryl halides or Haloarenes:- These are the compounds in which halogen atom is directly linked to C-atom of aromatic ring.

3)NOMENCLATURE OF HALOALKANES :-

(1)Common System :-

They are named as the halides of the corresponding Alkyl group.

(i)Prefix ‘n’:- It is used with Alkyl group having continuous C-chain but no branching.

e.g. –CH3CH2CH2 – (n-propyl ) , CH3CH2CH2CH2 – (n-butyl)

(ii)Prefix ‘iso’: - It is used with Alkyl group having 1 CH3 group bonded to the last one C-atom.

e.g. –CH3–CH(CH3)- (Isopropyl) , CH3 –CH(CH3) –CH2 (Isobutyl)

(iii)Prefix ‘neo’: - It is used with Alkyl group having TWO CH3 groups bonded to the last one C-atom.

e.g. –CH3 –C(CH3)2 –CH2 –(neopentyl) , CH3 –C(CH3)2 –CH2 –CH2 – (neohexyl)

(2)IUPAC System : -

(a)Simple Derivatives: -It is obtained by attaching the prefix Fluoro (F), Chloro (Cl), Bromo (Br), Iodo (I) etc. before the name of parent alkane.

e.g. –CH3CH2Br (Common name – Ethyl bromide, IUPAC name – 1-bromo ethane / Bromo methane)

CH3Cl (Common name – Methyl chloride , IUPAC name – 1-chloro methane / Chloro methane)

(b)Complex Derivatives: - In this, the position of the Halogen atom is indicated by numbering the C-chain starting from one end, so that the Halogen gets the lower possible number.

e.g. –CH3 –CH(CH3) –Br (2-bromo propane) , CH3 –CH(CH3) –CH2Cl (1-chloro,2-bromo methyl propane)

(c)Alkylidene dihalide: - When both halogen atoms are attached to the same C-atom.

e.g. –CH3-CHBr2 (Common name – Ethylidene dibromide , IUPAC name – 1,1-dibromo ethane)

(d)Haloform Derivatives: - Trihalomethanes and Tetrahalomethanes are termed as Haloforms or Carbon tetra halides.

e.g. –CHCl3 (Common name – Chloroform, IUPAC name – Trichloro methane)

CCl4 (Common name – Carbon tetrachloride, IUPAC name – Tetrachloro methane)

4)NOMENCLATURE OF ARYL HALIDES:-

These compounds are named by adding the prefix halo (Fluoro, Chloro, Bromo, Iodo) before the name of aromatic hydrocarbon.

5)ISOMERISM BETWEEN HALOALKANES:-

(a)Chain Isomerism: - It arises due to different arrangement of C-atoms in the chain attached to halogen atom.

e.g. –C4H9Cl having 2 isomers, i.e. ,

CH3CH2CH2CH2Cl (1-chloro butane) , CH3-CH(CH3)-CH2Cl (1-chloro,2-methyl propane)

(b)Position Isomerism: - It arises due to the difference in the positions of the same Halogen atom in the same chain of C-atoms of an alkane.

e.g. –(i)CH3CH2CH2CH2-Cl (1-chlorobutane) (ii)CH3CH2CH(Cl)-CH3 (2-chlorobutane)

(c)Optical Isomerism: - It arises only in the case of Alkyl halides, having asymmetric (chiral) carbon atom.

e.g. –3-chloro,3-methyl hexane

Geography

NATURAL VEGETATION

FOREST CONSERVATION

Forests comprise a unique gift of nature to man and constitute one of the prized assets of nation. They play a significant role in the national economy of a primarily agricultural and developing country like India. The agricultural and industrial progress of the country is not only stabilized but accelerated by a proper conservation and utilization of forest resource. As mentioned earlier, the uses of forests, both direct and indirect, are so large that they are aptly termed as an index of prosperity of a nation. Keeping in view the benefits which we derive from the forests, it is of utmost importance that strong steps should be taken to conserve forests.

VAN MAHOTSAV

Van Mahotsav was a great movement which was launched in 1950 to make people aware of the importance of planting trees. Every year, millions of trees are planted in the rainy season. This is the season when newly planted saplings glow rapidly. But many new plants die due to lack of aftercare.

The forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 enacted to check indiscriminate deforestation diversion of forest lands was amended in 1988 to make it more stringent by prescribing punishment for violations.

Guidelines have been prepared for working plans. Some salient features are:

1. Working plans should be up-to-date and stress conservation.

2. Preliminary working plan should have multi-disciplinary approach.

3. Tribal rights and concessions should be highlighted along with control mechanism.

4. Grazing should be studied in detail and specific prescriptions should cover fodder propagation.

5. Shifting cultivation and encroachments need to be controlled

6. Clear felling with artificial regeneration should be avoided as far as possible and clear-felling blocks should not exceed 10 hectares in hills and 25 hectares area in plains.

7. Banning all felling about1000 meter altitude for a few years should be considered to allow these areas to recover.

Critical areas in hills and catchment areas prone to landslides, erosion etc. should be totally protected and quickly afforested.

INTEGRATED FOREST PROTECTION SCHEME (IFPS):

This scheme was started in 10th Five-year Plan and continued to be implemented during the 11th Plan also. The Planning Commission has suggested renaming the Scheme as "Intensification of Forest Management" during 11th Five Year Plan. The major components of the scheme include

· Forest Fire Control and Management.

· Strengthening of Infrastructure.

· Survey demarcation and working plan preparation.

· Protection and conservation of sacred groves.Conservation and Restoration of unique vegetation and eco-systems.

· Control and eradication of forest invasive species.

· Preparedness for meeting challenges of bamboo flowering and improving management of bamboo forests.

CHIPKO MOVEMENT

The term Chipko means sticking to the tree by the people with their arms spread around the tree's trunk. Historically, the movement dates back to 1972 when trees were felled indiscriminately in the Garhwal region of Uttarakhand. It was started under the leadership of social and environmental worker Sh. Sunder Lal Bahuguna. The clearing of village woodlands was resisted vehemently by the environmentalists who involved the local people and built up people's movement against such clearings. Hundreds of men, women and children clung to the trees when loggers came out to cut the trees. The loggers were challenged to first kill them and then cut the trees. The loggers had to withdraw themselves without cutting the trees. The credit for starting this movement goes to Sunder LalBahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhat.

Gradually the resistance to forest clearings by state or private agencies spread to other states like Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Arunachal Pradesh, Rajasthan, Karnataka, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra etc. Chipko Movement has been successful in getting all tree felling banned in areas having an altitude of 1000 meters and more above sea level and a slope of more than 30 degrees. It is estimated that Chipko and allied similar movements in different parts of India have succeeded in replanting the deforested areas to the tune of about 30 million hectares by now. It only establishes how vital people’s participation in any programme which concerns environment is.

(Chapter complete)

Q1. With reference to Forest Conservation Movement, explain the Chipko Movement. Give the reason for its success.

A1. Write down the answer from the summary part.

Q2. Write a note on Van Mahotsav.

A2. Van Mahotsav was a great movement which was launched in 1950 to make people aware of the importance of planting trees. The forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 enacted to check indiscriminate deforestation diversion of forest lands was amended in 1988 to make it more stringent by prescribing punishment for violations.

ECO-12, 07/08/2020

CHAPTER-PUBLIC FINANCE

Revenue receipts are current incomes of government, which neither create liabilities nor cause any reduction in the assets of the government. These receipts are classified into (a) Tax Revenue and (b) Non-tax Revenue.

Tax Revenue:

A tax is a legal compulsory payment by the people and firms to the government of a country without reference to any direct benefit in return.. It is imposed on the people by the government. A government collects revenue from various taxes like income tax, sales tax, service tax, excise duty, custom duty etc. Traditionally the revenue from taxes has been the primary source